SOCRATES

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Wisest Man in the World

Context : Criticism of Sophists
Why: Sophists : Power => Money => Happiness ; Money for education ; Teaching ignorance and Rhetoric

Components of ToK.
1. Types of Knowledge :
1. True Knowledge : Ultimate knowledge : Permanent
2. Rhetoric : Opinions and beliefs : Changing nature
2. Source of Knowledge : Soul
3. Method of Obtaining Knowledge : Dialectics (debate)
4. Role of teacher : Not to impart knowledge but to engage the student in dialectics

Utility of ToK
 Defines the scope of philosophy which is the Pursuit of True knowledge and method of philosophy is logic
and debate

Knowledge is Virtue/ Unexamined life is not worth living

 Wisest man - ToK - Goal of life is happiness
 Directed against sophists
 Knowledge => Excellence => Happiness
 To lead a good life -> Knowledge of good life -.> Enlightenment of soul for knowledge of good life -> Dialectic
for enlightenment of soul
 So knowledge is virtue/ So examine life through dialectics
 Professional excellence/good shoemaker not enough -> good human being/ ethics required.
 Plato - disciple of Socrates — Knowledge is virtue as central to Theory of ideal state
 For Athens to become an ideal state - ruled by knowledge
 So Plato suggest - “Until philosophers are rulers or rules learn philosophy, there is no end to the predicament
of human life'

PLATO
Age 400 BC - Father of Pol Philosophy

Place Athens

Concern Make Athens an Ideal State

 Defeated by Sparta in Peloponnesian war
 What was the problem in Athens?
o Divided into 2 cities
 City of Rich
 City of Poor
o Inequality => Conspiracies => Externally vulnerable
o Biggest threat : Corruption of the Ruling class because of
 Greed
 Ignorance about things they should aspire for —Material pleasure for happiness
o Solution : Enlightenment of the Ruling class
o “Unless Philosophers are the rulers or rulers learn philosophy, there is no end to
predicament of human life” - Philosopher King

School of  Idealist - what ought to be

Thought  Utopian - unattainable goals
 Radical - change overnight

Influences  Pythagoras-Theory of Souls (Universe->order and harmony + purpose)

 Every soul is different + 3 characteristics in harmony and order
 Heraclitus - Theory of change
 Parmenides - Theory of permanence
 Socrates

Books  The Republic : Concerning Justice - Constitution of the ideal state

 The Statesman
 The Laws

Views on Democracy:
 DEMOCRACY = Rule of Ignorance
 Considered democracy as the worst form of govt. and cause of all evils
 He recommended - Philosopher King — Autocracy
Q- All that is Platonic is Socratic. Comment.
1. Wisest man, Plato was disciple, biggest influence on his life
2. Poison - Democracy in Athens - Rule of ignorance
3. Theory of knowledge -> philosopher king
4. Method of dialogues - character of Socrates (Republic is in form of dialogues)
5. Ethics in politics
6. Theory of state, man is a social/political animal
7. Other scholars - P, P, H
8. Original thinking - PK and Communism

Theory of Ideas
 Idea
o Idea is invisible
o Idea is behind the observable reality
o Reason is required to understand the idea - Only the ppl who can understand idea (philosophers) — can
establish Ideal state
o He says
 Matter – Changes (World of matter is a world of change)
 Idea - Permanent - True knowledge of Socrates (Idea of horsiness)
o Philosophy is the pursuit of idea

 Political purpose
 Ideal state-> Idea of ideal state -> idea of kingdom of God -> enlightened soul (resided in kingdom of God) ->
man of reason -> PK

 Parts of the Universe

o Physical - Visible through Eyesight
o Spiritual - Invisible - Hidden behind the physical Reality - Reason is required to understand it

 According to Plato - Supreme Reality lies behind the observable reality

"Reality is the shadow of ideas”

Key Words
1. Scholars - Idealists and materialists
2. Materialists give the Theory of Reality
3. Plato - School of Idealist - Father of Pol Phil
4. Socrates - Ultimate knowledge - permanent
5. Plato - Ult Knowledge about ideas
6. Behind the observable reality which we know through sensory organs lies the world of supreme reality.
7. Supreme reality - Ideas - Reason
8. Allegory of caves
1. Like men in caves, ignorant men consider shadow as the reality
2. When pushed out of the cave, into the sunlight
3. Realise that what they considered reality was just a shadow
9. World of Idea as ultimate reality ==> Pursuit of Phil > Pursuit of physics
10. Political purpose of Plato
11. Nature of reality is debatable -> post-modernists -> reality is complex.
12. Hence called father of phil.

