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INTRODUCTION TO Auto CAD

INTRODUCTION:

Auto CAD is a software package popularly used for Computer Aided Drafting
(CAD). Using Auto CAD we can easily draw 2-Dimensional and 3-Dimensional
system modeling with the help of computer.

The package Auto CAD has been developed by Auto Desk Inc. an American
Company in the year 1982. After the release of the first edition, several editions,
alterations and modifications have been done. At present version-2000 available
and widely used.
Auto CAD is also available for engineering drawings, project planning and
simulation, different types of graphs, designs, ensuring a high degree of precision and
accuracy. Another main advantage is after drafting any drawing it can be edited,
copied and modified as many number of times as required. Using this package a lot
of repetitive tasks of the draftsman can be reduced.
Today‟s CAD technology can provided the engineer / designer the necessary
help in the following ways.

1. Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) is faster and more accurate than conventional
methods.
2. The various construction facilities available in CAD would make the job of
developing the drawing very easy task.
3. In contrast the traditional drawing methods under CAD it is possible to manipulate
various dimensions attributes and distances of the drawing elements. This quality
makes CAD useful for design work.
4. Under CAD you will never have to repeat the drawing of any component. Once a
component has been made it can be copied in all further works within seconds.
5. You can accurately call the dimensions of various components interactively in
CAD, without actually making their models and profiles.
6. A modification of drawing is very easy and would make the designer task of
improving a given product simple to take care of any future requirements.
7. Use of standard components (parts libraries) makes for a very fast drawing work.
Also a large number of components and sub-assemblies may be stored in drawing
library to be reproduced and used later.
Several professional CAD packages provide 3-D capabilities so that the designer
can see the products being designed from several different views.
SETTING UP A DRAWING :

By double clicking the Auto CAD 14 Icon on your Windows Desktop, create New
Drawing Dialog Box appears. This dialog is convenient tool for setting up new
drawings. Click cancel in the create new drawing dialog box.

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The Auto CAD program window is divided into five parts.

 Pull down menu bar ;

 Docked and floating tool bars
 Drawing area
 Command window
 Status bar

Menu :
Auto CAD is menu driven system. And the number of menu commands
available are many. The menu items are made available through a large number of
options such as :

 Direct command entry

 Through the side bar menu
 Through the pop up windows from the top menu bar
 Through the bottom bars located in any portion of the screen.

PLANING FOR DRAWING :

Units :

This allows us to set up the units in which Auto CAD will work. Internally Auto CAD
would be working in default co-ordinates called drawing units, it is necessary to
define the internal representation of these units in recognizable form. This is achieved
by units command.

Auto CAD offers different types of units to work in the drawing. These are

1. SCIENTIFIC
2. DECIMAL
3. ENGINEERING
4. ARCHITECTURAL
5. METRIC
The fractional part of the dimensions can be displayed to any accuracy desired. For
example in the case of decimal, it is the number of places to be displayed or the
maximum fractional denominator to be used based on the user‟s choice. The co-
ordinate display on screen would be modified.

This option also lets the user to specify the way the angles are specified.
The various options available are.

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1. Decimal degrees
2. Degrees / Minutes / Seconds
3. Grade
4. Radius
5. Surveyor‟s units.

The positive direction for the angle measurement is considered as counter clockwise
movement from the positive X-axis is also possible to change this to any that the user
finds convenient.

The units specification is simplified by a pop up window. Choose format > units.

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM :

The co-ordinate system used by all the CAD packages is generally the rectangular
criterion co-ordinate system which follows right hand rule. Any point in the 3-
Dimension space is therefore designed by the co-ordinates values of these 3 axis (x, y,
z). The co-ordinates can be input into the system in a number of ways.

 By the direct input of co-ordinates values in their respective order x, y, z.

For example if input co-ordinates are given in x and y.

+Y
(100, 100) (200,

Command : line < Enter> +X

From, point : 100, 100

To point : 200, 100

 It is also possible to specify the co-ordinates in an incremental format, as the

distances from the current cursor position in the drawing area. The distance is
specified by using the “@ “ parameter before the actual value.
Command : Line < Enter>

From point : 100, 100

To point : @ 100, 0

 It is also possible to specify the co-ordinates using the polar co-ordinate

format.
Command : Line < Enter>

From point : 100, 100

To point : @ 100 < 0

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It is also possible to move the cursor to the designated point in the drawing area by
clicking the mouse button. This directly selects the point in the drawing plane.

Limits :
It is generally necessary to specify the limits of the drawing that one is about to
make. The actual size of the drawing would have to be specified using the keyboard
limits are set with the idea of final drawing in mind.

Command : Limits

ON | OFF| < lower left corner> < -75.00, -50.00> : -25, -25 <Enter>

Upper right corner <450.00,300.00> : 350,300 <Enter>

Choose format > Drawing limits

Grid :
Working on a plain drawing area is difficult since there is no means for the user
to understand or correlate the relative positions or straightness of the various objects
made in the drawing. The Grid command controls the display of a grid of alignment
dots to assist in the placement of objects in the drawing.

Command : GRID

Grid spacing (x) or ON|OFF|SNAP/ASPECT <10.00 > 5 < Enter>

Tools > Drawing Aids

Snap :
The resolution of the cursor movement can be effectively controlled using the
snap command. This mode forces the cursor to step a specific distance. When the
cross hair (cursor) is moved in the drawing area it moves in increments of snap
spacing value specified.

Command : SNAP

Snap spacing or (ON|OFF|ASPECT|STYLE) : 5.0

Choose Tools > Drawing aids.

Ortho :
The ortho command allows to draw lines which are perpendicular to one
another. As a result all lines and traces drawn while this mode is ON are constrained
to be horizontal or vertical.

