Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII) ISSN: 2394 – 7780

July - September 2022

International Journal of
Advance and Innovative Research

Indian Academicians and Researchers Association

www.iaraedu.com
International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

Editor- In-Chief Dr. Tazyn Rahman

Members of Editorial Advisory Board

Mr. Nakibur Rahman Dr. Mukesh Saxena

Ex. General Manager ( Project ) Pro Vice Chancellor,
Bongaigoan Refinery, IOC Ltd, Assam University of Technology and Management, Shillong

Dr. Alka Agarwal Dr. Archana A. Ghatule

Director, Director,
Mewar Institute of Management, Ghaziabad SKN Sinhgad Business School, Pandharpur

Prof. (Dr.) Sudhansu Ranjan Mohapatra Prof. (Dr.) Monoj Kumar Chowdhury
Dean, Faculty of Law, Professor, Department of Business Administration,
Sambalpur University, Sambalpur Guahati University, Guwahati

Dr. P. Malyadri Prof. (Dr.) Baljeet Singh Hothi

Principal, Professor,
Government Degree College, Hyderabad Gitarattan International Business School, Delhi

Prof.(Dr.) Shareef Hoque Prof. (Dr.) Badiuddin Ahmed

Professor, Professor & Head, Department of Commerce,
North South University, Bangladesh Maulana Azad Nationl Urdu University, Hyderabad

Prof.(Dr.) Michael J. Riordan Dr. Anindita Sharma

Professor, Dean & Associate Professor,
Sanda University, Jiashan, China Jaipuria School of Business, Indirapuram, Ghaziabad

Prof.(Dr.) James Steve Prof. (Dr.) Jose Vargas Hernandez

Professor, Research Professor,
Fresno Pacific University, California, USA University of Guadalajara,Jalisco, México

Prof.(Dr.) Chris Wilson Prof. (Dr.) P. Madhu Sudana Rao

Professor, Professor,
Curtin University, Singapore Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia

Prof. (Dr.) Amer A. Taqa Prof. (Dr.) Himanshu Pandey

Professor, DBS Department, Professor, Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Mosul, Iraq Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur

Dr. Nurul Fadly Habidin Prof. (Dr.) Agbo Johnson Madaki

Faculty of Management and Economics, Faculty, Faculty of Law,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya

Dr. Neetu Singh Prof. (Dr.) D. Durga Bhavani

HOD, Department of Biotechnology, Professor,
Mewar Institute, Vasundhara, Ghaziabad CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Telangana
Prof. (Dr.) Shashi Singhal Prof. (Dr.) Aradhna Yadav
Professor, Professor,
Amity University, Jaipur Krupanidhi School of Management, Bengaluru

Prof. (Dr.) Alireza Heidari Prof.(Dr.) Robert Allen

Professor, Faculty of Chemistry, Professor
California South University, California, USA Carnegie Mellon University, Australia

Prof. (Dr.) A. Mahadevan Prof. (Dr.) S. Nallusamy

Professor Professor & Dean,
S. G. School of Business Management, Salem Dr. M.G.R. Educational & Research Institute,Chennai

Prof. (Dr.) Hemant Sharma Prof. (Dr.) Ravi Kumar Bommisetti

Professor, Professor,
Amity University, Haryana Amrita Sai Institute of Science & Technology, Paritala

Dr. C. Shalini Kumar Dr. Syed Mehartaj Begum

Principal, Professor,
Vidhya Sagar Women’s College, Chengalpet Hamdard University, New Delhi

Prof. (Dr.) Badar Alam Iqbal Dr. Darshana Narayanan

Adjunct Professor, Head of Research,
Monarch University, Switzerland Pymetrics, New York, USA

Prof.(Dr.) D. Madan Mohan Dr. Rosemary Ekechukwu

Professor, Associate Dean,
Indur PG College of MBA, Bodhan, Nizamabad University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Dr. Sandeep Kumar Sahratia Dr. P.V. Praveen Sundar

Professor Director,
Sreyas Institute of Engineering & Technology Shanmuga Industries Arts and Science College

Dr. S. Balamurugan Dr. Manoj P. K.