Theory of souls
 Inspired by Pythagoras
 Elements of soul
o Reason - Gold
o Courage - Silver
o Appetite - Copper

Theory of Justice
 Justice -> foundational principle of state + ethical doctrine + first virtue of society like truth
 Justice is necessary of legitimacy of state.
 3 components
o Proper positioning of the elements
o Functional Specialization on the basis of quality of soul
o Non-interference in each other’s tasks
 Advantages - Peace, harmony and excellence in what one is best at

 4 People -
o Cephalus - Duties and dues - Weapons to mad man - Justice has to be universal and transcendental + Justice is duty
o Polmarchus - Being good to ur frnds and bad to enemies - Justice has to be for the good of others + Justice is virtue
o Thrasymachus - Sophist - Individualism + Materialsim = Realist
 Justice is the interest of the strong
 Sophist view- Realists
 Suggests Might is Right
 World understands Argument of power rather than Power of argument
 Self is prior to society.
  Plato
 Society is prior to self
 Conflict and disharmony
 Anarchy and chaos
 Reality - difficult to reject
 So Thracymachus and Plato complement each other
 Both points need to be understood.
o Glaucon - Justice is the interest of the weak - weak ppl need it cause they cannot survive alone.

 Platos own Idea of Justice

o God’s Idea of Justice by the use of Reason in soul of man
o Justice at 2 levels
o Just Soul
 Each element is specifically positioned => Reason > Courage > Appetite (-dominates)
 Non-Interference in the tasks of another ( Temperance )
 Peace with itself and harmony with others.
o Just state
 State based on the Idea of Justice
 Athens = Ideal state — Citizen into 3 classes based on quality of soul
 Men of Reason - Ruling Class - Other 2 classes working for him
 Men of Courage - Soldier Class - benefit of good laws and producer class working for him
 Men of Appetite - Producer Class - Best of security and laws
 Each will stick to his duty and no interference into the tasks of each other
 Advantages
 Peace
 Harmony
 Excellence - everyone doing what they are best at— and so achieve excellence
 Criticism
 No liberty
 Sacrifices individual
 Totalitarianism
 Bad politics + Bad psychology + Bad philosophy

"State is Individual writ large”

Key words
1. Context - Principles of justice found at individual level applicable at the level of state
2. Literal meaning
 1. State bigger version of individual
2. Individual - small letter
3. State - capital letter - easier to understand -
4. Idea of Justice at state level — easier to understand than at level of human soul
3. Message
1. State not of Oak or rock.
2. Inherent in the minds of the ppl
3. He had wanted to make Athens an ideal state - so he was prescribing that every man should follow the
Theory of Justice as only when a man is just can the state be just.
4. Just People ==> Just state
5. Just man
1. Performs his duty according to quality of soul
2. No interference in others jobs
3. Contributing to excellence
4. Lives in peace with itself and harmony with others
4. Statement shows the continuity of Ethics and politics.

Theory of Education

 Plato has dealt with issue of education in such a detailed manner that Rousseau called “The Republic” as the best treatise in
the field of education.
 Education - Means to create an ideal state - to understand the quality of the soul of each person
 Logical conclusion of theory of justice.
 Source of inspiration
o Sparta
 State sponsored edu
 Equal Opp to women
 Compulsory military education
 State control, not private
o Athens
 Creative and logical thinking related education
 Proposed system
o Sparta + Athens + own ideas : Compiled the strong elements of Sparta and Athens and added his own
ideas
o Holistic view = Physical + Logical + Moral, Practical + Theoretical
o Equality of Opportunity to women ;
o Lifelong
 o Stages and tests - Filtration
o 50 years - Philosophers
 Philosopher kIng
o No conflict as - Philosophers only interested in knowledge not in ruling
o No appetite for power.
o So have to be reminded of their responsibility towards the state
o Reluctantly take up the job of PK

"Those states are best governed where the rulers are reluctant to govern rather than where they are
eager to govern”
Key points
1. Diagnosis - correct but prescription - wrong
2. Person not interested in his job, who does his job just out of duty cannot do justice to his job
3. Overlooks psychology, too much philosophy
4. Aristotle -> Ruler should be worldly wise rather than wise in world of ideas.
5. May not be the best way to tackle corruption to achieve good governance.