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OBJECT PROPERTIES
All object in Auto CAD when created would have certain properties such as
color, line type, and the layer on which they would be residing. The default settings
would be visible in the object properties button bar as shown in

Line Type :
The line type command sets the line type for new entities. It can also load line
type definitions from a library file.
To select a new type of line like hidden, center line, you can choose Format>Line
type.
Now from the line type dialog box load the required line and make the selected line as
current.
Line Scale :

The LT scale command governs the global scale factor for line type dash lengths.
Color :

The color command sets the color for new entities.

Layers :

A layer is basically one which contains some information which can be

geometric and alpha numeric. The reason of distributing all the information present in
the drawing into various layers is that at any given time. Some of the layers can be
deleted from view (OFF) or can be made visible (ON). This helps in organizing the
information in a drawing.

The layers can be

Turned ON – A selected layer is made visible

Turned OFF – A selected layer is made invisible

Frozen – A selected layer is turned off resulting in tool operation and any
regenerations of the screen being specifies when working in other layers.

Thaweal - A frozen layer is turned back ON

Locked – Objects on a locked layer cannot be modified

Although further objects can be added to a locked layer unlocked – a locked

layer can be unlocked.

Format > Layers

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FILE HANDLING COMMANDS :

Save :

This option is used to save the drawing in the current version with all the corrections
and additions made. The drawing would be saved in the current name with an
extension .DWG. The AutoCAD would return back to the drawing mode after the
extension of SAVE.

Quit : The quit command exists the drawing editor without saving the update version
of the current drawing and returns to main menu.

End : The end command exits the drawing editor (after saving the updated version of
the current drawing) and returns to main menu.

Shell : The shell command temporarily exists the AutoCAD and returns to the
drawing editor after executing any single implicit OS command.

DISPLAY CONTROL COMMANDS :

Zoom: Zoom is used to change the scale of display. This can be used to magnify part
of the drawing to any higher scale for looking closely at some fine details in the
drawing.

There are large number of options available with in ZOOM.

Scale :A numeric zoom factor. A value less than 1 zooms out (reduction) and greater
than 1 zooms in (magnification)

All : Allows the entire drawing upto the limits to be displayed on screen.

Dynamic : Graphically selects any portion of the drawing as your next screen view,
but also sees what part of your file is generated and therefore appears fast.

Extents : Shows everything in file ignoring the limits

Left : Pick a lower left corner and height of how much drawing information you want
to display to fill up the screen.

Previous : Returns the last zoom setting

Window : Pick two points that define a rectangular window or describe what part of
the drawing file will be seen on the screen.

Redraw : As the drawing proceeds there are many times objects would made,
crushed, copied and manipulated. Sometimes this makes the screen cluttered with
unwanted lines which are not part of the drawing, but are present. To clear all these
things REDRAW command is used.

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Pan : The Pan command allows to move the display window in any direction without
changing the display magnification.

BASIC GEOMETRIC COMMANDS :

The various entities that can be used for making an Auto CAD drawing in 2-D are as
follows.

 Point
 Line
 Circle
 Arc
Point :

It is used to specify a point or a node in the drawing for any given purpose for
example it can be used for center of circle or for starting point of a straight line.

The point co-ordinates can be input into the system in a number of ways.

 By the direct input of co-ordinate values in their respective order x, y and z.

 It is also possible to specify the co-ordinates in an incremental format from the
current cursor position in the drawing area.
 The distance is specified by using @ parameter between the actual values.
 It is also possible to specify the point co-ordinates using the polar co-ordinate
format. This is an extension of the incremental format shown above.
Line :

The line command allows you to draw straight lines.

(100,200)

(0,0) (100, 0)

Command : Line
From point : 0,0 < Enter>

To point : 100,0 <Enter>

To point : 100,200 <Enter>

To point : close
The close option use the start point of the first line segment in the current line
command as the next point.

The above figure is drawn only by absolute program with reference to distance
specified. However the same can be done through the use of incremental
programming.

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Command : Line
From point : 0,0 <Enter>
To point : @ 100,0 <Enter>
To point : @ 100,200 <Enter>
To point : close
Draw > Line
Circle :

The circle command is used to draw full circle, you can specify the circle in many
ways for specifying a circle we need atleast two values.

 Center point and Radius

 Center point and Diameter
 Two points on the circumference across diameter
 Three points on the circumference
 Tangential to two other already drawn entities and radius.
Command : Circle

Specify centre point for circle or (3p/2p/Ttr):100,100

Specify radius of circle or (diameter) : 50

Centre, Radius

3P TTR 2P
Arc :

The arc command draws an arc as specified by any of the following methods.

 Three point on the arc

 Start point, center, end point
 Start point, center, included angle
 Start point, center, length of chord
 Start point, end point, radius
 Start point, end point, included angle
 Start point, end point, starting direction

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The arc is always drawn in the counter clockwise direction. The associated chord with
AutoCAD for the option three point in the arc is.

Command : Arc

Center/<Start point>:25,25

Center/End/<Second point>:35,40

End point : 5,35 2

Command : Arc 1
Center/<Start point>: 150,90
1
Center/Ed/<Second point> :C
2
Center : 150, 60

Included angle : 180

START – CENTER
INCLUDED ANGLE

MORE GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION FEATURES :

 Object Snap
 Poly lines
 Polygon
 Ellipse
 Do nut
 Text handling

Object Snap :

The snap command is useful for drawing a new object into the drawing by
itself. However it is often desired to have drawings made with relation to already
existing objects. In such situations the object snap facility available in AutoCAD is
quite useful. Sometimes it is required to start a line from an unknown precise tangent
point in a circle. In such cases all that the user may know is a specific area where the
tangent may be lying. Then by selecting the Onap systems the system would be able
to automatically calculate the tangent point in the region selected.

When Osnap is set on either with a left click on the Osnap button in the status
bar by pressing key F3. Osnap dialogue box consists of different options.

