MMER1ES Of THE UNKNOWN

Dreams and Dreaming

BOSTON
PUBLIC
LIB?
Dreams and Dreaming
 MYSTERIES OF THE UNKNOWN

l*re<mi§ nnti ilrrs:

By the Editors of Time-Life Books

TIME-LIFE BOOKS, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA

 CONTENTS

Essay The World of the Inner Eye

CHAPTER 1

Where Reality Meets Illusion

22

Essay The Astonishing Night Journey

47

CHAPTER 2

Windows to Ihe Unconseious

56

Essay Beings from within Us

81

CHAPTER 3

The Science of Dreaming

96

Essay Dreams We Have in Common

119

CHAPTER 4

Psychic Dreams
130

Acknowledgments
154

Picture Credits
154

Bibliography
154

Index
157
*.

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The trancelike stillness, silvery light, and empty landscape of Henri

Rousseau's 1 897 painting The Sleeping Gypsy is expressive of the mood as

well as the setting of a haunting dream.

 nnerEjfc

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Gypsy f/eftt where; 3 Womah slumbers;^

lion behind her, evokes; the vJA^i^i/^i^'^f-a: dream. In works
such as this, French artist Henri Rousseau foreshadowed the early-'
twentieth-century literary and artistic movement that was to hold
the dream omnipotent— surrealism.
Artists have always been interested in dreams, but the surre-
alists, heavily influenced by the work of psychoanalyst Sigmund

Freud, were the First to approach painting as a way of investigating

dreams and the subconscious rather than as an end in itself. Ac-
cordingly, they sought to transcend the world of conscious
thought, or reality, by depicting unaltered the images seen by the
inner eye, the subconscious vision, they believed, through which
we experience dreams. The self-appointed spokesman of surreal-
ism, French poet Andre Breton, declared the goal as "the future
resolution of these two states, so contradictory in appearance—
dream and reality— into a kind of absolute reality, or surreality."
To realize this aim in pictorial form, the artists used common
dream elements. Ordinary objects are distorted or juxtaposed in
extraordinary ways and may take on symbolic meaning. Events of
the past, present, and future may all be taking place at once. And
the laws that govern physical reality are suspended. The following
portfolio offers visual entryway into the realm that is the subject of
this book— the fascinating world of dreams and dreaming.
'

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of Henri Rousseau
Although French painter Henri Rousseau
*
never set foot in a jungle, tropical forests \r
grew deep and lush in the fertile ground
of his imagination. Indeed, the self-taught
artist rarely left Paris, but he frequented
the botanical and zoological gardens that
were there, gathering inspiration for his
evocative images "When I enter these
hothouses and see these strange plants
from exotic countries," Rousseau once
remarked, "I feel as if have stepped into
I

a dream."
The sensation of entering a dream
strikesmany who view Rousseau's works
of art, particularly the large painting aptly
titledThe Dream (right). The canvas fea-
tures a nude woman reclining on a couch
amid the verdant foliage of a moonlit
jungle; a snake charmer and wild animals
lurk close at hand.
In a letter to an inquiring art critic,
Rousseau once gave an explanation for
the incongruities of the image. "The
woman asleep on the couch is dreaming
she has been transported into the forest,"
the artist commented. She remains at
home, traveling in dreams to a world that
is beyond reach. Similarly, Rousseau

himself was carried by his inner vision far

x
beyond the confines of his Paris studio to
the alluring dreamscapes he so lovingly
transferred to canvas.

The Dream, 1910

 J* K

nk r
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]
When pressed to explain why he became
a painter, Marc Chagall responded that
painting "seemed to me like a window
through which I could have taken flight

toward another world." And another

world -a magical place where the mun-
dane mingles with the fantastic-is just
what his works portray.
In The Yellow Room (right), for instance,
the table is set for tea, a common enough

scene. The perspective, however, is any-

thing but common. The table appears so
tilted that in waking life the cups and

samovar could slide off. And the diners,

one of whom is a cow, are hardly ordi-
nary: The woman's head is on upside
down and the man is faceless. Indeed, the
whole setting evokes the kind of crazy
dream that challenges the very definition
of reality.
In blurring the bounds between the real
and the unreal, Chagall had much in
common with the surrealists, although he
never considered himself a member of
the movement. "Our whole inner world is

reality," he wrote, "perhaps more real

still than the apparent world."
Chagall's "apparent" world was Paris,
where he lived most of his adult life. At
least part of his inner world, however,
belonged to the Russian village of
Vitebsk, where he was born in 887 and 1
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The Yellow Room, 1911

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Fantastic Horse Cart, / 949

where he spent his youth. Memories of horses, the spectators, and all the other
that village -the people, the architecture, elements in the painting contribute to the
the animals-embellished by his imagina- dreamlike confusion. In fact, some of
tion and placed in absurd situations, fill those objects are common dream sym-
his canvases. bols. Clocks are obvious representations
In Fantastic Horse Cart (below), an enor- of time and change. Horses, in some
mous green horse carries a huge, blue- circumstances, may indicate passion or
faced fiddler down a seemingly ordinary sexual energy, and so on— but Chagall
village street; the passengers in the cart downplayed their importance. "I work
appear unconcerned by his cavorting. with no express symbols but as it were
And in The Juggler (right), a high-kicking subconsciously," he said. "When the
birdlike creature commands center stage picture is finished everyone can interpret
in a circus. The tiny fiddler, the clock, the it as he wishes."
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The Juggler, 1943

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Penelope, 1945
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The Entombment, 1957

Frozen Fragments of DelvaiWs Dreams

The paintings of twentieth-century Bel- robed woman and the two nudes behind
gian artist Paul Delvaux often seem to her reveal no bond between them. Yet
capture a fleeting moment in a haunting the threewomen seem to be linked by
dream, as if the artist had taken mental which Delvaux referred to as his
silence,
snapshots of subconscious scenes and "way of expressing the climate, the mys-
transferred them to canvas. Pervasive in tery of things."
Delvaifx's work is a reverberating still- Another favorite theme of Delvaux's—
ness—the figures appear to move as if in skeletons— is featured in The Entombment
sleep, rarely taking notice of the viewer or (above). A dream symbol that may repre-
of one another. sent illness or misunderstanding, skele-
Frequently the pictures assume classical tons frequently appeared in works by the
overtones, and elements from disparate surrealists, with whom the artist is often
time periods are often juxtaposed. In grouped. In contrast to his somnambulis-
Penelope (left), an ancient temple coexists tic humans, Delvaux's corpses seem to
with what appears to be a train station, come alive. For him, skeletons represent-
also a recurring image in Delvaux's work. ed not death but "the framework of the
On the station's platform, an elegantly human being, the living creature."
M

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The Unmasked universe, date unknown

Rene Magritte, flie Deliberate Dreamer

"Painting," wrote artist Rene Magritte, creative process. "If we deal with
"reveals images of the world, and it can dreams," he wrote, "they are very differ-
happen that in looking at them, paint- ent from the dreams we have when
ing them, thinking about them, we have asleep. These are very voluntary dreams
this unfamiliar feeling of our mystery- with none of the vagueness of feeling
one we also have sometimes with our we have when escaping into dream."
eyes closed." In works such as Polar Light Nonetheless, as a mature artist, Magritte
(right), Magritte -a compatriot and con- stressed the importance of the ideas that
temporary of Paul Delvaux-succeeds in came tohim in the so-called hypnagogic
capturing the startling, dreamlike mys- state, the drowsy period we experience
tery of which he spoke. just before waking or while falling asleep.
In the painting, a curious, birdlike ob- And the committed surrealist defined the
ject shares the foreground with two hol- movement as demanding "for our wak-
low, female forms, whose fragile shells ing lives a liberty comparable to that that
appear to have been pecked away in we possess in dreams."
great chunks. The group's silence is ech- Many of Magritte's paintings contain
oed in the painting's still, barren land- common dream symbols. The house, for
scape, with its peculiar peaks and its instance, is often thought to represent a
ominous skies. person's body or whole personality. In
Although this particular work suggests The Unmasked Universe (above), the struc-
a highly symbolic dream, Magritte denied tureis an empty shell shored up by beams

that the objects he painted were symbols and scaffolds. Whether the scene is one
of any kind. He considered his pictures to of construction or destruction, if either, is
be "material tokens of the freedom of open to debate, thereby reflecting Ma-
thought." Indeed, Magritte discounted the gritte's intention to "paint only images
importance of nocturnal images in the that evoke the world's mystery."
 |£$f*™
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Polar Light, 1927

Shades of Night Descending, 1931
 J-

Perspectives, 1939

Salvador Dali's Simulated Madness

Although most surrealist artists were in- from his subconscious mind but by con-
fluenced to one degree or another by Sig- trollingthem through his idiosyncratic
mund Freud's theories of dreams and the "paranoiac-critical method."
subconscious, none embraced his ideas Simply put, he simulated madness, or
so fervently as did Spanish painter Salva- paranoia, in order to obtain and depict
dor Dali. Freud's The Interrelation of an image from his subconscious. Then,
Dreams seemed to Dali a revelation, since through a deliberate Freudian process of
for him it represented a scientific expla- free association, he added to the paint-
nation for the torments and erotic fanta- ing any other images suggested by the
sies he claimed to have experienced ever initial form. Rendering the results with

since childhood. His subsequent fascina- masterful attention to detail, Dali created
tion with psychoanalysis at once affected dream worlds that seem as tangibly real
his approach to his art. as everyday existence.
But while most surrealists depicted The finely drawn rock formations in
the images from the subconscious -which Shades of Night Descending (left), for
Freud had defined as uncontrolled by instance, lend an air of hard reality to
conscious reason— in more or less lyric the fiat, ominous landscape menaced by
terms, Dali wanted to document them dense shadows. And in Perspectives
with scientific accuracy. He proposed to (above), the barren desert, phantasmagori-
do this not by merely retrieving images cal sky, and contorted, tortured-looking
Sleep, 1937
humans combine to create a chillingly
vivid nightmare.
Throughout his long career, Dali was
fascinated by the idea of the double im-
age, one that suggests or turns into a
second image— a common occurrence in
dreams. The enormous head depicted
in Sleep (left) is an example of such a de-

vice. At first glance it seems merely a

monstrous, balloonlike visage. But upon
further examination, the image begins
to resemble a fetus.
Art historian James Thrall Soby ex-
plained in his 1941 book, Salvador Dali,

that for Dali, sleep was paradoxical. It

was a monster, "because in their dreams,

men are free to commit the most hideous
crimes; sleep was embryonic, because it
gives men the warm shelter and immunity
of the womb."
The artist himself-who died
at the age
of eighty-four in 989 -reportedly said the
1

crutches in the painting symbolize what

he termed the "psychic balance" that
makes sleep possible. Taking just one
away, according to Dali's cryptic explana-
tion, would result in insomnia.
 CHAPTER 1

Where Reality Heels Illusion

nee upon a time Chuang Chou dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting

and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. Suddenly
he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Chuang Chou. But he
didn't know if he was Chuang Chou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a
butterfly dreaming he was Chuang Chou."
The blurring between waking consciousness and the world we enter
only when we sleep is a theme that runs throughout the graceful and imag-
inative writings of Chuang Chou, a highly respected fourth-century-BC Chi-
nese philosopher also known as Chuang-tzu — Master Chuang. In fact, the
distinction between reality and dreams has captivated humankind in all ag-
es. Some peoples believed-and some still do believe— that dreams are as
real as any waking event. And many of us can recall times when we have
awakened from a vivid dream confused and disoriented, unsure of which
landscape we actually inhabit, the room we see around us or the nighttime
vision still lingering in our heads.
Dreaming is a universal and powerful experience-all humans sleep,

and all humans dream. Dreams can be fleeting fragments of images or en-
tire complicated narratives unreeling like movies before the mind's eye. The
visions can appear benign or soothing, or they can inspire heart-pounding
terror. They can be peopled with friends and loved ones or commanded by
horrifying monsters. Dreams can mimic reality or create a totally surreal

environment. They can be clear and detailed or jumbled and confused. They
may impart wisdom or knowledge, or they may leave the dreamer com-
pletely baffled by their content.

But even when all those frequently experienced characteristics of

dreams are acknowledged, there remain many puzzling questions about the

familiarphenomenon: What are dreams? Where do they come from 9 And

what significance, if any, do they hold for the dreamer's life? The variety of
answers set forth to these questions over time reflects the values and the
social and psychological structures of various cultures. Ancient peoples,
among them the Egyptians and the Greeks, believed dreams were messages
sent by the gods to sleeping minds. The father of modern psychiatry, Sig-
mund Freud, thought that dreams, created where lies the line of demar-
by the human brain, could serve as cation between dreams and
windows into the psyche, revealing reality and which side of the
a cache of wishes unfulfilled, and line we are on at any given
many of his followers today con- time. Like Chuang Chou,
sider such visions to be a major these writers suggested that
tool in psychoanalysis. On the one cannot judge whether
other hand, some scientists dreams or waking experi-
have theorized that dreams are ences are the more real. One
unnecessary bits of information such author was Li Yuan
being expunged nightly from chuo, a professor at China's
a person's memory, just as a renowned Imperial Academy
computer's files are cleaned of during the Southern Song dynas-
unwanted data. And researchers ty, which flourished during the
into the paranormal, in some ways twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In
echoing the ancients, believe dreams an essay on the butterfly dream, Li

may have a psychic element, revealing argued that since the states of
the forces of destiny, the reality that is dreaming and waking consciousness
about to happen. coexist within the same being, there must
Whatever their beliefs, humans have always be some point of contact between the two. However, he
searched for the meanings of dreams, the logic hidden be- continued, to the extent that each state constitutes a world
neath layers of symbolism and metaphor: In the Hebrew of its own, one is as real— and as false— as the other. "Since
Talmud, it is "A dream not interpreted is like a let-
written, in dream one is not aware of the wakeful state, the dream is

ter to the self unread." The ancients drew up elaborate not taken to be delusive," Li wrote. "Likewise, while
dream books, listing common dreams and their meanings, awake, one does not know about the dream state, hence
and respected dream interpreters did a brisk bus ness. To- ;

wakefulness is not regarded as real."

day, seekers examine their dreams from an analyst's couch Ancient Chinese literature is replete with references to
or by sharing them with a group in what are called "dream- dreams and how they relate to conscious existence. The
work" therapy sessions. Some enthusiasts suggest that we Buddhists considered dreams to be part and parcel of reali-

can understand the real world only by unlocking the secrets ty. In a work dating from the Ming dynasty, which ruled
of our dreams. They point out that many of history's most from 1368 to 1644, an author named Lian chi Ba shi wrote,

influential individuals— Alexander the Great, Rene Des- "The old saying goes: Living in this world is like having a
cartes, Elias Howe, and Robert Louis Stevenson, to name big dream. And Scripture says: When we come to look at

but a few— claimed to have been directed by their dreams. the world, it is comparable to things in a dream." Feng
Others contend that nocturnal images are our passport into Meng long, a novelist of the seventeenth century, presented

another dimension, a whole other reality. the dream versus reality debate from a more earthy per-
But to many philosophers, the central question of "A great drinker dreamed that he possessed some
spective.

dreams is expressed by Chuang Chou's butterfly paradox. good wine," Feng related in his book entitled Hsiao-fu
Many thinkers of the ancient East joined him in considering (House of Laughter). "He was about to heat and drink it

23
 The fragment of old sculpture at right depicts Hypnos, the ancient
Greek god of sleep. Hypnos was believed to be the brother offigures who appeared
in dreams, and his son Morpheus was the god of dreams.

when he suddenly woke up. Remorseful, he said, '1 should went in. . . . In front of the altar, facing me, sat a yogi — in
"
have taken it cold!' lotus posture in deep meditation. When I looked at him
This blending of illusion and reality also plays an im- more closely, I realized that he had my face. I stared in pro-
portant role in many of the great Hindu myths. One story, found surprise, and awoke with the thought: 'Aha,
the tale of Krishna (an incarnation of the god Vishnu) and so he is the one who is meditating me. He
"
Yasoda (Krishna's mortal mother), opens with Krishna be- has a dream and I am it.' ^^|
ing scolded for having eaten dirt. "But I haven't," explains In some cultures, the
the ^a
young Krishna. "All the boys are lying; . . . look at my philosophical debate
mouth." "Then open up," says Yasoda to the god who had between reality and
taken the form of a human child. When he obliged, "she dreams has no rele-

saw in his mouth the whole universe, with the far corners of vance whatsoev
the sky, and the wind, and lightning, and the orb of the er — since those
earth with its mountains and oceans, and the moon and cultures draw
stars, and space itself; and she saw her own village and no distinc

herself. She became frightened and confused, thinking, 'Is tion be-

this a dream or an illusion fabricated by God? Or is it a de- tween

lusion in my own mind?' " Yasoda questioned which was
her true existence -that which she had always considered
reality or the second universe glimpsed inside her young
son's mouth in her dreamlike experience.
The debate between reality and illusion was not limit-
ed to Eastern thinkers. Some classical Greek philosophers
addressed the same point. In Plato's Theaetetus, Socrates
asks, "What proof could you give if anyone should ask us

now, at the present moment, whether we are asleep and

our thoughts are a dream, or whether we are awake and
talking with each other in a waking condition?" After The-
aetetus admits they could both be dreaming, Socrates con-
tinues, "So you see, it is even open to dispute whether we the world of
are awake or in a dream." dreams and real life.

ven psychoanalyst Carl Jung, who followed his Consider the case of the African chief who dreamed he had
mentor Sigmund Freud in pursuing the significance visited England and Portugal. When he awoke he dressed in

of dreams to psychological well-being, on at least Western clothes and described his trip to his people. They
one occasion found himself caught in his own ver- greeted him and congratulated him on his safe "journey."
sion of the butterfly paradox. In his 1963 autobiog- The Kai tribe of New Guinea and the West African
raphy, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, Jung recounted a Ashantis also equate dreams with reality. They believe that
dream he had in 1944, after was walking
a long illness. "I ifa man dreams of committing adultery, he must be pun-
along a little road through a hilly landscape. Then . . . I ished. The Pokomam peoples of Guatemala and many other
came to a small wayside chapel. The door was ajar, and I tribes claim that the dreamer's soul leaves the body at night

24
 '

and that its actions are then recorded in dreams. Africa's Other clues to the Egyptians' techniques of dream in-

Zulu peoples contend it is through their dreams that ances- terpretation include an Egyptian text attributed to King

tral spirits evaluate the actions of the living and register Merikare, a pharaoh who ruled about 2070 BC. In the text

their approval or dismay. And among the San people of the Merikare describes dreams as an intuition of a possible fu-

Kalahari Desert in southern Africa, the butterfly paradox ture. The pharaoh apparently believed that dreams symbol-
would be no paradox at all. When British writer Laurens ized exactly the opposite of what they seemed to; visions of

van der Post asked some of them to talk about their dreams, happiness, for example, foretold imminent disaster. Anoth-
a San elder told him, "But you see, it is very difficult, for er fragment of text dates from sometime during the Middle
always there is a dream dreaming us." Kingdom period -between 2000 BC and 1785 BC-and fea-
tures a list of nearly 200 traditional dream interpretations

For most Western people, the question at the root of the used in divination:

butterfly paradox is merely a philosophical exercise; they "If a man sees himself in a dream looking at a dead ox
recognize the distinction between dream and reality. Much it is good, since it signifies the death of his enemies.
more pressing is the issue of what a particular dream "If a man sees in a dream his bed on fire it is bad,
means. The desire to interpret dreams, to discover their un- since it signifies the rape of his wife.

derlying significance or message for action, cuts across cul- "If a man sees himself in a dream looking at a snake it

tural boundaries— although the meanings ascribed to the is good, since it signifies an abundance of provisions."
same dream images can vary greatly from people to people. For the Egyptians, then, dreams were a way of seeing
For example, the Quiche Maya in the highlands of Guatema- into some deeper reality, a belief shared by their neighbors
la and the Zuni Indians of New Mexico share a deep respect the Israelites, whose words for "to dream" and "to see"

for their ancestors. However, if a Zuni dreams of an ances- were the same. The Israelites believed dreams to be mes-
tor, he invariably describes it as a harrowing experience sages from God, and they relied on patriarchs such as Jo-
and must seek a cure via a religious ritual— while if a seph and Daniel to interpret them. Joseph's story is one of
Quiche dreams of a dead forebear, it is seen as a positive the earliest— and best-known— cases of dream divination.
event, a cause for rejoicing. After such a dream a Quiche According to the book of Genesis, Joseph, son of Jacob, re-

invariably visits one of the tribe's "daykeepers," or dream lated to his brothers a dream in which "we were binding
interpreters, to have the dream analyzed. Quiche daykeep- sheaves in the field, and lo, my sheaf arose and stood up-
ers, both male and female, are trained from an early age in right; and behold, your sheaves gathered around it, and
the intricacies of dream interpretation. bowed down to my sheaf; . . . behold, the sun, moon, and
nterest in dream interpretation, especially the attempt eleven stars were bowing down to me." Deciding that he
to predict the future by analyzing dreams, spans eras should be punished, his eleven brothers kidnapped Joseph
as well as cultures. Many centuries before Chuang and sold him into slavery in Egypt.
Chou wrote on the subject, the ancient Egyptians be- In his Egyptian prison, he met two inmates, the phar-
came fascinated with unlocking the meaning of their aoh's butler and baker. "And Joseph saw them in the morn-
dreams. They are credited with establishing the science of ing and they were sad and he asked, 'whereof look ye so
oneiromancy, or dream divination, as expressed in the en- sad today?' And they told him, 'We dreamed a dream and
graved tablet that served as a "calling card" for an ancient there was no interpreter.' And Joseph said to them, 'Do not
Egyptian dream interpreter: "1 interpret dreams, having the interpretations belong to God? Tell me them, I pray you.'
gods' mandate to do so." Joseph listened to the prisoners' dreams and, demon-

26
 Legend says Shang dynasty emperor Kao Tsong dreamed (upper right) of a
man who was to help him rule China and had a likeness painted. When searchers found
a peasant resembling the man (bottom), Kao Tsong made him prime minister.
strating the power God had given him, explained the mean- Hindus say creation is a dream of the god Vishnu, shown at left in this
eighteenth-century painting. Even the universe's creator, Brahma,
ings of their visions -the butler would be freed from prison seen here on a lotus blossom (center) growing from Vishnu's navel, is
and be back in the pharaoh's service within three days, but part of the dream. This worldview equates dreams and waking life.

the baker would be hanged for his crime. Sure enough, ac-
cording to the Bible, "all this came to pass." continued, showing him seven full heads of grain being de-
Joseph languished in prison for another two years un- voured by seven withered heads of grain.
til he was summoned, on the recommendation of the butler, Joseph told the pharaoh his dream was a warning
to help interpret a dream that had troubled the pharaoh and from God to the Egyptians that they would enjoy seven
confounded his wise men. The pharaoh said that in his years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Believ-
dream he had stood on the bank of the Nile and watched ing him, the pharaoh ordered his charges to store up
"seven fat kine" (cows) come up out of the river. As the fat enough grain to last through the seven lean years.
cows grazed, he said, "seven other kine followed them; Famine did indeed wrack the land, and the Israelites,

poor and very ill-favored and lean-fleshed, much as I had having not been forewarned, traveled to Egypt to buy grain.
never seen in Egypt. And the ill-famed kine did eat up the Joseph's father and eleven brothers came to Egypt and were
fat kine." The pharaoh had awakened, but later the dream reunited with him. Seeing Joseph, now elevated to an im-

28
portant position as a reward for his prescience, the brothers
recalled his prophecy that his father, mother, and brothers
would honor him: "Behold, the sun, moon, and eleven stars

were bowing down to me." The Myfli as Society's Dream

Like Joseph, the Old Testament prophet Daniel gained
his freedom by interpreting the dreams of a king who had
A lifelong student of the world's mythologies, Joseph
held him against his will. Describing the dream of Neb- Campbell (below) saw many links between myths and
uchadnezzar, king of Babylon, Daniel said, "Thou sawest a dreams. "A dream," he said, "is a personal experi-
great image whose brightness was terrible. The image's ence of that deep, dark ground" underlying conscious
life, while a myth is "society's dream. The myth is
head was made of fine gold, his breast and his arms of sil-
the public dream and the dream is the private myth,"
ver, his belly and his thighs of brass. His legs of iron, his feet and both "are symbolic in the same general way of
part of iron and part of clay. A stone, cut without hands, the dynamics of the psyche."

smote the image upon his feet. Then was the iron, the clay, Although Campbell distinguished between personal
dreams and archetypal, or mythic, dreams, he noted
the brass, the silver and the gold broken to pieces and be-
that many personal dreams have a mythic dimension.
came as chaff on the summer threshing floor." To the For example, a dreamer worrying about an upcom-
prophet, such symbolism was clear: The golden head repre- ing test will dream of previous personal failures. The

sented Nebuchadnezzar as the ruler of a great dominion dream content, said Campbell, is "purely personal.
But, on another level, the
that encompassed virtually the entire world— which was the
problem of passing an
case. In the future, after Nebuchadnezzar's death, said exam is not simply per-
Daniel, his huge empire would be succeeded by a series of sonal. Everyone has to
pass a threshold of some
less glorious kingdoms. The last of those kingdoms, repre-
kind. That an archetyp-
is
sented by the dream statue's legs and feet, would be as al thing." Thus a person-
strong as iron but also as brittle as the clay of which the feet al dream can have "a
were partly made and thus would collapse when struck basic mythological
theme." Images that
with a rock. (Traditionally, biblical scholars have said
symbolize "mysteries of
Daniel was foretelling the Roman Empire and its fall a thou- universal import," noted
sand years in the was incidentally bestowing
future— and he Campbell, "are never
experienced in a pure
eternal life on the phrase "feet of clay.") The king was so
state," but they appear in
pleased with Daniel's explanation that he made the prophet
many variations. He
his chief adviser. urged dreamers to try to
The many gods of the early Greeks and Romans, like see through "local fea-
tures" to discern a
the one God of the Hebrews, used dreams to speak to hu-
dream's eternal themes.
mans. Zeus, father of the Greek gods, employed Hypnos, the Campbell called the realm that we enter in sleep
god of sleep, and his son Morpheus, the god of dreams, to "the infantile unconscious," the storehouse of "the
basic images of ritual, mythology, and vision." Thus
facilitate the transmission of messages to mortals. The
in history as well as in myths, he said, human life is
winged messenger Hermes was usually charged with deliv-
enriched by the visions, ideas, and inspirations
ering such communications from on high as inspiration, ad- brought back from the dream world, from the "un-
"
vice, prophecies, and warnings. quenched source through which society is reborn
Most Greeks thought of dreams as phantoms that

29
 A Culture Shaped by Dreams
In the days when Native American cul- ings, cures and sacrifices, even the hooting/ in the passing of the night/
tures were in their glory, Indians cher- dispatching of war parties. owls hooting." Speaking of such a
ished and depended on their dreams - The two tribal artifacts pictured here song's rich but concealed meanings, a
as well as similar waking visions and were directly inspired by dreams. Be- Native American woman remarked,
trances- using them to shape every low is the plan of a so-called sand "The song is very short because we
feature of tribal life. A Jesuit priest who painting, drawn on the ground with know so much."
was living among the Hurons in the powdered pigments as part of the Dreams with power in them were
seventeenth century observed: "The Navajo nine-day healing ceremony greatly desired. They not only brought
dream often presides in their councils; called the Night Way. Sacred pictures new spiritual gifts for the tribe, they
traffic, fishing, and hunting are under- such as this one depicted Navajo gods conferred great prestige upon the
taken usually under its sanction, and and enlisted their help in restoring dreamers.And although such visions
almost as if only to satisfy it. They hold balance, health, and beauty to the life sometimes came unbidden in sleep,
nothing so precious that they would of an injured or unhappy member of the majority of the tribes developed
not readily deprive themselves of it for the tribe. The tunic at right, painted sacred practices in an effort to in-
the sake of a dream. It prescribes their with symbols that were revealed in a crease the likelihood of having dreams
feasts, their dances, their songs, their dream, was worn for the Arapaho with power in them.
games -in a word, the dream does Ghost Dance, a dream-inspired ritual The vision quest, a ritual to induce
everything and is in truth the principal widely celebrated by the hard-pressed spiritually potent dreams, was a com-
God of the Hurons." tribes of the West in the latter part mon part of the rites that marked
Not only the Hurons but all Native of the nineteenth century. an Indian's passage from childhood
American tribes held dreams to be the If the symbols involved in such into adulthood. A vision quest typically
source and foundation of spirituality. dream-given objects look cryptic and included fasting, isolation, sleepless-
They believed that a dream was the perhaps awkward to outside eyes, it is ness, perhaps even self-inflicted
soul's sojourn in another world, a because they were meant not as art or physical pain. In order to prepare the
realm independent of the dreamer. So decoration but as holy things, remind- child for the impending ordeal, coun-
real was this other world that, for ers of a deep spiritual experience. seling from parents or a shaman
instance, a Cherokee bitten by a snake An example is a dream-inspired Teton sometimes began when he or she was
in a dream would seek a healer's treat- Sioux song that said simply, "owls/ just six or seven years old.
ment for snakebite upon returning to
the waking world.
Many dreams, of course, were con-
sidered ordinary and of no special
account, but others were said to have
power in them. In such a vision, the
dreamer might see one of the tribe's
gods or a revered animal. Through a
dream a Native American might re-
ceive spiritual instructions about tak-
ing on a personal totem, choosing a
life's work, or selecting garments and

foods that would provide spiritual

power. Some visions pertained to the
life of the whole tribe, prescribing
rituals and dances, songs and paint-

Originally inspired by a vision, this tradi-

tional Navajo drawing invoked the heal-
ing power of a tribal deity, the Black
God, symbolized by the cornstalk. The
people all face the god in reverence.
II

' -p

Many Indian tribes taught daughters

as well as sons to seek the gods' favor
through visions; in some tribes, the
girls could drop the quest at pu-
V berty, when they gained the
power to bear children. Many
tribes believed that a suc-
cessful vision quest was
absolutely essential if one
was to attain a successful
life; among
the members of
theCrow tribe, anyone
whose vision quest failed
was permitted to buy a
part— a song, perhaps— of
|
someone else's vision-
gained spiritual power.

f Hf~1r'"-k * i
To invite visions at a later
stage of
relied
life, many
on dream incubation,
tribes

the practice of sleeping in a

- place of special spiritual
;
power. The Plains tribes, such
as the Crow, Blackfoot, and Chey-
-
,v" enne, believed that the most pow-
erful sacred site was the top of a
j prominent mountain.
As white settlement spread and Native
American tribes were confined to
reservations, many warriors were left
with dreams that they could not put to
use. A Chippewa man might dream
a song to be sung in battle, to help him

^
face death— but going to war was

it ik ^ :
forbidden by the laws of the white
man. The dreamer would then make a
banner bearing an emblem of his pow-
erful dream and would fasten it to a
pole in front of his house. His neigh-

* + *
bors would know that he was bur-
dened with a song he would never be
4r ^k able to sing— but he also was believed
to possess the power to heal and the
ability to face death.

A turtle and a crescent moon, symbolic

of the material world, are engulfed by
birds and stars representing spiritual life,
on this dream-inspired Arapaho dress.
 _

were capable of assuming different forms in their visits to not surprising that the Greeks, like
sleeping mortals. Thus the Greeks never said they "had" the peoples of earlier cultures, turned
dreams, rather they "saw" them, and these phantoms were to soothsayers or interpreters in order to

said to "visit" and "stand over" a dreamer. Phantoms could understand the significance of their dreams.
take the shape of gods, ghosts, or the image of someone They also evolved rituals to induce dreams they be-
known to the dreamer. In Homer's Iliad, the ghost of Patrok- lieved to be healing. The sick traveled to temples, especially

_^
los, Achilles' dearest friend, pays the sleeping warrior a vis- to the most famous temple of Aesculapius— the god of med-
it. "And there appeared to him the ghost of unhappy Patrok- icine— at Epidaurus, in the hope that the deity would visit

los all in his likeness for ^^^_ them in sleep.

stature, and the lovely eyes, \ X Such induction of dreams

and voice, and wore such m +* T mn
tt •m I - WWr practiced throughout the Mid-
clothing as Patroklos had dle East, depended on careful
worn on his body. The ghost preparation. The faithful were
came and stood over his head expected to abstain from sex
and spoke a word to him," and certain foods, such as
which was to say that Achil- broad beans, that were be-
les had dreamed his dead lieved to inhibit dreams, and
friend's visit. they even underwent a ritual

Elsewhere in the Iliad, cold-water cleansing. They

Homer noted that the Greek were then permitted to enter

gods did not hesitate to use the temple. After making of-

false dreams as a means of ferings to the gods and at-

punishing wrongdoers. He tending lengthy sermons and

wrote that the war god prayer services, the seekers
Zeus sent such a dream- went to sleep atop the skins
In this classical Greek temple sculpture, a man is
message to King Agamem- healed by incubation, the dream-cure. In his dream his spirit leaves of sacrificed animals, in a
his body (right) to receive the god's help (left), while healing
non in the shape of a trusted power, symbolized by a snake, ministers to the body's ailing shoulder. room filled with the writhing,
counselor, because Agamem- but harmless, yellow snakes
non had stolen a servant girl from the warrior Achilles. Zeus that were the symbol of Aesculapius.
commanded, "Go forth, evil dream, to Agamemnon;
. . . . . . Instant cures were often reported. But more common-
speak to him in words exactly as command you." The 1 ly, patients woke to report that Aesculapius had indeed vis-

phantom Nestor tells Agamemnon it is time to assemble his ited them in a dream and recommended herbal remedies or
army and attack the city of Troy, for the gods are on his side a change in diet. Aristedes, a second-century Greek writer
and victory is assured. Buoyed by false hopes, believing his who suffered from toothaches, earaches, asthma, and
fate to be in the hands of benevolent gods, Agamemnon cramps, among other ailments, dreamed that Aesculapius
decided to attack-and lost. advised him to take cold baths, walk barefoot, and ride
As King Agamemnon's disastrous decision proved, it horseback. Following the god's advice, he tore off his
was not always easy to distinguish between a true dream clothes in front of a group of startled onlookers and jumped
and a false one. Given the ambiguity of some dreams, it is into a freezing river. His illnesses allegedly disappeared.

32
 Another believer, Clinates of Thebes, was infested with lice.

Clinates visited Epidaurus and dreamed that the god had

undressed him and swept away the vermin with a broom; in

the morning the lice had vanished. Numerous other patients

inscribed the walls of the temple with similar testimony to
their cures. But whether divine dreams alone can be
credited with such healing is open to question;

some sources say that temple priests often whis-

pered messages to sleepers through holes bored

in the walls above their heads.

Dream healing continued unabated even as med-

icine was emerging as a fledgling science in
Greece, and the two existed side by side. Those who
were ill consulted physicians but continued to seek
counsel in their dreams, often calling on the medical prac-
Dreams are often
couched in the language of sym- titioners to help administer dream-dictated treatments. An
bols, using images of familiar things appreciative view of the value of dreams in regard to health
'to point to another level of reality. Sym- is found in the written works of Hippocrates, the father of
are found in the dreams, myths, religion,
medicine. Yet the great physician, who is thought to have
"and art of all cultures, at every stage of techno-
logicaldevelopment. And while some figures written the first Western medical dream book, Treatise on
serve as symbols in only one culture, others are uni- Dreams, around the fourth century BC, did not adhere to the
versal, charged with transcendent meaning by peo-
belief that all dreams were sent by gods. "Some dreams are
ples everywhere. On this and the next two pages are
divinely inspired," he wrote, "but others are the direct re-
three such symbols: the snake, and water.
fire,

The snake— or serpent or dragon— is one of the sult of the physical body."
oldest symbols, found with fertility goddesses in some Hippocrates believed, as do many physicians today,
of the world's earliest sculptures. As a symbol, the
that a direct link existed between the mind and the body
serpent embodies dual qualities, derived from the iv-
ing animal. Because it lives in the ground, the sna^e
and that dreams provided a clue to one's physical condition

is an emblem of the nurturing earth but also of the For example, the treatise states that dreaming of the color
unknown dangers of the underworld. Christian imag- black symbolizes sickness, whereas dreaming of flight sym-
ery emphasizes the dark side, casting the serpent, the
bolizes mental derangement. Hippocrates also claimed that
evil tempter in the Garden of Eden, as a spiritual
threat; but many early American peoples worshiped dreams could foretell disease. "If the heavenly bodies are
serpent gods, and some Indian yogis revere the ser- seen dimly in a clear sky, and shine weakly and seem to be
pent as a spiritual guide. stopped from revolving by dryness, then it is a sign that
Many ancients, including the Greeks, attributed
there is a danger of incurring sickness. Exercise should be
healing power snake (above), a belief preserved
to the
in the caduceus, the snake-entwined staff symbolizing stopped," the Greek physician recommended. A star's up-
the medical profession. In psychoanalytic terms, a ward movement, he continued, "indicates fluxes in the
snake, with its dual above- and underground nature,
head," while movement into the sea signaled disease of the
can signal a merging of conscious and unconscious,
bowels, and "eastward movement, the growing of tumors
leading to new growth and maturity.
in the flesh."

33
 Some of the Greeks, anticipating mod-
ern approaches, abandoned the idea
of outside agents altogether. One
Fire: Friend and Foe of those was the fourth-century
philosopher Plato, who suggested
that if all aspects of a person's life
Fire stands with earth, air, and water as
were in balance, an individual would find
one of the four ancient elements, the
building blocks of existence. Its primal true awareness in dreams, and submitted that
presence and paradoxical nature make dreams can often boil up from a human being's
it a compelling if ambiguous symbol in
primitive cauldron of emotions. "In all of us, even
dreams everywhere. Fire generates
heat and light while destroying its fu- in good men, there is a lawless wild-beast nature
el; it fascinates with endless lively which peers out in sleep."
movement yet is constant; it can sustain Neither did Plato's younger contemporary
life or end it; it can destroy matter or
Aristotle believe that dreams were divinely inspired.
transform and purify it. Fire represents
friend and enemy, comfort and danger, di In his essays On Sleep and Waking, On Dreams, and
vinity and damnation. Its continual energy On Prophecy in Sleep, Aristotle argued that if the gods
makes fire a potent symbol of life, even eternal sent dreams, they would send them only to intelligent
life, but also portends eternal torment in hell.