Theory of Communism
 Plato had proposed the system of C of P and F for the guardians to check against Corruption and Nepotism
 Communism means common ownership and it is against private ownership
 Why Plato proposed
o Education primary measure to create Ideal State by identifying spiritual qualities of the soul
o Communism as Supplementary mechanism — to check possibility of corruption
o Only for the Guardian Class - Rulers + Soldiers (Auxiliaries)
o Not for 3rd class -
 Not possible - Men of appetite - can’t control themselves
 Not required - not in a position to use public office for private ends

COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY- > check CORRUPTION

 COMMUNISM OF FAMILY
o Whole state is the family
o Communism of wives
o State to decide - Who will marry whom — for procreation only — kids taken away and raised by the state
o Women not to have responsibility of child rearing — can participate in politics and serve the state
o No discrimination among children —> No NEPOTISM

 Critical Evaluation
 o Plato’s Diagnosis - correct, Prescription - wrong
o Prop and Family - true that corrupting influence - nepotism and corruption
o Family - bigger evil, but this is one sided view of family
o Aristotle - Greatest disciple and greatest critic
 On Property
 Property - corruption - true
 Benefits - Motivation + Sense of achievement + Source of Charity
 Property => Stakes in the state
 Not wise to abolish property — find other ways to tackle corruption
 Everyone’s property is no one’s responsibility.
 On Family
 Family - time tested institution
 Ensures emotional stability
 Communism of wives not progressive — Going back to barbaric ages
o Aristotle stands corrected when we see tragedy of commons-> climate change overgrazing etc.
o Karl Popper - Open society and its enemies - criticised Plato+Hegel+Karl Marx - Regimented Society and
subordination of the ppl to the state completely

Theory of Philosopher King

No law or ordinance can be mightier than knowledge
Man of reason and wisdom
Limitation: Cannot change the Constitution

"For No Law or Ordinance can be mightier than the knowledge”

Key points
1. The statement talks about the scope of powers of PK which would not be limited to pub opinion or laws
2. It is foolish to limit an expert practitioner of medicine with the book of medicine
3. He has ultimate knowledge - knows what is best - has to be given absolute power
4. The only limitation would be that he cannot change the constitution
5. Critical Evaluation
1. Aristotle - greatest disciple and greatest critic
2. Not possible to find PK
3. Even if one finds PK - no guarantee that appetite will not start to dominate once in power
4. Law is a time tested institution
5. Collective wisdom > Individual wisdom
6. Law is a reason free from passions
7. Plato is sacrificing good (Rule of law) for the sake of best which is not achievable
 6. Closest example of PK - Supreme leader of Iran - Al Khamenei — above law and public opinion
7. Considering both P and A’s views, we would disagree with P as Rule of law is better than rule of one person.

Evaluation of Plato

Plato as a Communist
Q- Compare Plato’s Communism with modern communism.
 Communism = modern ideology by Karl Marx. However Idea of Communism is much older.
 Prof Maxey says the origin of communism in Western Philosophy
 Plato had proposed the system of C of P and F for the guardians to check against Corruption and Nepotism.
 Scholars have compared the ideas of Plato and Marx
o Both talk about classes
o Both consider Property to be a source of Evil
 But beyond these SUPERFICIAL SIMILARITIES lie FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES
o PLATO - Idealist MARX - Materialist
o PLATO - idea is ultimate reality MARX - Ideas is false consciousness
o PLATO - believed in Natural inequality MARX - Against Inequalities
o PLATO - Class divided society MARX - Classless society
o PLATO - Subordinates man under state MARX - State as an instrument of exploitation – Stateless
o PLATO - Change through education MARX - Change through a violent revolution
o Criteria of PLATO- Spiritual MARX- Economic
o Communism-Only two classes Across all classes
 This shows the fundamental differences and superficial similarities