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Center : The point would be snapped to the center of a circle or an arc.

End point : End point of an object is selected as the snap point snaps to the nearest end
point of a line, arc, polyline, vertex, solid.

Insert : Insert point of text, symbol or a block is considered as the snap point.

Intersection : nearest intersection point of two objects found in the target box is the
snap point.

Mid point : Mid point of the object (line or arc) present in the target box is selected .

Perpendicular : Snaps to a point in the selected entity such that a perpendicular or line
be drawn from the last point.

Quadrant : Snaps to the closet 0,90,180 or 270 degrees point on the selected are or
circle.

Tangent : Snaps to a point on a circle or an arc so that a tangent is formed from the last
point. The last point can also be a tangent point on a circle or an arc .

Polylines:
Polylines are like composite line segments and arc. A polygon may look like a
series of line segments but it acts like a single object.

Polygon :
Polygon option allows to make polygons from 3 to 24 sides on the drawing.

INSCRIBE CIRCLE CIRCUMSCRIBE CIRCLE

Command : Polygon
Number of sides : 6
Edge/<Center of polygon> 100,120

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Inscribed incircle/circumscribe about circle

(I/c):I Radius of circle : 120

Ellipse :
There are three methods available for making ellipse in AutoCAD.

 By means of axis end points

 By means of center and axis end points
 By means of center and rotation

Command : Ellipse

Specify axis end point of elliptical arc or (center) : 20,230

Specify other end point of axis : 190,220

Specify distance to other axis or (rotation) : 40

Donut : The Donut command draws a filled circle or ring, the solid filling of donuts is
subject to fill mode. Donuts are normally used for making the terminal points in printed
circuit board drawings.

Text Handling :Auto CAD provides a large range of text entering capabilities
including various fonts and other text handling features.

Format > Text style

EDITING A DRAWING :

Erase : The erase command allows you to delete selected entities from the current
drawing.

Move : It is used to move one or more existing drawing entities from one location on
to another.

Copy : It is used to duplicate one or more existing drawing entities to another

location without erasing the original.

Chamfer : The chamfer command creates a bevel between two intersecting lines at
a given distance from their intersection.

Fillet : The fillet command connects two lines, arcs or circles with a smooth arc of
specified radius.

Offset : The offset command construct an entity parallel to another entity at either a
specified distance or through a specified point.

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Rotate : It is used to change the orientation of the objects around a base point which
can be located anywhere with respect to the existing objects.

Scale : This option is used to change the scale of the displayed objects in the
drawing similar for zoom.

Mirror : The mirror command allows you to mirror selected entities in your drawing.
The mirror line you designate is the axis about which the selected objects are
mirrored. It may be at any angle.

Array : The array command make multiple copies of selected objects.

Break :The break command deletes part of a line, circle , arc or polyline.

Trim : Trim is a method by which the objects can be trimmed with scissors so that
the unwanted portions of the objects can be removed.

Extend : The extend command allows you to lengthen exiting objects in a drawing
so that they are precisely at a boundary defined by one or more objects in the
drawing.

Change : The change command allows you to modify or change the properties of
existing objects in the drawing.

Explode : The explode command replaces a block reference with copies of the
simple entities comprising the block for example a polyline is replaced by
simple lines and arcs.

Divide :The divide command allows you to divide the entity into a specified number
of equal length parts placing markers along the objects at the dividing point.

Measure : The measure command allows you to measure the entity placing markers
along the object at interval of the specified distance.

Stretch : It allows a selected polygon of a drawing to move preserving the

connections to the others parts of the drawing.

Undo : The command UNDO is used for correcting any errors made in the editing
process.

Oops : The OOPS command reinserts the object or objects that were deleted by the
most recent erase command.

Redo : If something is undo by mistake it can be rectified by REDO

command. DIMENSIONING AND SECTIONING A DRAWING

After creating the various views of the model or after preparing the drawing it is
necessary to add dimensions at the appropriate places.

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DIMENSION VARIABLES:

While dimensioning the information to be specified is as follows.

 Where is the Dimension

 Where the dimension text should go
 How big and what style the text will be
 If tolerance range is to be included
 How big and what the arrows look like

These variables actually control the way the dimensions appear in the drawings.
AutoCad gives great control over the way dimensions may appear in the drawings.
The dimension style specification is opened through the popup window format.

Format > dimension style or from Dimension > Style. The dimension style Manager
dialogue box appears.

Each of the dimension style is further sub divided into the following three options.

 Geometry
 Format
 Annotation

Each of these can be further specified based on dimensions family or for all of them.
The dimension families are specified as follows:

 Linear
 Diameter
 Radial
 Angular
 Leader

The geometry options allow control of the extension and dimension lines and their
appearance.The format options allow control of the placement of dimension values.

The annotation option allows control of the textual and dimensions that appear
in the dimensions and the associated leaders.

DIMENSIONING METHODS

1.Set up the basic parameters for dimensioning. They are

 Arrow head type
 Arrow head size
 Extension line offset
 Placement of Dimension text

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2.Arrow head size Extension line offset attacement of Dimension text Identify what
you want to measure pick end points lines, arcs or circles or other points of existing
drawing entities using O snap if necessary..

3.Specify where the dimension line & text are to be located.

4.Approve the Auto CAD „s measurements as dimension text or type in your own text

LINEAR DIMENSIONS:

Horizontal: To enter the horizontal dimensions for horizontal lines.

70

Vertical : To enter the dimensions for vertical lines.

70

Aligned: Inclined dimensions parallel to the object. The dimension would be shown
parallel to the object which it self may be inclined at any angle.

90

Angular: For dimensioning between two non parallel lines. Allows angles to be
shown less than 180 deg.

45O

Diameter: This shows the diameter of an arc or a circle. The value would be shown
inside the circle if the size permits, otherwise it would be taken out with a leader size
to be specified by the user.

