Training Services

Steam Turbines

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 Steam Turbines

n Applications
n Types
n Theory
n Hardware
n Erosion
n Cleaning
n Problems

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 Steam Turbines

n Typical Refinery Applications

– Compressor drivers (centrifugal, reciprocating)
– Critical equipment
– FCC MCB pumps
– FCC PRT trains

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 Steam Turbines

n Why Used?
– Efficient
— Heat energy into mechanical energy
— Steam balance solutions
– Reliable
— Few moving parts
— Generally no gears
— Low vibration/noise
— Runs through electrical outage

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 Steam Turbines

– Flexible
— Speed control
— Off-design (regeneration)
— Can handle overload operation
— Uprate capability
– Safe
— Can be installed in explosive atmosphere

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 Standard Multi-Stage Turbines

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 Steam Turbines

Turbine Motors
Flexibility High Low
Reliability High ??
Efficiency 75% 90%
Capital High Low
Operating Cost ?? ??

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 Steam Turbines

n Other Types of Drivers

– Gas Turbines
— Expensive, complex, high maintenance
— Complete overhaul every 6-12 months
– Variable Speed Motors
— Expensive, complex
– Gas Engines
— Expensive

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 Steam Turbines

n Types
– Condensing
– Back pressure
– Extraction
– Induction

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 Steam Turbines
HP Steam HP Steam HP Steam

T T T

MP Steam
C LP Steam LP Steam
(or Condensing)

Condensing Non-Condensing Extraction

(Back Pressure) (Induction)
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 Water Cooled Condenser

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 Steam Turbines

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 Steam Turbines

n Condensing n Non-Condensing
– Inlet – Inlet
— 600 psig, 700ºF — 600 psig, 700ºF
– Outlet – Outlet
— 3.5 In. Hg. — 50 psig
– Steam Rate – Steam Rate
— 7.70 lb/kw-hr — 16.11 lb/kw-hr

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 Steam Turbines

n Condensing n Non-Condensing
– Inlet – Inlet
— 41 barg, 370ºC — 41 barg, 370ºC
– Outlet – Outlet
— 90 mm Hga — 3.5 barg
– Steam Rate – Steam Rate
— 3.5 kg/kw-hr — 7.3 kg/kw-hr

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 Steam Turbines

n Theory
– Objective
— To Answer
Ÿ “How does a steam turbine work?”
– Definition
— A steam turbine is a device for converting
thermal energy into mechanical work

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 Steam Turbines

n Stationary Nozzles
– Function
— Convert pressure into velocity

m1, V1 m2, V2 V 2 >> V 1

P1 >> P2
P1 P2
m1 = m2

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 Steam Turbines

n Assumptions
– Adiabatic expansion (No Q in/out of system)
– No work done
– Negligible kinetic energy at nozzle inlet
– No change in potential energy across nozzle

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 Steam Turbines

n Nozzles oriented to optimally direct steam to

rotor blades

n Steam impinges on rotor blades

n Momentum transferred from steam to rotor

(i.e. Mechanical work produced)

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 Steam Turbines

n Two Types of Stage Design

– Impulse (2 categories)
— Curtis
— Rateau
– Reaction

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 Steam Turbines

n Impulse
– Pressure drops across stationary nozzles only
– Rotor blades are “buckets”
n Reaction
– Pressure drops across stationary nozzles and
rotating blades
– Rotor blades are airfoil shape
— Area between blades decreases from
leading edge to trailing edge

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 Steam Flow through Impulse, Reaction
and Compounded Turbine Stages

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 Steam Turbines

n Curtis Impulse Design

– Used primary in 1st stage
– Large pressure drop
– 2 sets of rotor blades for a single Curtis stage
— Decreases diameter
— Reduces tip speeds and blade stresses
n Curtis Design Trade-off
– Reduced efficiency compared to Rateau design

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 Steam Turbines

n Impulse Stage Design Characteristics

– Large blade clearances
— Quicker thermal loading
– Small ∆P across blades
— Due to friction effects only
– Low thrust bearing load