When it is cozily banked on the hearth or in the in-

and rational people. Since dreams are not restricted to the

dustrial furnace, fire is a wild thing temporarily learned, wrote Aristotle, they could not be messages from
trapped in a cage of human devising. the gods. He said that dreams that were thought to be pro-
In dreams, fire can mean transformation, purifica-
phetic were actually the result of coincidence or uncon-
tion, spiritual illumination, love, passion, and sexuali-
much depends on the context. A small, tame fire
ty;
scious suggestion. In On Dreams, he explained, "When we
may signify peace and contentment, while fire uncon- are about to act, or are engaged in any course of action, or
primary symbol of destruction. Fire con-
trolled is a
have already performed certain actions, we often find our-
suming a house could indicate harm or death to a
selves concerned with these actions, or performing them in
person, perhaps someone
and "burning up" with a ill

fever. Fire as represented by the sun would probably a vivid dream; the cause whereof is that the dream-
mean agreeable warmth and nurturance for a dream- movement has had a way paved for it from the original
er in a temperate climate, but for one near the Equa-
movement set up in the daytime."
tor, the sun would represent a dangerous, perhaps

life-threatening power A large fire can simply repre-

Yet Aristotle recognized the importance of dreams. In
sent some powerful force over which the dreamer his treatise On Divination, the philosopher records that phy-
lacks conscious control. sicians "tell us that one should pay diligent attention to
In many
mythic traditions, a hero steals fire from
dreams, and to hold this view is reasonable also for those
the gods. Although this is a life-transforming feat, it is

also one that entails some regret and guilt about who are not physicians but speculative philosophers." He
challenging the rule of respected deities-or, in psy- even conceded that some dreams might provide a clue to
chological truth, parents. In dream interpretation,
health problems. He felt that the mind is better able to focus
obtaining fire may signify attaining a new level of
understanding or maturity and leaving the old behind,
on small internal factors when asleep than awake, stating,
encompassing all the elation, fear, and guilt attendant "It is obvious that the beginnings of sickness and the other
on such a passage. accidents that are produced in the body ... are necessarily
clearer in sleep than in the waking state." During sleep, Ar-

34
istotle pointed out, the mind might suggest a
course of treatment within a dream.
But Plato and Aristotle were unusual for
their-or any-age. Most Greeks had no doubt that Wafer: Source of Life
dreams were sent by the gods and were only concerned
with discovering the hidden meanings of the mysterious
Cradle and origin of all forms of living beings, water is
messages. They flocked to dream interpreters, one of the
everywhere that life is. Like fire, water has a dual na-

most famous being the soothsayer Artemidorus Daldianus, ture. It is womb and grave, sustainer and destroyer,
who lived in the second century AD. Artemidorus recorded and spoiler. Flowing in a river or ocean, water
purifier
embodies constant change and movement but also
more than 3,000 dreams in a five-volume treatise titled
has permanence. Though paired with fire as an essen-
Oneirochtica (The Interpretation of Dreams). And if dreams tial for life, water offers a heavier, slower, more com-
can be said to mirror reality, life in the Greco-Roman world forting presence. Since it purifies without destroying,

of his era was anything but tame. Throughout the pages of water figures in the rites of many religions. The water
of baptism especially suggests the waters of birth and
Oneirocritica appear accounts of especially disquieting,
symbolizes the start of a new life.
even brutal, dreams— a man sacrifices his wife and sells her Although water epitomizes passivity and yielding-
remains to the local butcher; another skins his son alive; ness, the traditional feminine principle, it should not
be mistaken for powerlessness. In Taoist thought,
still another eats his own excrement.
water embodies the power of weakness, adaptability,
Artemidorus classified and interpreted these dreams, and fluidity: Even as the water in a stream parts to
identifying five different types— symbolic and prophetic flow around a rock, it wears the rock away.
dreams, fantasies, nightmares, and daytime visions. Unlike In dreams, still water may suggest the womb, pre-
natal security,and bliss; crashing waves may repre-
most of his contemporaries, he stressed that dream symbols
sent external power beyond the dreamer's control or
and images must be analyzed in the context of the dream his or her own sexual urges. A swimming pool may
and, more important, that the dream must be interpreted in symbolize leisure or competition. When it _.

relation to the individual dreamer. These beliefs contradict- appears as an expanse concealing mys- s^,
teries, water is a symbol for the uncon-
ed other soothsayers, who ascribed fixed meanings to sym- jf
scious. Water's dual nature makes the . I

bols—that dreaming of a snake, for example, foretold ill- comparison apt: Chaotic and poten-
ness—without regard to the dreamer's circumstances. tially violent, the unconscious is

also the sustaining source of^

Artemidorus noted that symbols could mean one thing to
conscious life. Diving
one dreamer and the opposite to another. into water can sym-
some symbols to set up a
Yet Artemidorus did identify bolize a search for
life's meaning, and
framework for dream interpretation. Many have compared
crossing over wa-
his approach with that of modern psychoanalysts. Like
ter may signify a
Freud, the Greek dream consultant ascribed sexual conno- transformation, a / i

tations to certain symbols. He claimed that sowing, seeding, passage from

one condi- /*
and tilling, for example, referred to the desire to marry and
tion to an "^y
have children. He ascribed a phallic symbolism to the plow
and wrote that horses, carriages, and ditches dug in the soil

represented a wife or concubine.

No record exists to vouch for Artemidorus's popularity
 A Pries! Who Dreamed me future

Many biblical figures received messag- appeared and told him he must win imals," she said, "you must make
es from God while asleep, but reports boys over with kindness, not violence. happen for my children."
of such revealing dreams are not "Who are you?" Giovanni asked. Re- Giovanni became a priest and found-
confined to the Bible In one modern plied the image: "I am the son of her ed a home for boys and the Salesian
case, a devout nine-year-old by the whom your mother taught you to Order, made up of monks who care for
name of Giovanni Bosco had a dream salute three times a day." Then a homeless children. Father Bosco had
in 1825 he later called prophetic. woman in a sparkling cloak many visionary dreams: He
He dreamed he punched a gang of showed him some wild animals sometimes knew a boy's sins
tough boys in his that became lambs \ before hearing the child's
Italian village to as he watched. confession, and he fore-
stop their curs- "What you see saw the deaths of sever-
ing.A lumi- happening to al boys. Bosco died in
nous man these an- 1888, and in 1934,
^> he was declared
a saint.

Father Bosco (right) confesses one of his resident boys in the open, an arrangement that he preferred to the closed confessional.
in his day. But most dream books published thereafter drew husband of Jesus' mother, Mary, through his dreams. In the

upon his exhaustive research and observations, and when first, Joseph is contemplating the disturbing pregnancy of
Oneirochtica was finally translated into English 1 500 years his then betrothed, Mary, whom he believed to be a virgin.

after his death, it went through two dozen printings in less "Then Joseph . . . was minded to put her away, . . . but while
than a century. he thought on these things, behold the angel of the Lord
appeared unto him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of
Although throughout the ages people have continued to David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that
disagree about just what any particular dream signifies— which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost. And she shall

and even what dreams are and where they come from— bring forth a son, and thou shall call his name Jesus, for he

there is wide agreement that some dreams have changed shall save his people from their sins. . . . Then Joseph being
the course of history. Dream scholar Raymond de Becker raised from sleep as the angel of the Lord had bidded him,
has described dreams as "the revealer of an energy at work and took unto him his wife."

in the depths of individuals and peoples. This energy often When an angel next invaded his dreams and warned
directs men without their knowledge and is found at the him to flee to Egypt to save Mary's newborn son from King
roots of the greatest catastrophes and the most sub- Herod, Joseph again obeyed, and he remained in Egypt until

lime creations." he was told of Herod's death in a third dream: "Arise and

fWF* ne ener §y of dreams has inspired soldiers, scien- take the young child and his mother and go into the land of

tists, poets, and politicians, who in turn have influ- Israel: for they are dead which sought the young child's
enced the lives of millions. Otto von Bismarck, the life." Finally, in a fourth episode, "being warned of God
militaristic German chancellor, claimed that a pro- in a dream, he turned aside into the parts of Galilee" and
JhL phetic dream convinced him to continue his 1866 then settled there.
campaign against the Austrians. German pharmacologist In each of these cases, Joseph did not hesitate to fol-

Otto Loewi allegedly credited a 1920 dream with revealing low the advice in his dreams. Matthew also tells us that the
an experiment that helped prove his theory on the chemical three wise men were "warned of God in a dream that they

transmission of nerve impulses— and win him the 1936 No- should not return to Herod," in order to save the life of the
bel Prize for medicine. And legend has it that Joan of Arc infant Jesus. To a believer, these dreams were unquestion-
based her life on visions that came to her regularly in ably messages from God.
dreams and in waking hours. In George Bernard Shaw's All of the biblical dreams were presented as supernat-

play St. Joan, a critic scorns her dreams as figments of her ural revelations, and their meanings were startlingly clear

imagination. "Of course," she replies, "that is how messag- But the full import hidden by the rich symbolism of
es of God do come." the dreams that surrounded the birth and life of Buddha, or
Indeed, by tradition, the origins of many of the world's "the Enlightened One," was not always immediately per-
religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam, are ceptible to the dreamers. The woman who would become
intertwined with accounts of divinely inspired dreams. The Buddha's mother, Maya, experienced one such dream,
Old Testament tells of God revealing himself to Abraham which she presented to practiced dream interpreters for

and Jacob in dreams, and it is through a dream that the He- their opinion. "White as snow or silver, more brilliant than
brew warrior Gideon is assured of a victory over the desert- the moon or the sun," she described, "the best of elephants,
dwelling Midianites. In the New Testament, the apostle with fine feet, well-balanced, with strong joints, with six
Matthew relates four heavenly messages sent to Joseph, the tusks hard as adamant, the magnanimous, the very beauti-

37
 4

Dreams and Films: From flic Same Facfoiy

Movies, with their near-magical ma- pictures are dreams," Bergman has studying sleep, he noted, "discovered
nipulations of images, seem to be said. And indeed, some of his cinemat- that if you are prevented from dream-

tailor-made to express dreams. Natu- ic images are outright presentations ing you go crazy. It is the same with
rallyenough, some of the most em- of characters' dreams. Two of his films me. If I my dreams—
could not create
inent filmmakers have turned their - Wild Strawberries and The Naked my films- that would make me com-
dreams to artistic advantage. Night- contain scenes that Bergman pletely crazy. Dreams are a sort of
Italian director Federico Fellini has calls faithful copies of his own dreams. creative process, don't you think? My
called dreams "fables we tell our- But even when the content is not films come from the same factory."
selves, myths that help us under- drawn directly from his sleeping vi- Bergman notes that like dreams, film
stand." In his films, he said, he strives sions, his films have many dreamlike "escapes the control of the intellect
to create "a stimulating ambiguity qualities. Among the most famous is almost voluptuously." In film, he says,
between fantasy and reality." In mov- the Dance of Death (bottom), a power- "we go straight to the feelings. Only
iessuch as his classic 8'h, Fellini is at ful sequence from The Seventh Seal. In afterwards we can start to work with
times resolutely obscure about where the same film, Death (below), played our intellect."
realityends and the dream begins. And by Bengt Ekerot, maintains an iconic, Bergman has used the same actors
many of his characters are so physi- dreamlike presence. again and again in his movies so that
cally grotesque and his settings so Bergman's work, however, shares their faces have become haunting-
disturbingly surreal that one can only more than images with dreams. For ly familiar, much like the archetypal
suppose they were dream inspired. him, making films-like dreaming— is figures that appear dreams. His
in
Moreover, he has said he employs one of life's essentials. Scientists many films, taken together, form what
color on the screen one critic has de-
not only as part of the
language of cinema
MMM scribed as "a tapes-
try of recurring
but to convey "the dreams." Bergman
idea and the feeling welcomes such
of the dream." comparisons, say-
Swedish movie
J—
\ * ing that if audienc-
giant Ingmar Berg- es find his dreams
man goes even fur- "close to their
ther than Fellini in dreams, I think that
relating his films i is the best com-
to dreams. "All my munication."

^^
ful has entered my womb." The interpreters, foretelling the ed—all stemming from her anguish over her husband's im-
birth of the chosen one, predicted, "A son will be born to minent departure from home and family to embrace the life

Maya. Issue of a royal line, the magnanimous one will be a of a wandering monk. That she experienced such pain in

universal monarch; ... he will become a wandering monk; her dream, said Buddha, was a sign that she was capable of
... by the sweetness of his ambrosia, he will be able to sat- attaining perfection.
isfy all worlds." In the case of Islam, dreams are thought by some to
Some years later, Buddha's father, King Cudhodana, have provided the actual building blocks of the religion. Ac-

dreamed he saw his son leave the house escorted by a troop cording to Islamic teachings, the first surah, or chapter, of
of gods "and. then set forth, a wandering monk, clad in a the Koran, the religion's sacred scripture, was delivered to
reddish garment." When the king awoke, he asked servants Muhammad by the angel Gabriel as the Prophet slept. And
whether the young prince was still at home. He was, but the in the Hadith, a companion piece to the Koran that guides

king was not consoled. "Of course he will leave, my young followers of Islam in daily life, the Prophet is described as
prince," the sovereign lamented, "since these portents have receiving subsequent surahs while lying in a trance or
appeared to me." dreamlike state, sweating and shivering and with his eyes
Buddha's leaving did not occur until many years later, closed. It is said that Muhammad was so strong a believer
after he had married and become a father himself. In fact, in the importance of dreams that each morning after awak-
the most fantastic dream recorded in Buddhist writings was ening he would explain his dreams to his disciples and then
actually a series of dreams experienced one night by Gopa, interpret theirs. Indeed, after one of his disciples dreamed of
Buddha's wife. In these visions she saw herself completely a calling to prayer, Muhammad instituted the adhan, in

naked, with both hands and feet cut off; she saw the earth which a muezzin summons the faithful to prayer from the
quaking, the ocean raised, and the axis of the world shaken minaret of a mosque.
to its foundations; she witnessed a meteor leaving the town It seems that many great events throughout the ages,
and the city plunged into darkness, her husband's posses- religious and secular, were preceded by relevant human
sions broken and Awakened, terrified by her
scattered. dreams. Tradition offers stories of dreams that allegedly in-

nightmare, Gopa asked Buddha what it meant. He replied, spired great political leaders, predicted the outcomes of bat-
"Be of good cheer, you have not seen anything evil" and tles or wars, and determined the course of historical devel-
explained the meaning of each of the disasters she recount- opments by alerting key figures to circumstances that, if not
 Tippu Sahib, an Indian warrior-
sultan of the eighteenth century, made
records of his dreams and based his
battle tactics on some of those visions.

foreseen, could have cost them their Heaven itself is about to send ruin
lives or their ambitions. For instance, upon Greece, 1 admit that 1 was mis-

the Greek historian Herodotus records taken. . . . Prepare for war . . . and as
that Xerxes, a fifth-century-BC Per- God is offering you this great opportu-
sian emperor, was deeply troubled by nity, play your own part to the full in

a dream in which a figure of a man realizing it."

appeared and warned the inexper- Xerxes amassed an incredible

ienced ruler not to cancel an im- force of fighting men and marched in-

pending attack on Greece, as his to Greece. The war he launched-and

military advisers had recently recom- supposedly would have averted, had
mended. Disregarding the nocturnal it not been for his dream — raged for
advice, Xerxes agreed to call off prep- two years, finally concluding in 479
arations for the massive invasion. The BC with defeats that sent the Persian
next night he was again visited in his forces home and put an end once and
dream by the spirit, who said, "So you for all to their ambitions of conquer-
have openly, in the presence of your ing Greece. If the Persian deity really
subjects, renounced the campaign come to Xerxes in a dream, his di-
did
and made light of what 1 said to you, as if it had never been vine advice on the war was obviously faulty. Neither, appar-
said at all. Now let me tell you what the result will be, if you ently, did the god forewarn Xerxes of his death— he was

do not at once undertake this war: just as moment you

in a murdered by conspirators.
rose to greatness and power, so in a moment you will be It seems Xerxes was not the only warrior to be misled
brought low again." by his dreams. According to Roman historian Valerius Max-
Terrified, Xerxes leaped from his bed and summoned imus, the Carthaginian general Hannibal dreamed about in-

his uncle and chief advisor, Artabanus. The elder tried to vading Rome before he did so in real life. He saw "a young
soothe the young king, explaining that the dream was not a man, as beautiful as an angel," who said he had been sent
divine prophecy but merely contained "the shadows of from heaven to urge Hannibal to invade Italy. When Hanni-
what we have been thinking about during the day." Xerxes bal saw an immense serpent destroying everything in its

was unconvinced. As a compromise, Artabanus agreed to path, he asked the young man what it meant. "You see the
wear the king's nightclothes and sleep in his bed to see ruin of Italy and the disasters which await it," replied the
whether the dream would come again. young man. "Go! The fates are going to be accomplished."
hat night the dream phantom confronted Arta- In 219 BC, the Carthaginian led 40,000 men and a parade of
banus. "Are you the man who in would-be concern elephants across the Alps to march on Rome.
for the King is trying to dissuade him from making Valerius Maximus adds, "Is there any need to recall
war on Greece? You will not escape unpunished, the evils with which Hannibal ravaged Italy after he had this

either now or hereafter, for seeking to turn aside dream and obeyed its instructions?" Perhaps not, but it
the course of destiny." Just as the phantom was about to should be remembered that, in spite of his prophetic vision,
burn out the adviser's eyes with hot irons, Artabanus Hannibal failed to crush Rome. When the Romans finally

awakened. He ran to Xerxes and said to him, "Now know

I demanded his surrender, the general committed suicide by
that God is at work in this matter; and since apparently taking poison.

40
 When a Dicfaior Seized a Nation's Sleep
Inevery waking moment, warned a Unlike soldiers in combat, who suffer Reich's domestic terror tactics into
Nazi official, every German must be "a violent dreams of gory dismember- surreal images. One man dreamed that
soldier of Adolf Hitler"; the only re- ment, civilians at home under this to- he was enjoying an evening at home
maining "private matter," he insisted, talitarian rule endured visions of psy- reading a book, when he looked up to
was sleep. But not even sleep was a chological coercion, the bloodless find that the walls of his apartment,
refuge from Hitler (at right, below) and destruction of dignity and identity. One and every wall as far as he could see,
his dictatorship. such dreamer was a manufacturer had suddenly disappeared. Another
Just after the Nazi takeover in 1933, who, in order to keep his factory, pre- man related his dream about unreal
Charlotte Beradt, a young journalist in tended allegiance to the Reich he actu- but plausible surveillance agencies—
Germany, began asking acquaintanc- ally hated.The man dreamed that the Monitoring Office and the Training
es to tell her their dreams— and discov- Propaganda Minister Goebbels visited Center for the Wall-Installation of
ered a living example of a people's the factory and commanded him to Listening Devices.
collective unconscious being shaped give a stiff-armed Nazi salute, in front Many people, caught between pres-
by a common mass experience. She of all The manufacturer
the workers. sure from the Reich and the dictates of
recorded hundreds of dreams in coded found he was unable to lift his arm. He conscience, relived in theirdreams the
notes that she hid in book bindings or kept trying, and after half an hour of intolerable choices forced upon them.
sent to friends abroad. Despite her agonized succeeded —
effort, finally One young woman, who was prompt-
precautions, however, many people whereupon Goebbels, who had ed by the anti-Semitic racial laws to
were afraid to relate their dreams, watched the struggle impassively, said, end her engagement to a Jewish man,
fearful of what they might reveal. Sev- "I don't want your salute," and walked dreamed that she tried to argue with
eral reported the identical vision: "I away, leaving the factory owner fro- Hitler's criticism of her fiance but was

dreamt that it was forbidden to dream zen in humiliation. advised by a friend, "There's not a
but did anyway."
I Some dreamers distilled the Third thing one can do."

'.k t
 ""

One who fared better in following his dreams was Al-

exander the Great, the Macedonian conqueror of most of

the known world. Alexander strongly believed in the pro-
phetic power of dreams and retained a personal interpreter

to assist with dream divination. Once, while his forces were

attacking the city of Tyros, on the coast of Lebanon, in the

summer of 332 BC, Alexander dreamed that a satyros-a

nature spirit -had danced on his shield. Aristander, his in-

terpreter, explained that the dream contained a visual pun

and that by rearranging the letters in the Greek letters of the
word satyros he could spell out the message, "Tyros is

thine." Guided by this divination, Alexander renewed his at-

tack on the city and was victorious.

hree centuries later, the military plans of another

famous warrior were confirmed in a dream. The Two great nineteenth-century
authors whose work by some
night before Julius Caesar led his army across the accounts was inspired by
Rubicon to march against his own beloved Rome, dreams voiced diametrically
opposite responses to such
he dreamed that he slept with his mother. Appar- suggestions. Robert Louis
Stevenson (above), a Scot with
ently Caesar saw this as a signal that the invasion should go
strong beliefs in Little People,
forward, for he proceeded to attack the city and, to his re- credited his "Brownies, God
bless them" with delivering
lief, encountered little resistance. Ironically, the Roman "printable and profitable tales"
general and statesman later failed to heed another dream- to him But prac-
in dreams.
tical Englishman Charles Dick-
that of his wife, Calpurnia, who warned him to "beware the ens, although an artist of his
Ides of March." Disregarding that prophetic message cost own era portrayed him (right)
dozing in his study amid dream-
him his life. like visionsof his characters,
Even so eminent a military strategist as Napoleon denied ever dreaming of his
creations and doubted that any
Bonaparte was said to use his dreams to plan his cam- author could. "It would be,
he stated, "like a man's dream-
paigns. When he awoke, Napoleon would jot down the de-
ing of meeting himself, which
tails of all his nightly visions. Later, the French general is clearly an impossibility.

42
 -

would test the strategies by positioning toy soldiers in a matic or held such portent for the future as the dream that a
sandbox. Before he confronted his enemies on the field at young German soldier claimed to have experienced at

Waterloo, Napoleon supposedly had a dream about a black Somme on a November night in 1917, during World War 1.

cat that ran between opposing armies, and he saw his own According to the story, the sky was moonless and the frigid,

forces decimated. If this is true, he must have chosen to dank air was still. There was a lull in the usual deadly artil-

ignore the dream's warning; his defeat at Waterloo sealed lery bombardment, and a group of German infantrymen
the fate of his empire. slept soundly within their earthen cocoon, a small dugout
For all that these visions foreshadowed— the victories, fetid with the acrid smell of gunpowder, rotting food, and
defeats, death and destruction— perhaps none were as dra- unwashed clothes.

But one German, a twenty-eight-year-old corporal,

was having trouble sleeping. A terrifying nightmare played
across his mind as he tossed and turned in his bunk He
dreamed that he was being buried alive beneath tons of
earth and molten iron. Warm blood flowed across his chest.
He was choking.
Suddenly he awakened, realizing that he had been
"
dreaming but worried nevertheless. "Is it a forewarning 7
he began to ask himself. All was quiet outside. The corporal
rose from his bed and left the cramped bunker. The night air

was crisp. He stepped over the rampart of the trench and

began to walk— as if he was still in the throes of a dream
into the no man's land that separated the German lines

from the French. Unarmed, he suddenly perceived that he

was in grave danger.
A screaming burst of gunfire quickly brought the sol-

dier to his senses. A heavy artillery shell exploded nearby

with a deafening roar. The rifle fire ceased. The young in-

fantryman turned and scrambled back toward the safety of

the bunker. But a French shell had scored a direct hit, cav-

43
 The seventeenth-century French mathematician Rene
Descartes, hailed as the father of modern philosophy,
held that dreams were not functions of the rational mind;
they were merely fantasies or unfulfilled wishes. None-
theless, Descartes credited a series of dreams he had as
a young man with inspiring his life's work.
The then twenty-three-year-old mathematician was
spending the winter of 1619 in Germany, and on the

evening of November 10, he had just returned from the

emperor's coronation at Frankfurt. During the night's
slumber he experienced three dreams, which he later

said could only have come from above. The first two
of these visions were filled with terrifying phantoms, violent
winds, thunder, and flashing sparks. The third dream, in

which he discovered and read a dictionary as well as an

anthology of poetry, was ultimately the most memorable.
Indeed, Descartes was so moved by this final dream that,

according to one biographer, "he not only decided while

sleeping that it was a dream, but also interpreted it be-
fore sleep left him."
To Descartes the dream was a He suddenly
revelation.
realized that science (symbolized by the dictionary) and
Cosima Wagner, seen here with husband Richard, faithfully recorded
philosophy (symbolized by the anthology of poetry) should
in her own diary the composer's descriptions of almost 300 of his
dreams. Most were sagas of personal rejection and botched concerts. be linked. Why not apply the disciplines of science, with its

requirement of observational or experimental proof of any

ing in the earthen nest where a few minutes earlier he had hypothesis, to philosophical matters? The young French-
been sleeping. His fellow soldiers lay entombed under tons man was so shaken by his dreams that he needed a few
of dirt and rubble. Only the lone corporal, who would later days to recover. When he next took pen to paper, however,
be known to the world as Adolf Hitler, survived to tell of the the words and thoughts flowed with ease. He devoted the
terror of that night and of the premonitory dream that had rest of his life to formulating a philosophy that would forev-
saved his life. er change the way Western intellectuals think. Yet that
same work, by characterizing a sleeper's dreams as nothing
Whether or not any credence at all can be placed in tales of more than fanciful images or unsatisfied desires, de-
the prophetic power of dreams, there does seem to be a nounced the very source of its inspiration. As one writer
wealth of anecdotal evidence that dreams can indeed be a noted, Descartes's was "the dream that would eventually
force in creative inspiration. The collected testimonies of put an end to dreaming."
scientists, philosophers, writers, and musicians make a More than two centuries later, in 1869, Russian chem-
strong case for the positive impact of visions that have ist Dmitry Mendeleyey would also credit his dreams with
graced their sleep. providing the key to a scientific puzzle. A professor of

44
chemistry at the technological institute at St. Petersburg, greatest invention was made possible by a similar dream
Mendeleyev had for years been searching for a way not only experience. For years he had been working to develop a
to classify the chemical elements according to their atomic lock-stitch sewing machine. Progress had come to a halt,

weights but to develop a system with which he could pre- however, because Howe's needle design, which had a hole
dict the discovery of then unknown elements. One night, in the middle of the shank, did not work. His frustration at

after a long and fruitless day at work on the problem, he fell his inability to design a suitable needle had apparently
into an exhausted sleep. In his dreams appeared "a table reached its peak. One night in 1844 Howe dreamed of being
where all the elements fell into place as required." On wak- captured by a tribe of savages. Their king roared, "Elias
ing, he carefully recorded what would become the now uni- Howe, 1 command you on pain of death to finish this ma-
versally familiar periodic table of the elements. Mendeleyev chine at once." But in his dream, as in conscious thought,
subsequently noted that "only in one place did a correction the proper needle design eluded him. The tribal lord then
later seem necessary." Using this, he was able two years ordered his warriors to execute Howe. Through his fear and
later to predict the existence of three new elements and as- panic, with the clarity sometimes afforded in a dream, the
sign them properties; within fifteen years, those elements inventor noticed that at the business end of each warrior's
were discovered. spear was an eye-shaped hole. When he awoke, Howe
Nineteenth-century inventor Elias Howe said his bounded from bed to whittle a model of the needle he had
When eighteenth-century violin-
istGiuseppi Tartini found him-
self "enchanted" by music
that the devil played for him in
a dream, he immediately awoke
and rushed to capture what
he could remember. Although
the resulting sonata, called the
Devil's Trill, became his most
celebrated work, one account
says the composer found it
so "far below" what he heard
in hisdream that he would
have given up music if he could
have found another livelihood.
seen in his dream -one with an eye-shaped hole near the scene afterwards split in two, in which Hyde, pursued for
point, it worked. some crime, took the powder and underwent the change in

Dreams have also been the driving force behind many the presence of his pursuers." When he awoke, Stevenson
a literary achievement. In 1 798, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was able to sit down to write what would subsequently be-
who was then treating an ailment with an opium-based come the classic horror story of good and evil, The Strange
drug, dozed off while he was reading in his Somerset, Eng- Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
land, farmhouse. He later wrote that during this three-hour Many other artists, including musicians such as
nap he composed not fewer than 200 to 300 lines of poetry. Mozart and Schumann, claim to have first heard their com-
When he awoke, Coleridge began to write, his mind spew- positions in their dreams. For Richard Wagner, musical
ing forth word for word the lines of poetry that had come to ideas sometimes took shape during what he called trances,

him in his dream. He had transcribed only 54 lines of the which some psychologists interpret as the hypnagogic state,

poem when he was interrupted by a knock on the door. the borderline period between waking and sleeping. During
When he returned to his work after answering the door, he one such episode, he experienced a hallucination that he

could remember no more of the eerily beautiful poetic frag- described in his autobiography, My Life, begun in 1865. "I

ment "Kubla Khan." sank into a kind of somnambulistic state, in which I sud-
Robert Louis Stevenson maintained that complete sto- denly had the feeling of being immersed in rapidly flowing
ries regularly came to him in dreams. In an essay called water. Its rushing soon resolved itself for me into the musi-

"Chapter on Dreams," he said that he owed his inspiration cal sound of the chord of E flat major, resounding in persis-
to what he called the Little People or Brownies who popu- tent broken chords; these in turn transformed themselves
lated his sleeping visions. "In time of need he sets to bela- into melodic figurations of increasing motion, yet the E flat

boring his brains after a story," the author wrote of himself, major triad never changed, and seemed by its continuance
"and behold! At once the Little People bestir themselves in to impart infinite significance to the element in which I was
thesame quest and all night long set before him the trun- sinking." What Wagner heard in his hallucination would be-
cheons of tales upon their lighted theater." come a principal motif of his monumental operatic cycle,
Stevenson claimed that he never knew how his The Ring of the Nibelung.
dreams-or his stories-would end. He noted that once he But only one composer, it seems, boasted of making a
had no idea of a leading character's motive until she ex- pact with the devil in his dreams. Giuseppe Tartini, an
plained herself in the dream's final scene. "They [the Little eighteenth-century Italian composer, once dreamed that
People] can tell him a story, piece by piece, like a serial to the devil agreed to become his servant if the musician
keep him all the while in ignorance of where they aim," would help him escape from a bottle. Once the devil had
wrote Stevenson. The Brownies, he said, "do half my work gained his freedom, Tartini gave him his violin to see if he
for me while am fast
I asleep, and in all human likelihood, could play "What was my astonishment when heard
it. I

do the rest for me as well when I am awake and fondly him play with consummate skill a sonata of such exquisite
suppose I do it for myself." beauty that it surpasses the most audacious dreams of my
On one occasion, however, a story did not come so imagination. I was delighted, transported, enchanted," said
readily to Stevenson. He had long been attempting to com- Tartini. The composer awoke and attempted to duplicate
pose a tale about a man who led a double life, but the sto- the devil's handiwork. The resulting composition is consid-
ryteller's well had seemingly run dry. Then, as the writer ered to be Tartini's best work, as well as a musical monu-
later related, "I dreamed a scene at the window, and the ment to the power of dreams.

46
 The Astonishing Nighf Journey

tt!iP.< .

•H

J
«?-* i».V3 •

ome dreams are forgotten on

awaking; others are powerful enough to haunt the dreamer for a
lifetime; and— once in a very great while— there occurs a dream so
luminous and profound that millions of people are inspired by its
wisdom. Such a transcendent night vision came to the prophet
Muhammad on a midsummer's evening in AD 620, eight years af-
ter he began to teach the new religion of Islam. The Isra and the
Miraj, or the Night Journey, as the vision has come to be called,
began in the holy city of Mecca when the archangel Gabriel ap-
peared to the sleeping Muhammad (above). "God commands you
to come before His Majesty," Gabriel announced. "The door to the
Seven Heavens is open and the angels are waiting for you."
Thus Muhammad embarked on a momentous journey that
would take him into paradise and hell, as well as to some of the
holiest places on earth. Before his odyssey ended, he would en-
counter great patriarchs and prophets of the past, view the won-
ders of the cosmos, and ascend to the very throne of Allah.
For more than a thousand years, Muhammad's journey has
inspired poets and artists, who have tried to capture its meaning in
words and pictures. The richly colored illustrations on these pages
were discovered in a fifteenth-century manuscript, the work of
three anonymous Persian miniaturists. Throughout the manu-
script, the Prophet's head is shown surrounded by a nimbus of
flames— a device widely used in medieval Islamic art to denote a
sacred personage, much as a halo was in Christian art.
_,ollowing a ritual purification, Muham- the heavens like rainbows. Gabriel ac-
mad set out on the earthly portion of his companied Muhammad on this portion of
journey, known as the Isra in Islamic lore. his journey to observe the wonders be-
According to legend, the Prophet traveled tween heaven and earth.
on the back of a lovely beast called the In Jerusalem, Muhammad visited a
Buraq, with the countenance of a woman, mosque where he met an extraordinary
the body of a mare, and the hooves and group of prophets and holy men, includ-
tail of a camel (inset, lower right). The ing Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ.
Buraq, "whose every stride carried it as Muhammad counted Abraham as an
faras its eye could reach," was said to ancestor; he traced his lineage to lshmael,
have borne other prophets to heaven, be- the son of Abraham and Hagar. In a pro-
fore the time ofMuhammad. It became phetic gesture, Abraham invited Muham-
forsome Muslims a symbol of love. mad to lead the group in prayer (right).

After making a stop at Mount Sinai, The worshipers were illumined by seven
where Moses received the Ten Command- hanging lamps. In Islamic tradition-and
ments, and visiting the tomb of Abraham in some other cultures as well-the num-
and the birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem, ber seven is considered a felicitous sign,
Muhammad rode through the skies sur- representing wholeness or perfection. The
rounded by clouds of angels (below). The number was to appear again several
multicolored wings of these legions filled times in the course of the Night Journey.
 !

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I ortified by prayer, Muhammad left the dence and the absolute. Gabriel explained The second heaven was lustrous with
earth and began the Miraj, his ascent that, at the hours of prayer, the rooster pearls of wisdom. Here Muhammad was
through the cosmos. When he entered the beats its wings and crows: "There is no blessed by the prophet Zacharias and his
first of the seven heavens, which was God but Allah." When other roosters hear son, John the Baptist. "O Muhammad,
rich in turquoise, he met Adam. this song, they echo it across the earth, welcome," they cried out, "your presence
From Adam, Muhammad learned the calling the faithful to prayer. honors the heavenly world. May the
secrets of time and duality, essential As a lesson in duality, Muhammad was bounty of the Most High be yours." When
mysteries of nature to Muslims. Adam shown the descendants of Adam who Muhammad rose on the Buraq into the
explained the paradox of timelessness in were virtuous in life and those who had red hyacinth realms of the third heaven,
the midst of time Muhammad observed fallen into sin -their lots were, respective- he was greeted by legions of angels too
the embodiment of this mystery: a great ly, salvation and damnation, freedom and numerous to count. One angel had seven-
white rooster (below, left). The rooster's guilt. Muhammad also encountered an ty faces, each with seventy tongues sing-
feet restedon earth, where day follows unusual angel (below, right), made half of ing seventy exquisite melodies of praise
nightand seasons turn -firmly within the snow and half of fire, with prayer beads for God (right). Muslim tradition accepts
realm of time. His comb, on the other of ice in one hand and beads of flames in this angel as a sign of God's omnipres-
hand, reached high enough to brush the the other. According to legend, thunder ence. The songs of glory that come to the
bottom of God's throne. At this extreme heard upon earth is made by the col- angel's lips are samplings of the spiritual
was a state of timelessness, of transcen- lisions of these beads during devotions. bounty that will reward the faithful.

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i Upon Muhammad's arrival at each of
.Av the next three heavens, he was greeted by

sifc a thousands of others waiting in reserve to

protect against the entrance of demons.
According to the Koran, a demon trying
to enter heaven would be instantly stoned
or struck down by a falling star.
1 Finally, Muhammad arrived at the door
ij^EZ |

to the seventh heaven— that composed of

light— and was told Gabriel could accom-
pany him no farther. The archangel un-
furled his 600 wings and departed. Before
entering the holy of holies, Muhammad
bent to remove his sandals. God's voice

id
j

stopped him: "O Muhammad! Do not

remove your sandals, but let their blessed
step attain my throne." The Prophet thus
entered an ocean of light, and overcome
with devotion and joy (opposite), he
1 bowed to exclaim, "Glory and praise!"
ilMR«MMr
/'".; Ihe founder of Islam emerged from his
encounter with the Divine carrying an
edict for the faithful to pray five times a
day. Reunited with Gabriel, he arrived at
the gate to the gardens of paradise (top,
near left), where angels welcomed him as
an envoy of God. The gate through which
the travelers entered was inscribed with
thefamous Muslim profession of faith:
"There is no other god but Allah and
Muhammad is his prophet." Within the

of great beauty (bottom, near left). These

were the houris, or purified wives, prom-
ised to Muslim men who led pious lives.
As Muhammad was soon to witness,
however, not all humankind was destined
for paradise. Still under Gabriel's guid-
ance, he set out to tour the seven hells. In

the first, Gehenna, he met Malik, the

wrathful angel of death. On learning that
the visitor was the prophet Muhammad,
h*

'ih
y
the guardian of the underworld paid his tured by demons who cut out their and served as a warning of the unswerv-
respects, opening .ne doors of hell (oppo- tongues, only to watch them grow back. ing justice of Allah. During Muhammad's
site) and whipping the flames to a fury. The Prophet continued his trip through time, no particular distinction was made
Soon Muhammad was convinced nothing the levels of hell, and he saw every man- between dreams and waking visions.
around him could escape the fires. ner of punishment. Adulterous women Since then, some scholars have speculat-
While still in Gehenna, Muhammad saw were hung by their breasts from hooks. ed that the Isra and the Miraj may have
an immense tree called the zckkum The immodest were tormented by snakes been a combination of both. Others be-
(below), a kind of giant cactus. This infer- and scorpions. Misers were encumbered lieve that the Prophet was literally carried
nal tree was profuse with thorns as sharp by millstones hung from their necks, to heaven. Muhammad reportedly said of
as spears. Its fruit was more bitter than while hypocrites were shackled. There the experience, "My eyes sleep while my
poison and took the shapes of animal seemed no end to the terrible suffering. heart is awake." Whatever the case, there

heads-pigs, elephants, and lions. On the isno denying that the Prophet's miracu-
branches of the zekkum, sinners writhed 1 luhammad's night vision gave the faith- lous Night Journey is one the world's
in agony. At its trunk, others were tor- ful a dramatic glimpse of heaven and hell great spiritual treasures.