30

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Radius: The value would be shown starting from the center of the arc or circle.

R 20

Base Line: to automatically start linear dimensions it uses the first extension line as
the base line and offsets each successive dimension line.

50

30

Continue: Chains linear dimension. This is particularly useful in situations where

number of dimensions are shown incremental along a single line.

30 20

Tolerencing: Simple tolerencing of the dimensions in Auto CAD can be controlled

through the variable DIMTOL and other variables as explained before. For the more
complex form tolerances such as flatness, concentricity, roundness, parallelism etc.,
can also be specified through the dimension style option

120 +0.08 , -0.05

.50 + 0.05

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Sectioning: Section is the one of the very important aspects in normal draughting work
for showing the inside details of objects. Auto CAD provides a variety of built in hatch
patterns. The hatch option can be reached through the command line by typing the
command or through the button in the draw tool bar option. This opens the boundary
hatch dialogue box.

It is important to select the boundary with in which the hatch pattern should appear.
The selection can be made by the boundary objects such as Line, Arcs etc., Care
needs to be taken to see that the selected boundary is completely closed with no
gap any where. Also the selected object forming the boundary should not overlap
or project beyond. In some cases it may be a good idea to define a poly line passing
through all the vertices in a separate layer and then do the hatch.

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EXERCISE: 1 Date:

PART DRAWING OF SIMPLE COMPONENTS

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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EXERCISE: 2 Date:

PART DRAWING OF SIMPLE COMPONENTS

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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EXERCISE:3 Date:

ISOMETRIC DRAWING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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EXERCISE:4 Date:

ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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EXERCISE:5 Date:

3D WIREFRAME DRAWING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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EXERCISE:6 Date:

SOLID MODELLING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:
Draw Commands Modified Commands

Result:

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INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDWORKS

SolidWorks is solid modeling CAD (computer-aided design) software that runs

on Microsoft Windows and is produced by Dassault Systems Solid Works Corp., a
subsidiary of Dassault Systèmes. SolidWorks is currently used by over 2 million
engineers and designers at more than 165,000 companies worldwide.

SolidWorks Corporation was founded in December 1993 by Massachusetts

Institute of Technology. SolidWorks is a Parasolid-based solid modeler, and utilizes
a parametric feature-based approach to create models and assemblies. Parameters refer
to constraints whose values determine the shape or geometry of the model or
assembly. Design intent is how the creator of the part wants it to respond to changes
and updates. Features refer to the building blocks of the part. They are the shapes and
operations that construct the part.

SOLID WORKS Environment

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SKETCH TOOLS FEATURE TOOLS REFERENCE

GEOMETRY

SKETCH EXTRUDE BOSS/BASE PLANE

SMART DIMENSION EXTRUDE CUT AXIS

LINE REVOLVED BOSS/BASE CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

RECTANGLE REVOLVED CUT POINT

CIRCLE SWEPT BOSS/BASE

CENTRE POINT ARC LOFTED BOSS/BASE

3 POINT ARC FILLET

TANGENT ARC CHAMFER

SKETCH FILLET RIB

CENTRE LINE SHELL

SPLINE DRAFT

POINT HOLE WIZARD

CONVERT ENTITIES LINEAR PATTERN

OFFSET ENTITIES CIRCULAR PATTERN

TRIM ENTITIES MIRROR

EXTENDED ENTITIES

CONSTRUCTION
GEOMETRY

MOVE OR COPY
ENTITIES

3D SKETCH

ADD RELATION

DISPLAY/DELETE
RELATIONS

MIRROR

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EXERCISE:7 Date:

PART MODELLING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:

Result:

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EXERCISE:8 Date:

ASSEMBLY DRAWING

AIM:

COMMANDS USED:

Result:

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INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS
Ansys is a general purpose finite element modeling package for numerically
solving a wide variety of mechanical electrical problems.

These problems include:

1. Static/Dynamic structural analysis( both linear and non linear)
2. Fluid analysis
- laminar flow
- turbulent flow
3. Acoustic analysis
4. Electro magnetic analysis
5. Model analysis
6. Thermal analysis
- conduction
- convection
- radiation
7. Transient thermal analysis
8. Buckling analysis
9. Spectrum analysis
10. Harmonic analysis

These are many versions like ansys5.4, 5.6, 6.1, 7.1 and the latest version is ansys 8.1

Static analysis: In this type of problem we determine the elastic data deflections and
stresses at critical points due to a system to external forces acting on structure nodal

Model analysis: In this type of problem we determine the vibration characteristics

Harmonic analysis: We will determine the response of structure to harmonically

time varying loads

Buckling analysis: We determine the buckling loads and also buckling shape

Thermal analysis: In this we determine low thermal stresses are there in

given structure

Fluid analysis: In this we can see how a comprehensive got that fluid flows through a
given number under given condition

Ansys program has a comprehensive got that gives user easy, interactive
access to program functions command and documentation and deference material

Main menu: the main menu contains the primary ansys functions like preferences,
pre processor, solution, general, post program processor .it is from this menu the vast
majority of modeling commands are used.
Main windows: the main window consists of the following

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1. Utility window: the utility menu consists of functions that are variable through
out the ansys session such as file contents
2. input window: the input window shows program prompt messages and allows
you to type in the command directly
3. tool box: the tool box contains push button that execute commonly used ansys
commands more push buttons can be added it desired

Graphics window: the graphic window is where graphic are shown and a graphical
picking can be made. It is here where you will graphically view model in the
various stages of construction and ensuring results fro the analysis.

Out put window: the out put window shows test out put from the program such as
listing of data etc. it is usually positioned behind the main window and can be put to
the front if necessary.