Plato as a Feminist
 Feminism=> umbrella ideology => Concern - discrimination against women
 Plato is called the First Feminist because
o In a patriarchal society — he gave equality of opp to women to get educated
o Communism of family - state to take care of children - women to participate in politics
o Women eligible to become Philosopher queens. Believed = women don’t suffer from natural disabilities
 Status as femisnist is a matter of debate because
o Upliftment of women was not his main concern
o Opp given to women to use their talents in the service of the state by half of human race
 But we have to acknowledge the significance of Plato’s approach towards women which was far ahead of its
time
 After him only J.S. Mill
Plato as a Facist
Q- Was Plato a Facist or Totalitarian or Enemy of open society?
 In 20th century the World has witnessed the emergence of fascism in the regimes of Hitler and Mussolini
 Scholars wanted to find the origin and traced it to Plato’s works
 Fascist states - totalitarian states - deprive all sorts of freedom to its people — Only duties and no rights —
Leader is considered superman - absolute powers
 PK, CoF, Regimented society, Theory of Justice
 Karl Popper - “Open Society and its enemies”
o Calls Plato first fascist
o “Plato’s political program far from being morally superior to fascism is actually identical to it”
o In Vol. 1 of his book - “The Spell of Plato” - those who don’t understand what Popper is saying is
because they are under the spell of Plato
o Criticizes Plato for his hatred towards democracy, holism, historicism and essentialism.
o Prefers piecemeal social engineering.
o On the above ground he calls him TOTALITARIAN thinker and a PROTO-FACIST
 Winspear- Republic as blue print of authoritarianism
 Levinson - “In defence of Plato”
o Fascism and Platonism are incomparable; differ in space and time, only superficial similarities.
o Plato’s work was logically consistent – Fascism is hodge-podge of ideas
o No desire for exploitation
o Believes in reason vs. against reason.
o Against violence and power politics.
o Genuine desire to give a life of excellence and harmony.
o He also said that Plato’s critics were not wrong entirely
 Rajeev Bhargava- Popper is ideologically biased.
 Gilbert Ryle - Whether Plato fascist or not, after Popper’s work no one will see Plato in the same way it used
to be.

Place of Plato in the History of Western Philosophy

 Plato — one of the greatest pol scholar — righty deserves Father of Pol phil (Jowett)
 Not only FoPP but it is said that “Plato is philosophy and philosophy is Plato” - Emerson.
 "Entire western philosophy is nothing but a footnote to Plato" - Whitehead
o gave Theory of Ideas and Phil is study of ideas ; Study of Idea > Study of matter ==> Phil > Science
o Phil not just for personal growth — to be used for the good of society and service of humanity
o Philosophers have special responsibilities
o No need to live in the current state of affairs — better through reason
o Republic is encyclopaedic - All aspects of human life
 o Germanics thoughts of modern philosophers
 Greatness evident as Karl popper — greatest critic - “One can be either Platonic or anti-platonic, but never
non-platonic”

ARISTOTLE

Age 400 BC - Father of Political Science, Father of Comparative Politics, Father of Rule of Law

Place Macedonia

Concern  Criticism of Plato - For any answer think .. how to compare with plato —
possible ??
 How to prevent revolutions
 Best Practicable
 158 constitutions

School of Thought  Thinker of Common Sense - Important to be worldly wise than wise in the
world of ideas
 Golden Mean is the Golden Rule - Moderation
 Not to sacrifice good for the best
 Functionalist - Conservative - Piecemeal social engineering
o Fundamentalist - No change at all
 Teleology - school of destiny

Influences  Plato
 Father = Physician+Philosopher

Books  Politics

Theory of State
“Man is by nature a Political Animal”
 NEEDS
 Importance of state
  Nature created man in such a manner that it becomes essential for him to live under the state (teleology)
 In greece - sophist and socratic tradition.
 Sophist => State is artificial => Man is prior to state
 Socrates, Plato & Aristotle => State is natural & State is prior to man
 State is prior to man — he says -
o Man is not self-sufficient. Has various needs
o Creates a family to fulfil these needs. But all his needs are not met
o Village => State
o State capable of fulfilling all his needs => So highest of all associations and deserves highest of man’s obedience.
o Aristotle says “State comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life”
o Good life is not possible in the absence of state.
o He achieves fulfilled life and self-actualization.
o Man is social animal — In absence of state - Worst animal
o Chronologically - man comes first - but he becomes a man only after he lives in a state
 Aim of man =>excellence ,whereas aim of State => self-sufficiency - capable of fulfilling all the needs of
man
 Teleological argument — Man is destined to live in the state
 In words of Aristotle - "One who can live without a state is either a beast or god but cannot be a man”
 Different conceptions of state-> idealists, classical liberals, positive liberals, anarchists etc.