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 CHAPTER 2

Windows to flic Unconscious

he house was a grand and ancient structure, two stories high, with a hand-
somely appointed salon on the second floor. A visitor wandered through the
formal rooms, admiring antique tables with gilded trim, fine old chairs with
brocade cushions, and walls adorned with precious old-master paintings.
"Not bad," he thought, with an odd mix of satisfaction and wonder. Al-
though he had never been in the place before, somehow the visitor knew
that the house and everything in it belonged to him. He descended a stair-

case to explore the ground level.

Here was a somewhat older setting with dark medieval cabinets set
upon red-brick floors. Again, the visitor's sense of possession was strong.
Swinging open a heavy door, he came upon a second stairway and followed
it down to a vaulted seemed to date from Roman times. Stone
chamber that

slabs paved the floor, one of which was fitted with an iron ring. The visitor
slid the stone aside and descended farther, down a flight of narrow stone

steps. He now found himself in a low-roofed cave that had long ago been
cut into the bedrock. The floor was thick with dust and littered with scraps
of bone and broken pottery. Among these shards he discovered the crum-
bling remnants of two ancient human skulls, still partially intact. Upon mak-
ing this find, the visitor abruptly woke up.

The "visitor" of this dream was none other than the famed Swiss psychia-
trist Carl Jung, and the recollection of his sleep-induced meanderings struck
him with the force of revelation. For some years, Jung had been searching
for an overall theory of the human psyche— a master blueprint into which
he might fit the complex and often conflicting elements of mind and spirit

that make up the human personality. One of the most promising avenues of
research, he believed, was through the analysis of dreams, so he avidly ex-
amined both his own nighttime fantasies and those of his patients. This
dream, in particular, seemed to penetrate the very deepest recesses of the

analyst's psychic being.

The dream came to him during a lecture tour in the United States,
which Jung made in 1909 with his friend and mentor, Sigmund Freud. Jung
had first become acquainted with Freud grunted approvingly, con-
Freud's writings nearly a decade vinced that he had successfully
earlier and had quickly become made his point. Jung, however,
an outspoken admirer. The two thought otherwise.
men carried on a lively corre- The house of his dream,
spondence and met when they Jung decided, could serve as a
could to converse and discuss structural diagram of the hu-
their work. Now both Jung and man psyche. The second-floor
Freud were delighted at the op- salon, with its fine upper-class
portunity to spend a stretch of time furnishings, represented the con-
in each other's company. Like Jung, scious mind and its store of ac-
Freud was convinced that dreams quired knowledge. Below lay the
shed light on the hidden workings of great uncharted realm of the uncon-
the mental process. His controversial scious, occupying successive layers, each
book, The Interpretation of Dreams, had al- darker and more alien than the last. As he
readybecome an indispensable primer for a descended from floor to floor, Jung saw him-
growing band of doctors and psychologists self reaching down into the depths of his un-
who— along with Freud and Jung— were pio- conscious mind. At the same time, he was
neering the infant science of psychoanalysis. turning back the pages of history, descending
Each morning of the tour, the two physicians the ladder of human culture toward its remote
would exercise their psychiatric skills by re- beginnings. "In the cave," he declared, "I dis-

counting their dreams of the previous night covered . . . the world of the primitive man
and comparing interpretations. within myself- a world which can scarcely be
Freud's readings were always rigorously reached or illuminated by consciousness." It

analytic. In Jung's dream about his ancestral was a region of primal importance, Jung be-
mansion, Freud saw the house as a symbol of lieved, full of surging energy and untold psy-
female sexuality. The bones and human skulls- chic potential. He was convinced that if he could
well, their meaning seemed obvious: Jung's dream was explore the cave he would find archetypal images that are
clearly about death. Freud quizzed his colleague, probing the common heritage of all humankind.
and needling, and attempting to prove that Jung harbored a
secret desire to eliminate two close female relatives. Freud Virtually every student of the human psyche since Freud
demanded to know who they were. and Jung's era has acknowledged the importance of
For his part, Jung knew perfectly well that he held no dreams. But the way in which dreams operate -their caus-
such hostile feelings But his relationship to Freud— in spite es, their function in a dreamer's mental landscape, and
of its genuine warmth— was partially that of a disciple. He their ultimate significance-remains a matter of much dis-

was reluctant to offend the older man. Perplexed, Jung pute. Some, like Freud, believe dreams are manifestations
eventually blurted out what he knew Freud was waiting to of repressed desires, usually sexual in nature. To Jung and
hear. The skulls, he professed, belonged to his wife and others, dreams are glimpses into a commonly shared un-
sister-in-law. consciousness and thus hold potential clues to personal

57
self-realization. Still others see them as a psychic device for ing Czech physiologist who saw dreams as a natural restor-
absorbing new experiences or casting off the frustrations of ative, releasing the psyche from its mundane workaday
daily life. A few neuroscientists depart from such psycho- cares. "The soul does not want to continue the tensions of

logical interpretations altogether. According to this physio- waking life," he observed in 1846, "but rather to resolve

logically oriented school of thought, dreams are simply a them." Thus each dream, with its kaleidoscope of fantasy
mechanical reflex by which the central nervous system and feeling, "creates conditions which are the very opposite
clears its circuits. As yet, however, no single theory entirely of waking life -it heals sadness through love and friend-

explains the rich variety of ship, fear through courage and confidence." Dreams, in

sensations and images other words, were the equivalent of escapist literature for
that come to us in the mind. A number of other researchers agreed.
our sleep. Many others dissented, however. Among the most in-
The first at- fluential was French psychologist Alfred Maury, one of the

tempts to exam- first observers to study his own dreams in a systematic

ine dreams in a fashion. Maury set out to prove by rigorous self-analysis

man-
scientific that dreams arise because of external sensations experi-
ner began in enced by the sleeper. His approach to this study was to have
the middle of a colleague sit at his bedside and— once Maury had nodded
the nineteenth off— shine a light in his eyes, splash water on his face, or
century. One ring a bell in his ear. Maury found the results encouraging.
of the very When a lighted match was held under his nose, he dreamed
earliest the- about sailing on a ship whose powder magazine blew up. A
orists was drop of water on his forehead led him to a cafe in Italy, in

^ Jan Evan- midsummer, where he sat drenched in sweat and drank the
gelista wine of Orvieto. A whiff of eau de Cologne transported him
Purkinje, a to the Cairo bazaar. In one famous dream, Maury saw him-
pioneer- self caught up in the French Revolution. He was condemned
by a people's tribunal and carted off to the guillotine. At the

dream's culmination, he felt the knife fall -then awoke to

discover that a bedrail had collapsed on his neck.

Maury published his findings in 1861. Along with a
description of physical causes of dreaming,
he offered some intriguing
opinions on the signifi-
cance of dreams in

relation to human
psychology. As
sleep begins
to take hold,

Maury sug-

The Austrian psychoanalyst

Sigmund Freud sent a print of
this 1 906 photograph to a
young Swiss admirer, psychia-
trist Carl Jung. The two had
corresponded for a year when
Jung requested a picture.
 Freud (front, left) and Jung (front, right) pose with other participants
of a Massachusetts seminar in 1 909. It was on this trip that the
two began to clash over dream interpretations-including Jung's dream
of a grand mansion, which he saw as a key to the human
psyche while Freud insisted it symbolized female sexuality.

gested, the mind wanders and the powers of reason dimin- dreams as a device for exorcising daytime cares- a kind of
ish. The sleeper enters a state that is comparable to senility psychic bladder that excretes useless thoughts and emo-
orsome forms of mental derangement. Like some very old tions. Strumpell also echoed Alfred Maury in his contention
men and women in their dotage, the dreamer regresses to- that dreams work their magic by transporting us back to the
ward childhood. Memories bubble to the surface, and imag- lost paradise of childhood. Several other theorists of this era
es of long-forgotten people and places crowd the mind's maintained that dreaming allows sleepers to enjoy plea-
eye. "In dreaming," Maury declared, "man reveals himself sures generally denied them during the day.
to himself in all his naked- StrumpeH's countryman Karl
ness and native misery." But Albert Schemer proposed one
what of the specific images of the more intriguing possi-
found in dreams and the self- bilities. Writing in 1861, he
revelations that some believe suggested that dreams occur
they convey? Alfred Maury when a sleeper's sense of
dismissed such consider- fantasy is allowed to run wild,
ations as empty and mean- released from the prim con-
ingless. Dreams hold no more trol of the waking mind. Why
interest, he wrote, than the then do nocturnal fantasies
noise made by "the ten fin- sometimes assume such a
gers of a man who knows grotesque and phantasma-
nothing of music wandering goric character? Schemer's
over the keys of a piano." was that dreams
explanation
Most other investigators of this era tended, like Maury, speak not in words but in symbols. If a dream shows a
to focus on the mechanics of dreaming. The German psy- friend standing in the snow, for example, it might mean that
chologist Wilhelm Wundt stoutly maintained that all dreams the dreamer thinks of that acquaintance as coldly aloof.
were physiological in their origins and that they resulted Schemer argued further that even those dreams that are
from the random workings of the central nervous system, triggered by bodily sensations are filled with appropriate
which triggered memories locked in the cells of the brain. images or symbolic equivalents. If a woman goes to bed
Wundt was founder of the world's first laboratory for exper- with a headache, she may dream that the ceiling is crawling
imental psychology, opened in Leipzig in 1879, and his with loathsome spiders. Schemer contended that dreams
words carried significant weight in his time. A contempo- often contain recognizable symbols for the parts of the hu-
rary, George Trumbull Ladd, who established the American man physiology. A dreamer's lungs might take the form of a
Psychological Association, concurred and went so far as to roaring furnace, a clarinet or tobacco pipe might represent
suggest that dreams were hallucinations produced by the the male sex organ, and a narrow courtyard could symbol-
firing of nerve cells in a sleeper's eyes. ize awoman's genitalia.
Nearly all well-known scientists in the second half of Few other nineteenth-century researchers saw fit to
the nineteenth century held similar views. However, while venture into what was- for the time -such an alarmingly
there was widespread agreement on the causes, the func- suggestive area. But even the staunchest adherents to the
tions of dreams remained quite a lively topic for specula- dreams-as-nerve-impulse school of thought allowed that
tion. A German researcher, Ludwig Strumpell, thought of our midnight visions could very well contain profound psy-

59
 Arnalie Freud (below) was
devoted to her eldest child, her
"golden Sigi. " An attractive
woman, she was the inspiration
for Freud's Oedipal theory.
Wool merchant Jacob Freud
(right), posing with Sigmund in
about 1864, also influenced his
son. After Jacob died in 1896,
Freud began examining his
dreams and childhood memo-
ries, creating the basis for
The Interpretation of Dreams.

ing decade of the nineteenth

century, began his own ex-
ploration into the phenome-
non of dreams, he did so
against a backdrop of nearly
fifty years of active inquiry
and theorizing on the matter.
Freud brought towering intel-

lectual powers to bear on this

fascinating mystery. And as the founder, along with his

friend Carl Jung, of an entirely new scientific discipline— the

practice of psychoanalysis— he would discover a particular-

ly compelling need to understand the purpose as well as the

meaning of dreams.

Freud was born in what is now Czechoslovakia, but he

moved with his family to Vienna at an early age, when his

father's wool business failed. Ambitious and studious even

as a teenage boy, Freud was encouraged by his parents to

pursue his educational interests. Later, they would sacrifice

to send him to the University of Vienna. Trained as a neu-
rologist at the university, Freud made some headway to-

ward a career in research during the years immediately fol-

lowing his schooling. In need of money, however, he

wound up opening a small medical practice in Vienna. At
the age of thirty, he married Martha Bernays, the daughter
of a distinguished German Jewish family.

Among Freud's patients were a number of young la-

chic meaning. "The dream sometimes allows us to look in- dies who suffered from hysteria, a puzzling complex of
to the depths and folds of our very being-mainly a closed symptoms that ranged from odd aches and twitches to de-
book in states of consciousness," wrote F. W. Hildebrandt bilitating partial paralyses. Unable to find organic reasons
from Leipzig in 1875. And a few years later, the English psy- for these complaints, Freud decided that the causes had to
chologist James Sully declared that a dream "strips the ego be psychological. His patients' tics and phobias, he conclud-
of its artificial wrappings and exposes it in its native nudity. ed, were elaborate defenses against the pain of long-
It brings up from the dim depths of our subconscious life the forgotten psychic shocks, which they had experienced in
primal, instinctive impulses." As another British authority, childhood and which now festered in the unconscious. The
Havelock Ellis, put it, in sleep "the fetters of civilization are cure, he believed, was to peel back the gauze of memory
loosened, and we know the fearful joy of freedom." until the original trauma lay revealed.

So it was that by the time Sigmund Freud, in the clos- At first, Freud would lead his patients back through

60
their recollections^imply by allowing them to talk, urging bled many of his patients, and he suffered through periods
them to ramble from topic to topic by a process he called of depression in which he "understood nothing of the day's
free association. But before long he discovered that a quick- dreams, fantasies, or moods." By nature an assiduous
er port of entry was through discussions of his patients' scholar, he combed through the body of contemporary liter-

dreams. Each dream provided images that, upon analysis, ature on the subject of dreams.
would release a flood of buried memories, fears, and im- Slowly Freud began to weave together the diverse
pulses. These, in turn, would lead back to the roots of the strands of his research and speculation. He would seize a
patient's difficulties. thought from one authority, pick up a phrase from another,
Already Freud hadmade what he considered to be an and apply them to an analysis of his own dreams. The ideas
invaluable discovery. Dreams have a use: They can be of Schemer, in particular, struck a resonant chord. Freud
called upon to heal the psychic wounds that are sometimes noted that in his dreams his anxieties were hidden in some
at the root of mental illness. play of fantasy and symbolism. Another authority to make
At the same time that he was busily ministering to his an impression on Freud was Dr. Paul Radestock, a contem-
patients, Freud himself was going through a period of in- porary pioneer in behavioral research, who had drawn par-

tense uncertainty and doubt. Restlessly ambitious— and allels between the visions in dreams and the hallucinations
with a growing family to support— he found that the profes- of mental illness. Freud embraced Radestock's suggestion
sional recognition he craved was frustratingly slow in com- that the eerie phantoms of both dreams and madness
To complicate matters further, some of the methods he
ing. somehow relate to hidden, unfulfilled desires. The young
was developing and the ideas that his work was spawning Viennese physician even found merit in the theorists of
were propelling him in highly unorthodox directions in the earlier decades who had argued that dreams were primarily
treatment of patients. Strange as it seems today, Freud's a response to physical stimuli. He observed that a salty

approach to therapy, in having clients rummage through snack of anchovies before bedtime would cause him to

their innermost thoughts and recount their most intimate dream about water.
memories, was highly provocative— even
scandalous— for that time. Recurring
bouts of anxiety plagued Freud's wak-
ing hours. It was as though he had
taken on the psychic ills of all Vien-
na. "Inside me there is a seething
ferment," he confided to a friend,
"and I am only waiting for the next
surge forward."
Searching for relief, Freud un-
dertook a rigorous study of his own
dream He found himself recaptur-
life.

ing lost childhood memories, and the

experience was not entirely pleasur-
able. He detected some of the same
neurotic turns of emotion that trou-

Freud gathers his family for a photograph in

1898 in the garden of their Vienna home.
He was devoted to his shy,, gentle wife, Mar-
tha, the woman shown here in the darker
blouse. He was also close to the other wom-
an in the picture, Martha's sister Minna
Bemays, who came to visit and stayed the
rest of her life. Minna displayed an under-
standing of Freud's work that Martha did
not share; it would be echoed in later years
by his daughter Anna Freud (front, center).

61
 it was at this stately Viennese resort, Schloss Belle Vue, that Freud

conceived of his theory of dreams as wish fulfillment. "In this house on July 24,
1895," reads the note that the psychoanalyst wrote to a friend, "the
Secret of Dreams was revealed to Dr. Sigmund Freud."

&%f

62
 Yet with all his study and analysis, Freud was strug- ished. In a moment of sleep, Freud had outfoxed his com-
gling with the task of weaving a cohesive theory on dreams. petitors and restored his professional pride. "The dream
Then one afternoon, on July 24, 1895, as he was sitting on represented a particular state of affairs as I should have
the terrace of the hotel Schloss Belle Vue near Vienna, the wished it to be," he later wrote. "Thus its content was the
solution to his problem became clear. fulfillment of a wish."

Freud was mulling over a dream of the night before in Dreams as wish fulfillment-the thought would trans-

which he had encountered one of his patients, a young wid- form psychiatric history. This one missing scrap of inspira-

ow named Irma, at a family party. Irma had been much on tion enabled Freud to feel that he could move beyond the
Freud's mind in his waking hours. Her therapy had run into other scholars he had read in describing the meaning and
a snag, and she had gone off to her country estate suffering importance of dreams. Freud's writings in this area would
from spasmodic vomiting and other physical symptoms of prove to be the foundation of his influential career In a

her hysteria. Among Irma's guests in the country was a col- sense, therefore, the same insight can be seen as the foun-
league of Freud's, a doctor named Otto. The very day before dation for all of Freud's analytic theories, and it would color
Freud's dream, Otto had returned to town and confided that the techniques of dream interpretation for many years to
Irma was "better, but not quite well." Ever sensitive to crit- come. Freud later declared, "Insights such as this fall to

icism, Freud took this remark as a slap at his professional one's lot but once in a lifetime."
competence. He was Filled with anxiety over the matter. There was still more gold to be mined in Freud's
Freud's sleeping mind took flight from there. In his dream of Irma and her ill-fated injection. Minutely examin
dream, Irma approached and complained of terrible pains in ing each image in turn, Freud focused on the chemical com-
her throat and abdomen. After scolding her for quitting pounds contained in the syringe, the names of which had
therapy, Freud proceeded to examine her throat. He discov- been revealed to him in the dream. One of them was some-
ered a very peculiar growth on the walls of her mouth and thing called propyl, and Freud deduced that his mind had
throat and called upon a highly respected colleague to re- free-associated this name with that of another chemical
peat the examination. This man, referred to as "Dr. M," was called amyl, some cheap brandies. As it hap-
an impurity in

joined by Otto, and all the physicians remarked on Irma's pened, Otto had offered Freud some very modest brandy
affliction. Clearly, she was suffering from a very unusual in- only the night before. The second compound was trimethyl-
fection. The dream resolved itself when it became evident amine, which had been described to Freud as a byproduct of
that the cause of Irma's suffering was a careless injection sexual metabolism. The analyst detected numerous sexual
administered by Otto for some earlier illness. Apparently, references in his dream. The syringe, for example, was an
Otto had neglected to use a clean needle. obvious phallic symbol.

•^1 hile

pondered
Freud sat
this
at the Schloss Belle Vue and
nocturnal narrative, it suddenly covered
Although Freud's published analysis of his Irma dream
many pages of closely printed text, he primly avoid-

struck him as terribly revealing. The dream ed pursuing the sexual clues that he believed to be con-

Wwas an act of revenge— against Otto

ligning Freud's ability, against Irma for resist-
for ma- tained in the dream.
occurred to me," he admitted
"I have not reported everything
in a single coy footnote
that

On
ing his clinical analysis. It was they, not he, the dream the whole, however, sex was a crucial element, a corner

declared, who should be blamed for Irma's alarming condi- stone of Freudian theory. The hidden childhood traumas of
tion. Even Dr. M came in for a rebuff, for the dream had his hysteria patients often turned out to be sexual in na-

pictured him as pale and lame, his usual authority dimin- ture-possibly because his clientele consisted mostly of

63
wealthy women in a sexually repressed Victorian society.
Freud believed, however, that the same would hold true for

the contents of any adult's dreams.

If so, the deeper implications of Freud's dream are not

hard to find. As a number of present-day dream analysts
have pointed out, Irma was young, vivacious, attractive,

and unattached. Spurning Freud's advice, she had gone off

to the country with another man. By the logic of dreams,

both parties deserved vengeance.

Building on his notion of wish fulfillment and his instinct

that consideration of sexual urges is paramount to any un-

derstanding of the human psyche, the Viennese doctor
worked out an elaborate theory on the analysis of dreams.
To begin with, he proposed that the source of every dream
is an unfulfilled desire. Welling up from the unconscious
mind, the desire troubles the sleeper and threatens to dis-
turb his rest. But the sleeper wants to go on sleeping and
thus imagines a story in which the desire is satisfied.

"Dreams are the guardians of sleep," Freud declared, "and

not its disturbers."
Freud also focused on the nature of unconscious de-
sires. With children, he explained, desires may be entirely

innocent-a special treat denied during the day, perhaps.

Freud cited the example of his two-year-old nephew, Her-
mann. When the boy gave his uncle a basket of ripe cherries

that he clearly wanted for himself, he dreamed of a cherry

feast all his own. The dream wishes of grown-ups, on the
other hand, Freud saw as fraught with disturbing sexual un-
dertones and thus likely to take a more devious path.

exual urges are so repugnant to the psyche, Freud

believed, that a mental censor, which he called the
superego, was on the alert to squelch them. The
sexual urges are not easily suppressed, however.
They change their form, disguising themselves in

metaphor and symbolism in order to elude the censor.

Freud called this process dreamwork. A young man, for ex-

ample, might dream of a knight in armor slaying a wicked

king. By Freud's interpretation, the king is the young man's

64
Vienna (left) was Freud's home for most of his life, and he was part of
the intellectual ferment that shook the city around the turn of the
century. Patients flocked to his office, where they practiced free asso-
ciation on the sofa in his consulting room (top left). Afterward he
would ponder his cases in his study (top right), which contained what
he called little statues and images, including mythological figures;
concentrating on them, he said, helped him to fix an evanescent idea.
But the Vienna of his youth became increasingly hostile to Jews, as
evidenced by the swastika that defaced the door of his home (above).

65
father, and the dream expresses both his urge to rebel and a and is also a French slang expression for the buttocks. He

guilty desire to murder his father so that he can sleep with pointed out that many children share the misconception

his mother. But the dreamer's mental censor has cloaked that babies emerge from their mothers' bottoms. He thus
this Oedipal scenario in the trappings of heroic saga. felt that the image of diving into the moon could be read as
Freud could find a sexual reading for almost any im- a symbol of emerging into life, because the symbolic ac-
age that occurs in dreams. When an adolescent girl tions in dreams often move in reverse. The dream thus
dreamed of a dagger or a snake or a stick or a church stee- showed that Freud's patient felt reborn -presumably as a
ple-any long or pointed object, for that matter-she re- result of his theraputic skill.

veals her fear of and fascination with the male sex organ. The sleeping mind often delivered its message by
Even the most innocent circumstances might be a disguise means of such feats of wordplay, Freud believed, and this
for forbidden impulses. A cozy house set between two talent, together with a tendency to make heavy use of sym-
stately mansions suggested to Freud a wish to engage in bolic imagery, was part and parcel of a process that he

intercourse. Climbing a ladder referred to a state of mount- called displacement. Everything in a dream— people, set-

ing sexual excitement. Dreams of flying or of playing the tings, events— means something other than the obvious. If a
piano both alluded to the rhythms of the sexual act. young woman dreams of violets, as did one of Freud's pa-
espite his sensitivity to the erotic undertones in tients, it may mean she is frightened of being "violated."
dreaming, Freud was not of the opinion that all Fears and desires that the dreamer refuses to acknowledge
dreams have sex as their central topic. Missing a may be projected onto other people in a dream. Thus Otto,
train he took as an optimistic sign, for the train not Freud, became the villain of the Irma dream. Often, the
stands for death and the dreamer could be thank- most minor details will provide the most significant clues to

ful when it chugs off on its way. Other dreams speak of the meaning of a dream. The analyst must therefore trace
birth. On one occasion, Freud was treating a woman who every image back to its origins, taking the part of a psychi-

had dreamed about diving into a lake "just where the pale atric Sherlock Holmes. Only then can the dream's facade be
moon is mirrored." In a highly imaginative interpretation, penetrated and the analyst move past what Freud termed
Freud decided that the dream was based on an elaborate the "manifest" content to discover the "latent" content
pun on the word lune-which in French means "moon," concealed inside.

In an ominous display of anti-Semitism, Nazis burn Freud's books in

Berlin in 1933. The psychoanalyst wryly obsened that his works were blazing "in
the best of company" -with those of Albert Einstein, among others.

66
 A newspaper heralds the prog-
ress of an aging, ailing Freud as
he makes his way from Vienna
to asylum in London in 1 938. In
the photo he is accompanied
by friend Marie Bonaparte and
the U.S. ambassador to France.
President Franklin Roosevelt
and others helped Freud escape
from the NaAs, who had ran-
sacked his house, stolen money,
and detained his daughter Anna.

free herself? And so Freud continued, chasing down the

possible implications of his patient's dream like a terrier

pursuing mice.
Freud puzzled over such problems of dream analysis
for nearly a decade, refining his theories and examining
more than a thousand dreams. Then in 1899, he published
his masterpiece, The Interpretation of Dreams. Only 600 cop-
ies were printed, and those few took eight years to sell out
completely. For his efforts, Freud earned the equivalent of
$209. Although the book did not quickly find a wide audi-
ence, more than a few of those who read it and absorbed its

wealth of insights were capti-

vated and inspired. A coterie of
pioneering young analysts fell

under Freud's sway. Among

this group, ardent and articu-
Compounding the challenge for the analyst late, was the twenty-eight-
is the dreamer's ability to condense an enor- year-old Carl Jung.
mous amount of latent material into a single im-
age or event.One of Freud's patients, an elderly Jung seemed handpicked by
woman whose marriage had turned sour, had a destiny to be Freud's disciple.
dream about an insect called a May beetle— bet- All his life he had been subject
ter known in some parts as a June bug. Freud to the most vivid and provoca-
sketched the plot of this dream in three brief sen- tive dreams. As a child in a

tences, then followed with page after page of small Swiss village, the son of
tightly reasoned analysis. He noted that the a parson, he had nightmares in
woman had been born in May and married in which balls of light floated to-

May; that the night before her dream, a moth had ward him like malevolent
drowned in her drinking glass; and that her moons, threatening to engulf
daughter, when a child, had stuck pins into but- him. In later years, his dreams
terflies to secure them in her collection. Was the dream a Working as health permitted, took on a visionary, almost
Freud wrote and saw patients
sexual metaphor? The May beetles certainly were, in at this ivy-covered house in
prophetic aspect. When he
Freud's opinion, for the dreamer's associations could be London. At age eighty-three, came of age to choose a pro-
fifteen months after leav-
traced back to Spanish fly, which was supposed to be a ing Austria, he died of cancer. fession, he dreamed of an en-
powerful aphrodisiac. However, the killing of butterflies counter with a magnificent sea
could also be construed as cruelty to animals. Perhaps the creature, like a giant, tentacled shellfish, in a woodland
woman equated sex with cruelty. In her dream, the May pond. The round, luminous body of this apparition seemed
beetles had been languishing in a box, and the woman had to represent all the wonderment and poetry of the natural
tried to set them free. Did she harbor a secret wish to be world. Jung decided then and there to concentrate in the

67
 .

natural sciences-a determination that soon led him to the of his theories. He began some of the older
to question

study of medicine. man's most important conclusions. Dreams were an early

As a scholarship student at Basel University, Jung was point of contention. One key Freudian precept was that the
beset by doubts and troubled by what he felt were conflict- majority of dreams are symptoms of psychic illness, the
ing aspects within his own personality. Once again, in 1895, neurotic outpourings of a troubled mind. To Jung this could
a dream arrived to smooth the way for Jung. He saw himself not be further from the truth. He considered dreams to be as
struggling forward through a howling storm, in darkest valuable and healthful as fresh air. Indeed, his own night

night, with only a small candle to light his way. Gusts of fantasies had often proved to be a source of guidance and
wind kept threatening to extinguish the candle, although he comfort. Jung found even more troubling Freud's emphasis
carefully cupped his hand around the flame. Suddenly he on sex as the force underlying all dreams. And as for the

felt an ominous presence behind his back. He spun around Viennese master's definition of dreams as a form of wish
to face it and saw a gigantic black figure trailing him. Terri- fulfillment-well, that seemed at best to be no more than a
fied, he awoke. partial explanation. "It is true that there are dreams which
Immediately, Jung comprehended the message of his embody suppressed wishes and fears," Jung wrote, "but
dream. The looming black figure was his own shadow, cast what is there which the dream cannot on occasion em-
by the candle against the storm's swirling darkness. It por- body? Dreams may give expression to ineluctable truths, to
trayed the mystical, subjective side of his divided nature. philosophical pronouncements, illusions, wild fantasies, . .

And it seemed to be telling him something. Use the light of anticipations, irrational experiences, even telepathic vi-

your conscious intellect, it seemed to say, to pursue your sions, and heaven knows what besides."
studies and move ahead in the world. But do not deny your Within the framework of Freudian dream interpreta-
shadow self. Even though it now frightens you, it possesses tion, such declarations verged on outright heresy. A break
a deep and ancient wisdom. Jung understood that in time between the two men became inevitable. Their differences
his shadow self would come to serve him, as he learned to eventually came to the surface during a visit by Jung to Vi-
integrate the two sides of his personality. A few years later, enna in 1910. A conversation with Freud turned, as it so
just such a process was begun -when Jung chose psychia- often did, to the role of repressed sexual trauma in the oc-
try as his medical specialty. currence of mental illness.

he young medical student accepted a post in a Zu- "My dear Jung," the master admonished, "promise me
rich hospital in 1900, where his work with patients never to abandon the sexual theory. That is the most essen-
began leading him in the same direction pioneered tial thing of all. You see, we must make a dogma of it, an
by the master psychoanalyst in Vienna some ten unshakable bulwark."
years earlier. When Jung studied Freud's book, in "A bulwark-against what?" Jung demanded.
1903, he was struck by how closely reflected it his own "Against the black tide of mud"-here Freud paused,
ideas. "The interpretation of dreams," Freud had written, then grumbled-"of occultism."
"is the Royal Road to the knowledge of the unconscious in Jung was, to say the least, alarmed by his friend's re-
mental life," and Jung wholeheartedly concurred. Over a mark. He was put off by Freud's talk of bulwarks and dog-
period of years, he became a leading spokesman for the ma—ideas that Jung felt were contradictory to the process
Freudian approach. of freely forming scientific judgments. He thought that
As time passed, however, Jung had opportunities to Freud was asking him to blindly defend the Freudian dictum
work closely with Freud and gained a deeper understanding on the preeminence of sexual urges within the human

68
 By age six, in 1881, Carl Jung was
already experiencing richly symbolic dreams, which
he would remember and interpret as an adult.

psyche— a theory that Jung regarded as more and more overt his misgivings
little more than an untested hypothesis. about portions of the Freudian canon.
By "occultism," Jung took Freud Jung did so with considerable hesita-
to mean virtually everything that reli- tion, because he shared with Freud a
gion, philosophy, and contemporary keen sense of the need to present a

studies of parapsychology had to teach united front in the promotion of psy-

about the workings of the mind. For a choanalytic theory. After all, the public
scientist, Jung was remarkably open to at large and many within the scientific

ideas from many different spheres community were still openly hostile to

of study. He had grown up in a family the radical ideas of this discipline. The
of psychics, where tables ______ disagreement finally came
cracked and glasses shattered to a head, however, at the
without discernable cause. Fourth International Psycho-
His relatives held seances, his analytic Congress, held in
mother was subject to pre- Munich in September 1913.
monitions, and he himself At this meeting of practition-
enjoyed the investigation of ers from all over Europe, Jung
arcane subjects such as al- and Freud faced off for the

chemy and Spiritualism. How presidency of the congress.

Freud's theory of sexuality Jung triumphed in the elec-

would defeat the influence of tion, but, in the process, he

these practices seemed not forced the membership of the
entirely clear. Jung knew, congress to take sides, with
however, that his friend and bitter feelings all around -so
mentor distrusted any excur- bitter that afterward, Freud
sion into the world of the and Jung never set eyes on
spirit. To Freud, all such ac- one another again.
tivities bore the taint of re- On a personal level, the

pressed sexuality— for that parting of the two friends and

matter, so did many of the collaborators was extraordi-

greatest works of art and lit- narily painful for both men;
by contrast,
erature. Jung, so much so for Jung that he
saw these expressions as lapsed into a period of acute

holding the potential to cap- depression in which he felt

ture the essence of life itself. himself near madness and

Perhaps inevitably, Jung kept a gun at his bedside in

chose to part company with contemplation of suicide. For

Jung's parents introduced him to two subjects that seven years, he was unable to
Freud. Between 1910 and would help shape his later work -mother Emilie dabbled in the oc-
1913, he gradually made cult, and father Paul was a minister of questionable faith. accomplish any work, other

69
 "

Images Bunting from a Brilliant Mind

Following his break with Sigmund Freud ences in a folio volume he called the Red wrote, "a force which was not myself."
in 1913, Carl Jung entered a period of Book, re-creating the rich imagery of Indeed, Jung eventually concluded that
uncertainty that would last six years. Dur- his visions in detailed paintings. This in- many situations he encountered in
ing that time, he spent countless hours trospective work led him ever closer to his dreams and meditation had no basis
probing his own psyche, trying to decipher an understanding of the unconscious. in the events of his own life but had

the images that bubbled up from his un- The psychoanalyst's sometime guide on their origins instead in what he was to la-

conscious in uncontrollable thoughts, fan- this quest was a fantasy figure by the bel the collective unconscious, the seat
tasies, and dreams. name of Philemon, with whom Jung con- of inner experiences that he believed are
Jung kept a record of his inner experi- versed and who represented, he later common to all of humankind.

This painting illustrates one of

a number of dreams Jung ex-
perienced early in 1914, dreams
he felt presaged the start of
World War I. In this particular
dream image, a divine or hu-
man figure hangs like a pend-
ant from a large cross-marked
disk. And the whole construct,
ringed by flames, floats high
above a landscape depicting
scenes of war and technology.

Jung painted the fantasy guide

Philemon as a wise old man
with wings. Jung's discovery of
the sage inspired him to form-
ulate his collective-unconscious
theory. Philemon's presence
revealed to Jung "the crucial in-
sight that there are things in
the psyche which I do not pro-
duce, but which produce them-
selves and have their own life.

70
 " " "

cX>

The dark figure in this painting

represented for Jung the infe-
rior elements of human nature,
which he called the shadow.
Acknowledging the beast within
A serpent rising from the was a difficult but necessary
heart of darkness is illuminated task, Jung felt, in knowing the
in this painting from Jung's complete self. "The shadow is a
Red Book. This dramatic image tight passage, a narrow door,

possibly represents the fruits he wrote, "whose painful con-

striction no one is spared who
of the quest for self while at the
same time underscoring the goes down to the deep well.

psychoanalyst's thoughts about 1\V

the duality of all things.

In the vision that inspired this

painting, Jung saw the Hindu
god Brahma in serpent form, •

with the tree cflife sprouting

from its mouth. Unlike Freud,
Jung recognized that other cul-
tures, particularly Chinese and
Indian, contributed to his theo-
ries, and he believed Brahma
was "the star of the East, . . .

the stag from the forest, . the

. .

end and the beginning.

U_N i*J

71
 Jung's wife, Emma, and four of
their children are seen here vis-
iting him in 1917 at Chateau-
d'Oex in Switzerland, where he
was stationed during World
War I. Jung reveled in time with
his family, with whom he could
share or escape profession-
allife. Emma was active in the
Psychological Club of Zurich,
attended psychoanalytic confer-
ences with Jung, and for a
time carried on an independent
correspondence with Freud.

than the creation of paintings that de-

picted his tormented dreams. Although
Freud remained his usual combative
self, he grieved in his own way-and
perhaps in equal measure. Twenty
years later, he would describe the rup-
ture of his friendship with Jung as a tre-

mendous loss.

When Jung had recovered his

emotional balance, he set off to distill

his own explanation for the complexi-

ties of the human psyche and to grind a

new prism for the viewing of dreams.