Steps involved in ansys:

Start –menu-programs-ansys 8.1-ansys
In general, a finite element solution can be broken into the
following these categories.
1. Preprocessing module: Defining the problem The
major steps in preprocessing are given below
- defining key points /lines/areas/volumes
- define element type and material /geometric /properties
- mesh lines/areas/volumes/are required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the
analysis (i.e. 1D, 2D, axis, symmetric)

2. Solution processor module: assigning the loads ,constraints and solving

Here we specify the loads (point or pressure), constraints (translation,
rotational) and finally solve the resulting set of equations.

3. Post processing module: further processing and viewing of results

In this stage we have
List of nodal displacement
Elements forces and moments
Deflection plots
Stress contour diagrams

Advantages of FEA: complex shapes can be analyzed by FEA. it is powerful design

package .very efficient algorithm codes have been developed. We can solve complex
shapes of FEM also communicating with ansys:
- communicating via GUI
communicating via commands

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EXERCISE:9 Date:

2D TRUSS

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EXERCISE:10 Date:

CANTILEVER BEAM WITH UNIFORM VARYING LOAD

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EXERCISE:11 Date:

CANTILEVER BEAM WITH OVER HANGING

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INTRODUCTION TO CAM

INTRODUCTION:

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools

That assists engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product
components. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and
components with more precise dimensions and material consistency, which in some
cases, uses only the required amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while
simultaneously reducing energy consumption. CAM is a programming tool that
makes it possible to manufacture physical models using computer-aided design
(CAD) programs. CAM creates real life versions of components designed within a
software package

CNC TECHONOLOGY:
Numerical Control (NC) is a software-based machine tool
control technique developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in early
1960s. It has now evolved into a mature technology known as Computer Numerical
Control (CNC).Although major applications of CNC even today continue to be in
machining, it finds applications in other processes such as sheet metal working, non-
traditional machining and inspection. Robots and Rapid Prototyping machines are
also CNC controlled. Infact, any process that can be visualized as a sequence of
motions and switching functions can be controlled by CNC. These motions and
switching functions are input in the form of alphanumeric instructions. CNC is the
basis of flexible automation which helps industries cut down time-to-market and
enables launch of even low volume products. Unlimited muscle power, unmanned
operation, independent axes coordinated through software, simplified generic tooling
even for the most complex jobs and accurate construction are some of the salient
features of CNC.

CNC MACHINING:
Automats and Special Purpose Machines (SPMs) require special cams/ templates and
clutch settings for each part. Manufacture of these cams/ templates is costly and slow.
Furthermore, changing over from one part to the other on these machines also
consumes considerable time. The high cost and long time of these hard automated
machines to produce parts can be justified only in mass production. With the advent of
fast, rigid and accurate CNC machines and sophisticated CAM packages, generation
of NC programs and change over from one product to the other are easy and fast as it
does not require any mechanical change. These in conjunction with advanced cutting
tools have made High Speed Cutting (HSC) of hard materials a reality. Therefore,
CNC machining has become a standard means to produce dies and molds; tool makers
today require EDM only for producing inaccessible regions, sharp corners, tiny
features and desired surface quality. Intricate aerospace parts are realized through 5
axis CNC machining. Internet technology in a global village enables designing in one

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place, NC programming and verification in another place and actual machining in

yet another place.

Advantages of CNC
 Flexibility
 Accuracy

 Speed

 Simplified fixturing and generic cutting tools

 Storage of machining skill in NC programs

 Less skilled operators will do

 Less fatigue to the operators

CNC PROGRAMMING
1. The coordinates are almost exclusively cartesian and the origin is on the workpiece.

2. For a lathe, the infeed/radial axis is the x-axis, the carriage/length axis is the z-axis.
There is no need for a y-axis because the tool moves in a plane through the rotational
center of the work. Coordinates on the work piece shown below are relative to the
work.

CNC lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes (multispindle, etc) due to
their ease of setting and operation. They are designed to use modern carbide tooling
and fully utilize modern processes. The part may be designed and the tool paths
programmed by the CAD/CAM process, and the resulting file uploaded to the
machine, and once set and trailed the machine will continue to turn out parts under the
occasional supervision of an operator. The machine is controlled electronically via a
computer menu style interface; the program may be modified and displayed at the
machine, along with a simulated view of the process. The setter/operator needs a high
level of skill to perform the process, however the knowledge base is broader
compared to the older production machines where intimate knowledge of each
machine was considered essential. These machines are often set and operated by the
same person, where the operator will supervise a small number of machines (cell).

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Classification of NC Systems
CNC machine tool systems can be classified in various ways such as :

1. Point-to-point or contouring : depending on whether the machine cuts metal while

the workpiece moves relative to the tool

2. Incremental or absolute : depending on the type of coordinate system adopted

to parameterise the motion commands

3. Open-loop or closed-loop : depending on the control system adopted for axis

motion control

Point-to-point systems

Point-to-point (PTP) systems are the ones where, either the work piece or the cutting
tool is moved with respect to the other as stationary until it arrives at the desired
position and then the cutting tool performs the required task with the motion axes
stationary. Such systems are used, typically, to perform hole operations such as
drilling, boring, reaming, tapping and punching. In a PTP system, the path of the
cutting tool and its feed rate while traveling from one point to the next are not
significant, since, the tool is not cutting while there is motion. Therefore, such systems
require only control of only the final position of the tool. The path from the starting
point to the final position need not be controlled.

Contouring systems
In contouring systems, the tool is cutting while the axes of motion are moving, such as
in a milling machine. All axes of motion might move simultaneously, each at a
different velocity. When a nonlinear path is required, the axial velocity changes, even
within the segment. For example, cutting a circular contour requires sinusoidal rates
of change in both axes. The motion controller is therefore required to synchronize the
axes of motion to generate a predetermined path, generally a line or a circular arc. A
contouring system needs capability of controlling its drive motors independently at
various speeds as the tool moves towards the specified position. This involves
simultaneous motion control of two or more axes, which requires separate position
and velocity loops. It also requires an interpolator program that generates the position
and velocity setpoints for the two drive axes, continuously along the contour.
In modern machines there is capability for programming machine axes, either as
point-to-point or as continuous (that is contouring) Before the next type of
classification is introduced, it is necessary to present the basic coordinate
system conventions in a machine tool.