“The Authority of statesman differs from the authority of Master”

 Context - Criticism of Plato’s view of the state
 Plato
o State = Family
o PK = Father - orders to be obeyed like children without question
o Sacrifice Personal for the sake of Political
 Aristotle
o State = Family of families — Diff interests
o Laws governing families not be dictated by one man
o Laws should be a result of deliberation among diff families
o Reflect reconciliation among competing interests
o No need to sacrifice Personal for pol
o Maintain a balance - Coexist
 Plato - Excessive unity
 Aristotle emphasis on “Unity in diversity"
 Other scholars on authority. Machiavelli – Prince; Hobbes – state; Rousseau- people
Theory of Citizenship
 2 Universal principles
o Just Soli- citizenship by birth
o Jus sanguine – citizenship by blood
 Takes a substantive view of Citizenship
 Aristotle - goes beyond the 2 principles to say —> Citizenship = Duty towards the state - to participate in
legislative and judicial functions
 Direct democracy - POLITY
 Only those capable of performing these duties are citizens - Adult males - propertied class
 Excludes
o Women - Limited understanding, household tasks
o Old people - Health
o Children - Immature
o Slaves - Absence of reason
 Conclusion
o Criticised for - narrow composition
o But appreciated - SUBSTANTIVE meaning of citizenship than just formal status - duty to participate and
take interest in the affairs of the state

Theory of Slavery
 Slavery = Natural and Desirable ==> Unavoidable
 Slavery
o Legal - prisoners of war
o Natural - Born to be slaves — Aristotle concerned with this
 2 types of ppl
o Mentally strong — Masters
o Physically strong — Slaves
 Qualities of Master
o Reason - to take decisions
o Courage - to bear the consequences
 Qualities of slaves
o Cannot take a decision OR lack the courage to bear the consequences
o Need other people to take the decision for them
 Utility of slavery
o Economic system - slaves - phy strong - work for long hours
o Political system - masters - time to participate in the events of the state
o Masters - time to develop intellect
 oSlaves - Someone to take decisions for him & Development of virtues by staying with master
 Link it with Plato
 Critical eval
o Criticised for justification of slavery
o Insti of slavery against - Principles of Human dignity
o Example of black slavery.
o Immanuel Kant - "Each man is an end in himself. He should not be treated as means to an end”

Theory of Property
 Common Ownership - Common use — Everyone’s property is no one’s responsibility
 Common ownership Individual use - Very exploitative (African dictators)
 Individual ownership - Common use —> Take what u need, donate the rest —> Golden mean between the two.
 Similar to Gandhi’s theory of trusteeship
 Property
o Anything in which a man contributes his labor
o Not by deceit and fraud
o 2 types
 Animate - Slaves
 Inanimate - Property

“It is a difficult business for the people to live together. It is more difficult when property is involved”

Theory of Justice
 2 types
o Distributive justice — Public policy (Legislature )
o Rectificatory — For the sake of justice (Judiciary )
 Principle of Proportion
 Merit

“It is unjust to treat equals unequally. It is equally unjust to treat unequals equally”
 Aristotle — supports Meritocratic society
 ToJ concerned with 2 types - Distributive and Retributive.
 Both have Principles of Proportion.
 ToJ <=> ToS (linked)
o Reason + Courage = Masters and rest slaves
 ToJ  Theory of Revolution
 Follow ToJ ==> No rebellion or revolution
  NO ABSLOUTE EQUALITY ( doctor = nurse )
 PROPORTIONATE EQUALITY
 Criticism
o Merit as sole criterion — not applicable in societies like India
Similarity with Plato’s theory.
Other schools of thoughts.