His search would carry him well be-
yond the closed doors of the psychiatric
clinic and up through the wide open
spaces of metaphysical speculation. In

this pursuit, he could at times be dis-

armingly down to earth. "I have no
theory about dreams: 1 do not know
how dreams arise," he once wrote. But he never sold his fined to the hours of sleep. In his words: "It is on the whole
subject short: "I know we meditate on a dream suffi-
that if probable that we continually dream, but that consciousness
ciently long and thoroughly— if we take about with us and it makes such a noise that we do not hear it."

turn it over and over— something almost always comes of In stark contrast to Freud, Jung believed that dreams
it." And he would prove willing to follow his research wher- communicate in a comparatively direct, straightforward
ever it led him. manner. The nocturnal mind has no need to bury its in-

sights under symbolic camouflage in order to slip them past

Jung did have a theory about dreams, of course. He believed the watchful eye of the superego. The censoring device de-
that they are messages-attempts to communicate on the scribed by Freud, Jung contended, simply does not exist.
part of the unconscious mind. Although he acknowledged "There is no reason under the sun why we should assume
the possibility that some dreams may be neurotic, he was that the dream is a crafty device to lead us astray," he de-
certain that most are not. Jung saw dreams as capable of clared. Dreams deal in strange images, to be sure, but only
performing several practical and necessary functions: They because the unconscious mind naturally thinks in terms
are a relatively painless way for the mind to confront past that are archaic and visual. Jung argued that we are free to
experiences, to deal with present dilemmas, and to resolve take these images at face value, without engaging in the
all inner conflicts. He also felt that dreams were somehow narrow detective work of Freudian analysis.

akin to the musings of philosophers, inasmuch as they seek A disciple of Freud might, for example, use the tech-
explanations for most basic mysteries. Moreover, Jung
life's nique of free association to follow the clues in a dream
did not even believe that the process of dreaming was con- about apples in a manner something like this: apples, pears,

72
stairs, bedroom, bed, sex. But a practitioner of Jung's ap- According to Jung, the unconscious is a multilayered
proach would find linkages that were even more flexible. structure that serves as a storehouse for all kinds of instinc-
The apple might call to mind a home-baked pie or a gift to tive, unarticulated wisdom. Near the surface lies a personal
one's teacher or food for thought or perhaps the tree of unconscious, which collects individual memories and re-

knowledge in the Garden of Eden. Any one of these associ- pressions, much as in Freud's scheme. Then, at deeper lev-
ations might have a sexual content. Then again, it might els, the unconscious embraces a more generalized type of
not. Jung also defended the possibility that the apple might psychic information. At bottom lies the collective uncon-
simply be an apple. More important than any single image, scious, aswarm with images and impulses that are shared
he maintained, was the dream as a whole and its initial im- by all humankind. In much the same way that genes carry
pact on the dreamer. To illustrate this point he liked to traces of the physical makeup of the earliest human gener-
quote a proverb from the Jewish Talmud: "The dream is its ations, the collective unconscious contains memories and
own interpretation." desires that may have had their origin in humankind's ear-

In challenging Freud's concept of the superego as res- liest experiences.

ident censor to the mind, Jung was attacking the very foun- hese primal memories, Jung suggested, repeat
dations of Freudian psychology. The Viennese master had themselves the world over- in the myths and folk-

divided the human personality into three unequal parts. The lore of primitive cultures, in children's fairy tales, in

ego, or conscious mind, inhabits the world of daily life. the tragic dramas of Greek playwrights, in the sym-
Freud considered this our least important self. Above it sits bols of witchcraft, in the rituals of church and state.

the superego, spouting the dos and don'ts of our civilized They deal with the common denominators of human exist-

upbringing. And underlying the rest is the great uncon- ence, such as birth, death, family, and the rites of passage
scious id— barbaric, untamed, insatiable, fixated on sex, from youth to maturity. The same motifs occur again and
and the ultimate source of all thought and behavior. again, across cultures and throughout the centuries. A cir-

Jung joined Freud in ascribing great power to the un- cle, for example, has always held special meaning-in gen-
conscious sector, but he did not cast this portion of the hu- eral, it has represented unity. Jung called such a motif an
man personality in a uniformly negative light. Although he archetype (pages 81-95), and he believed that each of us
agreed that the unconscious harbors its share of destructive could gain strength by recognizing the archetypes that ap-
urges, he also saw it as a realm of enormous potential and pear in our dreams and pondering their significance in rela-

creativity. "Everything I know, but of which I am not at the tion to our waking lives. "All consciousness separates," he
moment thinking; everything which, involuntarily and with- declared, "but in dreams we put on the likeness of that

out paying attention to it, I feel, think, remember, want and more universal, truer, more eternal man dwelling in the

do; all the future things that are taking shape in me" -these darkness of primordial night."
for Jung were the contents of the unconscious. Even the Another key element in Jung's psychic blueprint was
awareness of one's own existence emerges from this part of the observation that, in waking life, people generally adopt
our psyche, he said, for we wake each morning from the a public demeanor with which to face the world. The cost to

depths of sleep "like a child that is born daily out of the the individual of this emphasis on socially acceptable be-

primordial womb of the unconscious." From this core is- havior is the neglect of the other sides of our personality.

sues forth the vision of the artist, the religious ecstasy of the "Within each of us there is another we do not know," Jung
saint, and the psychic forces that drive human beings for- declared. And how do we find these hidden aspects of our
7
ward to their highest potential. personalities Jung counseled that they speak to us in

73
dreams. A present day follower of Jung, psychiatrist Edward midst of this continuing flood of interest and investigation,
Bennett, tells of a punctilious bank official who dreamed the basic discoveries of Freud and Jung, though repeatedly
repeatedly thatsomeone was trying to break into his house. questioned, have never ceased to wield their influence.
In every dream, the shadowy intruder would be moving Even the severest critics of the two great pathfinders still

from window to window, while the banker rushed about must pay them deference.
shutting each one. The door, however, was inevitably un-
locked, and in the end the burglar would use it to enter the The spiritual heirs to Freud and Jung in recording and ana-
house-at which point the banker would wake up. By Jun- lyzing dreams have staked out a wide assortment of pro-
gian lights, the burglar was the banker's less restrained self, grams for psychic therapy and self-improvement. The tech-
bent on breaking into and playing a role in the banker's life, niques applied in these programs vary greatly, but the
which was sorely in need of leavening. premise behind them is generally the same— that dreams
ungian analysts take the view that experiencing a bring to light hidden attitudes and emotions, which may be
dream like that and then going through the process of obstructing personal fulfillment.
interpreting it are usually sufficient to restore equilibri- Among the most esteemed of the professional psycho-
um in the dreamer's life. Often the key figure in such a therapists embracing this belief was Dr. Frederick (Fritz)

dream is a member of the opposite sex. Jung accepted Perls. Born in Berlin in 1893, Perls immigrated to South Af-
this as a reminder that all of us possess both masculine rica with the onset of World War II and developed his ideas

and feminine sides to human nature. One of his pa-

our in relative obscurity, while living in that country. He pub-
tients, "a perfect gentleman," was repeatedly troubled by a lished books explaining his theories in 1949 and 1951, but it

nocturnal phantom in the form of an unkempt, drunken was not until the mid-1960s, when Perls established a
woman. Jung interpreted this unsavory figure as the pa- workshop at the Esalen Institute in Big Sur, California, that
tient's neglected female half-his anima-calling out for at- his influence began to mushroom. His approach is called
tention. He suggested that the dream was serving as a sort Gestalt therapy. It holds, in part, that the way to attack a

of psychic gyroscope for the patient. The man's uncon- person's problems is not by rooting out long-forgotten trau-
scious was attempting to lead him to a more balanced— mas, locked in the depths of memory. Such Freudian con-
and, perhaps, less cautious- frame of mind. As usual, Jung cerns are set aside, so that patient and therapist can focus
was attributing a practical, restorative purpose to his pa- on the present. The current state of the patient's uncon-
tient's dream. It is likely that Freud would have discovered a scious mind is what interests the Gestalt therapist.
much less benign explanation for such a dream. /Y Like Freud and others, however, Perls concluded that
The effort to find the meaning of dreams has scarcely /the best route to a patient's unconscious mind is through
abated in the years since Freud and Jung. Today, dream in- / the person's dreams. "I believe that in a dream we have a
terpretation is widely practiced in the counseling chambers clear existential message of what's missing in our lives," he
of psychiatrists, in the psychology laboratories of large uni- declared. Working from this assumption, Perls and his fol-

versities, and in the bedrooms and living rooms of dedicat- lowers devote a great deal of effort toward helping patients
ed amateurs. New technologies have been enlisted to ex- resolve the unfinished business brought to light in their
amine the sleeping mind, and new methods of analysis dreams. The process has become one of the primary thera-
have been applied. Each month, scores of papers on dream peutic tools of the Gestalt practitioner.
theory are published in scholarly journals, and a great many In Fritz Perls's workshops -which by the 1970s had
articles on the subject appear in the popular press. In the cloned themselves across the length and breadth of the

74
 In Search of Self

The crowning achievement represents the goal of the

of Jung's self-examination self as a complete being
and his attempt to explain and is a bold attempt "to
the unconscious, what see and put together ap-
dreams mean, and why parently irreconcilable op-
people behave as they do posites." Just the appear-
was concept of individ-
his ance of mandalas in their
uation. Jung explained in- dreams could have a heal-
dividuation as "the proc- ing effect on his patients,
ess by which a person be- the doctor claimed.
comes ... a separate, indi- According to Jung, a
'

visible unity or 'whole.' mandala is generally circu-

Dreams, he believed, lar or egg shaped, and
play an important role in sometimes takes the form
this process. of a flower or wheel; often
The key to wholeness, a square appears within a
Jung said, is a "harmo- circle, or vice versa. And
nizing of conscious and the circle's center point is

unconscious data." This

involves allowing each *>*: usually marked by a
sun, or a cross.
star, a

aspect of the personality, Yet each individual's

such as the male side and mandalas will also contain
the female side, to become images that are drawn
fully developed. If any part from an unlimited number
of the personality is ne- of motifs and symbols that
glected and not allowed to will uniquely express his
express itself completely, or her own personality and
the Swiss psychoanalyst experiences— and these
theorized, it and irra-
will find indirect This mandala, drawn by one of symbols provide the tools for the indi-
tional ways to make itself known; in
Jung's patients, shows stages of individu- viduation process.
ation—from being entangled to gaining
some cases, such misdirected expres- Jung first dreamed of a mandala
knowledge and, finally, illumination.
sion could result in neurosis. as a young boy, and he thought about
Jung believed that the personality the symbol constantly throughout his
expresses itself through an individual's times of "psychic confusion and per- career.He was particularly obsessed
dreams, fantasies, and delusions and he submitted, images called
plexity," with mandalas during his World War I

that a person can only become whole mandalas often appear spontaneously military service at a camp for interned

by allowing all of the parts of the in dreams. And the mandala, Jung British soldiers; each morning he
self to participate together in "open declared, "is the path to the centre, sketched in a notebook a mandala that
conflict and open collaboration." to individuation." seemed tocorrespond to his inner
Since this dialogue is carried on in the The word mandala means circle in feelings. "With the help of these draw-
language of symbols, however, it falls Sanskrit, and in religious practices and ings," he recalled, "I could observe
to one whose knowledge of the sym- psychology it denotes circular images. my psychic transformations from day
bols is complete— the analyst-to con- The circle, Jung theorized, imposes an to day." Eventually, Jung "acquired
duct this process. ordered pattern upon chaos, "so that through them a living conception of
But Jung did note that individuation each content falls into place and the the self," which he called "our life's
is sometimes aided by a means of weltering confusion is held together." goal, for it is the completest expression
self-healing that he felt can arise in- Jung believed that the mandala, which of that fateful combination we call
stinctively whenever it is needed. In he referred to as the magic circle, individuality."
 Jung built this turreted home in
Bollingen, a secluded village
close to Lake Zurich, in stages,
starting construction on the
tower (at right in the picture) in
1923. He said that the tower,
erected two months after his
mother's death, symbolized a
maternal figure, and Jung re-
treated to it to rest or work
when he needed solitude. A flag
flying from the roof warned
unwanted visitors to stay away.

United States-groups of participants gather to read the

messages in their dreams. The concept is influenced by
Freud and Jung but differs significantly in that the psycho-
therapist does not assume that merely identifying a problem
is, in itself, a solution.
Perls recorded the progress of a typical group in which
a workshop member named Carl told of a recurrent dream.

Carl recalled lying half-buried in a sandy desert, with the

moon shining down from a blue-black sky. Train tracks
stretched beside him, arrow straight across the desert floor.
All at once, the dreamer heard a high-pitched whistle, and a
train came roaring by. The train appeared infinitely long, its

cars forming a never-ending chain reaching toward eterni-

ty. Carl was terrified. His thoughts gravitated toward death.
The analyst's response to this account was to launch
into his own distinctive form of dream analysis and therapy.
Carl was enlisted to perform an exercise in psychic theater,
in which he plays the parts of every image in his dream. He
first becomes the desert and quickly senses that it repre-
sents death. Next, he is asked to take the part of the train,

and he describes his sensations like this: "I am a train and

I'm going somewhere, but it's nowhere. ... I have enor-
mous direction, ... but there's no home, no resting place at

the end." Then, assuming the role of the tracks, he says,

"I'm lying on my back and life is running over me."

arl's sense of despair in this fantasy comes through
with utmost clarity, but the therapist brings the
playacting around to a point where the dream
seems to point the way to a possible resolution. In-

structed by Perls to improvise a dialogue between

the train and the tracks, Carl discovers in a roundabout his own personality. Perls would contend that the dream
manner that the train brings to mind his mother. She is-the itself had already begun to loosen the parental bonds for his

group leams-a powerful, overly controlling parent. When patient, but the additional work performed in the group has
Carl carries on with the improvisation, he winds up shout- also helped Carl find the will to demand his independence.

ing words that he longs to say to his mother. He tells her Today, psychologists of various persuasions use tech-
that she needs to accept him as he is and allow him to lead niques of dream analysis similar to those of Fritz Perls. In

his own life. Thus, in the course of the exercise, the mes- most cases, they will tailor the exercises to suit their partic-
sage of the dream has been made manifest: Carl has an un- ular approach to therapy. Another practitioner interested in

conscious desire to break away from his mother and assert dreams who has been influential in recent years is Mon-

76
tague Ullman of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in down in its natural habitat. As the animal sleeps, some part
New York. Building on a career of research in psychology of its mind must remain in a state of vigilance. The snap-
labs and counseling clinics, Ullman arrived at an interesting ping of a twig or an approaching footfall can be a warning
theory on the function of dreaming. of imminent death. As the animal dreams, its mind takes in

Ullman believes the dreaming process was shaped in every sound and compares it to a store of sound memories.
an era long ago, when humans slept in the wild -as most And in the event of a threatening sound, the dream will
animals do today. In that time, dreams played a role in wake the animal up. Ullman sees this function carried over
guarding human survival by alerting sleepers to possible in humans in certain extraordinary circumstances, such as

danger. Ullman gives the example of an animal bedding the soldier asleep in a trench on the battlefield.

77
 -

Do-n-Youndf Dream Work

E reud called dreams "the royal
road to the unconscious,'' and few ex-
self some quiet, reflective
upon awaking. Lie still, keep your eyes
moments Sometimes images appear over and
overin dreams -a house or a clock,

perts would quarrel with the idea that closed, and relax. Then ask yourself, for example. Many experts suggest

dreams can reveal much about a per- "What was just dreaming?" You may
I assembling a glossary of such images,
son's attitudes, concerns, and anxi- only remember a fragment of an im- listing each symbol and any associa-

eties. Remembering and examining age, but further memory sleuthing tions that come to mind, and how it
dreams, therefore, can be of great ben- might lead back to a complete picture. appeared in each dream. These images
efit. Yet most people do not routinely With those images fresh in your mind, may have some personal significance
remember their dreams when they reach for the dream journal. that will be revealed as you study them
wake up in the morning. Indeed, some and their places inyour dreams.
people insist they never dream at all or Recording your dreams. Sometimes
do so only on rare occasions. Science the simple process of writing or speak- Meditating on your dreams. Carl
has proved them wrong, however, ing of your dreams triggers other im- Jung believed a message could be
with studies showing that everyone ages and details, so it is best to record found in almost every dream if one
dreams and that we may have as dreams soon after waking. In fact, the took the time to examine it carefully.
many as four or five dreams per night process of recording your dreams can Current dream analysts are in agree-
The problem for dreamer and "non- begin before you go to sleep. Some ment that focusing attention on a
dreamer" alike is that our memory of dream therapists suggest jotting down dream -even just taking the time to
dreams tends to evaporate quickly as your thoughts and feelings about the recall it and write it down— can often
time passes, beginning with the mo- day just prior to bedtime. This not only lead to a greater understanding of
ment we awake. No one knows for helps you become more comfortable its meaning.
sure why happens; scientists spec-
this with the journal-writing process; these Practitioners also suggest you exam-
ulate the process of forgetting begins notes may you see how your
also help ine entries in your dream journal for
even while the dream is in progress, so dreams correspond to what you expe- recurring symbols, characters, or
that any dream memory is only of the rienced during the day. themes. Many believe each image in a
most recent dream action. When recording an actual dream, do dream represents an aspect of the
One antidote to this ongoing loss of not stop to think of what it might dreamer's personality and suggest role
dream memory is to keep a dream mean; just concentrate on getting playing each image. Free-associating
journal. The journal can be a notebook down the dream's plot. Try to recall about a puzzling dream element-
or a tape recorder placed on a table details of places or characters, but do allowing any other words, images, or
next to the bed. Upon awaking, you not struggle for precise descriptions— ideas it evokes to float to the surface
can write down or dictate as much of you can go back afterward and fill in of your mind— sometimes produces a
your dreams as you remember, adding particulars or nuances, impressions or nugget of self-revelation as well. So
to the entry later in the day if more emotions. Also record any fantasies, may extending an unresolved dream
night images resurface in your mind. quotes, songs, and poems that ap- replaying the dream in your imagina-
peared; you might want to sketch or tion and giving it a conclusion.
Recalling your dreams. Before you paint your dream images so that you Dreams are a symbolic language em-
can keep a successful dream journal, can study them from time to time. anating from the depths of the inner
however, you may need help in jog- In reconstructing your dreams, do self; taking the time to think about
ging your memory. It helps to be pa- not try to shoehorn them into the mold them and their possible messages may
tientwhen learning to recall dreams- of reality. Logical sequences and cause provide valuable insight. One caution:
you may have spent a lifetime ignoring and effect often do not apply. Accept If you find yourself emotionally dis-
dreams, and it could take days and the order of images and events as they turbed by trying to recall your dreams
even weeks to begin remembering seem to have occurred, and enter or by examining their meaning, give
them. One tip for sharper dream recall them that way in the journal. up the attempt and seek professional
involves going to bed with a clear Once you have finished, be sure to counseling. In fact, some authorities
head; being too tired can cloud memo- write down the date of the dream and, believe true dream interpretation
ry in the morning, and studies have if you can, the approximate time it should only be pursued with the help
shown that alcohol and drugs, includ- took place. Dream fragments may of a trained professional. The messag-
ing sleeping pills, taken before bedtime come back to you later in the day or es of the unconscious can be upsetting
alter the time spent dreaming. even a few days later; record them in or frightening, they believe, if revealed
Experts also suggest allowing your- the margin beside the original entry. too rapidly or without proper guidance.
 "

In his library at Kiisnacht just a

year before his dea0, eighty -five-
year-old Carl Jung enjoys his omni-
present pipe and a book. One of
Jung's last works, dictated in this
room, was his autobiography,
Memories, Dreams, Reflections, in
which he stated, "I am satisfied
with the course my life has taken.
. . . It was as it had to be.

For many of us, in the

well-guarded comfort of our
bedrooms, the most immedi-
ate dangers in life tend to be
psychological. Apart from the
threat of serious accidents or

illness, survival is generally

more of a social matter than a

physical one. Have we of-

fended the boss? Is our best

friend annoyed? Will our
spouses abandon us for someone younger and comelier? her. When she turned to face it in a dream, the monster
Ullman believes that the mind finds these sorts of "sur- would disappear. One night, however, as the apparition
vival" issues to ponder in dreams. If it hits upon a particu- faded from sight, she summoned up her courage and ran
larly sensitive area, it stirs us into consciousness so that, after it. When Maggie caught her tormentor, she screamed
with luck, we can focus on the problem. in terror— and at that instant the monster was transformed
From this starting point, Ullman's theory takes a de- into a beautiful horse. She rode it up into the sky, whirling

cidedly Jungian slant. The stores of material in our cerebral through banks of pink and azure clouds, and found herself
idata banks include, among other things, a number of per- in the embrace of a handsome man.
gonal myths or archetypes. According to Ullman, these he meaning of this dream is readily apparent— at
gnyths are simply the ingrained patterns of thought that we least in Ullman's estimation. The monster repre-
unconsciously employ to cope with the reality of our wak- sents Maggie's adolescent instinct that sex is an ug-
Tng lives. Almost every experience goes into this brew, from ly, fearsome thing. By means of the dream, her
pie carefully instilled lessons of our upbringing to the more sleeping mind has succeeded in revising a personal
haphazard images and stereotypes gleaned from viewing myth, reshaping it into something more in tune with her
television. But as our lives progress and circumstances adult needs. From that point on, Maggie's relationships with

change, our personal myths have a tendency to lag behind. men took a turn for the better.
Ullman suggests that dreams may play a role in alerting us Ullman is of the opinion that because dreams deal so
to the resulting discrepancies. They serve, says Ullman, "as directly with social issues, they are best analyzed with a
corrective lenses which, if we learn to use them properly, group of like-minded dream analysts. Only by going public,
enable us to see ourselves and the world about us with less he says, does the dreamer benefit fully from the dream. In

distortion and with greater accuracy." Ullman's workshops, a member will relate a recent dream,
I In Ullman's view, the most vivid dreams generally oc- and the rest of the group will respond by describing how the

cur when our personal myths are beginning to change or dream makes them feel. The dreamer then weighs those re-

update themselves. Often this occurs during periods of actions in a personal assessment of the dream.

mental stress. Ullman cites as an example the sexual awak-

ening of a commercial named Maggie. Shy and aloof
artist As dream-analysis groups proliferate, people have begun to
in affairs of the heart, Maggie was troubled in her sleep by a look for other uses for their nocturnal fantasies that go far

huge, shadowy monster that appeared repeatedly to pursue beyond the narrow clinical role envisioned by Freud and the

79
pioneers of psychotherapy. be addressed. Before retiring

Dreams have become the raw for the night, the person
material for a number of new spends a little time review-
programs and strategies for ing the plots and interpreta-

personal self-improvement. tions of dreams over the past

and writers attend
Artists few weeks, as recorded in a

workshops on dreams in dream and writes a

journal,

search of themes and images. paragraph or two outlining

Businesspeople scour their the events and feelings of the

dreams in the hope of discov- day. Then the subject mental-

ering answers to the prob- ly focuses on the topic that is

lems of management and of- under consideration, turning

fice relationships. At the this idea over, examining it

same time, the role of the from every possible angle. At

professional analyst in comb- last, the dream incubator ex-
Fritz Perls, founder ofGestalt therapy, believeda person
ing through the dreams of uncovered his or her own dream symbolism by reenacting a dream presses the idea in the form
and playing every role, since each reflected an aspect of the self
others is, at least for the of a single brief question:
present time, in decline. "How do I really feel about
"Once dreams belonged exclusively to oracles or psychia- my job?" or "What is a good subject for my next painting?"
trists," says a workshop devotee from Massachusetts. Repeating the question like a mantra, the subject gradually
"Now dreams belong to the dreamer." gives way to sleep.

The trend toward do-it-yourself dream interpretation In Delaney's experience, many people can learn to in-

is propelled by such well-reputed gurus as Gayle Delaney, cubate their dreams the first night they attempt to do so.
cofounder, with Dr. Loma Flowers, of the Delaney and Others may require a month or longer. For those who are
Flowers Center for the Study of Dreams. A San Francisco really adept, she holds out the prospect of learning to con-

psychologist and Ullman disciple, Delaney holds work- trol the course of their dreams, even while they are sleep-
shops, conducts seminars, and operates a telephone service ing. With this capacity, Delaney believes, people will be able
that will help clients start their own dream-analysis' groups. to open up completely new avenues for personal self-

Her approach is eminently matter-of-fact. Sleep-time imag- fulfillment. Such dream manipulation, or so-called lucid

es, she declares, are a "reflection of your own mind consid- dreaming, as practiced by Delaney and others, has become
ering challenges that you have been working on during the one of the most exciting areas of research in dream labora-
day."To focus on these various challenges, she advocates a tories today (pages 110-113).

technique that is called dream incubation. Although this new research is far afield from the theo-
The practice that Delaney teaches in her workshops is ries of Sigmund Freud and might even have been a stretch
in some ways reminiscent of the "incubation" rituals held of the imagination for the open-minded Carl Jung, it springs
long ago by the Greeks in the temple at Epidaurus (page 32). from the same conclusion that moved those two great pio-
In Delaney's approach, the would-be dream incubator neers. The pursuers of lucid dreaming start from the as-
chooses a night when time is available to devote full atten- sumption that dreams represent the most likely way to tap

tion to some important decision or a problem that needs to the resources of the unconscious mind.

80
 Beings from wifliin Us

In addition to
i, our immediate con-
sciousness," wrote Carl Jung, "there exists a second psychic sys-
tem of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is

identical in all individuals." Inhabiting this collective unconscious,

he posited, are what he called archetypes, the primordial images,
or symbols, imprinted on the psyche at the beginning of time and
since passed on to all humankind. The mother, father, child, and
hero, with their associated motifs, are all examples of such arche-
types, expressed the world over in myths, fairy tales, and dreams.
Dreams that present true archetypal images are rare, accord-
ing to Jung. He found that they are likely to appear at pivotal points
in a person's life, such as early childhood, puberty, early adult-
hood, midlife, before death, and at other times of crisis. Archetypal
images in dreams, Jung held, give definite form to a particular psy-
chic content of the unconscious, thus enabling it to enter the con-
scious mind. Professional analysis is usually required to interpret
the full implications of archetypes. They often appear as symbolic
images; the mother, for instance, might take the form of an inani-
mate object. But even if archetypal dreams are not understood,
Jung believed, they would nonetheless "stand out for years like
spiritual landmarks."
The dreams on the following pages feature several of the most
common archetypes. Jerome Bernstein, a Jungian analyst practic-
ing in Washington, D.C., provided these examples and much of
their interpretation.

81
'

$
 '

The Mother

Like all archetypes, the mother has both positive

and negative connotations. In the following dream
of a thirty-seven-year-old woman, the protective,
nurturing aspects of the mother prevail:
"1 was wandering throughthe woods, lost. I

felt like and Gretel,' but Hansel

Gretel in 'Hansel
wasn't there to protect me. Suddenly heard a I

rustling behind me. was terrified and didn't dare

I

move. Out of the woods came a beautiful woman.

She seemed ageless. She smiled and gently pulled
me into her lap. knew that she was connected
I

to nature and had magical powers. knew that I I

would be safe. had a strong urge to suck her

I

breast. was ten years old in the dream."

I

A dream of being lost in the woods, according to

Bernstein, frequently symbolizes the beginning
of a new phase of life and expresses the anxiety of
leaving behind the familiar. In the case of this
dreamer, she had just left a much-trusted female
analyst to begin therapy with Bernstein. Her dread
of working with a male analyst apparently
stemmed from the fear and mistrust she felt to-
ward men. Her father had left home for good
all

when she was ten -her age in the dream. And the
cruelty she had felt from her mother during her
childhood made her feel abandoned by both par-
•-
ents, much like fairy-tale Gretel in her dream.
_ .

The comforting mother figure in this dream—

who the dreamer associated with her female ana-
lyst—indicates that the patient had healed the
psychic wounds related to her mother. The appear-
ance of this positive archetype, Bernstein says,
signals that the patient is now ready to move on to
the healing of the wounds that were caused by her
father's desertion.
While the imagery in this dream is straightfor-
ward, the mother archetype can take several
forms-both human and nonhuman. In its positive
form, it may appear as a kindly mother, grand-
mother, or aunt, or as a church, a cave, or a gar-
den. Associated with these images are maternal
solicitude and sympathy, growth, nourishment, and
fertility. mother may take shape as
Negatively, the
a witch, a dragon, or a shark and connote anything
destructive and hateful, secret, dark, or hidden, as
well as anything that devours, seduces, or poisons.
p*'*~
 The Fattier

The father archetype commands center stage in

the following dream of a fifty-three-year-old man:
"I was with another man, a shadowy figure. We

went into a house. We saw an old man there. He

was a former Mafia don. At one time he had head-
ed the Mafia families. Now he was old, tired, and
sickly. realized that some time ago too had been
I I

connected to the Mafia. Later, we realized that

a contract had been put on the old man. We took
pity on him and offered to help him, to help him
hide out, to stave off his inevitable end. He insisted
that we not do that. What would be, would be, he
said. Finally the hit man entered the room. I plead-
ed with him for just a bit more time. The old man
was ready, but I was not."
The significance of dream reaches back into
this
the dreamer's childhood, where he grew up in a
sternly patriarchal household. As a boy and then as
a man, the dreamer believed he had to deny his
own burgeoning sense of masculine authority in
order to not lose his domineering father's love and
approval. As a result, he felt weak and ineffectual

well into middle age. The emotions and memories

unleashed by dream, according to Bernstein,
this
served as a turning point in the dreamer's life. He
realized that the old man in the dream symbolized
his father, who was willingly relinquishing his
power so that his lay claim to his own.
son might
The dreamer interpreted the old man's insistence
on not being saved as a sign he need not feel
he was sacrificing his father's love by asserting his
own masculinity.
Bernstein's analysis of this dream reflects Jung's
view that the father as much as the mother plays a
crucial psychological role in "the destiny of the in-
dividual." The power of one's father, according
to Jung, derives from his embodiment of the father
archetype. As an archetype, the father represents
the ruler, lawgiver, or protector. It often appears in
dreams as a king, an elder, or a heavenly father, or
as heaven, the sun, a weapon, or a phallus. On the
negative side, the father archetype may assume
overbearing, devouring, or destructive qualities.
^-^
/
H*y

/
 The Child

A depressed and angry forty-year-old woman had

the following dream, in which the child archetype
figures prominently:
"I was sitting on a bench in a park. It was a
beautiful day. I was thinking about how was I go-
ing to accomplish all the things I had to do that
day. Suddenly there was me.
a little girl in front of
She was about six years old. She radiated joy and
happiness. She was dressed all in yellow. She said
to me in a tone I absolutely could not resist, 'Will
you play with me?' I smiled. She took my hand."
The radiant little girl in this dream, according to
Bernstein, represents the arrested child within
the adultwoman. Her parents had divorced when
she was six— the age of the little girl in the dream.
From mother treated her as if
that point on, her
she were a burden, and little joy remained in the

child's life. She grew into a somber and morose

woman who had trouble with both her profession-
al and private lives. The dream, says Bernstein,

symbolizes her inner child breaking through from

the realm of her subconscious to intrude upon her
conscious frame of mind. By asking her to play,
the child reveals the dreamer's desperate need to
learn how to play again and enjoy life.

The dream above illustrates Jung's view that "the

child motif is a picture of certain forgotten things
in our childhood." Here, the dreamer had literally

forgotten how to play. But, Jung continued, the

archetype represents not only what has been but
what can be. The occurrence of the child motif in
a person's psychology, he wrote, "paves the way
for a future change of personality." In the case
above, as the dreamer set about learning to play,
some of her unhappiness began to fall away.
In religion and mythology, the child-hero and
child-savior— such as Hercules, who strangled two
threatening snakes when he was a babe, or Jesus,
who saved humankind from eternal damnation —
are common themes. The child archetype may take
the hero or savior form in dreams, or it may mani-
fest itself as the dreamer's own son or daughter or
as any other youngster. It may appear to be of
exotic origin or may even appear surrounded by
stars or with a starry crown. In its negative mani-
festation, it may present itself as the child of a
witch, with demonic attributes.
 -

The Anima

Just as both men and women's bodies inherit a mix

of paternal and maternal chromosomes, so their
unconscious minds, Jung believed, comprise both
male and female elements. In dreams, this hidden,
contrasexual aspect materializes as an archetyp-
al figure of the opposite gender of the dreamer.
The feminine character in men Jung termed the an-
ima, and the masculine nature in women, the ani-
mus-both Latin terms that mean soul. The follow-
ing dream, from a middle-aged man, revolves
around the anima:
"I was walking down the street and saw an old

house with a strange door. felt compelled to open

I

it. Inside, there was an empty room, with the

opening to another room at the end of it. As en- I

tered the second room, saw something lying

I

on a cot. It seemed lifeless. went over and looked

I

more closely. It was a beautiful woman in a long

white gown. She opened her eyes and smiled and
said, 'I've been waiting for you for a long time.'
A golden glow seemed to surround her."
This dreamer had been involved in a destructive
affair with a woman he found irresistible because,
according to Bernstein, he had projected his un-
conscious female side onto her rather than focus
on it internally.The woman in the dream symbol-
ized his inner anima and the positive feminine
characteristics— openness, spirituality, earthiness,
creativity— he had been repressing. Her apparent
lifelessness and then her words indicate that
she had long existed as a dormant psychic poten-
tial deep within the dreamer's unconscious.

Jung assigned the anima archetype an extremely

important role, that of guiding a man to the depths
of his soul. Coming to terms with the anima
which may appear in dreams as a goddess, an elf,
a mermaid, or any female persona -supposedly
provides spiritual inspiration and a more balanced
view of life. In the above dream, the anima seems
to be offering the dreamer this opportunity. But,
like all archetypes, the anima may take negative

form as well, appearing in dreams as moody, irrita-

ble, and oversensitive -the stereotypical "inferi-

or" woman, in Jung's terms. Its appearance may

signal that those destructive characteristics are
dominating the dreamer's personally and that he
might need professional help in overcoming them.
 •»#*;

v>. v

HM
 The Animus
Hi
1
The animus- the archetypal male figure that re-
flects the masculine principle in women -dom-
H inates this
"I was
dream of a
sitting in my
woman in her mid-thirties:
room watching tele-
living
vision. There was a fascinating man who was the
husband of a woman in the drama. thought to I

myself, wish knew someone like that. He seems

'I I

mk to have such spiritual depth.' Just at that moment,

he came right out of the TV set and walked right
up to me. He didn't say a word but just smiled and
handed me a golden key. He then turned around
and walked back into the TV. was astounded."
I

The dreamer, according to Bernstein, had been

depressed for some time because she could not
maintain relationships with men, who complained
that they found her too hard and competitive. The
attractive man emerging from the television in
her dream, he says, represents her positive ani-
mus, of which she was previously unaware. And
the golden key symbolizes her potential to unlock
her inner mystery and find within herself quali-
ties of great value. As the dreamer later explored
her fantasies about the nature of the man in her
dreams, she began to work at integrating into her
personality the positive characteristics she felt he
had projected, such as compassion and empathy.
A positive animus, then, serves much the same
31 purpose for women as the positive anima does for
men: Properly can open doors to
cultivated, it

inner wisdom and emotional and spiritual depth.

Like the anima, however, the animus may also ap-
.ihf pear as an unfavorable force, the characteristics
of which are also defined by cultural stereotypes of
gender-appropriate behavior. A negative animus,
in Jung's traditional view, causes a woman to be

opinionated, argumentative, rigid, controlling, and

excessively critical of herself or others. Its arche-
typal materialization in a dream might be taken as
a warning that this negative masculine side threat-

r ens to rule one's nature.

Jung believed that there
strive for as regards the
was
anima and animus. In
a proper balance to

general, the goal was to work toward integrating

the positive qualities associated with them into
one's consciousness and to guard against letting
their negative aspects dominate.
r¥
 The Hero

The hero archetype makes an abstract appearance

in this dream of a timid, self-doubting male lawyer:

"I was on vacation, walking along a beach. saw I

something sticking out of the sand. looked clos- I

er. It was a torn and crumpled piece of paper. I

picked it up. It read, 'Go to the land of your fathers.

There you will find words.' It was an odd message.
It made no sense. As looked at it, realized that if
I I

I took the s off the end of words and put it onto the
front, it would read sword. At least the sentence
made sense now, even if itme."
didn't apply to
This dream shows the subtlety of dream sym-
bols: The prescription for the dreamer's psycholog-
ical ills was revealed through a seemingly trivial

symbol-a discarded piece of paper. But what that

scrap communicated, Bernstein explains, was that
it was time for the dreamer to stop relying main-

ly on the intellect— words— and to claim the author-

ity of the hero, as symbolized by the word sword.

Hero myths, common to all cultures, tend to

follow the same formula: Born into humble circum-
stances, the hero soon exhibits superhuman
strength, goes on to struggle triumphantly against
the forces of evil, then often meets his death. The
hero archetype reflects the sort of maturation proc-
ess suggested by the myths. appearance report-
Its

edly signals the dreamer's awareness of his inner

strengths and weaknesses, knowledge essential for
the development of a healthy personality.
Although the hero archetype generally appears in
dreams during adolescence and young adulthood,
it may stay hidden awhile in the subconscious. The

dreamer above, for instance, was thirty-seven.

Over time he realized the heroic implications of his
nocturnal vision— through his analytical work— and
began to take charge of his life.
The hero motif may appear in dreams as a
standard mythological character or as a modern-
day hero, perhaps an athlete. Or it may take the
role of an ordinary person acting bravely within
the dream's context. When the hero continues to
occur in an older person's dreams— a fifty-year-old
man, say, seeing himself as a young athletic cham-
pion—it may signal that the dreamer is clinging to
the illusion of youth rather than integrating a ma-
ture balance of power and wisdom. Women also
have hero dreams, which are becoming more prev-
alent as women take on more assertive roles.
 The Shadow

A thirty-three-year-old man who had been fired

from his job for his role in a political scandal and
saw himself as a victim related the following dream,
in which the shadow archetype prevails:
"1 was in a room, having a conversation with

someone-I'm not sure who, it could have been

me, too. left the room, then for some reason
I

turned back to reenter it. opened the door and

I

saw myself standing on the far side of the room.