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Coordinate Systems
The coordinate system is defined by the definition of the translational and rotational
motion coordinates. Each translational axis of motion defines a direction in which the
cutting tool moves relative to the work piece. The main three axes of motion are
referred to as the X, Y. and Z axes. The Z axis is perpendicular to both X and Y in
order to create a right-hand coordinate system, such as shown in Fig. A positive
motion in the Z direction moves the cutting tool away from the workpiece. The
location of the origin is generally adjustable. Figure shows the coordinate system for
turning as in a lathe while Fig. shows the system for drilling and milling.

For a lathe, the in feed/radial axis is the x-axis, the carriage/length axis is the z-axis.
There is no need for a y-axis because the tool moves in a plane through the rotational
center of the work. Coordinates on the work piece shown below are relative to the
work.

In drilling and milling machines the X and Y axes are horizontal. For example, a
positive motion command in the drill moves the X axis from left to right, the Y axis
from front to back, and the Z axis toward the top. In the lathe only two axes are
required to command the motions of the tool. Since the spindle is horizontal, the Z
axis is horizontal as well. The cross axis is denoted by X. A positive position
command moves the Z axis from left to right and the X axis from back to front in
order to create the right-hand coordinate system.

For a tool with a horizontal spindle the x-axis is across the table, the y-axis is down,
and the z-axis is out. In addition to the translational motion, rotary motions around
the axes parallel to X, Y, and Z can also be defined. Similarly, in addition to the
primary motion coordinates, secondary coordinates can also exist.

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Incremental Systems
In an incremental system the movements in each Part program block are expressed
as the displacements along each coordinate axes with reference to the final position
achieved at the end of executing the previous program block.

Consider, for example, the

trajectory of rectilinear motions shown in Fig. for a PTP system. In an incremental
system, the motion parameters, along the X-axis, for the segments, A-B, B-C, C-D,
D-E, E-F and F-A, would be given as, 50, 20, 60, -30, -70 and –30, respectively

Absolute System
An absolute NC system is one in which all position coordinates are referred to one
fixed origin called the zero point. The zero point may be defined at any suitable point
within the limits of the machine tool table and can be redefined from time to time.
Any particular definition of the zero point remains valid till another definition is
made. In the Fig., considering the X-coordinate for point A as zero, the X-coordinate
for points B and C would be 50 and 70, respectively, in an absolute coordinate
system. Most modem CNC systems permit application of both incremental and
absolute programming methods. Even within a specific part program the method can
be changed These CNC systems provide the user with the combined advantages of
both methods .

Unit of Displacement
Displacements are expressed in part programs by integers. Each unit corresponds
to the position resolution of the axes of motion and will be referred to as the basic
length-unit (BLU). The BLU is the smallest length of motion that can be repeatably
sensed in the machine. It therefore determines the accuracy of machining possible
with a given machine. For example, if a shaft angle encoder having a sensitivity of
500 pulses per revolution is mounted on a lead screw having a pitch of 5 mm, the
BLU is 0.01 mm. In modern CNC machines the programmer can use floating-point
dimensional data, which would be converted in to BLU‟s by the interpreter.

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Point to Ponder: 3
A. Can you think of one advantage and one disadvantage of the
incremental coordinate system compared to the absolute one?

B. Is there any connection between the choice of coordinate system and the position
sensing machine used for the machine tool?

C. How would you decide on the BLU for systems with position sensors such
as LVDTs and resolvers?

D. Is the BLU affected by the motor or the drive system also?

Part Programming
As mention earlier, a part program is a set of instructions often referred to as blocks, each
of which refers to a segment of the machining operation performed by the machine tool.
Each block may contain several code words in sequence. These provide:
1. Coordinate values (X, Y, Z, etc.) to specify the desired motion of a tool relative to a
work piece. The coordinate values are specified within motion codeword and related
interpolation parameters to indicate the type of motion required (e.g. point-to-point, or
continuous straight or continuous circular) between the start and end coordinates. The
CNC system computes the instantaneous motion command signals from these code
words and applies them to drive units of the machine.

2. Machining parameters such as, feed rate, spindle speed, tool number, tool offset
compensation parameters etc.

3. Codes for initiating machine tool functions like starting and stopping of the spindle,
on/off control of coolant flow and optional stop. In addition to these coded functions,
spindle speeds, feeds and the required tool numbers to perform machining in a desired
sequence are also given.

4. Program execution control codes, such as block skip or end of block codes,
block number etc.

5. Statements for configuring the subsystems on the machine tool such

as programming the axes, configuring the data acquisition system etc.

A typical block of a Part program is shown below in Fig. 23.7. Note that the block
contains a variety of code words such G codes, M codes etc. Each of these code words
configure a particular aspect of the machine, to be used during the machining of the
particular segment that the block programmes

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A typical sequence of operations in a part program would be,

A. Introductory functions such as units, coordinate definitions, coordinate

conventions, such as, absolute or relative etc.

B. Feeds, speeds, etc.

C. Coolants, doors, etc.

D. Cutting tool movements and tool changes

E. Shutdown

Before we discuss the next categorization of CNC systems, it is important to

understand how the instructions in a part program are converted to the operations
needed for machining the parts. The control system software, which controls the axis
motion, is called the axis manager. The axis manager controls the movement of the
axes on the machine tool. This control may be divided into two distinct activities,
namely,

- Axes interpolation

- Axes servo control

These two activities are executed by two specific routines, namely the interpolation
and servo control routines, which communicate by means of a buffer for the
exchange of data.
The axis manager is processed by one or more dedicated CPUs. In a multi-processor
architecture, the interpolation and the servo control can be split between the various
CPUs according to different combinations, such as,

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- Interpolation of all the axes on one CPU and servo control of all the axes on another
CPU
- interpolation of all the axes on one CPU and servo control of part of the axes on
the same CPU and servo control of the remaining axes on another CPU.