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 Steam Turbines

n Reaction Stage Design Characteristics

– ∆P across nozzles and blades
– Higher pressure profile axially in casing
– Sealing required at blade tips
– 2 x # of stages required
– Larger thrust bearing load
— Balance piston may be required
– Efficiency approximately 5% higher than
Impulse Turbine design

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 Steam Turbines

n Impulse Turbine Design Advantages

– Larger clearances
– Fewer stages
– More tolerant to upset
– More tolerate to moisture or dirt
– Simpler maintenance
– Less sophisticated/More durable design

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 Steam Turbines

n Reaction Turbine Design Advantages

– Higher efficiency
— More important in large HP applications
(Power Generation)
n Conclusion
– Refinery generally chooses Impulse Turbine
design

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 Steam Turbines

n Hardware
– Casings
– Blades
– Rotors
– Bearings
– Seals
– Control/Protection

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 Steam Turbines

n Casings
– Horizontally split with vertical bolting joint
– 3-sections - high, intermediate, exhaust
– Cast iron or cast steel
– Hydro test 1-1/2 times design in 3 sections
– HP end support by bearing housing-flexible
for axial expansion

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 Condensing Turbine

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 Condensing-Extraction Turbine

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 Vertical Barrel Steam
Exhaust Joint Section Chest
Casing Bearing
Centerline Housing
Support

Flexible
Support

Diafram Grooves

Diafram
Reversing Blades

Nozzle Ring

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 Steam Turbines

n Blades
– High chrome stainless steel
– Various root types
– Natural Frequencies-Campbell diagrams
– Stresses-Goodman diagrams

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 Design of Blades, Roots, Shrouds

Side-entry blades dovetail into Reaction stages of drum type unit

disks to transmit force to turbine need sealing strips, which limit
shaft. Shrouds tie groups of blades steam flow past stationary, moving
together. blade.

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 Blades and Buckets

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 Campbell Diagram
14H 13H 12H 11H
800
10H
#11 9H

#10 8H
Frequency, Hz

#9 7H
600 #8
#6 6H
#7 5H
#5
#4 4H
#3
#2 3H
400 #1
2H
Natural Frequency
Line 1H
For #1 stage rotor biases
NOR 4380 rpm First Harmonics of
MGR 4599 rpm
Rotation Speed
200
2000 4000 6000
Shaft Speed, rpm
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 Modified Goodman Diagram

70
Alternating Stress - psi x 1000

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Steady State Stress - psi x1000
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 Steam Turbines

n Rotors
– Alloy Steel
– Solids or Built-Up
– Solid: shaft and disk one piece, high temp, speed
– Built-up: less expensive, easier to repair disk
shrunk and keyed to shaft; limited by speed and
temp (825ºF, 441°C, 825 ft/s, 250 m/s)

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 Typical Solid rotor with
doubleflow fast stage.
The shaft and disks of this
type rotor are one piece.

Typical Built-Up single-

flow rotor with 14”
(360mm) last-stage blades.
Every disk is shrunk and
keyed to the shaft.

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 Completed Rotor for 54300 H.P.
(40500kW) Condensing Extraction
Turbine

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 Rotor in Lower-Half Casing
Showing Labyrinth Seals

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 Steam Turbines

n Bearings
– Shares oil console with compressor
– Thrust bearings
– Journal bearings

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 Steam Turbines

n Seals
– Labyrinth
– Gland condenser

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 Labtrinth Seal Arrangement

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 Steam Sealing System – Condensing

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 Steam Sealing System – Non-Condensing

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 Steam Turbines

n Controls/Protection
– Trip and throttle valve
– Governor
– Actuator
– Steam chest nozzles

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 Single-Valve
Governor
Valve

To
Turbine
N o z z l e s
Linkage
to
Governor
Servo-Motor

Steam Inlet

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 Multi-Valve

Steam Chest
Cover Steam Chest

Governor
Steam Valve Stem
Inlet
Linkage
to
Servo-Motor
Lifting
Bar Governor
Valves

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 Crossbar in steam chest, lifted by two rods, opens poppet
valves in sequence to control flow to the nozzles
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 Double Auto-Extraction Condensing Turbine

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 Speed Control for Straight Condensing
and Non-Condensing Turbines