Looking to the left, saw the back of another per-
1

son. He turned around, and saw he was also

I

me. He seemed very startled to see me. As looked I

at him, his face began to change into something

quite grotesque-a monster-animal. was horrified I

at the face of the monster and horrified to realize

that all of these people saw were different sides
1

of myself. The person on the far side of the room

saw my horror and said: told you not to come
'I

back; you should have knocked before you came

"
in. Now you know.'
•>*'<
The shadow archetype, which is symbolized as
the same sex as the dreamer, generally represents
the darker, repressed side of one's character— the
part most people choose not to face in waking life
because it is inconsistent with their self-image. The
dreamer above, for instance, saw himself as a doer
of good deeds and blamed his troubles on others'
persecuting him. This explicit dream revealed that
unbeknown to him, there were unconscious sides
of himself that were nothing less than monstrous.
Up until then, the man had successfully hidden,
or repressed, those destructive facets from himself.
By exposing hisshadow in all its awful truth, says
Bernstein, this dream forced the man to accept re-
sponsibility for his actions.
Although shadow archetypes often appear in

dreams as frightening or unsavory characters to be

avoided, they can offer a dreamer useful revela-
tions about his inner self, which he can then inte-
grate into his waking life. Knowing that his shad-
ow appears cold and forbidding, for instance, may
encourage a person to be warmer and more com-
passionate in relations with others. True to arche-
typal form, ashadow may have positive as well as
negative aspects. A meek person's shadow, for
2JR-
instance, may come across in a dream as a strong
and assertive character who possesses qualities
the dreamer might do well to assimilate.
 CHAPTER 3

The Science of Dreaming

keen-eyed graduate student at the University of Chicago observed some-

thing in 1951 that would dramatically change our understanding of sleeping
and dreaming. Physiology major Eugene Aserinsky was studying the sleep
cycles of infantswhen he noticed that during sleep the babies' eyes often
continued to move under closed lids long after their bodies had become still.
The eye movements would stop for a while, then begin again. Aserinsky
thought that these movements might be a more reliable indicator of light
and deep stages of sleep than the gross body movements researchers had
previously relied upon.
Excited that he might be on to something important, Aserinsky took
his data to his physiology professor, Nathaniel Kleitman. Kleitman speculat-
ed that the eye movements might also be useful in charting the sleep pat-

terns of adults, whose brain activity could be electronically monitored at the

same time. The two researchers quickly set up a sleep laboratory— a simple
facility that consisted essentially of a bed, electrical recording equipment,
and a technician to keep an eye on the sleeper and the hardware.
Two years of observation, first of Aserinsky's ten-year-old son and
then of sleeping adult volunteers, revealed that sleepers had periods of rapid
eyemovement alternating throughout the night with periods when the eyes
moved slowly or not at all. The investigators found that when their subjects
were awakened from what was dubbed REM sleep, for the characteristic
rapid eye movements, they were usually able to recall dreams in elaborate

detail. Subjects roused from non-REM sleep, on the other hand, frequently
could not remember even a fragment of a dream. Aserinsky and Kleitman
discovered other differences as well. During REM sleep, the respiratory rate

and heart beat sped up and were somewhat irregular. With the onset of
non-REM sleep, both functions slowed and became rhythmical.
Aserinsky and Kleitman's 1953 report of their findings in the journal

Science stirred widespread interest. Previously, sleep had been viewed as

part of a simple continuum of consciousness, with very deep sleep at one
extreme and highly alert states such as mania at the other. Many scientists

had believed— but without benefit of experimental evidence — that a person

typically fell into deep sleep a short time after dropping few seconds to ten minutes. The theta waves soon de-
off at night; then, as morning approached, sleep crease and are mixed on the EEG tracing with a
would gradually lighten. Dreams were con- combination of two different brain-wave
sidered to be occasional, random events patterns -groups of sharp jumps called
that tended to occur shortly before spindles, which reflect rapid bursts
the sleeper awoke. of brain activity, and waves
Now, however, was clear
it known as K-complexes, char-
that sleep was a far more com- acterized by steep peaks and
plex phenomenon. From a valleys. Although this stage
rather simple observation, is considered to be a true
Kleitman and Aserinsky had sleep phase, a person awak-
made a radical departure in ened from it may report hav-
research, using physiological ing had brief bits of realistic
tools and methodology to thought or may even deny
study a subject that had for having been asleep at all.

centuries been primarily the do- Between fifteen and

main of philosophers and psy thirty minutes after the onset of
chologists. Henceforth, scientists sleep, large, slow delta waves be-
would be able to examine, from an gin supplanting the spindles and K-
empirical perspective, the ancient ques complexes of stage two. The change
tions of when and why people dream. marks the deepest of sleeps, called stage
Based on observations recorded in laboratories across three-four. (Many scientists divide this phase into two sep-
the United States and abroad, researchers can now divide arate stages, identifying stage four by a yet greater increase
the nightly sleep cycle into several distinct stages revealed in deltawaves and a further decrease in spindles and K-
by eye movements and changes in brain-wave patterns as complexes.) Waking from stage three-four is difficult. An in-
detected by an electroencephalograph. On the threshold of dividual typically feels quite groggy and disoriented and,
sleep's first stage, a transitional period between waking and even if an emergency demands alertness, must fight to

sleeping known as hypnagogic state, the muscles relax and overcome the compelling desire to fall asleep again. Talking
a person often experiences a sensation of floating or drift- in one's sleep, sleepwalking, and bedwetting tend to hap-
ing. The eyes roll slowly and vivid images may flash pen during this stage because of the brain's partial arousal

through the mind— perhaps an eerie, unfamiliar landscape, from deep sleep.
a beautiful abstract pattern, or a succession of faces. As After ninety minutes or so of sleep, most of it spent in

these sensations and visions come and go, a sudden spasm stage three-four, the spindles and K-complexes of stage two
of the body called a hypnagogic startle may momentarily briefly reassert themselves. The brain then shakes off the

waken the sleeper. Then, as the subject slips into the first rhythms of non-REM sleep and passes into REM sleep-a
stage of sleep, the EEG shows the spiky, rapid alpha waves condition so distinct physiologically from both wakefulness
of a relaxed but wakeful brain giving way to the slower, and the non-REM stages that some experts call it a third
more regular theta waves of light slumber. state of existence. Blood pressure and pulse rate rise, and
Sleep's first stage is short, lasting anywhere from a brain waves quicken to frequencies comparable to those of

97
 In the dim red light of a sleep laboratory, a volunteer subject slum-
bers with electrodes on her head and face. They detect brain and muscle
activity, pro-
viding researchers with a record of dream-related phenomena.
 Months before birth, a human fetus
—seen here in a sonographic image of the
womb— shows signs of rapid eye
movement beneath its translucent eyelids.
By birth, up to half an infant's sleeping
time is characterized by REM. Neuro-
biologists sayREM sleep may contribute to
the development of the baby's brain.

an awake, alert brain. Yet, despite this activity, the body be- vidual spends approximately four years of his or her life

comes remarkably still. The eyes begin their rapid move- dreaming and can experience an estimated total of about
ments, but otherwise, except for grimaces and small twitch- 150,000 dreams.
es of the toes and fingers, the muscles are temporarily
paralyzed. In fact, a person awakened from REM sleep may Humans, and other mammals as well, appear to have a bi-

even be unable to move for a few seconds. Scientists be- ological need to dream. This was first detected in 1959,
lieve that nature has evolved this paralytic interlude, which through experiments conducted at New York City's Mount
seems to be controlled by nerve centers in the primitive Sinai Hospital by William C. Dement, a psychiatrist and
brainstem, to protect the sleeper from the harm that might former student of Nathaniel Kleitman. For five nights in a
result if dreams were physically acted out. The two antithet- row, Dement awakened volunteer subjects each time they
ical conditions of this state— a vigorously active brain with- entered REM sleep. He found that, with each succeeding
in an immobilized body— prompted night, the subjects entered REM periods
French neurobiologist Michel Jouvet to more and more often until, by the last
name it "paradoxical sleep." night, Dement had to awaken the sub-

Most people roused from REM jects at least twenty times. Dement then

sleep will report that they were dream- allowed them a night of undisturbed
ing. While it is also possible to wake sleep. As if hungry for dreams, the vol-
from non-REM sleep and recall images unteers spent more of the recovery night
or thoughts that just passed through than normal in the REM stage. By con-
one's mind, these usually are akin to rel- trast, a control group of volunteers who
atively mundane, everyday thinking and had been wakened just as frequently but

are quite unlike the vivid, dramatic, fre- only during non-REM sleep did not in-

quently fantastic images of REM sleep. crease their dream time during the re-
The first REM period of the night covery night. The tendency to make up
usually lasts anywhere from ten to fifteen minutes. After- for lost REM sleep suggests that dreaming is important for

ward, the sleeper drifts close to wakefulness before return- both psychological and physical health.
ing to stage two and beginning the sleep cycle again. (As Dement's experiments also revealed some fascinating
the night goes on, stage three-four in the cycle may be characteristics of REM sleep. He discovered a direct correla-

skipped, and the sleeper will alternate between stage two tion between dream time and real time, laying to rest the

and REM sleep.) Since each non-REM-REM cycle takes common belief that dreams last only a few seconds. Volun-

about ninety minutes to run its course, the average sleeper teers' dreams usually took about as long to be played out as
experiences four to five cycles per night. As the night pass- would comparable episodes in the waking world, as much
es, the REM periods become progressively longer -some as twenty minutes in some cases. A related revelation was
lasting up to sixty minutes -while the time spent in the that a particular sequence of rapid eye movements some-
non-REM stages of sleep decreases. Consequently, almost times corresponds to the way dream images move. The
half of a person's nightly dreaming often takes place during eyes may actually track the dream's action, gazing about

the last two hours of sleep. within the dream just as they would when watching an
All told, periods of REM sleep can account for about event in real one remarkable instance, a subject was
life. In

20 percent of an adult's normal slumber. The average indi- observed making about two dozen horizontal eye move-

99
ments during REM sleep. He later reported that he had been Some of these find their way to the neocortex, the site of

watching a ping-pong game in his dream, and just before he most higher brain functions, including cognition. So the
had been awakened, the players had engaged in a particu- neocortex sorts them out as best it can, transforming them
larly long volley. into shapes and colors and sensations, matching them with
Although Dement demonstrated the need to dream, memories, building a story-and producing a dream.
exactly what causes those dreams to occur is still open to Still other researchers speculate that dreams are the
debate. One researcher, Dr. Ian Oswald of the University of brain's way of keeping house. Among the foremost champi-
Edinburgh, presents a purely clinical viewpoint, suggesting ons of this school are Francis Crick of California's Salk Insti-

that dreams are the way the nervous system goes about re- tute, who won a Nobel Prize for his discoveries in genetics,
pairing worn-out brain tissue. During non-REM sleep, Os- and his British colleague Graeme Mitchison, a mathemati-
wald found, various growth hormones pour into the blood- cian at Cambridge University.
stream and course through the body, restoring bone and rick and Mitchison suggest
that the waking mind is

muscle cells after the day's wear and tear. But when the bombarded with so much information that its cir-
sleeper starts dreaming, the flow of hormones dwindles to a cuits are in danger of becoming overloaded. The
stop. Presumably restoration work then shifts to the brain, particulars of life crowd in and register themselves

where raveled neurons and synapses are knitted up by QJ in the neocortex. But the neocortex, despite its mil-

means not yet understood. Dreams are the by-product of lions of interlocking nerve cells, has a limited capacity, and
this activity, Oswald submits. the overload causes confusion. Furthermore, most of the
A number of other laboratory theorists follow similar data it takes in is quite useless. Who needs to know the
lines of reasoning. Harvard Medical School's J. Allan Hob- color of a matchbook cover, or the contents of the day's
son and Robert W. McCarley, both of them psychiatrists as junk mail? So during dreams the brain sorts and organizes
well as neurophysiologists, believe dreams arise because of similar items. Not only individual bits of information but

nerve impulses coursing at entire patterns of thought get

random through a region at swept into oblivion in a flurry

the base of the brain, where it of activity that the sleeper
meets the spinal cord. This perceives as a dream. "We
most primitive area of the dream in order to forget,"
brain controls such activities Crick maintains. But memo-
as physical movement and ries that the neocortex judges
the receipt of sensory impres- significant it retains, storing

sions. During the dream them in its network of brain

phase of sleep these func- cells for future reference.

tions cease, rendering the The fashionable analogy

dreamer virtually immobile. for the brain's way of func-
But the primitive brain keeps tioning likens it to a comput-
generating impulses on its er. The connections among
own, say Hobson and McCar- brain cells are equated with
ley, and emits bursts of the circuitry of microchips in

meaningless neural static. a desktop or mainframe-a

Nathaniel Kleitman emerges from a cave after a

(left)
1938 experiment with sleep and other studies helped
cycles. This
Kleitman show that sleep rhythms change with age.

100
 William Dement is pictured here with one of the cats he used for REM-
sleep deprivation studies. Going without REM sleep for up to seventy days, the cats
underwent behavior changes. Some became restless; others would not wash.

comparison that supports Crick's housekeeping thesis. But closeup: hands, numbers-and the name of its manufactur-
the analogy could also be used to argue that d -earns may er. It seemed almost as though the watch were signaling
z^rve a more positive purpose. British psychologist Christo- him, announcing its identity in a clairvoyant message from
7 pher Evans— who was also a computer scientist— explained the world of stolen watches. But Evans had a different ex-
how in his 1983 book, Landscapes of the Night. planation. The needed information had been locked some-
While still a student, Evans was basking on a rooftop, where in his unconscious mind. Perhaps while we sleep, he

cramming for exams, with his wristwatch beside him. Sud- reasoned, our brains sift through their cerebral data banks,
denly a hand reached through the open skylight, grabbed and our dreams are reflections of this nightly browsing.

the watch, and made off with it. Evans chased the thief but A similar function takes place in computers, Evans

could not catch up So he hastened to the police station to pointed out. Like the brain, a computer processes, stores,
make a What make of watch was it, the desk ser-
report. and retrieves information. But for maximum speed and effi-

geant wanted to know. And although Evans had consulted ciency, its operators periodically take the computer off line,

his watch thousands of times, he could not remember. shutting down its normal activities in order to scan through
That night Evans had a dream. He saw himself gazing its programs, revising and updating them, and cleaning oflf

intently at his watch dial. Its every detail appeared in vivid extraneous data. Sleep is the brain's off-line period, Evans

101
suggested, and the dream a kind of "memory filter," which people. And unlike healthy sleepers, who dream most fre-

sorts out the mind's accumulation of impressions and expe- quently during the last third of the night, depressed people
riences. Some it retains in the brain's active file; others are may dream more during the first third, another indication of
consigned to a backroom storage area. a malfunction in the body's natural sleeping rhythms.
The updating process may occur during a single night Scientists cannot explain why such disturbances oc-
or, for certain deeply entrenched patterns of thought, it may cur, but they have learned that a depressed person deprived
extend over many months. When Evans gave up smoking, of REM sleep for two or three weeks may find the feelings of

for example, he began having nightmares in which he despair and apathy lessening. In some cases, this simple
would find himself at a party with a lighted cigarette in his therapy can be as effective as an antidepressant medica-
hand. Gradually, as his nicotine craving subsided, the tion. A study conducted at the Georgia Mental Health Insti-

dreams became less insistent and fraught with anxiety. tute in Atlanta found that 50 percent of the subjects suffer-

4P*> ther scientists have proposed that dreams serve as ing from depression showed marked improvement after

M ^
"sentinels of the night," periodically bringing the
sleeper out of deep sleep so he or she can
quickly and respond to any danger that might
have arisen. Another theory suggests that dreams
are intimately connected to learning and memory. Studies
awaken
REM deprivation. (Those

therapy, however,
who
respond to medication.) The benefits of
did not improve also did not
REM deprivation
may be outweighed by its costs— the
method requires a sleep laboratory and monitoring
But researchers continue to test the theory that the internal
devices.

have shown, for example, that after developing new skills in clocks of depressed patients may be flawed and are still ex-
the day, people experience more REM sleep and slightly in- perimenting with revised sleep patterns.
creased REM density— that is, their eyes move more rapid- Besides establishing the normal nightly course of
ly—when they go to sleep. Conversely, the severely retarded dreaming and some of its pathological aberrations, re-
have fewer dreams than those who are not mentally hand- searchers have categorized two distinct but equally fright-

icapped; their reduced ability to handle information, it ap- ening disturbances: the nightmare and the much less com-
pears, reduces their need to dream. mon night terror. Everyone occasionally has a nightmare—
Dreaming may also serve as a mood regulator. After a dream so frightening that he or she wakes up sweaty,
repeatedly being deprived of REM sleep, volunteers in labo- short of breath, and with a pounding heart. Such dreams
ratory studies are more prone to anxiety and irritability and usually occur during the second half of the night, when REM
have a hard time concentrating. Ernest Hartmann, profes- periods are longer and dreams are more intense. Psychia-
sor of psychiatry at Tufts University School of Medicine and trists such as Stanley Palombo of Washington, DC., believe
director of two Boston sleep laboratories, has proposed that that a nightmare (mare means goblin in Old English) dram-
the mental activity of waking life depletes the brain's supply atizes problems or anxieties one has recently encountered
of critical chemicals. A fresh supply produced during REM in waking life; in addition, it evokes related unconscious
sleep, he speculates, helps maintain emotional stability and memories and images, creating an emotionally powerful
aids thought processes such as learning and memory. mix. The feeling of utter helplessness that so often infuses a
But REM sleep is not always a restorative, and appar- nightmare probably harks back to infancy, some experts
ently there can be too much of a good thing. It has been say, when a child is indeed powerless and at the mercy of a
found that some people who suffer from severe clinical de- world he or she cannot understand or control.
pression pass through the initial stages of sleep to the REM According to Professor Hartmann, "the common
phase more quickly, and stay there longer, than do healthy thread among those who have nightmares frequently is

102
 French neurosurgeon Michel Jouvet discovered that cats in REM sleep
lose muscle tone. He later learned that this is because the brainstem, the control
center for REM sleep, effectively paralyzes the body at the onset of REM.
 •3§SJ
s*s
35
a*
••-

Turning his back on the re-

mains of a recent meal, this
relaxed leopard enjoys a
nap. Some researchers believe
it is in REM sleep that animals

renew and reorganize infor-

mation stored by the brain.
 The Animal Experience
Animal sleep patterns are as diverse as gathered by their highly developed on such variables as body size and
the members of the animal kingdom brains. And that processing may take whether the animal is predator or prey
themselves. Bats sleep up to twenty place through dreams. -the number and duration of dreams
hours a day, while some antelope doze If animals do dream, their fantasies also vary. A rat, though it may sleep
for just one hour out of twenty-four. probably lack the storylike structure of for long stretches, shuttles between
And fish, which cannot close their human dreams, which are based on dreaming and nondreaming sleep eve-
eyes, appear not to sleep at all, taking language and our narrative manner of ry 6 minutes, compared with 150 min-
their rest by simply not moving. thought. But, as sleep researcher utes for an elephant. One theory holds
Yet almost all mammals experience j. Hobson points out, "mammals
Allan that brain-activating dream sleep
dreaming, or REM sleep. and emote."
see, recognize, learn, keeps vulnerable creatures from sleep-
Mammals are the only animals with Memories of these experiences, he ing too soundly for too long.
a true cortex -the part of the brain submits, may surface during REM The longest and deepest sleep, how-
associated with complex behaviors, sleep, which may explain why a sleep- ever, is probably dreamless. Hiberna-
including thought. Some scientists ing dog, for example, often whines tion, which allows an animal to sur-
believe the evolutionary process that and makes running motions with its vive low temperatures without food for
gave mammals their cognitive abilities feet as though it were chasing a rabbit. weeks or months at a time, is a variant
also provided them with REM sleep as Because the pace of the sleep cycle of the most energy-efficient phase of
a means to process the information differs among animals— depending nondreaming sleep.

California sea lions pile atop one another on a communal sleep-

ing rock near San Francisco. Safe from marine predators, the
slumbering mammals can dream in the warmth of many bodies.

^^r^im ^"^ 4 Two white-footed mice curl up together in their secure sleeping
nest beneath a log. In addition to rapid eye movements during
^r' dream sleep, a rodent's paws and whiskers will twitch and quiver.

W** «
s
'

cfc
'
1 ~
-"
o
^?4 Jlbw
• \

Jk*H ^_ y.jj

T - TT •

*»W

Til
;<*-

. vb

\m
r
^ .

Fearing no other animals, this lion and lioness sleep with their
vulnerable bellies exposed. After eating their fill in an hour, they
may sleep -and dream -for most of the next two or three days.
 Seen here at a polygraph he uses in research, neurophysiologist Hobson
considers dreams a synthesis of jumbled memories. Each image conveys its own
apparent meaning, he believes, and is devoid of any greater symbolism.

sensitivity." For a Boston study, he solicited volunteers who ing. He may also walk or talk in his sleep. While people
experienced nightmares at least once a week. A large num- usually remember specific and sequential details of their

ber of the subjects were involved in creative work, such as nightmares, the victim of a night terror recalls little or noth-
art, music, and theater; others were graduate students, ing of what triggered such extreme horror. Despite the se-
teachers, and therapists. Many saw themselves as rebels or vere panic it engenders, a night terror is short, lasting only a

as "different from other people," and some overtly rejected minute or two. (A nightmare can go on several minutes, but
society's norms. "They were all very open and vulnerable," probably not longer, since the intense emotional state that
he said, traits beneficial to their careers. But "most had had results will often awaken the dreamer.) Night terrors seem
stormy adolescences, sometimes followed by bouts with to run in families, and researchers suspect they are trig-

depression, alcohol and suicide attempts." Hartmann con- gered by a faulty arousal mechanism: Instead of following
cluded that people who have frequent nightmares possess a the normal shift early in the night from stage three-four
poor sense of their own identities and find hard to sepa-
it sleep to a REM period, the sleeper partially rouses. Children
rate fantasy from reality. Some have borderline or potential- are more susceptible than adults to night terrors, perhaps
ly psychotic tendencies, he believes. simply because they spend more time in stage three-four.
Night terrors differ from nightmares in both content Whatever a dream's content, it reflects an altered state

and timing, and often occur in the deep slumber of stage of consciousness that contrasts dramatically with the ra-
three-four. The sleeper may rouse with a bloodcurdling tional processes of the normal waking brain. In that respect,

scream and sit up in bed, terrified and confused, heart rac- the dream state is like other altered states, such as those

106
manifested during deep hypnosis, trances, and meditation, France in Paris. His twenty years of dream research and
or through the uSe" of mind-altering drugs. But dreaming is analysis were summed up in the 1867 work Dreams and
the most readily accessible of all altered states, the one that How to Guide Them. He said that good dream recall, the

almost everyone enters naturally on a nightly basis. ability to will himself awake, and an awareness of the
dream state had given him a measure of dream control, as

Some psychologists are now exploring a fascinating, rela- his book's title suggested. Sigmund Freud himself praised
tively rare state of consciousness called lucid dreaming. Or- the professor's research, and in the second edition of The
dinarily, a person knows that he or she has dreamed only Interpretation of Dreams, wrote, "there are some people
after waking. But in the case of lucid dreaming, the sleeper who are quite clearly aware during the night that they are

is aware of dreaming as the scenes unroll before the mind's asleep and dreaming and who thus seem to possess the fac-

eye. Nor is the sleeper just a passive viewer— the most ex- ulty of consciously directing their dreams. If, for instance, a

traordinary hallmark of the lucid dream is that a person can dreamer of this kind is dissatisfied with the turn taken by a
affect the dream's events, characters, and emotional tone. dream, he can break it off without waking up and start it

The earliest known phenomenon ap-

reference to this again in another direction— just as a popular dramatist may
pears in Aristotle's fourth-century-BC treatise On Dreams, under pressure give his play a happier ending."

in which the philosopher states that "often when one is Despite the endorsement of Freud and other respect-
asleep, there is something in consciousness which declares able scientists, many researchers in the late nineteenth and
that what then presents itself is but a dream." In AD 415, early twentieth centuries joined the eminent English psy-
Saint Augustine recorded the lucid dream of his chologist Havelock Ellis in discounting the
friend Gennadius. In the dream a young man idea of the lucid dream. Such skepticism
discussed life after death at length and prompted Dutch psychiatrist and sleep
then told Gennadius, "I would have researcher Frederik Willem van Eeden
you know that even now you are see to make public some of his findings on

ing in sleep." Some eight centuries lucid dreams, first in fictional form in

later, Saint Thomas Aquinas men- his novel, The Bride of Dreams, then,
tioned lucid dreaming. "Some- in 1913, before a group he hoped

times while asleep," he wrote, "a would be open minded or even

man may judge that what he sees sympathetic-Britain's Society for

is a dream, discerning as it were, Psychical Research. One founder

between things and their images." of the SPR, Frederic W. H. Myers, a

The first to methodically exam- highly respected Cambridge classi-

ine this aberrant type of dream was cist, had himself succeeded in having

Marquis Hervey de Saint-Denis, a pro- lucid dreams on three occasions and

fessor of Chinese at the College de believed that students of psychic phe-
nomena should use these dreams in

their investigations.
Biophysicist Francis Crick theorizes that REM
From his own experience, van Ee-
sleep evolved as a tune-up procedure for the
brain, which allows unnecessary memories to den was thoroughly familiar
be discarded. Trying to remember dreams,
with the lucid dream-
Crick says, may actually defeat their purpose.

taBM_ .
 Photographer Theodore Spagna
shot time-lapse sleep sequences
like this one, with a picture every
fifteen minutes, as artistic cre-
ations. But neurophysiologist J.
Allan Hobson demonstrated their
value to sleep research when he
showed that posture changes coin-
cided with changes in brain waves.
A shift of position after several
frames without change -fifth from
the left in the top row, for in-
stance—generally indicates the
onset of REM sleep, or dreaming.

a term he coined in his report to the SPR, in which he

analyzed no fewer than 352 dreams. In lucid dreams,
he said, "the re-integration of the psychic functions is

so complete that the sleeper . . . reaches a state of

perfect awareness, and is able to direct his attention,
and to attempt different acts of free volition. Yet the
sleep, as I am able confidently to state, is undisturbed,
deep and refreshing."
Van Eeden purposely added an experimental el-

ement to his lucid dreams. In a September 9, 1904, en-

try in his dream diary, he notes, "I dreamt that I stood
at a table before a window. On the table were different

objects. I was perfectly well aware that I was dreaming

and I considered what sorts of experiments I could
make. I began by trying to break glass, by beating it

with a stone. I put a small tablet of glass on two stones

and struck it with another stone. Yet it would not break.
Then I took a fine claret-glass from the table and struck
it my fist, with all my might, at the same time re-
with
flecting how dangerous would be to do this in waking it

life; yet the glass remained whole. But lo! when looked I

at it again after some time, it was broken."

The delayed shattering of the glass gave van Eeden
"a very curious impression of being in a fake-world, clev-
erly imitated, but with small failures. I took the broken
glass and threw it out of the window, in order to observe
whether could hear the I tinkling. I heard the noise all right

and I even saw two dogs run away from it quite naturally.
I thought what a good imitation this comedy-world was.
Then I saw a decanter with claret and tasted it, and noted
with perfect clearness of mind: "Well, we can also have
voluntary impressions of taste in this dream-world; this
"
has quite the taste of wine.'
Van Eeden often had such lifelike sensations in his
dreams. He remarked that "the sensation of having a
body— having eyes, hands, a mouth that speaks, and so
on -is perfectly distinct; yet I know at the same time that
the physical body is sleeping and has quite a different posi-
tion." He described the experience as "the feeling of slip-
ping from one body into an- Sleep disorder specialist Dr.
Milton Kramer studies the vid-
other, and there is distinctly a
eotaped sleep of a five-year-old
double recollection of the two afflicted with nightmares and
severe headaches. Fifty million
bodies." He admitted that Americans may suffer from
Havelock Ellis would sneer at these and other sleep problems,
such as insomnia, sleepwalk-
the idea, but these sensations ing, and narcolepsy —attacks of
deep, uncontrollable sleep.
suggested that he had what
he called a dream body. Go-
ing one step further, van Eeden speculated that this dream
body might be an astral body, an ethereal reproduction of
his physical self. Although he was a scientist, he was ready
to accept the possibility of a connection between the world
of the occult and lucid dreams.
Van Eeden had little more success than the marquis
de Saint-Denis had met four decades earlier in drawing sci-

entific attention to lucid dreaming. If they even acknowl-

edged the phenomenon, most researchers thought it an
oddity at best. They believed that such an experience was
not a dream at all but rather a "microawakening," or partial

arousal during dream sleep. Not until the 1980s, after

Stephen LaBerge, a young researcher at Stanford Universi-
ty, established experimentally that a sleeper could alert ob-
servers to a lucid dream in progress, did the subject win a
measure of respectability and serious scientific attention.

aBerge claims to have had lucid dreams since child-

hood. During slumber, he would instruct pirates to
return to his dreams night after night to continue

their joint nocturnal adventures, and once, when he

became frightened of drowning in a dream, LaBerge
reminded himself that in earlier dreams he had been able to tiring, "Tonight I will have a lucid dream." Using this meth-
breathe underwater. Over the years LaBerge continued to od, LaBerge discovered that he was able to induce about

have occasional lucid dreams, and in 1977, when he began five lucid dreams per month. By routinely reminding himself
work on his doctoral thesis in psychophysiology at Stan- of his intention to be lucid during his dreams and by evolv-
ford, he decided to devise a way to study them scientifically. ing his own technique, called Mnemonic Induction of Lucid
An immediate problem was how to gather sufficient Dreams, or MILD, LaBerge boosted his rate to more than
data— LaBerge experienced lucid dreams less than once a twenty lucid dreams per month. On especially productive
month. He first tried to increase the frequency of the dreams nights, he could induce four lucid dreams. LaBerge's proce-
by using a technique of autosuggestion developed by psy- dure is fairly simple. After awakening from a dream, he
chologist Patricia Garfield-he would tell himself before re- memorizes its content, a practice intended to hone the abil-

110
ity to recall dreams. Then, for ten to fifteen minutes, he mobilized during the REM stage. Initially using himself as
reads or performs some other activity that demands wake- his principal subject at the Stanford Sleep Laboratory, La-
fulness. As he is about to fail asleep once more, he tells Berge selected as his signal two vertical sweeps of the eyes.
himself, "Next time I'm dreaming, I want to remember I'm Each night he recorded his brain waves, eye movements,
dreaming," and imagines himself taking part in the dream and the slight muscle activity of his chin and wrists on a
he has just had, with the awareness that he is dreaming. polysomnograph (a type of lie-detector device). One night in
Intentionally inducing lucid dreams was LaBerge's 1975, after a series of tries, LaBerge examined the record of
first major research achievement. His second was to herald the previous night's session and found a telltale group of
the arrival of a lucid dream by sending a clear signal during zigzags tracing the eye signal he had wanted to send To
sleep, cleverly calling on the few muscles that are not im- prove that the eye movements were not REM related, La-

111
Berge devised a second, more elaborate, signal to be sent dow. "Ruthlessly ignoring her pleading and objecting, I

by his clenched fists. In LaBerge's version of the Morse opened the window and climbed out on to the sill. I then
code, tightening his left hand equaled a dot and tightening jumped, and floated gently down into the street. When my
his right equaled a dash. An electromyograph (an instru- feet touched the pavement I awoke. ... As a matter of fact,

ment measuring muscular activity) recorded LaBerge's pre- 1 was very nervous about jumping; for the atmosphere in-

determined message— his initials delivered in Morse code. side our bedroom seemed so absolutely real that it nearly
Frederik van Eeden had reported that most of his lucid made me accept the manifest absurdity of things outside."
dreams occurred between 5:00 a.m. and 8:00 a.m.— times Lucid dreaming comes naturally to about 5 to 10 per-
coincident with longer REM periods— and LaBerge's work cent of the population. What traits these dreamers share is
at Stanford confirmed his predecessor's experience. Color not yet clear, but researchers believe they may have identi-

and light, according to van Eeden's report, are more intense fied a few. Jayne Gackenbach, an experimental psychologist
and sensations in general are sometimes heightened in lu- at the University of Northern Iowa, found evidence that fe-

cid dreams, compared with ordinary dreams. LaBerge and male lucid dreamers tend to be creative and adventurous
other contemporary investigators have gathered conflicting during their waking lives— many of them relish such risky
assessments of the sensory and perceptual content of lucid activities as scuba diving, rock climbing, and parachute
dreams, but on another point there is widespread unanimi- jumping. And she suggests that both female and male lucid

ty—the lucid dream's powerful, mainly positive emotional dreamers are less likely to be depressed or neurotic than
content. Van Eeden's recollections are filled with words the general population, although male lucid dreamers seem
such as bliss, gratitude, piety, thankfulness, serenity, and to be more prone to anxiety than their female counterparts
calm. A contemporary of van Eeden, an Englishman named ackenbach and other psychologists report that

Hugh Calloway, reported that during his first lucid dream, people who do not spontaneously have lucid
"the vividness of life increased a hundredfold. . . . Never dreams can develop the ability if they are motivat-

had I felt so absolutely well, so clear-brained, so divinely ed and have good dream recall. Techniques such
powerful, so inexpressibly free!" When a lucid dream does as MILD and presleep hypnotic suggestion and
occasionally inspire negative emotions, they, like the more the use of special devices may aid the novice. LaBerge has

common positive feelings, are also unusually strong. designed plastic goggles with sensors that set off a pulsing
As a lucid dream draws to a close or lucidity fades, the colored light when the wearer enters REM sleep. The light

dreamer frequently dreams of waking up. Such a false arouses the dreamer just enough to make him aware he is

awakening can occur dozens of times within a single dreaming. British psychologist Keith Hearne's compact de-
dream, and the lucid dreamer may go to great lengths with- vice, which he calls his dream machine, uses a wire sensor
in the dream to test whether he or she is still asleep. One clipped to the sleeper's nostril to detect the rapid, irregular

subject reported, "I dreamed that my wife and I awoke, got breathing of REM sleep. The machine then sends four mild

up,and dressed. On pulling up the blind, we made the electric shocks to an electrode on the dreamer's wrist. The
amazing discovery that the row of houses opposite had sleeper has been told in advance that the four shocks stand

vanished and in their place were bare fields. I said to my for a four- word sentence -"This is a dream."

wife, This means I am dreaming, though everything seems Having the kind of pleasant, vivid experiences that lu-

so real and I feel perfectly awake.' " But the dreamer could cid dreamers report seems reason enough to learn how tc

not convince his wife that it was a dream, so he decided to induce this type of dream, but there appear to be other rea-
prove it to her by safely jumping out of their bedroom win- sons for bringing the notoriously unruly dream process un-

113
 -

der some degree of control. Dream researchers see a variety

of therapeutic possibilities. In fact, lucid dreaming is already
being put to use to combat recurring nightmares. This tech-
Drug-Altered Slumber nique, strictly speaking, is not an invention of sleep labora-
tories. More than two hundred years ago, Scottish philoso-

means conquer
pher Thomas Reid was plagued night after night by
People have long sought artificial to
the biological rhythms of wakefulness and sleep. frightening dreams. Wanting to be rid of them, he decided
Potions, pills, and liquor are all part of thepharmaco- that he would try "to recollect that it was all a dream, and
poeia and folklore of sleep. But their effects on sleep
that I was in no real danger." Reid began to remind himself
and dreaming are just beginning to be understood.
before he fell asleep that whatever he experienced during
Amphetamines, which tend to decrease total sleep
time, decrease REM sleep as well. But research shows the night would be only a dream. "After many fruitless en-
that most sedatives, while inducing sleep and some- deavors to recollect this when the danger appeared," he re-
times causing subjects to sleep longer, also tend to
called, "I effected it at last, and have often, when was slid-
I

reduce REM sleep. Marijuana produces a similar ef-

fect, and alcohol just before bedtime suppresses REM ing over a precipice into the abyss, recollected that it was all

sleep in the first half of the night; later, though, tip- a dream, and boldly jumped down. The effect of this com-
plers spend above-average amounts of time dream- monly was that I immediately awoke. But I awoke calm and
ing. With prolonged abuse in a constant dosage, REM-
intrepid, which I thought a greater acquisition."
sleep disruption apparently decreases; however, drug
withdrawal after chronic use often Whereas Reid performed an amateur's
has a rebound effect. Some alcohol- experiment, sleep researchers have de-
ics studied just before and while ex-
vised more reliable methods to achieve
periencing delirium tremens (DTs),
for example, spent most of their
the same end. At the Sleep Disorder
sleeping time in REM sleep. Service and Research Center at Rush-
Research shows that REM-sleep Presbyterian St. Luke's Medical Center
deprivation generally makes people
in Chicago, psychologist Rosalind Cart-
anxious, and distracted.
irritable,

Definitive studies on the effects of wright has taught patients suffering

drug ingestion on dream content from a recurrent nightmare to press a
are lacking, but a wealth of anecdo- buzzer when the dream begins. The
tal evidence points to the powerful
patient is then awakened so he or she
dream-altering effects of some
drugs and natural substances. For can discuss the nightmare with a psy-
example, LSD, mescaline, and some chologist and devise ways of changing
exotic mushrooms not only tend to
its content. During the next visit to the
increase REM sleep early in the
sleep laboratory, the patient is again
night but can produce hallucina-
tions—vivid dreams occurring in the instructed to signal should the night-
waking state. In many dreams are part
cultures such mare begin. This time, however, the lab technician does not
of religious ceremonies; certain Mexican tribes use
wake the sleeper but instead buzzes back to remind him or
peyote-from the mescal cactus -to induce hallucina-
tions. The Huichol Indians often express their peyote-
her to change the dream. Using this procedure, one woman
induced dreams in woven pictures called nearikas; the was able to rid herself of a recurrent dream in which she
one above depicts a young boy on a quest for corn. was being continually pulled under water by huge waves.
She taught herself to dive under the waves in her dream

114
 "A bit like fireworks, " wrote Marquis Hervey de Saint-Denis in
describing the kaleidoscopic visions from the onset of sleep, now known as
hypnagogic images. He included the drawings in his dream journal,
which covered five years and filled twenty-two notebooks.

just as she knew she could do when she was awake. Dreaming, Stephen LaBerge published a letter from a young
Not all dream researchers count it wise to recast a hockey player who had been having trouble on the ice. She
nightmare and give it a happy ending. Psychologist Gayle told of helping her skating technique by re-creating the ex-
Delaney argues that toying with a frightening dream may perience of a lucid dream in which she flew effortlessly

encourage a person to avoid the problems that inspired the around the rink. "I brought back the quality of that dream
dream in the first place. "Sometimes it's better that the experience into my wakened state. I remembered how I

dream end badly than to change it by being lucid." "If you was feeling during the dream and so in the manner of an
awake frightened," she counsels, "you are more motivated actor in a role, I 'became' the complete skater once again."
to go and get help to understand what is threatening you, Professional golfer Jack Nicklaus, suffering from a long

and then take the leap of courage to change your life." slump, credited a lucid dream with helping him regain his
Just as the unconscious churns up nightmares, it also championship form. "Last Wednesday night I had a dream
processes workaday material and in dreams presents its and itwas about my golf swing," Nicklaus told a reporter in
own solutions. Throughout history, writers, scientists, and 1964. "I was hitting them pretty good in the dream and all

other creative thinkers have reported dreams holding unex- at once realized wasn't holding the club the way I've ac-
I I

pected and welcome insights. Athletes, too, have reported tually been holding it lately. I've been having trouble col-

surprising revelations in their sleep. In his 1985 book, Lucid lapsing my right arm taking the club head away from the

115
ball, but 1 was doing it perfectly in my sleep. So when I got out of bed, opened all windows, etc., to ascertain

came to the course yesterday morning, I tried it in the way I whether they really were ringing, only to be met by com-
did in my dream and it worked. 1 shot a 68 yesterday and a plete silence outside." Some who experience hypnagogic
65 today and believe me it's a lot more fun this way. I feel imagery may feel as if parts of their bodies have become
kind of foolish admitting it, but it really happened in a distorted or have disappeared altogether. Some researchers
dream. All I had to do was change my grip just a little." believe that hypnagogic sensations, particularly weightless-