Interpolation
Interpolation consists in the calculation of the coordinated movement of several axes
using the programmed parameters, in order to obtain a resulting trajectory, which can
be of various types, such as:
- Straight line
- Circular
- Helicoidal
The interpolation module computes instant by instant position commands for the servo
module, which in turn, drives the motors. There are two types of interpolators,
namely:
- Process interpolator (for continuous axes)
- Point-to-point interpolator (for point-to-point axes)

Servo Control
Servo control consists of all the activities which allow several axes to effectively
maintain the trajectory calculated by the interpolator. Continuous axes are
continuously controlled by the system both for “speed” and for “position” so as to
guarantee that the calculated trajectory is maintained. In contrast, for point-to-point
axes there is no guarantee that the trajectory will be maintained. The only guarantee is
that the final point will be reached.

Types of servo control for motion axes

The axes controlled by the axis manager may be divided into various types according
to the specific function they perform on the machine tool. Some of these types are
described below.

Coordinated Axis
This is a working axis, which may be interpolated along with other axes of the same
type. This is necessary for generating specific 2D or 3D contours. The movement of
one of the axes can be taken as the master and the other axes slaved to it. The
mechanical and electrical features of the slave axis must be identical to those of the
master. A coordinated axis can also be rotary and programmed in degrees. Note that
for rotary axes, it may or may not be needed to map angular displacements to a (0-2π)
interval.

Point-to-point Axis
This axis is not required to be interpolated with others, since it is used for only for
positioning from one point to another. Such an axis may be viewed as an
independent mechanical component fitted with a positioning transducer.

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Spindle Axis
There are two types of spindle axes. For some, only the speed of the axis need to be
controlled and not the position by the spindle servo control system. Such an axis
essentially realizes a “motorized” tool. For the second type, the speed of this spindle
axis, as well as its angular position can be controlled. This has application in
controlling threading processes. It is also possible to drive the spindle in coordinated
motion, interpolated with the other axes. This uses the spindle transducer value as the
set point for the other axes. A typical example is the C axis in lathes. One can
command a controlled acceleration ramp for the spindle rotation command. However,
for improved angular positioning, this must be eliminated. It is also possible to have
spindle drives without servo control, generally for spindles driven with ac motors. The
only control needed in such a case is for reversal of spindle rotation.
For control of tool and workpiece motion in the various ways described above, one of
two kinds of control systems is employed.

Open Loop Systems

The term open-loop means that there is no feedback, and in open loop systems the
motion controller produces outputs depending only on its set points, without feedback
information about the effect that the output produces on the motion axes. We have
already seen that the effects of controller outputs on the plant may not be the same
always, since it depends on factors such as loads, parameter variations in the plant etc.
In open loop systems, the set points are computed from the instructions in the Part
program and fed to the controller, which may reside in a different microprocessor,
through an interface. These motion commands may be in the form of electrical pulses
(typical for step motor drives) or analog or digital signals, and converted to electronic
drive system that applies the necessary voltage/current to the motors.
The primary drawback of open-loop system is that there is no feedback system to
check whether the commanded position and velocity has been achieved. If the system
performance is affected by load, temperature or friction then the actual output could
deviate from the desired output.
For these reasons, the open-loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems
where the accuracy requirements are not critical. Contouring systems do not use
open-loop control.

Closed Loop systems

Closed-loop control, as described in the module on controllers, continuously senses
the actual position and velocity of the axis, using digital sensors such as encoders
or analog sensors such resolvers and tachogenerators and compares them with the
setpoints.
The difference between the actual value of the variable and its setpoint is the error.
The control law takes the error as the input and drives the actuator, in this case the
servo motor and its drive system, to achieve motion variables that are close to the set
points. As we know, closed loop systems can achieve much closer tracking of set
points even with disturbances and parameter variations in the system with, say, with
temperature. Closed-looped systems, on the other hand, require more complex control
as well as feedback devices and circuitry in order for them to implement both position

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and velocity control. Most modern closed-loop CNC systems are able to provide
very close resolution of 0.0001 of an inch.

Study of G codes and M codes for Part Programming

G Codes & M Codes for CNC Trainer Lathe
G - Codes
G00 RAPID TRAVERSE POSITIONING
G01 LINEAR INTERPOLATION
G02 CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION CLOCKWISE
G03 CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION COUNTER CLOCKWISE
G04 DWELL
G25 PROGRAM TRANSFER FROM SYSTEM
G26 PROGRAM TRANSFER TO SYSTEM
G33 THREADING
G37 SUBROUTINE CALL
G38 SUBROUTINE START
G39 SUBROUTINE END
G65 CASSETTE LOAD
G66 CASSETTE SAVE
G67 CASSETTE SEARCH
G70 INCH MODE
G71 METRIC MODE
G81 TURNING CYCLE
G84 THREADING CYCLE
G83 DRILLING WITH DWELL
G90 ABSOLUTE PROGRAMMING
G91 INCREMENTAL PROGRAMMING
G92 PROGRAM PRESET
G94 FEED PER MINUTE
G95 FEED PER REVOLUTION