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 Steam Turbines

n Steam Rates
– 33000 ft-lb/min = 1 hp = 0.746 kw
– 778 ft-lbs = 1 Btu = 1.05 kJ = 252 cal
– 33000/778 = 42.4 Btu/min = 2545 Btu/hr = 1 hp
– 2545/0.746 = 3142 Btu/hr = 792 kcal/hr = 1 kw

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 Steam Turbines

n Cleaning
– Off-line (Case Study 1)
— Mechanical cleaning
— Washing
– On-line (Case Study 2)
— Reduced speed
— Full speed

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 Steam Turbines

n Cleaning may be required if any of the four

C’s exist
– Contaminants
– Condensation
– Corrosion
– Chemical reaction

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 Steam Turbines

n Consequences of the four C’s”

– Performance deterioration
— Loss of efficiency ⇒ lower power ⇒ reduced
speed ⇒ reduced capacity!!
– Shaft vibration, thrust bearing failure
– Worst case: unit trip with potential for serious
damage to hardware
– Trip and throttle valve and governor valve stems

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 Steam Turbines

n Therefore, consequences to:

– Machinery
– Process
– Operator safety
— According to recent industrial insurance
study, equipment overspeed failures is
second leading cause of refinery fatalities

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 Steam Turbines

n Two types of contaminants

– Soluble
— Sodium (whitish deposits)
— Ammonium chloride
— Silica (darker color)
– Non-soluble
n Analyze samples to determine

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 Steam Turbines

n Case Study #1: Off-Line Cleaning

– FCC main air blowers
– Steam turbine driven (not identical size)
— QV-8: 4800 hp
— QV-6: 5100 hp
– Operating in parallel

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 Steam Turbines

n Turbines cannot be on-line cleaned

– Insufficient power at saturated steam
conditions
n Original procedure
– Operate FCC at 50% capacity with one
compression train
– Mechanically clean steam turbine off-line
– Procedure takes 5 days

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 Steam Turbines

n Original procedure (continued)

– Refiner developed new off-line wash
procedure
– Was adopted over large capital investment
project to remove contaminants
n Result
– Procedure can be executed in 1 day
– Equally effective cleaning method
– Increased FCCU feed rate by 2700 bpd

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 Steam Turbines

n Case Study #2: On-Line Washing

– Steam quality from boilers poor
— Dissolved salts
– Original procedure
— Off-line or reduced speed wash every 3-4
months!
— Consequence: lost process unit
production
– Refinery evaluated on-line wash

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 Steam Turbines

n On-line washing is potentially more hazardous

to equipment!
n Always work with OEM prior to implementing
n Risks of on-line wash
– Uneven thermal growth between rotating and
stationary parts - severe
– Erosion of stationary nozzles and rotating blades
- less severe

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 Steam Turbines

n On-line Wash Procedure Outline

– Inject water to reduce inlet steam temperature
– Goal: 25°F above saturated
– Must limit stream ∆T < 2°F/minute
– Calculate required water injection rate
– Strongly recommend spare water injection pump

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 Steam Turbines

n On-line Wash Procedure Outline (continued)

– CLOSELY monitor:
— Steam inlet temperature
— Salt (chloride) levels
— First stage steam pressure
— Vibration levels
— Bearing temperatures
– Maintain log of these parameters
– Procedure duration approximately 4-5 hours

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 Steam Turbines

n Result
– No reduction in unit throughput
– Same procedure used on 4 turbines every 4-6
months
– No negative effects reported after 12+ years!!

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 Steam Turbines

n Erosion
– Greater risk in condensing steam turbine
– Water droplets form
– “Collect” at trailing edge of stationary nozzles
to form larger drops
– Large droplets break up leaving trailing edge
causing damage

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 Steam Turbines

n Erosion (continued)
– Droplet velocity low vs. steam velocity
– Impact rotating blades leading edge unfavorably
– Result: pitting of leading edge

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 Steam Turbines

n Safeguards Against Erosion

– Maintain design superheat (250°F)
– Stage channels or troughs
– Diffusion coatings for rotating blades