People with a natural bent toward lucid dreams are ness and hearing voices, may somehow be linked to certain

also apt to experience vivid, kaleidoscopic images during types of religious visions and out-of-body experiences.
the hypnagogic state, the drowsy interface of waking and Amorphous waves of color or clouds of diffuse light
sleeping. The body relaxes, blood pressure drops, and the may mark the hypnagogic episode's onset and can gradual-
heart rate and breathing slow. The individual may hear a ly grow more complex. In 1912, Russian philosopher P. D.

cacophony of sounds-crashes, explosions, indecipherable Ouspensky had a glittering hallucination. "I am falling
voices or the repetitious calling of his or her own name— asleep. Golden dots, sparks and tiny stars appear and disap-
and experience a sensation of falling, accompanied by a pear before my eyes. These sparks and stars gradually
hypnagogic startle; fragmented, nonsensical phrases may merge into a golden net with diagonal meshes which
escape the lips. A hypnagogic episode may be accompanied moves slowly and regularly in rhythm with the beating of
by a frightening paralysis, and perhaps by a sensation of my heart, which 1 feel quite distinctly. The next moment the

pressure on the chest, which can immobilize the sleeper golden net is transformed into rows of brass helmets be-
long after the hallucinatory sensations have dissipated. longing to Roman soldiers marching along the street
Although the episode is usually over in a few seconds, below." Later in the episode, he flies from the window sill

it may persist for several minutes, or even develop into a on which he has been lying. His senses are instantly height-
true dream. Severe fatigue seems to make people prone to ened: "I smell the sea, feel the wind, the warm sun. This
hypnagogic imagery, especially when they have been de- flying gives me a wonderfully pleasant sensa-
prived of sleep for twenty-four hours or more. tion, and I cannot help opening my eyes."
And victims of narcolepsy, a Hypnagogic episodes are ordinarily
condition characterized by pleasant, even comic. One imagist reported
uncontrollable sleepiness, seeing a cartoonlike saber-toothed tiger,

frequently have such experi- his paws held up to his face, tiptoeing on
ences, both at night and be- hind legs toward a victim who remained
fore dozing off during the day. out of sight. Suddenly, the arm of a sec-
The images generated in j
ond striped tiger shot around from behind
the state are extraordinarily 1 and covered the first tiger's eyes. Anoth-
lifelike. A hypnagogic smell can I er sleeper described "a family of skulls
propel a person to the kitchen to A in a car driving along ... I could tell it

make sure that something is not was a friendly family." Yet every possi-
burning on the stove. One wom- ble emotional coloration can be expe-
an who frequently heard church rienced in hypnagogic episodes. One
bells and organ music as she was dreamer described a terrifying scene
falling asleep wrote that she "often that dream researchers find typical.

the iK^i he saw

a r^% ^t
syn"1
re^^^rhe German
punched the

116
 hidden
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on * e ** \he fossi\ ^
cni
h eXfl c

"I was lying in bed when I heard the noise Edison would jerk awake, of-
footsteps approaching my room. ten with an idea for solving the problem
A prowler kicked open the door that had perplexed him minutes earlier.

and strode to the bed, knife in A dazzling case of hypnagogic

hand. I wanted to leap out of the insight is said to be responsible for
way, but I couldn't move a finger German chemist Friedrich August
tried to scream but the sound was Kekule von Stradonitz's discovery in

locked in my throat." 865 of the hexagonal ring structure

Although hypnagogic images of the benzene molecule. Unsuc-
occur most often as the subject is cessful with a problem he had been
falling asleep at night, they can also working on, he turned his chair to
develop as the sleeper awakes in the the fire and dozed off. Suddenly,
morning. At this hour, imagery is of- he later reported, "atoms were
ten the continuation of a dream. The gambolling before my eyes. . . .

sleeper's eyes may even have opened, My mental eye, rendered more
but the transition to the waking state is acute by repeated visions of the kind,
not yet complete. In one case, the sub- could now distinguish larger structures, of manifold confor-
ject visualized a man he had just been dreaming about, mation; long rows, sometimes more closely fitted together;

standing next to his bed. "I looked at him for a second or all twining and twisting in snake-like motion. But look!
two," recalled the dreamer, "and then putting my foot out, I What was that? One of the snakes had seized hold of its

kicked at him; as my foot reached him, he vanished." An- own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes.

other thought he saw an intruder squatting in his room. He As if by a flash of lightning 1 awoke. ... 1 spent the rest of
jumped out of bed and grabbed the intruder— only to awak- the night working out the consequences of the hypothesis."
en fully and discover that he was wrestling with a linen bag. The times at which hypnagogic images are most com-
The history of Western art is rich in anecdotes imply- mon are also the most favorable times for successful hyp-
ing a link between hypnagogic imagery and creativity. Com- nopedia, or sleep learning. During borderline consciousness
posers Johannes Brahms, Giacomo Puccini, and Richard the brain is alert to outside stimuli; although it does not op-
Wagner, for instance, all said their musical ideas sometimes erate as efficiently as during full wakefulness, the mind of-

took shape during states of consciousness that a number of ten can absorb and retain information.

psychologists believe were hypnagogic. Nineteenth-century Sleep learning was first the stuff of science fiction. A
novelist Mary Shelley is said to have based her best-known novel serialized in Modern Electronics magazine in 1911 de-

work, Frankenstein, on horrifying hypnagogic imagery. And scribed a headband that transferred information from a

scientific and technological seem to have

insights as well central data store directly to a sleeper's brain via electrical

surfaced during such episodes. Thomas Edison was famous impulses. Eleven years later, J. N. Phiney of the United
for taking a catnap whenever he became stuck on a partic- States Naval School at Pensacola, Florida, devised experi-

ular problem. Holding little steel balls in both hands, he mental audio aids for drilling cadets in the Morse code dur-
would drift off in his favorite chair. As his mind relinquished ing their sleep. It was in the Soviet Union, however, that the
consciousness his hands would relax, droop, and finally most important pioneering research was carried out During
drop the balls into pans strategically placed on the floor. At the 1930s, Soviet psychoneurologist Abram Moiseyevich

117
Svyadoshch demonstrated that sleeping people could per- of painless instruction that could speed their educational
ceive and memorize straightforward facts and figures, such progress. Soviet researchers assert that months of hypno-
as foreign words and phrases or technical data; especially pedia produce no fatigue or other unwanted side effects.
adept students could even master entire speeches in their Hypnopedia may be adapted to certain daytime appli-
sleep. His research seems ideologically neutral, but he was cations as well. One laboratory, for instance, has taught

suspected of sympathy to Freudian thought, which was con- people to use biofeedback to produce theta waves and thus
sidered antithetical to the hard-line Soviet doctrine prevail- enter and remain in the "twilight state" at will. This skill

ing under Joseph Stalin. Not until after the dictator's death may be especially useful when learning is blocked by anxi-
in 1953-by coincidence, the same year that Aserinsky and ety or other psychological problems. Thomas Budzynski, a
Kleitman announced their discovery of REM sleep— was Denver psychologist who is studying biofeedback, has re-
Svyadoshch allowed to publish his findings. Some Soviet ported the case of a graduate student who had failed a

psychologists began to follow his lead in the 1960s, and Spanish-language exam and was so nervous about taking it

their Japanese and Western counterparts soon joined in, again that he could not study. Researchers prepared a
swept along by the new interest in sleep phenomena. Spanish-English tape that included soothing assurances
Hypnopedia researchers soon established that effec- that the student would be able to study effectively and re-

tive learning is easiest to carry out when the brain is gener- member the material. After hearing the tape twelve times
ating theta waves, which occur during the transition be- while in the hypnagogic state, the young man was able to
tween wakefulness and sleep at the beginning and end of study without anxiety and passed the exam easily.

each night, and occasionally during the light sleep of stage Sleep appears both to enhance learning and to aid re-
one. Learning occurs when these theta waves are joined by tention of the information. Studies have shown that when
alpha waves, which are induced by auditory stimulation. At- subjects sleep immediately after memorizing facts, they re-
tempts to instruct subjects during other stages of sleep have tain more material— and can relearn it more easily after a

failed, but researchers say it may be possible to stimulate twenty-four-hour lapse— than if they stay awake for a few
brain-wave changes during stage three-four to make the hours after the learning period. Sleep, it seems, helps match
mind receptive to outside information. Until such manipula- fresh experience to related material the mind has already
tion becomes a reality, however, only about an hour of a mastered and forges a link between the old and the new.
normal night's sleep is available for sleep learning. Typical- The shades of consciousness, from full engagement
ly, an audiotape with a lesson lasting between three and with the waking world to retreat into deep sleep's profound
eight minutes is repeated several times during each session. solitude, are being sorted out in ever finer gradations by

Just as in the daytime, students in sleep need more than one researchers. They have traced the psychological and physi-
exposure to a piece of information to fix it in their minds. ological paths human beings follow as they slip in and out
Experiments have shown that sleep learning cannot of the world of dreams. But mysteries still abound. Scien-
replace daytime learning, but the two can sometimes be tists are left pondering what dreams are made of, and they
used in concert. Snoozing students can absorb facts- pursue the answer with the most sophisticated of tech-
French verbs, mathematical formulas, historical dates— that niques and processes. Perhaps dreams will turn out to be
are memorized by rote, but more complex learning requir- nothing more nor less than the discernible activities of neu-
ing abstraction, analysis, and reasoning seems to be be- ronal circuits. Or perhaps the study of dreams will ultimate-

yond the powers of the slumbering mind. Nevertheless, ly force a look in other, more controversial— and less chart-

hypnopedia could be a real boon for students, adding hours ed—directions for the missing pieces of the puzzle.

118
 Dreams We Have in Common

A,Lmid the kaleidoscopic swirl of

unique dreams that emerge from each human mind are a handful
that occur to almost all dreamers. Dreams of falling, being chased,
soaring through the air, and losing teeth seem to be common man-
ifestations of shared human experience. "Our dreaming self has
apparently never lost sight of a basic truth," writes dream re-
searcher Montague Ullman. "Namely that, despite the manifold
ways in which the human race has fragmented itself in the course
of history, we are, nevertheless, all members of a single species."
Some rkcams are typical of a particular culture.The examina-
tion dream, in which the dreamer stares uncomprehendingly at a
test paper, is a familiar expression of anxiety in industrialized so-
cieties. But the aream of being pursued spans cultural borders. The
Masai may dream of being chased by an animal and the New York-
er of being stalked by a man with a knife, but the fear of being
attacked is so basic that such dreams occur in almost all societies.
Yet even common
dreams, each dramatically colored by indi-
vidual circumstances, mean something slightly different to differ-
ent dreamers. And as demonstrated by the typical dreams dis-
cussed on the following pages, each can be interpreted in a
multitude of ways, according to various schools of psychological
thought and dream theory. "There's no one answer to any o(
them," says psychologist Stanley Krippner, director of the Center
for Consciousness Studies in San Francisco. "All of the explana-
tions are all little pieces of the same puzzle."

119
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 The Fear
of Falling

Almost everyone has at some time been jolted

awake by the alarming sensation of falling from a
great height. This unsettling phenomenon may be
.

triggered by a dip in blood pressure, movement of

fluid in the middle ear, or a limb dangling off the

bed. But dreams involving a fall as part of a scene,

such as tumbling off a cliff window, are
or out of a
nearly as common and seem have deeper roots.
to
Some psychologists speculate that they go back to
when a toddler takes his first shaky steps, and the
precarious sensation imprints the brain with an
indelible metaphor for insecurity. Sociobiologists
look back even further— to a primordial vigilance
against tumbling from the tree while sleeping.
Whatever their cause, dreams of falling are pow-
erful images that lend themselves to many inter-
pretations. Sigmund Freud offered two. In women,
he theorized, symbolized surrender to
falling
erotic temptation -the dreamer viewed herself as a
"fallen woman." Otherwise, falling was an exam-
ple of wish fulfillment, reflecting a desire to return
to infancy when a child who fell was picked up
and held in reassuring arms.
Psychiatrist Emil Gutheil suggested that falling
could be a metaphor for the loss of equilibrium
in many forms: loss of temper, loss of self-control,
a falling away from accepted moral standards.
Noting that such dreams are almost invariably ac-
companied by anxiety, Gutheil added that a pleas-
urable falling dream -one in which the dreamer
drifts safely to the ground -should be classified

instead among flying dreams (page 127).

Contemporary theory holds that falling usually
reflects insecurity-a sense that there is nothing to
hold on to. People in the throes of a divorce or
whose jobs are in jeopardy may dream of falling
from a precipice. A child who overhears a quarrel-
ing parent threaten to leave home might have
nightmares of tumbling into a deep hole. To men
.

who fear impotence, falling can represent the

failure to achieve an erection.
Sometimes, a falling dream can be taken literal-
ly. After dreaming of pitching off the balcony of her

seventh-floor apartment, British dream research-

er Ann Faraday found the guardrails on the terrace
in need of repair -a fact she had not consciously
noticed, but one that had apparently registered in
the back of her mind to be brought out in a dream.

121
 Finding Yourself
Naked in Public

As recounted in Ann Faraday's The Dream Came,

an unnamed university lecturer's recurring dream
was an ordeal of public mortification: "He is walk-
ing through the college grounds or reading in the
library when he suddenly senses all eyes upon
him. Looking down, he discovers to his dismay
that he is naked or clad only in shoes and socks''
To author Faraday, the scenario was a telling
example of the common dream in which sleepers
are embarrassed to find themselves in public
either nude or wearing only their underwear. Such
dreams often express feelings of guilt or inferiori-
ty. In this instance, the evident source was the
lecturer's deplorable habit of pirating colleagues'
ideas to advance his own career. Awake, he
was cocky about getting away with his plagiarism.
But the dream, which typically occurred whenever
he published a new paper, expressed his deep-
seated fear of being exposed as a fraud.
The traditional Freudian view of nudity dreams
held they were inspired by an unconscious, in-
fantile longing for the free, unclothed moments of
early life. But today, dreams of public naked-
ness are considered more likely to indicate that a
dreamer such as the one pictured here is meta-
phorically exposing what she believes to be her
faults or that she feels vulnerable to some situation
in her life. Such a dream may also connote hones-

ty, expressing the sleeper's desire to strip away her

facade and be seen for what she really is.

The tone and content of nudity dreams offer im-

portant clues to their meaning. For example, a
dream of showing up naked at the airport the night
before a journey might be no more than a remind-
er to pack underwear. If you are naked at a party
or in the office, it can mean that you feel exposed
to friends or co-workers. Clues may be found in

the attitude of the other people in the dream. Dis-

approving onlookers signal guilt; indifferent ones
may indicate that something you are concerned
about revealing is not very important. In some
cases, onlookers clearly approve of the dreamer,
as they did in the case of one college student
who dreamed he disrobed to the cheers of friends.
The triumphant dream -which occurred soon after
the young man had his first experience of sexual
intercourse— was evidently a message that he was
delighted with himself for shedding inhibitions.

122
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123
 Running
forYourLHc

The dream of being pursued or attacked -often ac-

companied by the feeling of being helplessly root-
ed to the spot -is common to all societies. In the
United States, surveys indicate that attack/pursuit
isone of the two most common anxiety dream
themes among such diverse groups as college stu-
dents, prisoners, and military inductees (falling is
the other one).
Like falling, pursuit is a dream metaphor for in-
security. Yet people who dream frequently of being
chased or attacked seem seldom to dream of fall-
ing, and vice versa, leading some investigators
to speculate that the two dreams are flip sides of
the same psychological coin.
The psychoanalytic tradition suggests that they
represent two fundamentally different subcon-
scious anxieties: fear of the loss of love in the case
of falling dreams and fear of castration or, for

female dreamers, sexual attack in the case of at-

tack dreams. Another interpretation holds that a
woman who dreams of being pursued is express-
ing a longing to be wooed. The fact that she is
being "chased" is viewed as a punning reference
to the word chaste and reflects contradictory de-
sires to be courted and at the same time to main-
tain her virginity.
In the opinion of many dream researchers, this
classic Freudian viewpoint is sharply limited.
"It's good as far as it goes, and it explains a lot for

some people, but it leaves out a number of equal-

ly valid explanations," states Stanley Krippner.
Such explanations can range from the straightfor-
ward fear of being attacked by a mugger to a
host of subtle manifestations in which the pursuer
represents an unresolved aspect of the dreamer's
situation or personality.
In Working with Dreams, Montague Ullman lists

several questions that dreamers can ask them-

selves in order to explore possible interpretations
of the pursuit dream: "Are circumstances clos-
ing in on you? Are you at the mercy of feelings that
threaten to get out of control? Are you being
victimized by someone else's aggression? Do you
have feelings of guilt and a fear of being caught?
Are you attempting to get away with something?
Are you in the same position you were in as a
child when you felt endangered by forces that were
more powerful than you?"
125
 Tahing

Soaring through the air like a bird has been an in-

triguing feature of human dreams since ancient
times. To the Babylonians, a man who took flight
in hisdreams would find riches if he were poor,
freedom if he were a prisoner, and health if he
were ill. Lydian soothsayer Artemidorus Daldianus
said dreams of flying gave the dreamer a sense of
elevation above others-as well as a promise of
happiness and riches.
Characteristically, Freud saw sex in flying
dreams-connecting the sensation of flight with
orgasm and with sexual prowess. Because suspen-
sion in the air suggests ghosts and angels, Wil-
helm Steckel, an early student of Freud's, linked
dreams of flying with thoughts of death. Alfred
Adler interpreted the dreams as revealing a will to
dominate others, and Carl Jung believed they
symbolized the desire to overcome a problem or
break free of restrictions.
Contemporary dream research tends to ally itself
with Jung's thinking. "People under a compulsion,
people who are forced to endure unhappy cir-
cumstances (unhappy marriage, unhappy job or
the like) experience their desire for freedom in
their flying dreams," writes Emil Gutheil. "To fly
then, means to be free." Bolstering such thinking
is the fact that elderly people seem to dream of
flight more frequently than do younger ones-*
apparently reflecting their desire to slip the bonds
of increasing physical infirmity.
Flying dreams are generally pleasant, expressing
strong feelings of competence or success. Televi-
sion's Johnny Carson has said that he often dreams
of flying and performing aerial acrobatics after
having a good day at the studio-an indication that
he "gets a lift" out of the verbal acrobatics he
engages in when broadcasting.
Aside from traditional psychological theories,
there is a school of thought that connects dreams
-

of flight with out-of-body experiences. "It may

be that we really are flying," suggests clinical psy-
chologist and dream therapist Gayle Delaney, "al-
beit in another dimension of reality and perhaps in
another body." According to Delaney, people who
have learned to induce OBEs contend that if they
become conscious while flying in a dream, they are
aware of floating above their slumbering physical
bodies in a second, astral form.
•

127
 On Stage and Unprepared

Ina recurrent dream that understandably unsettled he cannot answer a single one of the questions.
him, playwright George Bernard Shaw found him- Such dreams occur with distressing frequency to
self standing on a stage as the lead actor in a play students at exam time, whenmeaning is stark-
the
that was about to begin. As the curtain rose, the ly self-evident. But they also seem to recur time

master of repartee and biting dialogue realized to and again to adults whose school days are long
his horror that he had nothing to say. He did not over. Salespeople may dream of being examined or
know his lines. having stage fright the night before a sales presen-
To Emil Gutheil, who related it in his book The tation; athletes often have such dreams before
Language of the Dream, the nightmare revealed competing in a sporting event.
that the playwright— who in his waking hours was In other cases, a dreamed exam or unprepared
a man of fabled self-confidence— harbored a deep- stage appearance is a metaphor for being put to
seated anxiety about his ability to rise to the occa- on some personal issue. Notfng that such
the test
sion when confronted with tasks to which he did dreams often occur at the "threshold of important
not feel equal. To other dream researchers the decisions," Gutheil writes that they are frequent
dream might also have suggested that the great among those individuals whose self-confidence is

playwright subconsciously feared losing his prodi- at stake— a young man about to marry who doubts
gious verbal skills. his sexual adequacy or his ability as a provider;
Whatever the interpretation, Shaw's dream, in someone entering a new job who is unsure of
which an inner drama of anxiety and inferiority is being able to handle new responsibilities. He notes
played out in a theatrical setting, is a typical varia- thatan examination dream may also signify a
tion of the even more common dream in which the sense of being tested morally— "the 'final' exami-
dreamer sits down to take an examination, looks nation as to one's good' and 'bad' deeds before
at the test paper, and realizes, to his horror, that the Highest Examiner."

&
 CHAPTER 4

Psychic Dreams

hen he was a young man, aerospace chemist Edward Butler never put great
stock in dreams, and he knew nothing of what are called paranormal or
psychic dreams. But Butler experienced a dream in 1959 that he will never
forget. That dream and its associated events have affected Ed Butler pro-
foundly, and for the first time, in 1988, he shared it with the world on a
television talk show.
The dream occurred when Butler was twenty-five years old, employed
by a New Jersey company working in rocket engines and fuels. In the dream,
he was sitting in his laboratory in his shirt sleeves, when suddenly a violent
explosion shook the building. Rushing out, he discovered that ar adjacent
labwas ablaze and could hear screaming within. He dashed through the
smoke and flames to find a co-worker named Rita Dudak burning like a
torch, on fire from head to toe. Butler dreamed that he grabbed her by a leg

and dragged her into his own lab, where he placed her under a safety show-
er, dousing the flames.
When he awoke, Butler pondered some curious details in the dream. It

was strange that he would be in his shirt sleeves; because of hazardous

experiments, lab personnel always wore fire-retardant coats when working.
And it was odd, too, that Rita Dudak would be alone in her lab; three co-

workers were almost always there with her. But Butler shrugged off the puz-
zlements and dismissed the dream.
But the dream would not go away. It kept recurring— not every night,
but frequently and persistently, over a period of months.
Then it happened. On the afternoon of April 23, 1959, Butler was doing
paperwork at his desk, and because he was in a safe area, regulations al-

lowed him to be in shirt sleeves. Next door, Rita Dudak was performing an
experiment with some highly explosive materials. She was standing behind
two protective transparent plastic shields, but she had reached a point in the

experiment where she needed to get at the apparatus. So she raised one
shield and pulled the other aside.

As she did, the materials exploded, blowing glass and searing chemi-
cals into her face, shoulders, and arms. In an instant, Dudak was aflame.
The heat was so intense that her safety gog ence, Butler now feels that on this one
gles melted into her hair, She was certain that she occasion, he was for some unknown
was going to die, and as she slipped into unconsciousness, reason shown the future and carefully
she said to herself, "Dear God, here I come, ready or not." instructed on how to deal with it.

At that point, Butler materialized in the doorway. He Courage had absolutely nothing to do
and Dudak were alone in the inferno, exactly as in the with saving Rita Dudak's life, he in-
dream; two of Dudak's co-workers were on a coffee break, sists. "It was not heroism," he said. "It
and one had fled in terror immediately after was as though the dream had prepped
the explosion. Butler remembers groping me for this incident. I know that if I hadn't
through the fire, yelling out Dudak's had the dream, I wouldn't have be-
name. When he found her, she haved as I did. People just don't walk
looked just as she did in the into fires."
dream. "She was burning like Remarkable though it was, Ed-
a wick," he recalls, "she was ward Butler's experience is not
completely in flames, her by any means unique. Just as
whole body." Butler froze everyone dreams, so num-
for a moment. Then, he ;
bers of people — perhaps
says, "I guess I started act- thousands, perhaps many
ing like an automaton be- more— seem to have psychic
cause I was playing out dreams at some time or other
the dream. I was able to in their lives. In one study of
grab her leg, dragged her 290 random dream reports, re-
out of the flames and pulled searchers found to their amaze-
her into my laboratory . . . and ment that, if the reports were true,

put her into this deluge shower." 38 of them-8.8 percent-could be

Dudak spent seven long
Rita classified as paranormal to one extent or
months in the hospital. She and Butler, another. That is, they exhibited qualities that
friends before the accident, have become extraordinarily could not be explained by ordinary means.
close in the years since. "The spiritual bond is so strong," Such dreams have probably occurred since the earliest days
says Butler, "that we will be thinking about each other at of humankind, although only in relatively modern times has
the same time, she in Virginia, me in Pennsylvania, and we there been a concerted effort to quantify and qualify the

will telephone each other. It's just incredible." phenomenon. The dreamers are everybody- from the hum-
Yet until his 1988 television appearance, Butler told no blest laborer to the most renowned public figure. Many
one except Dudak and those closest to him about his dreamers have been men of letters: Both Charles Dickens
dream— the only one of its type he ever had. The scientist and Rudyard Kipling dreamed in detail of events that subse-
could not accept the existence of psychic phenomena. "I quently occurred, while H. Rider Haggard visualized the ag-
was almost ashamed that something mystical happened to onizing demise of a faithful pet retriever and Mark Twain
me," he says. But he eventually came to terms with his ex- sadly previewed the death of his beloved younger brother.
perience. And although he is still the skeptical man of sci- By their very nature, psychic dreams tend to be of con-

131
"On the April night of the Titanic disaster, Middleton dreamed two nights in a row it up through dreams or visions. For ex- T

when was five," wrote novelist Graham

I that the ship was sinking while people ample, researchers have recorded two
Greene in his autobiography, A Sort of struggled around it. At least nineteen oth- dozen supposedly premonitory dreams
Life, "I dreamt of a shipwreck. One image er cases of precognition through dreams, related to the tragic 1966 coal-waste
of the dream has remained with me for trances, and visions have been associated avalanche in Aberfan, Wales, in which
more than sixty years: a man in oilskins with that fateful night of April 14, 1912, 1 16 children and 28 adults died. People all

bent double beside a companion-way un- when the Titanic struck an iceberg and over Britain reported nightmares of being
der the blow of a great wave." More than over 1 ,500 people drowned. enveloped in blackness or of their rooms
aweek earlier, London businessman J. Because disaster is a common dream caving in. A little girl from the village
Connon Middleton-who had booked pas- theme, skeptics dismiss the examples itself dreamed that something black had

sage on the luxury ocean liner but later above as coincidence. Others, however, covered her school. One day later, she
postponed his trip-had also dreamed of think that the more calamitous an event, lay dead beneath the huge wave of black
the catastrophe, but in far grimmer detail. the more likely it is that people will pick rubble that crushed the building.

132
 Survivors of the Titanic -whose
message appears below
last
—await rescue in the photo at
A woman who escaped
left.
onto an overloaded lifeboat re-
called concentrating on her
daughter during the ordeal. Re-
portedly at the same time, the
daughter— in New York and un-
aware that her mother was on
a ship— dreamed that her moth-
er was in a lifeboat that was
in great danger of capsizing.

sequence. Yet the annals of dream research are filled with

such diverse and trifling episodes as a premonition about a
fishing rod, foreknowledge of a visit from strangers, or the
vision of a woman wearing a red dress— all of them as dif-

ficult to explain as dreams that foretold much more impor-

tant events. The dreams themselves include not only pre-
cognitive, or future-telling, dreams but clairvoyant and
telepathic dreams that see the unseen and communicate
the unknown, concurrent and reciprocal dreams that in-

volve two or more dreamers, and dreams that transmit

messages from the dead.
Skeptics hold that so-called psychic dreams can easily
be explained away. In the first place, the validity of most
accounts of dreams that tell the future depends entirely on
the word of the person who claimed to have the dream.
Only occasionally has a dream been related to another indi-

vidual before the supposedly confirming event takes place,

and then the verifying party is usually someone with a close
personal relationship to the dreamer, say a spouse. It is rare

indeed to find a record of a precognitive dream that was

described to independent witnesses before rather than after
the event it predicted came to pass.

Another obvious explanation is simple coincidence; a

person dreams of a yellow car going the wrong way on a
one-way street and, sure enough, just happens to witness

such a scene shortly thereafter. A more sophisticated coun-

4h**>* azmJ* t^JcC ytf-+-*uP9~ / terargument to psychic dreams suggests that the uncon-
scious holds a great deal more knowledge and is consider-
ably more perceptive than is generally supposed. This line
of reasoning says the unconscious picks up real but not

133
 a

An Explosive
Premonition
While stationed in South Africa in the
spring of 1902, a British soldier named
John William Dunne dreamed he was
on an island in imminent peril from a
volcano-or so Dunne wrote later.
"Forthwith/' he recounted, "I was
seized with a frantic desire to save the
4,000 (I knew the number) unsuspect-
ing inhabitants." For the rest of the
nightmare, he tried to persuade the
"incredulous French authorities" to
remove the islanders to safety.
Some time after Dunne's disturbing
dream, a newspaper delivered to his
camp featured the story of the devas-
tating eruption of Mount Pelee on
the French island of Martinique in
the West Indies. Much of the infor-
mation, the astonished Dunne not-
ed, including the number of lives
lost, coincided with his dream. (In

he had misread the account,

fact,

which estimated 40,000, not 4,000,

deaths-a mistake he did not
discover until fifteen years later.)

Dunne said that other dreams

presaging disaster followed in the

next few years, leading him to

conclude that something more
than coincidence was involved.
Still, he believed his visions

were not occult prophecies but

were instead previews of his
own personal experiences. For
instance, instead of foreseeing
a disaster, he anticipated his
reading about it in the news-
paper. Somehow, he thought,
dreams mixed one's images of
the future with those of the past—
theory he later elaborated in his 1927
book, An Experiment with Time.
consciously noticed clues, assesses them against a frame- tramped ninety miles to London and for three days waited
work of information that is not consciously remembered, on the bridge. At last a curious shopkeeper came out to in-
and deduces a likely development that is later emitted in the quire of his business, and Chapman related his dream but in
form of a dream. It is this mundane mental operation, the embarrassment did not reveal his name or that of his town.
skeptics say, not some mysterious psi, that accounts for "I am sorry for thee, my good friend," responded the
"psychic" dreams. shopkeeper. "Now if I heeded dreams I might have proved
"It is true," agrees psychologist Gayle Delaney, "that myself as very a fool as thou hast; for it is not long since
many so-called psychic dreams are no more than lucky that I dreamt that at a place called Swaffham Market, in

guesses or logical projections into the future." And it is like- Norfolk, dwells one John Chapman, a pedlar. He hath a tree

wise true, she continues, that "the dreamer's subconscious, in his back garden, so I dreamed, under which is buried a
having had access to consciously forgotten memories and pot of money. Now suppose I journeyed all the way thither

subtle, unrecognized perceptions, is capable of producing because of that dream in order to dig for that money, what a
dreams that can seem psychic but that, in fact, are not." Yet fool I should be!"
Delaney and other researchers insist that hard evidence de- hapman, no fool, had his message and hurried
veloped by rigorous research indicates that psychic dreams home to dig under his old pear tree. There, he un-
do occur. Says psychologist H.J. Eysenck of the University covered a pot full of gold and silver coins. And on
of London, "Unless there is a gigantic conspiracy involving the lid was an inscription: "Under
of the grimy pot
some thirty university departments all over the world and me doth lye / Another much richer than I." Digging
several hundred highly respected scientists ... the only down farther, Chapman found a chest with an even greater
conclusion the unbiased observer can come to must be that treasure, which he cannily concealed from his neighbors

there does exist a small number of people who obtain until the day came when the town decided to refurbish their

knowledge existing in other people's minds or in the outer church. When the people met to levy the tax to pay for the

world by means as yet unknown to science." construction, Chapman asked how much it would cost.

When they told him, he smilingly announced that he would

By far the most commonly recorded psychic dream is the pay for the entire thing and for a tall new steeple as well.

one that casts into the future, sometimes looking ahead Then, for the first time, the citizens of Swaffham were told

only a few hours or days, sometimes years. Often such pre- what had come Chapman in a dream.
to John

cognitive dreams picture dire circumstances. But that is not Apocryphal as it may sound, this tale meets all the cri-
always the case, as the townspeople of Swaffham, in Nor- teria for a precognitive dream. And it remains a fact that

folk, England, will happily attest. They cherish the legendary one John Chapman, a simple artisan, did donate funds for

account of a splendid dream, one that visited a fifteenth- the renovation of Swaffham's fine church.

century ancestor and devoted churchgoer named John Among the most interesting facets of Chapman's
Chapman. Indeed, in their church of Saints Peter and Paul, dream and the dream of the London shopkeeper is that they
they have raised statues to Mr. Chapman, to his wife, to his gave specific details about real places. Numerous cases

children, and even to his dog. have been just as precise, though perhaps not as rewarding.
A humble peddler, Chapman one night had a dream in At the turn of the century, for example, a popular Victorian

which he was instructed to go to London where a man on novelist named William Howitt reported an amazingly de-

London Bridge would inform him of a great treasure that tailed prevision of his brother's home near Melbourne, Aus-

was to be his. Too poor to travel by horse or cart, Chapman tralia. Howitt experienced the dream on shipboard while

135
A clairvoyant dream proved the undoing
of nineteenth-century murderer William
Corder (left). In 1827, Maria Marten of
Suffolk, England, eloped with Corder,
a farmer. After several months, the girl's
parents began to wonder why they had
not heard from her. Then Maria's mother
dreamed three nights in a row that her
daughter had been killed and buried in a
red barn. The distraught woman con-
vinced the authorities to pull up the floor
of Corder 's barn, and there they found
the girl's corpse. The farmer was tried
and hanged for the murder, depicted in
the contemporary illustration below.

136
traveling to his brother's new abode for the first time. The have been dismissed with a laugh. But it was not.
brother had not described the place, yet Howitt said that In September of same year, she experienced
that a
every aspect of the establishment— the house and the brick vivid dream in which she saw a sort of "stadium" holding a
outbuildings, the hill on which they stood, the nearby euca- single row of seated men, all with "coffee-colored skins"
lyptus forest— came to him with clarity and accuracy. He and wearing dark suits. was somewhere in the
The locale
was astonished when he arrived and discovered how exact- Middle East, she knew, with "sand nearby." To her horror,
ly the actual place matched his dream. Garwell saw two soldiers, also "coffee-colored," rush up to

Yet most precognitive dreams involve people and the row of men and spray them with automatic-rifle fire.

events, and most of those visions are prophecies of woe. Three weeks later, on October 6, 1981 , President Anwar Sa-
Among the more intriguing cases in recent years was one dat of Egypt was assassinated during a parade. As an ar-

that involved a housewife, Mrs. Barbara Garwell, of Hull, mored unit passed in review, four disaffected Egyptian sol-

England. Modestly educated, the mother of tour children, a diers jumped down and ran to the grandstand, one hurling
pleasant and apparently stable personality, Garwell scarcely hand grenades and the others spraying the helpless digni-

seems the psychic sort, although she is superstitious about taries with bursts of fire from assault rifles. Sadat was wear-
a number of things. ing a dark blue uniform.