M - Codes
M00 PROGRAM STOP
M02 PROGRAM END
M30 PROGRAM END AND REWIND

G Codes & M Codes for CNC Trainer Machining Centre

G - Codes
G00 RAPID TRAVEERSE POSITIONING
G01 LINEAR INTERPOLATION
G02 CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION CLOCKWISE
G03 CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION COUNTER CLOCKWISE
G04 DWELL
G17 INTERPOLATION X-Y PLANE
G18 INTERPOLATION X-Z PLANE
G19 INTERPOLATION Y-Z PLANE
G25 PROGRAM TRANSFER FROM SYSTEM

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G26 PROGRAM TRANSFER TO SYSTEM

G37 SUBROUTINE CALL
G38 SUBROUTINE START
G39 SUBROUTINE END
G40 CUTTER COMPONSATION CANCEL
G41 CUTTER COMPONSATION LEFT
G42 CUTTER COMPONSATION RIGHT
G65 CASSETTE LOAD
G66 CASSETTE SAVE
G67 CASSETTE SEARCH
G70 INCH MODE
G71 METRIC MODE
G80 CANNED CYCLE CANCEL
G82 DRILLING CYCLE
G83 DRILLING WITH DWELL CYCLE
G84 PECK DRILL/WITHDRAWL CYCLE
G85 BORING CYCLE
G86 PCD DRILLING CYCLE
G88 RECTANGULAR MILLING CYCLE
G89 CIRCULAR MILLING CYCLE
G90 ABSOLUTE PROGRAMMING
G91 INCREMENTAL PROGRAMMING
G92 PROGRAM PRE SET

M - Codes
M00 PROGRAM STOP
M02 END OF PROGRAM
M03 SPINDLE START CW
M04 SPINDLE START CCW
M05 SPINDLE STOP
M06 TOOL CHANGE PROMPTING
M30 END OF PROGRAM & REWIND

G Codes & M Codes for CNC Turning Centre

G - Codes
G00: POSITIONING
G01: LINEAR INTERPOLATION
G02: CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION CW
G03: CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION CCW
G04: DWELL
G10: OFF SET VALUE SETTING (O)
G20: INCH
G21: METRIC
G22: STORED STROKE CHECK ON (O)
G23: STORED STROKE CHECK OFF (O)
G25: SPINDLE SPEED DETECT OFF
G26: SPINDLE SPEED DETECT ON
G27: REF. POINT RETURN CHECK

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G28: REF. POINT RETURN

G30: 2 ND (3,4) REF. POINT RETURN
G31: SKIP CUTTING
G33: THREAD CUTTING
G34: VARIABLE LEAD THREAD CUTTING (O)
G36: AUTO TOOL OFF SET X-AXIS (O)
G37: AUTO TOOL OFF SET Z-AXIS (O)
G40: TOOL NOSE RADIUS COMPENSATION CANCEL
G41: TOOL NOSE RADIUS COMPENSATION LEFT (O)
G42: TOOL NOSE RADIUS COMPENSATION RIGHT (O)
G53: SUPPRSSION OF ZERO OFFSET
G54: SETTABLE ZERO OFFSET
G55: SETTABLE ZERO OFFSET
G56: SETTABLE ZERO OFFSET
G57: SETTABLE ZERO OFFSET
G65: MACRO CALL (O)
G68: DOUBLE TURRETS MIRROR ON (O)
G69: DOUBLE TURRETS MIRROR OFF
G70: FINISHING CYCLE (O)
G71: ROUGH CUTTING (TURNING) (O)
G72: ROUGH CUTTING (FACING) (O)
G73: ROUGH CUTTING (PROFILE) (O)
G74: GROOVING (FACING) (O)
G75: GROOVING TURNING (O)
G76: THREAD CUTTING CYCLE (MULTI) (O)
G77: TURNING CYCLE
G78: THREAD CUTTING CYCLE
G79: FACING CYCLE
G90: ABSOLUTE
G91: INCREMENTAL
G92: COORDINATE SYSTEM SETTING OR
MAX. SPINDLE SPEED SETTING
G94: PER MINUTE FEED
G95: PER REVOLUTION FEED
G96: CONSTANT SURFACE SPEED (O)
G97: REVOLUTION PER MINUTE (RPM)

M - Codes
M00: PROGRAM STOP
M01: OPTIONAL STOP
M02: PROGRAM END AND RESTART
M03: SPINDLE ROTATION CW
M04: SPINDLE ROTATION CCW
M05: SPINDLE STOP
M07: COOLANT ON
M09: COOLANT OFF
M10: CHUCK DECLAMP
M11: CHUCK CLAMP
M16: CHUCK 1D SELECTION

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M18: CHUCK 0D SELECTION

M19: SPINDLE ORIENTATION
M20: SPINDLE ORIENTATION CANCEL
M30: END OF MAIN PROGRAM
M32: TAILSTOCK QUIL FORWARD
M33: TAILSTOCK QUIL RETRACT
M35: PARTS CATCHE RETRACT
M46: DOOR OPEN
M47: DOOR CLOSE
M50: SPINDLE LOCK
M51: SPINDLE UNLOCK
M78: STEADY REST OPEN
M79: STEADY REST HOLD
M82: TAIL STOCK BODY FWD/ UNCLAMP
M83: TAILSTOCK BODY RET / CLAMP
M84: TOUCH PROBE ARM FORWARD
M85: TOUCH PROBE ARM RETRACT
M98: SUB PROGRAM CALL
M99: SUB PROGRAM END

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EXERCISE:12 Date:

PLANE TURNING AND FACING OPERATION

AIM:

MATERIAL:

PREPARATORY CODES USED IN THE PROGRAM:

RESULT:

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EXERCISE:13 Date:

STEP TURNING USING TURNING CYCLE

AIM:

MATERIAL:

PREPARATORY CODES USED IN THE PROGRAM:

RESULT:

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EXERCISE:14 Date:

TAPER TURNING OPERATION

AIM:

MATERIAL:

PREPARATORY CODES USED IN THE PROGRAM:

RESULT:

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