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 Steam Turbines

n Problem I
– Compare cost after 3 years for condensing steam
turbine vs. motor driver for centrifugal comp.
– 10,000 HP (7460 kw) - 5000 rpm
– Inlet steam 600 psig (42.2 kg/cm2g), 700ºF (316ºC)
- 211ºF (99ºC) Superheat
– Exhaust steam 3.5 in Hga (89 mm Hga) 1.72 psia
(0.12 kg/cm2a)

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 Steam Turbines

n Cost for steam turbine and condensate system

– $3.2 MM including spare rotor
n Cost for motor and gear
– $600,000
n Cost for steam
– $4.00/1000 lb
n Cost for electricity
– $0.06/kw-hr

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 Basic Efficiency of Multi-Valve,
Multi-Stage Condensing Turbines
Rating, 1000 Kilowatts
3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 15.0 29.8
3.7 5.2 6.7 11.0 22.4 37.2
0.82
0.80 200 100
400 300
0.78
0.76
Basic Efficiency

0.74
0.72 1200
1500
0.70 600 1800
0.68 800
0.66 900
0.64
0.62
0.60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50
Rating, 1000 Horsepower
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 Basic Efficiency of Multi-Valve,
Multi-Stage Non-Condensing Turbines
Rating, 1000 Kilowatts
3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 15.0 29.8
3.7 5.2 6.7 11.0 22.4 37.2
0.82
0.80 100 200
400 300
0.78
Basic Efficiency

0.76
0.74
0.72 600
0.70 800
0.68 900
1200
0.66 1500
0.64 1800
0.62
0.60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50
Rating, 1000 Horsepower
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 Superheat Correction Factor
Initial Superheat °C
0 38 93 149 204-
1.05
Superheat Correction Factor

1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.97
0 100 200 300 400
Initial Superheat °F
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 Speed Factor
1.02
1.01
1.00
0.99 1,000
0.98
2,000
Speed Factor

0.97
0.96 5,000 3,000
0.95
0.94 10,000
0.93 12,500
0.92 15,000
0.91 Curve numbers are:
0.90 A Horsepower for exhaust
0.89 press., in Hg abs condensing turbines
0.88 B Horsepower for noncondensing turbines
0.87
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rated Speed, 1000 rpm
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 Steam Turbines

n Solution
– Electric Motor
— Capital - $600,000
— Utilities for 1st year
Ÿ 10,000 x 0.746 x $0.06 x 24 x 365 = $3.92 MM
– Total cost 3 years operations - $11.76 MM

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 Steam Turbines

n Solution
– Steam Turbine
— H1 = 1350
— H2 = 915
— ∆H = 435
– Theoretical Steam Rate =
— 3412 Btu/kw-hr/435 Btu/lb = 7.8 lb/kw-hr

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 Steam Turbines

n Solution-Steam Turbine
– Basic Efficiency - 0.75
– Superheat Factor - 1.021
– Speed Factor - 0.992
n Estimated Steam Rate =
– 7.8 x 0.746/0.75 x 1.021 x 0.992 = 7.66 lb/hp-hr
– 7.66 lb/hp-hr x 10000 hp = 76600 lb/hr = 35746 kg/hr

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 Steam Turbines

n Solution-Steam Turbine
– Utilities for 1st year
— 76,600 lb/hr x $4.00/1000 x 24 x 365 = $2.68 MM
— Total cost 3 years operations - $11.24 MM
– 1st 3 years operation
– Motor $11.76 MM - Turbine $11.24 MM
– 76600 lb/hr/8.337 lb/gal x 60 min/hr
– = 153 gal/min (34.8 m3/hr) condensate

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 Steam Turbines

n Duty
– ∆H = 2544 Btu/hr/7.66 lb/hp-hr = 332 Btu/lb
– H2 = 1350 - 332 = 1018 Btu/lb
– 93 Btu/lb saturated liquid
– 76600 lb/hr x (1018-93 Btu/lb) = 70.86 x 106 Btu/hr
– = 17.87 x 106 kcal/hr
– Assume 25ºF ∆T cooling water
– Cooling water flow = 70.86 x 106/25 x 8.337 x 60 =
5666 gpm = 1287 m3/hr

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