Nonetheless, in early March 1 98 1 Garwell had a vivid

, he year was almost out when Garwell had yet an-

dream in which she was riding in a car with two Germans other dream. In it, she observed a ship at sea. Two
wearing the black uniforms of Adolf Hitler's elite force, the coffins descended slowly from the ship, sliding

SS. A large limousine was approaching. It stopped, and out down a sort of "rope gang-way," as she called it.

of it stepped a man with a pockmarked face, whom Garwell, Garwell believed the ship to be the one on which
on waking, uncertainly identified as the actor Trevor two of her friends were booked for a cruise to South Afri-

Howard. The two SS men got out of their car. One of them ca—the Italian liner Achille Lauro. She did not tell her two

drew a pistol and fired several shots at the actor, who fell to friends; she had no desire to alarm them, and the deaths did
the ground. Three weeks later, on March 30, 1981, Ronald notseem to be associated with them. Three weeks later, on
Reagan, president of the United States and a one-time mov- December 2, 1981, fire broke out on the Achille Lauro, 100
ie star,was stepping out of his limousine in Washington, miles off the Canary Islands. Garwell's friends were unin-

D.C., when John W. Hinckley, Jr., shot and severely wound- jured, but in all the smoke and confusion, two other passen-

ed him. Hinckley had become a member of a neo-Nazi gers died of heart attacks.

group in 1978, but he had been expelled because his ideas Later, when dream researchers asked Garwell if she

were too violent and extreme. could think of anything that might have laid the foundation

Relating Garwell's dream to the assassination attempt for her apparent psychic abilities, she recalled that three
requires a long reach for connections (Hinckley's obscure times as a child she had fallen and hit her head in the same
neo-Nazi tie, some fairly convoluted interpre-
for instance), spot and that she had required stitches each time.

tation (actor Trevor Howard as a stand-in for President A knock on the head or no, some psychical investiga
Reagan), overlooking inaccuracies (two assailants instead tors place considerable faith in Garwell's dreams In each

of one), and ignoring the likely effect on the dreamer of the case, she described her precognition to others well before

pervasive, continual presence of news and movies about the events, and those witnesses signed statements to that

assassinations and other acts of violence. If it were Gar- effect. Her details were far from perfect, but they did broadly
well's only alleged precognitive dream, it probably would suggest many elements of the real events and were fairly

137
precise in others. Moreover, in the
view of researchers, the consistent
time period between dream and ful-

fillment in itself seemed to enhance

the acceptability of the report.
There was very little that Gar-

well could do about her premonitions,

of course, but in a number of other
cases, psychic dreamers apparently
have been able to affect actual events.
Atlanta psychotherapist David Ryback reports the case of a On the family's next outing,
young man who dreamed that he was speeding along a the woman and her son went
road at night and hit the brakes as he entered a curve; his down to the river with some dirty

car skidded, went off the road, and was heavily damaged. clothes— and she discovered that
Some was driving along that same road at a
nights later, he she had no soap. As she turned
pretty fair clip and came to the curve. As he approached, he back, she glimpsed her son raise
remembered the dream and slowed his speed, not needing his arm to loft a rock into the riv-

to brake. He saw a dark stain on the road and, curious er. Instantly, Ella spun around
about it, stopped to investigate. The stain turned out to be and grabbed the lad just as he
an oil slick. "If I had put on my brakes right there before the was teetering into the water, giv-
curve," the young man wrote Ryback, "1 surely would have ing him, says Ryback, "a long, long hug." Continues the
skidded off the road." doctor: "These dream experiences suggest that although
yback describes another example, involving a the future may be written, the script can be revised. Or part
family in which a woman and her son, sister, and of the future is written and the rest depends on the dream-
nephew all experienced psychic dreams. The sis- er's response."
ter, named Ella, had a particularly vivid dream of Yet sometimes there is no reason for any response
disaster that she believes she averted by altering other than scratching one's head in amazement. Consider
her actions. In the dream, Ella was on a camping trip and the dream a housewife described in a letter to psychoana-
went down to the riverbank with her four-year-old son to lyst and dream therapist Montague Ullman. In her sleep the
wash out some clothes. Then she realized that she had for- woman had seen her younger sister standing before her
gotten the soap. As she walked back to get it, Ella saw, out wearing a bulky coat. The sister's hands were in the coat
of the corner of her eye, her young son fling a stone into the pockets. When she pulled them out, they were filled with
water, lose his balance, and tumble in. She rushed to him, bottle caps. That was it, the whole dream. The following
but the current swept him away and he drowned. "She noon, the sister, her husband, and two sons arrived for Fa-
awoke very upset," writes Ryback. ther's Day dinner. The sister, who was pregnant, had on a

138
full, lightweight summer coat. She reached in the pockets on a dark sea, never expecting to see her daughter again.
and pulled out two big handfuls of bottle caps, exclaiming But sometimes the dream picture appears devoid of
delightedly, "Look at what the boys put in my pockets." powerful emotion or holds no people whatsoever, merely
inanimate objects. The dream may even seem utterly trivial

If the precognitive dream is a psychic look into the future, yet nonetheless appears inexplicable by conventional stan-
the supposed clairvoyant dream focuses more or less on the dards. William Oliver Stevens, an educator and author on
moment. The dreamer visualizes distant scenes and events, psychic research, believed that such petty, clairvoyant
sees and recognizes people, listens to their conversations, dreams are far more commonplace than supposed.

and observes their actions— later to discover in astonish- He cited three examples. The mother of the Portu-
ment that it all took place exactly as dreamed and often at guese ambassador under President James Buchanan
exactly the same instant. dreamed that her son was at a dinner party in muddy boots
These visions are frequently of great peril or death, of- and, in embarrassment, kept his feet hidden under the ta-

ten befalling a loved one. It is easy to understand, then, why ble; in fact, his carriage had met with an accident resulting

some believers think the force of the emotion involved in in his boots being muddied. A woman dreamed that she

the actual event somehow impresses itself on the dreamer's received a note on blue paper fashioned into a three-
unconscious. They suggest such a mechanism might have cornered fold, containing the rules for a game called Krieg-

been at work in 1912, when a young woman said she saw spiel and signed by a certain name; she subsequently found
her mother in a lifeboat rocking on an ocean swell, "a life- an identical note, which she was sure she had never seen
boat," the daughter related, "so crowded with people that it before in real life, on her piano. And an executive dreamed
looked as if it might of a damp order sheet covered with smeared, illegible writ-
be swamped at any ing; some time later, precisely such a sheet arrived at his

minute." The woman office. "Taken separately, these trivial but true dreams sel-
later learned that her dom make more than little scraps of stories," says Stevens,
mother had been on "but a whole collection of them becomes impressive."
the ill-fated Titanic However, certain clairvoyant dreams of inanimate-or
and was at the time at least lifeless— objects have been seen to have great sub-
of the dream in a stance. A classic example dates back to 1898 and was in
jam-packed lifeboat fact among the first investigations conducted by Professor

that was wallowing William James, the Harvard psychologist who became a fa-

Like terrifying images from a

nightmare, this series of photo-
graphs captures successive
moments in the brutal assassi-
nation of Egyptian president
Anwar Sadat on October 6,
1981. Machine-gun wielding
soldiers leaped from a truck in
the parade, ran toward the
grandstand, and sprayed its
occupants with automatic gun-
fire. Three weeks before the
actual incident, Barbara Car-
well of Hull, England, allegedly
dreamed a strikingly similar
scene of a bloody assassination
set in the Middle East.

139
 mous philosopher and helped found the American Society
for Psychical Research. As James reported in the proceed-
ings of the ASPR, on October 3 1 of that year, a young wom-
Preview of a Hanging an named Bertha Huse had vanished in Enfield, Vermont,
and no amount of searching turned up a trace of her. The
only clue came from the blacksmith's wife, who recalled
In England in 1774, while waiting for their friend, poet
seeing a woman resembling Bertha on Shaker Bridge at the
Anna Seward, to join them, a Mr. Cunningham report-
edly told his companion Mr. Newton about two vivid
north end of Muscova Lake.
dreams he had had the night before. In the first, he On the morning of the disappearance, a Mrs. Nellie
heard a horse and rider approaching. As Cunningham Titus, living four-and-a-half miles distant, awoke to tell her
watched, three men jumped out of a thicket, stopped
husband that something terrible had happened. He
the horse, searched the rider's clothes and boots, and
then took him prisoner. At this point, Cunningham shrugged and went off to work. By evening, everyone in the

related, he awoke. By and by, he fell asleep again and area, including Mrs. Titus, had heard about Bertha Huse,
was soon back in a dream. This time he was stand- and they knew that a professional diver had been called in
ing with a crowd in front of a gallows, where a man
to search beneath the bridge, but to no avail.
was being hanged— the very man, in fact, who had
been arrested in his first dream. After supper that evening, Mrs. Titus sat dozing in her
Shortly thereafter Miss Seward arrived with a young chair. When her husband roused her, she came to with a
protege, John Andre, a newly commissioned British
start, asking him crossly, "Why didn't you let me be ? In the
officer who was shortly to join his regiment in Can-
ada. According to the story,Cunningham stared at the morning I could have told you where the girl lays and all

young man as if he were a ghost. He later explained about it." That night in bed, her husband heard her mutter,
his strange behavior to Newton: Andre, he stated, was "She's not down there, but over here on the left." Again he
the very man he had seen in his dreams.
awakened her, and she begged him to leave her be.
Six years later, the had cause to remem-
two friends
ber that dream, when news reached them that the The next night, Mrs. Titus awoke, said that she knew
Americans had executed Major John Andre as a spy. where the girl was, and insisted that her husband accompa-
He had been convicted of conspiring with Benedict ny her there in the morning. Shortly after 8:00 a.m., Mrs.
Arnold to overthrow the American fortress of West
Titus and her husband arrived at the Shaker Bridge. She
Point. Moreover, the details of his capture and death
coincided with Cunningham's walked to a particular spot, point-
alleged dream: Andre was caught ed, and said, "She's down there."
by three militiamen, who searched
The diver was called back to
his clothesand boots, where they
the scene, protesting that he had
found incriminating documents.
And he was hanged (below), as the searched the area thoroughly.
dream had previewed. "No," said Mrs. Titus, gesturing in
If true as told, this story merits
exasperation. "You have been
interest not only asan example of
precognitive dreaming but be- there and there, but not there.
cause six years elapsed between She is head down in the mud, one
dream and fulfillment-a long foot sticking up and a new rubber
time compared with other reports
of dreams that supposedly have
on it." The diver submerged
predicted the future. again, and when he surfaced, he
was shaken. Bertha Huse's body

140
 1

lay eighteen feet down, head first in the mud, with one leg

up and a new ruffoer shoe on one foot. "It is my business to

recover bodies in the water, and I am not afraid of them,"

said the diver. "But in this instance I was afraid of the wom- A Dream of Assassins
an on the bridge."
Professor James was able to establish that Mrs. Titus
Monsignor de Lanyi, bishop of Grosswardin in Hunga-
had experienced other clairvoyant dreams but had fought
ry, reportedly awoke with a start from an alarming
against "the power," as she called it, because it always left
nightmare in the early morning hours of June 28,
her He concluded that the report was a "decidedly solid
ill. 1914. The bishop, who had once tutored the Austrian

document in favor of the admission of a supernormal facul- archduke Franz Ferdinand in Hungarian, dreamed
that he went to his writing table and found a black-
ty of seership."
bordered letter addressed to him in the hand of his
At about the time that James was investigating Nellie former pupil. He opened the letter and saw at its head
Titus's clairvoyant dream, other psychical researchers were a picture rather like a postcard, with a crowded street

somewhat less common but and a short alley on it. The archduke and his wife
commencing their study of a
were shown sitting in an automobile with three men.
closely related sleep phenomenon. This was the telepathic Suddenly, the picture seemed to come to life, as two
dream, in which thoughts, emotions, even physical sensa- young men sprang from the crowd and shot the royal
tions seem to be transmitted intentionally from one mind to couple with revolvers. The words underneath the
scene supposedly read, "Dear Dr. Lanyi, herewith in-
I

another, sometimes across great distances.

form you that today my wife and will fall victims to
1

The exciting thing about such dreams is that they are an assassination. We commend ourselves to your pi-
the most susceptible of all forms to scientific inquiry. Since ous prayers." It was signed by the archduke.
dream seems depend Later that morning the bishop allegedly told his
a precognitive or clairvoyant to pri-
mother and a houseguest of his dream and then said
marily on the perceptions of the dreamer, researchers must
a mass for the archduke and his wife. That afternoon
content themselves with checking facts and veracity. But a he received a cable that confirmed his dreadful vision.
telepathic dream actively involves both a transmitter and a Franz Ferdinand and his wife were murdered that
very day while on a state visit to Serbia (below), and
receiver; thus, experiments can be set up in an attempt to
the circumstances closely resembled Lanyi's dream.
duplicate and analyze the phenomenon. The only difference, Lanyi said, was that he saw
Among the first to experi- two assassins, when there had
dreaming in fact been just one. But Lanyi
ment with telepathic at
apparently did not write down
the turn of the century was an
the details of his dream until
Italian psychical researcher two years had passed, and no
named G. B. Ermacora. Like every witnesses are on record cor-
roborating that he told people
educated Italian, he had grown up
about it before he learned of
hearing the story of how in 1 32
the actual assassination. Thus
the lost cantos of Dante's Divine the validity of his claim to

Comedy had been recovered having dreamed advance the

in

event that precipitated World

through a telepathic dream. Ac-
War I depends entirely on
cording to Dante's contemporary trusting the bishop as a man
Giovanni Boccaccio, who wrote of his word.

of it in his celebrated tales of Flo-

141
 d to
be

*******
of Mrs-
 "

rentine life, Dante had died just as he him of a curious occurrence. It

was concluding his epic poem, and the seemed that Maria's four-year-old
final cantos were discovered to be missing. cousin Angelina was staying with her and
Dante's son Jacopo, a sometime poet himself, was that the child had awakened one morning to describe a

urged to complete the work— a "presumptuous folly," dream about a little named
girl Elvira. This astonished
thought Boccaccio— but before he could start, his father ap- Maria; Elvira was her own secret spirit control, or trance
peared to him in a dream. Dante, wrote Boccaccio, was personality. What was more, Elvira had promised to appear
"clothed in the purest white, and his face resplendent with in Angelina's dreams again that night, this time wearing a
an extraordinary light; Jacopo asked him if he lived, and pink dress and carrying a beautiful doll.

Dante replied: 'Yes, but in the true life, not our life.' " Then The next day, Maria informed Ermacora that the visit

Jacopo asked his father if he had finished his work, and if had taken place in Angelina's dreams, almost precisely as
so, what had happened to it. Dante confirmed that he had Elvira had said it would. Excitedly, the researcher decided to
completed it and then "took him, Jacopo, by the hand and try a series of experiments with the Manzinis. On fifty-nine

led him into that chamber in which he, Dante, occasions, he gave Maria sets of clues, which presumably
had been accustomed to sleep when he lived she would absorb into her own consciousness. Er-
in this life: and, touching one of the walls, he macora's idea was that if the clues subsequently

said: 'What you have sought for so much is turned up in the child's dreamscape, the only ex-
here'; and at these words, both Dante and planation was that they had been implanted
sleep fled from Jacopo at once." telepathically by Maria's spirit guide while the
Returning to Dante's house the next child was sleeping. Evidently, the scheme
day, Jacopo and a friend located what worked to his satisfaction,

Boccaccio called "a little window in because Ermacora pro-

the wall, never before seen by any of nounced the results of

them. ... In it they found several writ-

ings, all mouldy from the dampness of
the walls, and had they remained there In 1 904, English novelist H.

Rider Haggard dreamed he saw

longer, in a little while they would
his daughter's black retriev-
have crumbled away. They found er tying among brushwood by
water. The dog, he wrote,
them to be the 13 cantos that "transmitted to my mind in an
had been wanting to com- undefined fashion the knowl-
edge that it was dying. " After
plete the Commedia." waking, he described the dream
to his wife. The next day the
Ermacora was
dog was missing, and Haggard
inclined to believe embarked on a search. He
the tale, but he found its body floating against
a weir about a mile from home.
could not explain The novelist concluded that
the animal had communicated
it.Then as luck with him by "placing whatev-
would decree it, er portion of my being is capa-
ble of receiving such impuls
a medium named es when enchained by sleep, in-
Maria Manzini told to its own terrible position.
his studies highly promising and cited numerous examples investigation seems not to have occurred to the doctor.
of telepathic material that had been induced in Angelina's Ermacora's experiments received only passing notice,
dream consciousness. and research in dream telepathy was largely ignored for
Although Ermacora's experiments mark the first seri- several decades. Then, in the 1940s, Wilfrid Daim, a young
ous attempts dream telepathy with a prese-
at inducing Viennese psychologist, rekindled scientific curiosity with
lected sender and receiver, his methods seem ludicrous by the first truly workable method for studying dream telepa-
modern standards. A large proportion of the evidence was thy in a controlled setting. Daim segregated senders and re-

gathered by Maria and related to him secondhand several ceivers—sometimes positioning them in distant areas of the
hours later. The possibility that Maria, who made her living same building, sometimes miles apart. Then he gave the
as a professional medium, might be tempted to shape the senders an image that neither they nor their receivers could
reports of a four-year-old in such a way as to prolong the possibly know about beforehand and asked them to trans-

144
 .

While involved in preparations from a collection of envelopes on the table and found as his
for the 1901 coronation proces-
sion of King Edward VII, Wil- "target" image a red equilateral triangle on a black back-
liam Cavendish-Bentinck, the
ground. He began to concentrate on the image, hoping to
sixth duke of Portland (inset,
dreamed one night that
left), project his thoughts across space to his receiver. He wrote
the royal coach got stuck in the
that he felt a "strange telepathic contact which is nearly im-
arch at the Horse Guards. The
next day he had the coach and possible to describe. Then I energetically ordered the awak-
arch measured: "To my as-
tonishment, we found that the
ening of the receiver but not with words."
Arch was nearly two feet too Down the hall, Daim's receiver awoke at 6:35 a.m. He
low to allow the coach to pass
through." The coach had not recalled a dream in which there were mounted soldiers,
been through the arch for some music, and much excitement, into which "suddenly a three-
time, during which the level
of the road had evidently been cornered, glaring-red fir tree pushes through the whole . .

raised by repairs. The duke

and remains unmoved for seconds amid all the former
must have had the road low-
ered, because the procession dream contents. It is not a fir tree out of nature but such a
went off without a hitch.
one as one finds in children's primers." In other words, his

dream was interrupted by an image that seemed very like

mit it telepathically to the the one that Daim was targeting in his consciousness. And
sleeping receivers. Next it had come to the dreamer at a moment virtually synchro-

the psychologist re- nous with Daim's order to awaken.

corded the dream As Daim was working alone in Austria a number of
content of the re- New York psychoanalysts began discussing their own views
ceivers verbatim of telepathic dreaming. The group was well aware that peo-

before they had a ple undergoing psychoanalysis often dreamed about their

chance to be- therapists. But what puzzled them were the many instances
come contami- in which a patient's dreams were found to contain inexpli-

nated by out- cable information about the analyst's private life. Was this,
7
side influences. they asked, some form of genuine psychic interaction
In one typical ne member of the group, Montague Ullman, who
experiment, con- was already known for his role in therapeutic
ducted at 6:30 a.m. "dream work" and the "vigilance theory, " in
on March 14, 1948, which he speculated that the alert dreaming brain
and set forth later in stood watch while the body slept, decided to pur-
Duke University's Para- sue the matter. Ullman knew the phenomenon of psychic

psychological Bulletin, dreaming from both sides of the couch. He himself had had
Daim took the part of several such dreams as a student-patient undergoing anal-
the sender. Sitting in a ysis, and later he had listened to patients describe dreams
closed room at a con- in which events from his own thoughts and life experiences

siderable distance from were inexplicably embedded.

the sleeping receiver, Ullman went on to examine the phenomenon of tele-

he chose at random pathic dreaming outside the patient-therapist environment.

145
 "

In their 1973 book entitled Dream Telepa-

thy, dream researchers Montague Ullman
(left) and Stanley Krippner (below) wrote
about their pioneering studies at the Mai-
monides Medical Center. "Perhaps our
most basic finding," they concluded, "is
the scientific demonstration of Freud's
statement: 'Sleep creates favorable condi-
tions for telepathy. ' " The researchers
observed that if a subject's dream "is vivid,
colored, and somewhat puzzling to the
. . .

dreamer and does not 'fit' into his dream

pattern or reflect recent activity, then
we can be alerted to the possibility that the
dream is being influenced by ESP.
He went looking for funding,

and in 1962, with the help of

Gardner Murphy, then vice-
president of the ASPR and
research director for the
Menninger Foundation, an
organization devoted to
psychiatric research, he was
ready to begin. Since Ull-

man was already the direc-

tor of the Community Men-
tal Health Center at Maimonides Medical Center in

Brooklyn, New York, Maimonides became the site of the

new dream laboratory. Working with Ullman were psychol-
ogist Stanley Krippner, four research assistants, and a num-

ber of volunteer subjects chosen for their ability to recall

dreams and their generally favorable attitude toward ESP.
Over the next decade, the group ran several series of
experiments, following essentially the same procedures and
gradually refining their methods of evaluation. Typically,

one of the subjects would arrive at the lab late at night,

ready to go to sleep. He or she would enter the sleep room, strong emotional content— archetypal themes, vivid col-
be wired up with electrodes connected to a remote electro- ors—elements that characterize the majority of reported
encephalograph monitor, and given instructions on the spontaneous paranormal dreams and that presumably
night's proceedings. In particular, the subject would be told would make a powerful telepathic signal— if such signals
to focus on identifying the target to be presented during exist. The sender was directed to concentrate on the target
sleep. He or she would then retire on the bed provided. and attempt to mentally project that picture in any way he
Meanwhile, in a second room, one of the, staff, acting or she saw fit, including making mental images and writing
as the "experimenter," sat watching the EEG; and in a third down associative words.
room, soundproof except for a buzzer connected to the ex- When EEG indicated that the REM period had end-
the
perimenter, another colleague (a "sender," or agent) waited ed, the sender was instructed to stop sending and the sub-
for the signal to begin. When EEG activity indicated that the ject was awakened by the experimenter via an intercom.

subject was entering his or her first REM, or dreaming, The subject was then asked to recount his or her dream into
stage of sleep, the experimenter pushed the buzzer button a tape recorder before returning to sleep. This same cycle of
that alerted the sender. The sender then opened a sealed sleeping, dreaming, and post-dream debriefing was repeat-
envelope to discover the night's target picture, which usual- ed as many as four or five times a night. The next morning,
ly came from a pool of twelve images. the session would conclude with the subject reviewing the
The target pictures were reproductions of paintings by night's dreams and adding any new associations that came
well-known artists. All the paintings were characterized by to mind. The subject's full set of remarks were then tran-

146
scribed and, together with copies of all of the illustrations in each other. Erwin, the dreamer in the Zapatistas experi-

the target pool, were sent to three independent judges. Giv- ment, was singled out as the most responsive subject, Feld-
en no clues as to the actual target picture used by the agent, stein the most effective agent. The fact that Feldstein pro-

the judges were asked to rank the transcripts for corre- duced almost twice as many hits as the other agents also
spondence with each of the targets. A target image deemed suggested that the agent was more than a passive partici-

to have the most correct identifications was given a one, pant, and this indicated that telepathy (ESP of the agent's
that with the fewest match-ups a twelve, and the remainder thoughts), rather than clairvoyance (ESP of the target pic-
at various rankings in between. ture itself), was central to the process.
Many of the early experiments produced inconclusive Feldstein's gifts were so pronounced that he even
statistical results, but there were enough "hits" to convince transmitted nontargeted material spontaneously from time
Ullman and Krippner that they were on the right track. to time. In one session the subject incorporated into a
When, for example, research assistant Sally Van Steen- dream extraneous images that were seemingly scavenged
burgh, as sender, concentrated on the image of George Bel- from a textbook Feldstein was reading for his classwork,

lows's Dempsey and Firpo, a darkly powerful painting of two and on another night, when research assistant Joyce Plosky
prizefighters battling in New York's Madison Square Gar- was the agent and Feldstein the EEG monitor, his telepathic
den, her subject reported a dream involving "something signal was so strong that it apparently "jammed" hers;

about Madison Square Garden and a boxing fight." When none of Plosky's transmission reached the subject's dream
she targeted Mystic Night, a painting by Millard Sheets de- consciousness, but something on Feldstein's mind did.

picting the dance ritual of five women in a verdant grove, llman and Krippner decided to focus their next se-
her subject awoke to remember "being with a group of peo- ries of experiments on the dream telepathy poten-
ple .. . participating in something," and "a lot of mountains tial of Erwin as subject and Feldstein as agent, and
and trees." "What strikes me most about the whole thing in the fall of 1964, they ran the two men through
was the trees, again, and the greenery and the country." seven nights of dream induction experiments. This
The subject recalled "some sort of primitive aspect. ... I time the results were even more dramatic than in previous
can almost see it as some sort of tribal ritual in a jungle." rounds. The three judges who reviewed the transcripts
When research assistant Sol Feldstein projected Zapa- found that five out of the seven transmissions had been
tistas, a painting by Jose Clemente Orozco portra)ing a band hits. In one example, the night Feldstein's target picture was
of Mexican-Indian followers of Zapata as they made their Degas's School of the Dance, Erwin was given a nearly per-
way across the mountains, the subject, a young psycholo- fect score, for dreaming about being "in a class" in which
gist named William Erwin, saw "traveling ... a very distant "at different times, different people would get up for some
scene" with "an aspect of grandeur about it." And he sort of recitation or some sort of contribution. There . . .

claimed to have had "a feeling of" New Mexico, seeing In- was one little girl that was trying to dance with me."

dians and "a lot of mountains." Still, skeptics were not convinced; they argued that al-

Ullman and Krippner felt that their dream laboratory most any dream could be found to have some correspond-
had achieved its primary goal, which was to show not only ence with almost any target if one were disposed to look for

that paranormal dreams could be rigorously studied but it. In response, Ullman and Krippner made the judging proc-

that they could be controlled to some degree. Now it was ess even more sophisticated and the sending-receiving ef-

time to refine procedures. First, they analyzed the relative fort more varied in its appeal to the dreamer. Feldstein re-

successes of subjects and agents in communicating with ceived an assortment of physical props by which he could

147
 .

reinforce projection of his target picture, rather as a charade As part of the control, Parise's involvement was not
player would act out a secret password. To send an image mentioned at any time. If Parise and Bessent were equally
of the target painting Interior of the Synagogue, for example, successful in receiving telepathic impressions, it would sug-
he was given candles to light and an object inscribed in He- gest that telepathy works chiefly through the "reaching out"
brew; to send Daumier's The Barrel Organ, which shows a of the subject; if, however, there was a significant difference
group of people singing hymns around an organ, Feldstein in the results, "intentionality" on the part of the agents,
received a hymnal. This time around, on six of the eight who were trying to contact Bessent but were unaware of
nights the correspondence between Erwin's dreams and the Parise, would have to be reckoned as a significant factor.

target pictures were found by the judges to be "direct hits," While the band played, a randomly selected art print

and the remaining two nights fell just short of "direct." By was projected before the audience, whose "states of con-
Ullman's calculations, the odds against so many pure coin- sciousness" in the words of Stanley Krippner, were already
cidences occurring were 1 ,000 to 1 "dramatically altered ... by the music, by the ingestion of
he Maimonides team now wondered what kind of psychedelic drugs before the concert started, and by contact
telepathic transference might take place when a with other members of the audience." When the accumulat-
large number of agents were mobilized to send a ed results of six nights' experiments were evaluated, the
message to a dreaming receiver. After preliminary anonymous Parise's dreams scored no better than chance
tests, they settled on a plan to work with audiences would explain. But Bessent scored very well four times out
of the Grateful Dead, a popular rock group. They chose as of six. On one night, for example, when fans were
the principal setting a concert hall in Port Chester, New "sending" their versions of The Seven Spinal Chakras, an
York, where the band was to give six late-night perfor- image of a man in lotus position with his chakras, or energy
mances in February 1971. Two apparently gifted psychic centers, all vividly colored, Bessent was dreaming about a
sensitives, Malcolm Bessent and Felicia Parise, were select- man who was "suspended in mid-air or something" and
ed to be the simultaneous subjects. Bessent was to sleep at "using natural energy." He remembered "the light from the
Maimonides under the usual experimental conditions; sun ... a spinal column." The Maimonides team concluded
Parise, functioning as a control, was to sleep in her own that ESP had to be the only explanation for Bessent's high
apartment, awakening on cue every ninety minutes when number of correspondences, but they added with admirable
the lab called for the latest dream report. caution, "This experiment does not prove that 2,000 agents
On the appointed nights, Bessent and Parise retired to are better than a single agent."
their respective hideaways at 10:00 p.m. Around 11:30, Bessent's psychic dreaming talents apparently were
when the two were asleep, the 2,000 fans at the concert hall not limited to telepathy. For a study in precognitive dream-
forty-five milesaway were given a brief description of what ing, the Maimonides team again chose Bessent as their sub-

the dream laboratory was trying to do. Then the following ject. The study lasted sixteen nights, with each experiment
instructions were flashed on a large screen that was located covering two nights: On the first night, Bessent would at-

above the stage. tempt to dream precognitively about a target picture that he
"You are about to participate in an ESP experiment. In would view the following night. On the second night, Bes-
a few seconds you will see a picture. Try using your ESP to sent would see the target and then attempt to dream about
'send' this picture to Malcolm Bessent. He will try to dream it. The entire sequence began again on the third night, with

about the picture. Try to 'send' it to him. Malcolm Bessent is a different target. At the end of the complete series, it was
now at the Maimonides dream laboratory in Brooklyn." judged that on the eight precognitive-dreaming nights, Bes-

148
 . -

sent scored seven hits; on the eight control nights, Bes- cape the role of protector of scientific purity or guardian of
sent's dream images bore little or no resemblance to the the scientific morals," he says. "Were we sympathetic and
target pictures. Again, the odds against this happening by encouraging observers, or scientific detectives out to pre-

chance were calculated at 1 ,000 to 1 vent a crime from being committed before our very eyes?"
Despite such compelling study results, the Mai- Such skepticism from the scientific community, along
monides experiments came to an end in 1972 when re- with the prohibitive costs of operating a dream laboratory,
search funds ran out and the principals moved on to other have forced researchers to explore the phenomenon from
places and other tasks. Summarizing their work, Ullman new perspectives— those that present psychic dreaming in a

and Krippner have concluded that people who are open to way that is, as one researcher put it, "more acceptable to

the possibility of ESP, who are relatively comfortable in the contemporary science." Currently, much attention is being
laboratory, and who are able to remember their dreams focused on the physiological functioning of the brain. And
have a reasonable probability of experiencing psychic Maimonides alumnus Stanley Krippner, along with Michael
dreams in an experimental situation. A. Persinger, a professor of neuroscience and psychology at

Such people have an even higher likelihood of psi re- Laurentian University in Ontario, Canada, have undertaken
trieval if the pictures selected as targets contain emotionally an intriguing study using dream research collected from as
powerful images with which the subject and agent can per- far back as 1886 to examine the relationship between ESP
sonally identify. Male participants generally scored higher and the earth's geomagnetic activity. Through such chang-
than women on target material incorporating themes of sex es in direction and methodology, dream researchers hope
and aggression, which the researchers explained by the fact to rekindle the interest of the scientific community in psy-

that men in general are more inclined to dream about these chic dreaming and open the door for further studies.

themes. Similarly, as women in general tend to be more

sensitive to the colors and linear details of images than Oblivious to all the scientific disarray over the subject are

men, so females in a laboratory setting gave more accurate the nightly dreamers outside the laboratory walls, who keep
reports of the colors and details of their art targets. Themes right on experiencing what appear to be psychic dreams
involving eating, drinking, religious subject matter— basic and keep on wondering about them. Among the most com-
concerns of both sexes -tended to come through well with plex and fascinating notions of psychic dreams are those
all participants in all combinations. labeled "reciprocal" and "concurrent." As defined by psi

no one has since come close to repli-

nfortunately, author William Oliver Stevens, concurrent means that two
cating the Maimonides experiments. Sleep re- persons have identical or very similar dreams on the same
searchers at the University of Wyoming in Laramie night, whereas reciprocal means that the dreamers share a
tried twice and failed. Cynics suggest that the Mai- mutual experience — "that is," explains Stevens, "two or

monides team fooled themselves into seeing para- more people meet in their dreams on the same night and
normal connections because that was what they were hop- enact a scene together. Each is conscious of the other in the

ing to find. Others feel that just as the positive atmosphere precise setting and action of the dream."

at Maimonides had given the experimenters' psi capability The dreams can be of real or imaginary events, tnfling
the best chance to find expression, so the latent hostility in or heavy with meaning. An example of a dream that ap-

Laramie had throttled it. David Foulkes, who supervised the pears both concurrent and reciprocal comes from the Pro-

Wyoming experiments, concedes that a highly skeptical at- ceedings of the Society for Psychical Research in Britain One
titude may have tainted his results. "It proved hard to es- night in August 1887, a Mrs. H dreamed that she was walk-

149
ing with her husband and a friend, Mr. J, in London's Rich- night. She said dreamed of being in the Varleys'
that she

mond Park, when she saw a notice posted on a tree that a room and that Cromwell had been on the point of death. "I
certain Lady R was giving a garden party at her country es- only succeeded in rousing you by exclaiming, Oh, Crom-
tate in honor of Queen Victoria's jubilee. Mrs. H's husband well, I am dying!' " she said. "And at what time had the
remarked that he hoped she would not go because it would dream occurred?" Varley asked. "Between half-past three
be difficult to get back to town. At which point the friend and four in the morning."
said, "Oh, I will manage that for you," and Mrs. H woke up. An even more elaborate reciprocal dream was sup-
rs. H's husband was awake as well and reported posedly reported to Robert Owen, a former member of the
a vivid dream of his own. "I dreamt we were United States Congress and an emissary to Naples, Italy, in

walking in Richmond Park," he said, "and was I 1860. Once again, the dreaming involved two friends, one
told Lady R was going to have a party. We were very ill, except in this instance the dreamers were hundreds
invited, andwas very much troubled as to
I how of miles apart. The narrator was a Miss A.M.H., the daugh-
we should get home, as the party was at ten and the last ter of a prominent literary figure in mid-Victorian England
train went at eleven, when my friend J, who was walking and a personal friend of Owen.
with us, said, 'Oh, will manage that for you.' " Unless Mr.
I As related by Miss A.M.H., one night she dreamed that

and Mrs. H were a couple of Victorian pranksters— and ap- she journeyed to the town where her sick friend, S— , resid-

parently the SPR investigators did not think so— the case ed. She entered his house and went straight upstairs to a

has to go down either as a coincidence in a million or as a bed chamber. "There on his bed, 1 saw S— lying as if about
striking example of paired psychic dreaming. to die," she recounted. "I took his hand and said, 'No, you
Reciprocal dreams are both rare and intricate. The are not going to die. Be comforted, you will live.' Even as I

London Dialectical Society published a report in 1873 about spoke I seemed to hear an exquisite strain of music sound-
a Mr. Cromwell F. Varley visiting his sister-in-law, who was ing through the room."
living in the country and critically ill with heart disease. On Upon awakening, the young woman told her mother
his first night in her home, Varley experienced a nightmare, of the dream and then wrote S— asking after his health but ,

in which he was totally paralyzed. As he lay there in his saying nothing about the dream. There the matter rested,
dream, he saw his sister-in-law enter the room and say to until three years later, when she and her mother met their
him, "If you do not move, you will die." But he could not friend in London. The talk got around to dreams, and the
move so much as a finger. Whereupon the sister-in-law lady told S— about her vision. A remarkable expression
said, "I will frighten you and then you will be able to move." came over the gentleman's face, and he said that when he
The sister-in-law made some attempts, but to no was so ill, shortly before her letter arrived, he had experi-
avail. By then, reported Varley, he was aware in the dream enced a dream that was the very counterpart of hers.
that his heart had stopped beating. At last, the sister-in-law In the dream, S- related, "I seemed to myself on the

screamed, "Oh, Cromwell, I am dying!" That terrified Var- point of death," and asked his brother for two favors. "Send
ley. He jumped awake and with no trace of paraly-
up, fully for my friend A.M.H. I must see her before I depart. I would
sis. By now, his wife was awake, and he told her about the also hear my favorite sonata by Beethoven ere I die." The
apparition. They checked the door; it was bolted. They brother protested: Did S— want nothing more than these
looked at the time; it was 3:45 a.m. trifles? But in his dream S- was adamant: "No. To see my
According to the report, Varley's sick sister-in-law friend A.M.H. -and to hear the sonata. That is all I wish."
complained the next morning of having passed a very bad "And even as I spoke in my dream," S— related, "I

150
 Dream researcher Charles Honorton,
who devised and supervised many of the
Maimonides laboratory dream
experiments, concentrates on a repro-
duction of Zapatistas, a painting by Mexi-
can artist Jose Orozco, in an
attempt to transmit the image to a
dreaming volunteer in another room.
Chosen for its simplicity, vivid
colors,and deep emotional content, the
picture was one of a collection of 1,024
such images gathered by Honorton and his
associates for use as dream targets.

m-
saw you enter. You walked up to the bed with a cheerful air, broadcast station sending out images and sound waves to
and, while the music I longed for filled the room, you spoke other sleepers' sensitive mental receptors. And some theo-
to me encouragingly, saying I should not die." rize that a sort of psychic radar may operate in dreams,
Former congressman Owen firmly vouched for the scanning for oncoming hostile blips and vectoring the un-
honesty of Miss A.M.H. Whether the gentleman identified as conscious on a course to defend and cope.
S- was the sort who could resist seizing an easy opportu- Science has long known that the brain generates elec-

nity to impress and possibly win a lady by declaring an inti- trical impulses, and a number of eminent scientists have
mate dream relationship with her was not noted. attempted to create a model of the brain that, for starters,

On a somewhat more prosaic, but nonetheless intrigu- would accommodate telepathy. Sir John Carew Eccles, win-

ing, level is a recent reciprocal dream that involves not two, ner of a 1963 Nobel Prize in physiology, submits ..idt there
but three, people and includes elements of telepathy, clair- exist modules, or ensembles of neurons, in the al cor-

voyance, and precognition. A young woman named tex, and that each module "has to some degree a collective
Wynona, living in central Florida, dreamed that her racecar- life of its own, with as many as 10,000 neurons of diverse
driver brother was working on his stock car. "I saw him types and with a functional arrangement of feed-forward
disconnect a small narrow rod that had a strong curled-up and feedback excitation and inhibition." Each module, he
spring on each end," she recalled. "After he had fixed or says further, "may be likened to a radio transmitter-receiver
done whatever he was doing to the car, he forgot to rehook unit." Be that as it may, present-day science, with systems
that rod and spring." In her dream, the sister then saw her sensitive enough to capture the slightest electrical impluse

brother climb into the car, crank it up, and start to test-drive from outer space, has not yet been able to detect the dream
it. "1 started yelling," she remembered, "trying tomake my- waves rolling across the oceans of the night.

self heard over the loud noise of the engine. I can remember Another idea involves what Stanford University neu-
yelling and yelling." And there the dream ended. roscientist Karl Pribram calls the "holographic model,"
er brother telephoned early the next morning and wherein all thoughts, images, and acts exist as a series of
said that something scary had happened the pre- complex patterns within the whole picture. Every mind has
vious night. He dreamed that his sister was yelling a piece of the puzzle, and just as a computer can re-create
but that he could not understand her. At that
point, the brother's wife woke him up, saying that

she had just seen the sister's face over their bed and that
something awful was wrong. They both got out of bed to

look through the house to see whether the sister had come
in during the night, but they found nothing.
Wynona then told her brother about the dream. He
had not been working on the car but said he would check it.

"He called within the hour," related Wynona, and said that

"the cable that connects the brake pedal was broken and
that if he had test-driven the car in that condition, he would
surely have been wrecked."
Some believers propose that one dream can kindle or
trigger another, that the unconscious mind acts as a sort of

152
an entire pattern from just a piece of it, so the mind, in a tered jet on which her parents were returning to Atlanta
dream, can em^Toy what information it already has in order crashed on takeoff, killing all 106 passengers. The dream
to complete other parts of the picture. had not predicted disaster; there was nothing at all in it

The inspiration for the holographic model comes from about death. The daughter simply experienced an intense
psychiatrist Carl Jung's view of the collective unconscious, physical image of the parents she loved, and that tender
in which everyone has access to all human experience, leave-taking always remained a great solace to her.
past, present, and future. And this experience as revealed in All of these dream experiences, says psychiatrist Mon-
dreams, Jung believed, could be highly beneficial to the hu- tague Ullman, suggest "that while asleep, we are not only
man psyche. Unlike his colleague and one-time mentor Sig- able to scan backward in time and tap into our remote
muna r.~ud, who felt dreams were often expressions of memory, but are also able to scan forward in time and
hostiL _
' neuroses, Jung said that they were restorative. across space to tap into information outside our own expe-
Indeed, the dream's well-documented ability to en- rience. Regardless of how seldom they occur, these mani-
gender benevolence and understanding in the dreamer, to festations cast a new light on the range of our psychic abil-

help in difficult situations, and to aid in contending with life ities. They persuade us to look at dreams as events
and accepting the ultimate experience of death are among occurring in a much larger and more complex frame than
its most profound attributes. A woman in Atlanta found qui- we are accustomed."
et comfort in a dream about her parents, who had jour- was that larger framework that Carl Jung was con-
It

neyed to France to visit the Louvre and other treasure hous- sidering when he wrote, "The dream is the small hidden

es as members of an Atlanta museum society. Nothing door in the deepest and most intimate sanctum of the soul,
particular happened or was said in the dream. The daughter which opens into the primeval cosmic night. ... In dreams
just remembers visualizing her parents and seeing how very we pass into the deeper and more universal truth and more
happy they were; she saw them vividly, from the colors of eternal man, who still stands in the dusk of original night in

their clothes to the tiny smile crinkles around their eyes and which he himself was still the whole and the whole was in

mouths. When she awoke and looked at the clock it was him in bright undifferentiated pure nature, free from the
6:05 a.m. At that moment, at Paris's Orly Airport, the char- shackles of the ego."