Theory of Constitution
 Govt = Constitution = State
 No difference
 158 Constitutions
 Diagram

“Polity is the best practicable form of government”

 Plato = Best , Aristotle = Best Practicable
 Aristotle -
o Placed PK as best — in theory — impossible to find. Practicable - Tyranny
o Tyranny - worst from
o Democracy is the 2nd worst form - Rule of ignorant poor — Demagogic leaders — Tyranny
o Polity - Rule of middle class - best —moderate wealth and moderate reason
o Oligarchy <=> Polity <=> Democracy — Golden mean
o Middle class best practicable
 Rich <=> Distrust <=> Poor
 Both trust middle class
 Rich = Arrogance , Poor = Ignorance —> So not law abiding
 Middle class - moderate wealth - law abiding - men of reason
 Aristotle supports rule of the middle class as the best practicable.
 Society with extreme wealth inequalities — not stable
 Different scholars have given different conceptions.

“Law is a reason without passion"

 Rule of law compared with Rule of Person (PK)
 Aristotle - Biggest disciple and critic of Plato — Critices plato for giving absolute powers to PK
 Plato say
o It is foolish to limit the expert practitioner of medicine with a book of medicine
o No law or ordinance is mightier than Knowledge
 Aristotle -
 o We should not aim for the best but the best practicable
o PK diff to find
o Even if found — no guarantee — corrupt when in power — Reason and appetite
o PK —> Tyranny
 So he says Not to sacrifice the good for the best
 Rule of law = Rule of reason with added benefits => best practicable
 RoL and RoR guide man — right and wrong
 Law is the outward manifestation of reason
 Reason - inside the soul, Law - outside in the book
 Collective wisdom; Wisdom of ages
 Superiority of RoL > RoR.
 Father of Rule of Law
 Plato in “The Laws” accepted PK as ideal and established RoL
 Aristotle's ideal state is Plato’s second best state

Theory of Revolutions
 Aristotle gives the earliest example of political sociology in comparative politics.
 Issue of political obligation, revolution and resistance has been a matter of eternal concern in intellectual
tradition of political theory.
 Aristotle — extremely sensitive — rebellions and instability.
 He calls even a small change - revolution.
 Exhaustive study on the causes of rebellion
 Gives both general and particular causes.
o General Causes
 Commonest - Feeling of inequality => Feeling of rebellion & sedition => Revolution - State should be
careful of this feeling
 So => Middle class is the best — moderation
 Corruption & carelessness of officials
 Influx of foreigners
 Highhandedness of persons in power
o Regime specific/Particular
 Monarchy - Family quarrels and jealousy ==> Feeling of obedience to law
 Oligarchy - Concentration of wealth in few hands - inequality - Poor conspire against rich ==> Rich
should work in the interest of the poor
 Democracy - Demagogic leaders- Rich will conspire against poor = Tyranny ==> Increase people’s
stakes in the govt
 How to deal with revolution
 o Treat the general causes
o Treat regime specific causes
o Feeling of patriotism, law abidingness and civic virtues
 Still relevant today. Golden mean of Plato (= Extreme idealist) and Machiavelli (=extreme realist)
 Aristotle = Idealism + Realism
o Idealist - State is prior to man — uses dialectics to make his point
o Realist - Theory of Revolution — reality of politics

Q - Aristotle as "Father of Pol science”

 Compare with Plato
 Whitehead - The entire Western Political thought is nothing but footnotes to Plato and Aristotle
 Plato - Father of Pol Phil , Aristotle - rightly - FoPS
 Not to be interpreted in technical terms of science — but as Comparative and inductive
 Practical bent of mind
 Ideas
o Plato - world of ideas, Realty is just a shadow of ideas,
o Aristotle - does not overlook the reality of the world of matter
 Theory of forms
o Plato — idea is independent of matter
o Aristotle - matter is inherent to the idea
 A — More imp for a ruler to be worldly wise than wise in the world of ideas
 Scientific -
o Not best but best practicable
o Inspired by father — Physician + Phil — Used method of bio in classifications of constitutions
o Analyse the Th of Revolutions
 Treated as “Father of Rule of Law” — so appropriate to call — “FOPS”