HBBHdUBI

latmg that some <

successes in their dream telepa-

thy experiments may have been
due to the sender's emotional
involvement with the target
picture, Maimonides research-
ers decided in 1 966 to give
sender Sol Feldstein props to
reinforce the impact of the
paintings. While projecting
George Bellows 's Both Mem-
bers of This Club (right), Feld-
stein wore a leather boxing
glove. Accompanying Max
Beckmann's The Descent from
the Cross (left) were a wood
cross, a representation ofJesus,
tacks, a red pen, and instruc-
tions for Sol Feldstein to "nail
Christ to the Cross and color
his wounds red." The technique
resulted in a high yield of
dream telepathy far exceeding
the researchers' expectations.

153
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editors wish to thank the following individuals and in- Opere Salesiane Don Bosco, Rome; Nicholas Clark-Lowes, West Germany; Eleanor O'Keeffe, Society for Psychical Re-
stitutions for their valuable assistance in the preparation of Society for Psychical Research, London; Don Giuseppe search, London; Marie-Therese Pellenc, Departement de
this volume Costa, Direzione Generale Opere Salesiane Don Bosco, Medecine Experimentale Universite Claude-Bernard, Ly-
Rome; George Czuczka, Washington, DC; Rita Dwyer, As- ons, France; Christian Stephan, Freiburg, West Germany;
Milo Beach, Director, Arthur M Sackler Gallery, Smithso- sociation for the Study of Dreams, Vienna, Va.; Dr. Keith Ann Stevens, London; Dr. Rolf Streichardt, Institut fur
nian Institution, Washington, DC;
Professor Hans Bender, Hearne, Hull, England; Professor Michel Jouvet, Directeur Grenzgebiete der Psychologie und Psychohygiene,
Institut fur Grenzgebiete der Psychologie und Psychohy- du Departement de Medecine Experimentale Universite Freiburg, West Germany; Dr. Robert Van de Castle, Depart-
giene, Freiburg, West Germany; Charles Butler, Ecumene- Claude-Bernard, Lyons, France; Professor Johannes ment of Behavioral Medicine and Psychiatry, University of
con, Silver Spring, Md Guido Cantoni, Direzione Generale
, Mischo, Institut fur Parapsychologie, University of Freiburg, Virginia Health Services Center, Charlottesville

PICTURE CREDITS
The sources for the illustrations that appear in this book are Paris. 28: From Tantra Asana, by Ajit Mookerjee, Ravi Ku- Princeton University Press. 76, 77: Courtesy the Jung Es-
listedbelow Credits presented from left to light are separated mar, New Delhi, 1971. 29: Bill Pierce for TIME. 30: Photo- tate, from C G. Jung, Word and Image, Bollingen Series 97,
by semicolons, and credits presented from top to bottom are graph by Roderick Hook, courtesy the Wheelwright Muse- Vol. 2, c 1979 Princeton University Press, reprinted with
separated by dashes. um of the American Indian, No. Pll#9. 31: Carmelo permission of Princeton University Press. 78: Art by Time-
Guadagno, courtesy the Museum of the American Indian, Life Books, Inc. 79: Tim Gidal, Jerusalem. 80: Deke Simon/
Cover: Art by Kim Barnes, Stansbury, Ronsaville and Wood, Heye Foundation, New York. 32, 33: Art by Anthony Wool- c Real People Press. 81-95: Art by Lisa F. Semerad, copied

Inc. 6: Henri Rousseau, The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897, oil on dridge-Nikos Kontos, Athens, courtesy National Archeo- by Larry Sherer. 96: Art by Peter A. Sawyer. 97: Art by Al-
canvas, 129.5 x 200.7cm, Collection, Museum of Modern logical Museum, Athens. 34, 35: Art by Anthony Wool- fred T. Kamajian. 98: e Christopher Springmann. 99: Cour-
Art, New York, gift of Mrs Simon Guggenheim. 8, 9 Henri dridge. 36: Direzione generale, Opere Salesiane Don Bo- tesy Jason Bimholz, M.D., Diagnostic Ultrasound Consult-
Rousseau, The Dream, 1910, oil on canvas, 204.5 x sco, Rome. 38, 39: The Museum of Modern Art Film Stills ants, Oakbrook, Illinois. 100: AP/Wide World Photos. 101:
598 5cm, Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York, Archive 40: The India Office Library, London. 41 Hugo Jae-
: Richard Meek (or UFE. 103: c 1989 Louie Psihoyos/Matrix
gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller. 10, 11: Marc Chagall, The Yel- ger for LIFE, c Time Inc. 42, 43: The National Portrait Gal- 104, 105: Jonathan Scott/Planet Earth Pictures, London;
low Room, Switzerland, Private Collection, Giraudon/ARS, lery, London— The Dickens House Museum, London. 44: Frans Lanting/Minden Pictures— Jonathan Scott/Planet
New York, Crl 6306. 12: Marc Chagall, La Caleche Fantas- Nationalarchiv der Richard-Wagner-Stiftung/Richard- Earth Pictures, London; Dwight R. Kuhn. 106: Courtesy J.
tique, 1949-1950, gouache on paper, 59. x 46.0cm, gift of
1 Wagner-Gedenkstatte, Bayreuth, West Germany. 45: Allan Hobson, M.D., Harvard Medical School. 107: Mark
Ann Smeltzer, Blanden Memorial Art Museum, Ace. No. Joachim Blauel-Artothek, Schack-Galerie, Munich. 47-55: Hanauer/Onyx. 108, 109: Ted Spagna/Dreamworks 110-
1952.3, c 1989 ARS, New York/ADAGP. 13: Marc Chagall, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. 56: Art by Peter A. Sawyer. 112: c 1989 Louie Psihoyos/Matrix. 114: David Mont-
The Juggler, 1943, oil on canvas, 109 x 79cm, gift of Mrs. 57: Art by Alfred T. Kamajian. 58: Courtesy the Jung Estate, gomery /Sunday Times Magazine, London. 115: Bibli-
Gilbert W. Chapman, 1952.1005, c 1989 The Art Institute of from C G. Jung, Word and Image, Bollingen Series 97, Vol. otheque Nationale, Paris, from Les reves et les moyens de les
Chicago, all rights reserved, c 1989 ARS, New York/ 2, c 1979 Princeton University Press, reprinted with permis- dinger, 1867, by Marie Jean Leon Hervey de Saint-Denis.
ADAGP. 14: Paul Delvaux, Penelope, courtesy Joseph Ran- sion of Princeton University Press. 59-61: Mary Evans Pic- 116: Ann Ronan Picture Library, Taunton, Somerset, Eng-
dall Shapiro, Oak Park, Illinois, Paul Delvaux Foundation, ture Library, London/Sigmund Freud Copyrights. 62: Bild- land. 1 17: The Bettmann Archive. 119-129: Art by John Col-
Saint-Idesbald, Belgium. 15: Paul Delvaux, La mise au torn- archiv der Osterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Vienna— lier. 130: Art by Peter A. Sawyer. 131: Art by Alfred T. Ka-
beau, Paul Delvaux Foundation, Saint-Idesbald, Belgium. Bildarchiv der Osterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, majian. 132, 133: The Hulton-Deutsch Collection, London;
16: Rene Magritte, L'Univers demasque, c 1989 Charly from Sigmund Freud: His Life and Pictures in Words, edited Popperfoto, London (2). 134: Popperfoto, London 136 The
Herscovici/ARS, New York 17: Rene Magritte, Polar Light, by Ernst Freud, Lucie Freud, and Use Grubrich-Simitis, Har- Mansell Collection, London -Mary Evans Picture Library,
Luciano Pedicini, Naples, courtesy Ponti-Loren Collection court Brace Jovanovich, New York and London, 1978. 64, London. 138, 139: Karim Al Akhbar/Gamma-Liaison 140:
and Soprintendenza Bern AAAS, Caserta, c 1989 Charly 65: Courtesy Edmund Engelman; Mary Evans Picture Li- Mary Evans Picture Library, London. 141: Edimedia, Paris.
Herscovici/ARS, New York. 18: Salvador Dali, Shades of brary, London/Sigmund Freud Copyrights -Bildarchiv der 142: Library of Congress. 143: Sally Ann Thompson, Ani-
Night Descending, The Salvador Dali Museum, St. Peters- Osterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Vienna; courtesy Ed- mal Photography, London— Library of Congress. 144, 145:
burg, Florida, e 1989 Demart Pro Arte/ARS, New York. 19: mund Engelman West Berlin. 67:
66: Ullstein Bilderdienst, The Mansell Collection, London. 146: Courtesy Dr. Mon-
Salvador Dali, Perspectives, c Emanuel Hoffmann-Stiftung, Mary Evans Bicture Library, London/Sigmund Freud Copy- tague Ullman; courtesy Paul Schneck. 151: Henry Groskin-
Kunst-museum, Basel, Switzerland, photo by Colorphoto, rights 69-72 Courtesy the Jung Estate, from C G. Jung, sky for UFE. 152: Max Beckmann, The Descent from the
Hans Hinz, c 989 Demart Pro Arte/ARS, New York 20,21:
1 Word and Image, Bollingen Series 97, Vol. 2, c 1979 Prince- Cross, 1917, oil on canvas, 151 .2 x 128 9 cm, Collection,
Salvador Dali, The Sleep, courtesy Kunsthaus Zurich, ton University Press, reprinted with permission of Prince- The Museum of Modern Art, New York, Curt Valentin Be-
c 1989 Demart Pro Arte/ARS, New York. 22: Art by Peter A ton University Press Courtesy the Jung Estate, from
75: quest 153: George Wesley Bellows, Both Members of This
Sawyer. 23: Art by Alfred Kamajian. 24, 25: Courtesy the
T. Mandala Symbolism, C. G. Jung, Bollingen Series, c
1972 Club, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Chester
Trustees of the British Museum, London. 27: Edimedia, Princeton University Press, reprinted with permission of Dale Collection.

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INDEX
Numerals in italics indicate an illustration of Biofeedback: and Thomas Budzynski, 1 18; D ridge, 46; and collective unconscious,
the subject mentioned. and theta waves, 1 1 Daim, Wilfrid. 144-145 41; communality of, 19-129. and cre-
1

Bismarck, Otto von, 37 Dali, Salvador, 2 and double images,

1
; ativity, 42, 44-46; and Francis Cnck,
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 141-143 20-21; and Sigmund Freud, 19; paint- 100; and Cudhodana, 39; and Daniel,
Aberfan (Wales), avalanche in, 132 Bonaparte, Marie, 67 ings by, 18, 19, 20-21; quoted, 19, 21 29; defined, 29; and Gayle Delaney, 80,
Abraham (biblical figure), 37 Bosco, Father Giovanni, 36; Dance of Death, 38 127; and Rene Descartes, 23, 44, and
AchilleLauro (ship), 137 Both Members ofTuis Club (Bellows), /53 Daniel (biblical figure), 29 Charles Dickens, 42; and drugs, 14; 1

Adler, Alfred, 127 Brahma, 28, 71; and Carl Jung, 71 Dante 141-143
Alighieri, and Egyptians, 22, 26-29, and Havelock
Aesculapius, 32-33 Brahms, Johannes, 117 Daykeepers, defined, 26 Ellis, 60; and Christopher Evans, 101-
Agamemnon (king of Greece), 32 Brain, 100-101; 105 Death, 38 102; of falling, 120-121, and Ann Fara-
Agassiz, Louis, 117 Brainstem, 100, 103 Delaney, Gayle: and dreams, 80, 127; and day, 121; and Fedenco Fellini, 38; and
Alcohol, and dreams, 1 14 Breton, Andre, quoted, 7 incubation, 80; and nightmares, 115; Feng Meng Leng, 23-24; of flying, 126-
Alexander the Great, 23, 42 Bnde of Dreams, The (Eeden), 107 and psychic dreams, 35 1 127, and Sigmund Freud, 22-23. 57, 59,
Alighieri, Jacopo, 143 Buddhism, and dreams, 23, 37-39 Delaney and Flowers Center for the Study 61, 62, 63, 64-66, 67, 78, 107, 121, 122,
Allgood, Sara, 142 Budzynski, Thomas, 118 of Dreams, 80 124, 127, 153; and Gabriel, 39; and
Alpha waves, 97, 118. See also Sleep Butler, Edward, 130-131 Delirium tremens (DTs), 114 Gideon. 37; and Gopa, 39; and Greeks,
American Psychological Association, 59 Delta waves, 97. See also Sleep 22, 29-37, 80; and Emil Gutheil, 121,
American Society for Psychical Research c Delvaux, Paul: paintings by, 14, 15; quot- 127, 129; and Hannibal, 40; and Her-
(ASPR), 139-140 Caesar, Julius, 42 ed, 15 mes, 29; and F W
Hildebrandt, 60; and
Amphetamines, and dreams, 114 Calloway, Hugh, 1 13 Dement, William C, 101, and sleep, 99- Hinduism, 24, 28; and Adolf Hitler,
Andre, John, 140 Calpurnia, 42 100 43-44; and J. Allan Hobson, 100, 105.
Angels, 50, 51 Campbell, Joseph, 29 Descartes, Rene, 23, 44 and Homer, 32, and Elias Howe, 23.
Anima, 88-89 Campbell, Mrs. Patrick (a.k.a. Mrs. Pat), Descent from the Cross, The (Beckmann), 45-46; and Hurons, 30; and Hypnos. 24,
Animals, and REM sleep, 105; and sleep, 142 152 29; and lndiars. 30; induction of, 32-33,
104-105 Carson, Johnny, 127 Devil's Trill (Tartini), 45 interpretation of, 26-29. 32. 35, 39, 44.
Animus, 89,90-91 Cartwright, Rosalind, 1 14 Dickens, Charles, 42-43, 131 59-60, 64-66, 67, 68, 72-73. 74, 76, 78,
Arapahos, Ghost Dance of, 30 Cavendish-Bentinck, William, 145 Displacement, and Sigmund Freud, 66 79-80, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 1 19.
Archetypes, 79, 81; anima, 88-89; animus, Chagall, Marc: paintings by, 10-11, 12, 13, Divine Comedy (Dante), 141-143 121, 124, 127, 129; and Islam, 39; and
89, 90-91; child, 86-87; father, 84-85; quoted, 10, 12 Dream, The (Rousseau), 8-9 Jacob, 37; and Joan of Arc. 37; and
hero, 92-93; and Carl Jung, 57, 73, 81, Chakras, defined, 148 Dream body, and Frederik Willem van Joseph (husband of Mary), 37; and Jo-
85, 87, 89. 91; mother, 82-83; shadow, Chapman, John, 135 Eeden, 110 seph (son of Jacob), 26-29. journals of,
94-95, and Montague Ullman, 79. See "Chapter on Dreams" (Stevenson), 46 Dream machine, 1 13 78, 80; and Carl Jung, 24, 56, 57-58, 59.
also Dreams Child: as archetype, 86-87; in myths, Dreams: and Abraham, 37; and Alfred 67, 68, 69-72, 70-71, 73-74, 75, 78, 127,
Aristotle, 34-35, 107 87 Adler, 127; and Aesculapius, 32-33; and 153; and Kai tribe, 24; and Kao Tsong,
Arnold, Benedict, 140 Christianity, and dreams, 37 Africans, 24, 26; and Louis Agassiz, 27, and Stanley Krippner, 119. 124. and
Artemidorus Daldianus, 35-37, 127 Chuang Chou (a.k.a. Chuang-tzu, Master 1 17; and Alexander the Great, 23, 42; George Trumbull Ladd, 59; and Uan chi
Aserinsky, Eugene, 96, 97 Chuang), 22, 23 and animals, 105; and Aristedes, 32; Ba shi, 23; and Li Yuan chuo, 23; and
ASPR, 139-140 Clairvoyance, defined, 147 and Aristotle, 34-35; and Artabanus, 40; Otto Loewi, 37; and Robert W McCar-
Astral body, 110 Clairvoyant dreams, 139, 141; and William and Artemidorus Daldianus, 35-37, 127; ley. 100; and Matthew. 37. and Alfred

Augustine, Saint, 107 James, 139-140, 141; and William Oliver and Ashantis, 24; and Babylonians, 127; Maury, 58-59; and Maya. 37-39; and
Stevens, 139; and Nellie Titus, 140-141. and Raymond de Becker, 37; and Ed- Dmitry Mendeleyev, 44-45. and
B See also Dreams; Psychic dreams ward Bennett, 74; and Charlotte Beradt, Menkare. 26; and Graeme Mitchison,
Barrel Organ, The (Daumier), 148 Clemens, Samuel (a.k.a. Mark Twain), 41; and Ingmar Bergman, 38, and Je- 100; and Morpheus, 24. 29; and movies.
Becker, Raymond de, 37 131 rome Bernstein, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 38, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 46.
Beerbohm, Max, 142 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 46 93, 95; and Otto von Bismarck, 37; and and Muhammad, 39. 47-55. of naked-
Bennett, Edward, 74 Collective unconscious, 70, 73, 81, 153; Napoleon Bonaparte, 42-43; and Father ness, 122-123, and Nazis. 41 and Ian .

Beradt, Charlotte, 41 and dreams, 41 Giovanni Bosco, 36; and Buddhism, 23, Oswald, 100 and out-of-body experi-
Bergman, Ingmar, 38 Computer, brain compared to, 100-101 37-39; and Julius Caesar, 42; and ences, 127; and Frederick Perls. 74. 76.
Bernays, Martha, 61; and Sigmund Freud, Concurrent dreams, 1 49- 1 50. See also Calpurnia, 42; and Joseph Campbell, 29; and Plato, 34, as prophecies. 42-44 and
60,61 Dreams; Psychic dreams and Johnny Carson, 127; causes of, 59, Jan Evangehsta Purkinje. 58. purposes
Bemays, Minna, 61; and Sigmund Freud, Corder, William, 136 61, 100; characteristics of, 22-23, 29-32, of, 30, 57-58. 59, 60. 61 . 62, 63, 64. 68,

61 Crick, Francis, 100, 107 37, 58-59, 97, 106-107; and Cherokees, 72, 74. 100. 101-102; of pursuit. 124-

Bernstein, Jerome, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, Crow Indians, vision quest of, 31 30; and Chippewas, 31 and Christianity, ; 125, and Quiche Maya, 26. and Paul
93,95 Cudhodana (king), 39 37; and Chuang Chou, 22, 23; classifica- Radestock, 61; recollection of. 78. re-

Bessent, Malcolm, 148-149 Cunningham, Mr., 140 tion of, 35; and Samuel Taylor Cole- cording of, 78; and San people. 26; and

157
 Karl Albert Schemer, 59; and Robert Freud, 60-61,65 Hypnagogic startle, 16; defined, 97 1 Kao Tsong, 27
Schumann, 46; and George Bernard Freud, Amalie, 60, quoted, 60 Hypnagogic state, 46, 97, 115, 116-117; K-complexes, 97 See also Sleep
Shaw, 129; and Socrates, 24, and Freud, Anna, 61, 67 and Johannes Brahms, 17; and Thom- 1 Kekule von Stradonitz, Friedrich August,
Wilhelm Steckel, 127; and Robert Louis Freud, Hermann, 64 as Edison, 17; and hypnopedia, 17;
1 1 116, and hypnagogic state, 116, 117
Stevenson, 23, 42, 46; and Ludwig Freud, Jacob, 60 and Friedrich Kekule von Stradonitz, Kipling, Rudyard, 131
Strumpell, 59; and James Sully, 60; and Freud, Sigmund, 58, 59, 60, 61; and anti- 116, 117; and Rene Magritte, 16; and P Kleitman, Nathaniel, 100, and REM sleep,
Talmud, 23; and Giuseppi Tartini, 45, Semitism, 65-66, background of, 60; D Ouspensky, 16; and Giacomo Puc- 1 96,97
46; and Tlppu Sahib, 40; and Montague and Martha Bernays, 60, 61 and Minna ; cini, 7; and Mary Shelley,
1 1 7; and 1 1 Kramer, Milton, 110-111
Ullman, 76-77, 79, 1 19, 153; of unpre- Bernays, 61; and Salvador Dali, 19; Richard Wagner, 7. See also Sleep1 1 Krippner, Stanley, 1 19, 124, 746-149
paredness, 128-129, and Richard Wag- death of, 67; and displacement theory, Hypnopedia, 117, 118; and Thomas Krishna, 24
ner, 44, 46; as wish fulfillment, 62, 63, 66; and dreams, 22-23, 57, 59, 61, 62, Budzynski, 18; and hypnagogic state,
1

64, 68,and Wilhelm Wundt, 59; and 63, 64-66, 67, 78, 121, 122, 124, 127, 1 7; and J. N. Phiney,
1 7; and Abram 1 1

Xerxes, 40; and Zeus, 29, 32; and Zunis, 153; and dreamwork, and ego, 73;
64; Moiseyevich Svyadoshch, 117-118 LaBerge, Stephen, 112, and lucid dreams,
26. See also Archetypes; Incubation; and flight from Nazis, 67, and free asso- Hypnos (Greek god), 24-25. 29 1 10-1 13; and Mnemonic Induction of
Lucid dreams; Nightmares; Night ter- ciation, 60-61, 65; house of, 65, 67, and Hysteria, 60-61, 63-64; and Sigmund Lucid Dreams,
1 10

rors; Psychic dreams, REM sleep hysteria, 60-61, 63-64; and id, 73; and Freud, 60-61,63-64 Ladd, George Trumbull, 59
Dreams and How to Guide Them (Saint- Carl Jung, 56-57, 58, 59, 67, 68-69, 70, Landscapes of the Night (Evans), 101
Denis, Marquis Hervey de), 107 72, 73; and lucid dreams, 107; office of, I Language of the Dream, The (Gutheil), 129
Dream symbols: bones, 57; clocks, 12; 65; and psychoanalysis, 60, 61 ;
quoted, Id, defined, 73 Lanyi, Monsignor de, 141
fire, 34, horses, 12; houses, 16, 57, 59; 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 78; and Paul Iliad (Homer), 32 Lian chi Ba shi, 23
purposes of, 33, 59; sexual connotations Radestock, 61; and Franklin D Roose- Incubation, 31, 32, and Gayle Delaney, 80; Li Yuan chuo, 23
of, 35; skeletons, 15; skulls, 57; snakes, velt, 67;and Karl Albert Schemer, 61; and Indians, 3 See also Dreams 1 . Loewi, Otto, 37
32-33; water, 35 and subconscious, 19; and superego, Indians: and dreams 30, 14; and incuba- 1 LSD, and dreams, 114
Dream Telepathy (Ullman and Krippner), 64, 66, 73; and surrealism, 7, 19 tion, 31; and vision quests, 30-31 Lucid Dreaming (LaBerge), 1 15
146 Individuation, 75 Lucid dreams, 80, 107, 108, 13; and 1

Dreamwork, 23, 64; and Sigmund Freud, Infantile unconscious, 29 Aristotle, 107;and Augustine, 107; and
64 Gabriel (archangel), 39, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55 Interior of the Synagogue (painting), 148 Hugh Calloway, 13; and Frederik1

Drugs, and dreams, 1 14 Gackenbach, Jayne, 1 13 Interpretation of Dreams, The (Freud): Willem van Eeden, 107-1 10, 113; and
Dudak, Rita, 130-131 Garfield, Patricia, 110 background of, 60; importance of, 19, Havelock Ellis, 107; and Sigmund Freud,
Dunne, John William, 134 Garwell, Barbara, 137-138, 139 57; and lucid dreams, 107; publication 107; and Jayne Gackenbach, 113; and
Gennadius, 107 of, 67 Gennadius, 107; and Keith Heame, 13; 1

Georgia Mental Health Institute, 102 Irma (patient of Freud), 63, 64, 66 induction of, 110-111; and Stephen
Eccles, John Carew, 1 52 Gestalt therapy, 74 Islam, and dreams, 39 LaBerge, 10-113; and Frederic W. H
1

Edison, Thomas, and hypnagogic state, Ghost Dance, 30 Isra, 47, 48-49, 55; defined, 48 Myers, 107; and Jack Nicklaus, 15-1 16; 1

117 Gideon (biblical figure), 37 and Thomas Reid, 14; and Marquis 1

Edward VII (king of England), coronation Gopa (wife of Buddha), 39 Hervey de Saint-Denis, 107; and Thom-
procession of, 144-145 Greeks, 22, 29-37, 80 Jacob (biblical figure), 37 as Aquinas, 107; uses of, 1 13-114, 115
Eeden, Frederik Willem van, 107-1 10, 113 Greene, Graham, 132 James, William, 139-140, 141 See also Dreams
Ego: defined, 73; and Sigmund Freud, 73 Gutheil, Emil, 121, 127, 129 Jesus, 87
Ella (dreamer), 138 Joan of Arc, 37 M
Ellis, Havelock, 60, 107 H John the Baptist, and Muhammad, 50 M., Dr. (colleague of Freud), 63
Entombment, The (Delvaux), 15 Haggard, H. Rider, 131, 143 Joseph (biblical figure, husband of Mary), McCarley, Robert W, 100
Epidaurus, 80 Hannibal, 40 37 Magritte, Rene: and hypnagogic state, 16;
Ermacora, G. B, 141, 143-144 Hartmann, Ernest, 102-106 Joseph (biblical figure, son of Jacob), 26- paintings by, quoted, 1616, 17,
Erwin, William, 147 Heame, Keith, 113 29 Maimonides Medical Center, 146-149, 153
Esalen Institute, and Frederick Perls, 74 Hercules, 87 Jouvet, Michel, 103, and sleep, 99 Malik (angel of death), and Muhammad,
Evans, Christopher, 101-102 Hermes (Greek god), 29 Juggler, The (Chagall), 12, 13 54-55
Experiment with Time, An (Dunne), 134 Hero: as archetype, 92-93, in myths, 93 and archetypes, 57,
Jung, Carl, 59, 69, 79; Mandala, 75
Extrasensory perception (ESP) See Tele- Herodotus, 40 background of,
73, 81, 85, 87, 89, 91; Manzini, Angelina, 143-144
pathic dreams Hibernation, 105 67-68; and Brahma, 71; and collective Manzini, Maria, 143-144
Eysenck, H. J., 135 Hildebrandt, F. W., 60 unconscious, 70, 73, 81, 153; depres- Marijuana, and dreams, 1 14
Hinckley, John W, Jr., 137 sion of, 69-72; and dreams, 24, 56, Marten, Maria, 136
Hinduism, and dreams, 24, 28 57-58, 59, 67, 68, 69-72, 70-71, 73-74, Mary (biblical figure), 37
Falling, dreams of, 120-121 Hippocrates, quoted, 33 75, 78, 127, 153; and Sigmund Freud, Master Chuang See Chuang Chou
Fantastic Horse Cart (Chagall), 12 Hitler, Adolf, 41, 43-44 56-57, 58, 59, 67, 68-69, 70, 72, 73, Matthew (biblical figure), 37
Faraday, Ann, 121 Hobson, J Allan, 106, and dreams, 100, house of, 76-77; and individuation, 75; Maury, Alfred, 58-59
Father, as archetype, 84-85 105, and REM sleep, 108 and mandala, 75; and Philemon, 70; Maya (mother of Buddha), 37-39
Feldstein, Sol, 147-148, 153 Holographic model, defined, 152-153 and psyche, 57; and psychoanalysis, 60, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Jung), 24.
Fellini, Federico, 38 Homer, 32 69; quoted, 24, 57, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79
Feng Meng Leng, 23-24 Honorton, Charles, 151 74, 75, 78, 79, 81, 85, 87, 153, and Mendele>ev, Dmitry, 44-45
Fetus, 99 Horses, 13, as dream symbols, 12 shadow, 71; and unconscious, 73 Menninger Foundation, 146
Fire: as dream symbol, 34, and myths, 34 Houris, 53 Jung, Emilie, 69 Mescaline, and dreams, 14 1

Flying, dreams of, 126-127 Houses, 16; as dream symbols, 16, 57, 59 Jung, Emma, 72 Microawakening, 110
Foulkes, David, 149 Howe, Elias, 23, 45-46 Jung, Paul, 69 Middleton, J Connon, 132
Frankenstein (Shelley), 1 17 Howitt, William, 135-137 MILD See Mnemonic Induction of Lucid
Franz Ferdinand (archduke of Austria), 141 Hsiao-fu (Feng Meng Leng), 23-24 * K Dreams
Free association, 72-73; and Sigmund Huse. Bertha, 140-141 Kai tribe, 24 Mira), 50-55, defined, 47. 50

158
 1 7 7

Mitchison, Graeme, 100 Philemon (fantasy guide), 70, and Carl Saint-Denis, Marquis Hervey de drawings ton, 151, and Stanley Knppner, 146-
Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams Jung, 70 by, 115, and lucid dreams, 107, quoted, 149; and Maimonides Medical Center,
(MILD), 113; and Stephen LaBerge, 110 Phiney, J. N., and hypnopedia, 1 1 115 146-149, 153. and Angelina Manzini.
Morpheus (Greek god), 24, 29 Plato, 34 Salesian Order, 36 143-144. and Mana Manzini, 143-144.
Mother, as archetype, 82-83 Plosky, Joyce, 147 Sand painting, 30 and Felicia Parise. 148. and Michael A
Movies: by Ingmar Bergman, 38, and Polar Light {Maghtte), 16, 17 San people, 26 Persinger, 149. and Joyce Plosky. 147.
dreams, 38, by Federico Fellini, 38 Polysomnography 1 1 Schemer, Karl Albert, 59, and Sigmund and Montague Ullman, 145-149. and
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 46 Precognitive dream, 139, 141; and Edward Freud, 61 University of Wyoming, 149, and Sally
Muhammad: and adhan, 39; and Buraq, Butler, 130-131; and William Schloss Belle Vue, 62, 63 Van Steenburgh, 147. See also Dreams.
48, 49, 50, 55; and dreams, 39, 47-55, Cavendish-Bentinck, 145; and John School of the Dance (Degas), 147 Psychic dreams
and Gabriel, 39, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55; and Chapman, 135; and J. Middleton Con- Schumann, Robert, 46 Telepathy, defined, 147
John the Baptist, 50; and Malik, 54-55; non, 132; and William Corder, 136; and Sedatives, and dreams, 1 14 Teton Sioux, song of, 30
quoted, 53, 55; and Zacharias, 50 Mr. Cunningham, 140; and Charles Seventh Seal, The (Bergman), 38 Theta waves, 97, 98. See also Sleep
Murphy, Gardner, 146 Dickens, 131; and John William Dunne, Seward, Anna, 140 Thomas Aquinas. Saint, 107
Myers, Frederic W. H., 107 134; and Ella, 138; and Barbara Gar- Shades of Night Descending (Dali), 18, 19 Tippu Sahib, 40
My Life(Wagner), 46 well, 137-138, 139; and Graham Shadow, 71; as archetype, 94-95, defined, Titanic (Ship), 132-133. 139
Mystic Night (Sheets), 147 Greene, 132; and H. Rider Haggard, 131, 71; and Carl Jung, 71 Titus, Nellie, 140-141
Myths: child in, 87; defined, 29; and fire, 143; and William Howitt, 135-137; and Shaw, George Bernard, 129 Treatise on Dreams (Hippocrates). 33
34; hero in, 93 Rudyard Kipling 131; and Monsignor de Shelley, Mary, 1 1 Twain, Mark, 131
Lanyi, 141; and David Ryback, 138; and Skeletons, 15, as dream symbols, 15

N Mark Twain, 131; and Montague Ull- Skulls, asdream symbols, 57 u

Nakedness, dreams of, 122-123 man, 138-139. See also Dreams; Psychic Sleep, 96-100; and animals, 104-105. and Ullman, Montague, /46, and archetypes.
Narcolepsy, 110, 116 dreams William C. Dement, 99-100; and Ernest 79; and dreams, 76-77, 79. 19. 153. 1

Native Americans. See Indians Pribram, Karl, 152 Hartmann, 102; and Michel Jouvet, 99; and precognitive dreams, 138-139. and
Navajos: sand painting by, 30, tunic of, 31 Prophecies, dreams as, 42-44 stages of, 97. See also Alpha waves; telepathic dreams, 145-149, and vigi-
Nazis: and dreams, 41; and Sigmund Psyche: characteristics of, 57; and Carl Delta waves; Dreams; Hypnagogic state; lance theory, 145
Freud, 67 Jung, 57 K-complexes; Non-REM sleep; REM Unconscious, 19, 73; infantile. 29
Nebuchadnezzar (king of Babylon), 29 Psychic dreams, 131, 133-135; and Gayle sleep; Spindles; Theta waves University of Wyoming, 149
Nicklaus, Jack, 115-116 Delaney, 135; and H.J. Eysenck, 135 Sleep (Dali), 20-21 Unmasked Universe, The (Magntte). 16
Nightmares, 102; and Rosalind Cartwright, See also Clairvoyant dreams; Concurrent Sleep Disorder Service and Research Unpreparedness, dreams of. 128-129
1 14; and Gayle Delaney, 1 15; and Er- dreams; Dreams; Precognitive dreams; Center, 114-115
nest Hartmann, 102-106; and Stanley Reciprocal dreams; Telepathic dreams Sleeping Gypsy, The (Rousseau), 6, 7
Palombo, 102. See also Dreams Psychoanalysis: background of, 57, 60; Sleep laboratory, 98 Van der Post. Laurens, 26
Night terrors, 106. See also Dreams and Sigmund Freud, 60, 61 and Carl ; Sleep learning. See Hypnopedia Van Steenburgh. Sally. 147
Night Way, 30 Jung, 60, 69 Snake, 32, as dream symbol, 32-33 Varley, Cromwell
F 150
Non-REM sleep, 96, 97, 99, 100. See also Psychoanalytic Congress, Fourth Interna- Soby, James Thrall, 21 Vienna 64-65
(Austria) ,

REM sleep; Sleep tional, 69 Society for Psychical Research (SPR), 107 Vigilance theory, 145
Puccini, Giacomo, 117 Socrates, 24 Vishnu (Hindu god), 28
o Purkinje, Jan Evangelista, 58
124-125
Sort of Life, A (Greene), 132 Vision quest, 30-31
OBEs, and dreams, 127 Pursuit, dreams of, Spagna, Theodore, photographs by, 108- Volcano. 134
On Divination (Aristotle), 34 109
On Dreams (Aristotle), 34, 107
Oneirocritica (Artemidcrus Daldianus), 35,
Q
Quiche Maya, 26
SPR, 107
Stevens, William Oliver, 139, 149
w
Wagner. Cosima, 44
37 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 23, 42, 46 Wagner, Richard, 44, and hypnagogic
Oneiromancy, defined, 26 Strange Case ofDr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, state. 46, 117. quoted. 46

On Prophecy in Sleep (Aristotle), 34 Radestock, Paul, 61; anc Sigmund Freud, The (Stevenson), 46 Water, as dream symbol. 35
On Sleep and Waking (Aristotle), 34 61 Strumpell, Ludwig, 59 Wild Strawberries (Bergman), 38
Oswald, Ian, 100 Rapid eye movements. See REM sleep Subconscious. See Unconscious Wish fulfillment, dreams as. 62. 63. 64.

Otto (doctor), 66; quoted, 63 Reagan, Ronald, 137 Sully, James, 60 68

Ouspensky, P. D., 116 Reciprocal dreams, 149-152. See also Superego defined, 64, 73; and Sigmund Working with Dreams (Ullman). 124
Out-of-body experiences (OBEs), and Dreams; Psychic dreams Freud, 64, 66, 73 Wundt. Wilhelm. 59
dreams, 127 Red Book (Jung), 70-71 Sigmund
Surrealism, 6-9, 14-21, and Wynona (dreamer). 152
Owen, Robert, 150, 152 Reid, Thomas, 114 Freud, 7, and Henri Rousseau, 7
19;

REM sleep, 96, 97-99, 102, 107; and ani- Svyadoshch, Abram Moiseyevich, and X
mals, 105; and Eugene Aserinsky, 96, hypnopedia, 117-118 Xerxes. 40
Palombo, Stanley, and nightmares, 102 97; deprivation of, 102, 1 14; and J. Allan
Paranormal dreams. See Psychic dreams Hobson, 108; and Nathaniel Kleitman, Y
Parise, Felicia, 148 See also Dreams; Non-REM
96, 97. Talmud, and dreams. 23 Yasoda, quoted. 24
Pelee, Mount, 134 sleep; Sleep Taoism, 35 Yellow Room. The (Chagall). 10-11
Penelope (Delvaux), 14, 15 Ring of the Nibelung, The (Wagner), 46 Tartini, Giuseppi, 45, 46

Perls, Frederick (Fritz), 80; background of, Rousseau, Henri: paintings by, 6, 8-9; Telepathic dreams, 141, and Jacopo Ali-
74; and dreams, 74, 76; and Esalen quoted, 8; and surrealism, 7 ghien, 143; and Sara Allgood. 142, and Zachanas (prophet), and Muhammad. 50
and Gestalt therapy,
Institute, 74; 74; Ryback, David, 138 Malcolm Bessent, 148-149, and Wilfrid Zapatistas (Orozco). 147. 151

quoted, 74; workshops of, 74-76 Daim, 144-145; and G B Ermacora, Zekkum. 55
Persinger, Michael A., 149 141, 143-144; and William Erwin, 147. Zeus (Greek god). 29. 32
Perspectives (Dali), 19-2X Sadat, Anwar, assassination of, 137, 138- and Sol Feldstein. 147-148. 153, and Zulus. 26
Peyote, and dreams, 1 14 139 David Foulkes. 149; and Charles Honor- Zunis. 26

159
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