Director - Research & Development, Associate Professor,
Mindnotix Technologies, Coimbatore Cochin University of Science and Technology

Dr. Dhananjay Prabhakar Awasarikar Dr. Indu Santosh

Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
Suryadutta Institute, Pune Dr. C. V.Raman University, Chhattisgath

Dr. Mohammad Younis Dr. Pranjal Sharma

Associate Professor, Associate Professor, Department of Management
King Abdullah University, Saudi Arabia Mile Stone Institute of Higher Management, Ghaziabad

Dr. Kavita Gidwani Dr. Lalata K Pani

Associate Professor, Reader,
Chanakya Technical Campus, Jaipur Bhadrak Autonomous College, Bhadrak, Odisha

Dr. Vijit Chaturvedi Dr. Pradeepta Kishore Sahoo

Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
Amity University, Noida B.S.A, Institute of Law, Faridabad

Dr. Marwan Mustafa Shammot Dr. R. Navaneeth Krishnan

Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Bharathiyan College of Engg & Tech, Puducherry
Dr. Mahendra Daiya Dr. G. Valarmathi
Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
JIET Group of Institutions, Jodhpur Vidhya Sagar Women's College, Chengalpet

Dr. Parbin Sultana Dr. M. I. Qadir

Associate Professor, Assistant Professor,
University of Science & Technology Meghalaya Bahauddin Zakariya University, Pakistan

Dr. Kalpesh T. Patel Dr. Brijesh H. Joshi

Principal (In-charge) Principal (In-charge)
Shree G. N. Patel Commerce College, Nanikadi B. L. Parikh College of BBA, Palanpur

Dr. Juhab Hussain Dr. Namita Dixit

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia ITS Institute of Management, Ghaziabad

Dr. V. Tulasi Das Dr. Nidhi Agrawal

Assistant Professor, Associate Professor,
Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, A.P. Institute of Technology & Science, Ghaziabad

Dr. Urmila Yadav Dr. Ashutosh Pandey

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Sharda University, Greater Noida Lovely Professional University, Punjab

Dr. M. Kanagarathinam Dr. Subha Ganguly

Head, Department of Commerce Scientist (Food Microbiology)
Nehru Arts and Science College, Coimbatore West Bengal University of A. & F Sciences, Kolkata

Dr. V. Ananthaswamy Dr. R. Suresh

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor, Department of Management
The Madura College (Autonomous), Madurai Mahatma Gandhi University

Dr. S. R. Boselin Prabhu Dr. V. Subba Reddy

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
SVS College of Engineering, Coimbatore RGM Group of Institutions, Kadapa

Dr. A. Anbu Dr. R. Jayanthi

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Achariya College of Education, Puducherry Vidhya Sagar Women's College, Chengalpattu

Dr. C. Sankar Dr. Manisha Gupta

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
VLB Janakiammal College of Arts and Science Jagannath International Management School

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 SPECIAL GUEST EDITORS

Mr. Nitin Wasnik

Head, Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Mumbai

Mr. Sanjay Mahimkar

Head, Department if Chemistry, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Mumbai

Dr. Sandip Kadam

Department of Philosophy, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Mumbai

Dr. Minakshi Gurav

Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and
Commerce, Mumbai
International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

CONTENTS

Research Papers
SUSTAINABLE GREEN BUILDINGS AND CHALLENGES 1–7

Anusha Vemula and Gayathri N

SEGREGATION OF WASTE: A CHALLENGE DURING PUBLIC FESTIVAL TIME 8 – 10

Pradnya Pramod Nadkarni

IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH AND ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES IN 11 – 15

INDIA

Dr. Manish Madhav Deshmukh and Ms. Mitali Sankhe

THE EFFECTS OF GREENWASHING IN COSMETIC INDUSTRY 16 – 21

Mudra Vinay Pandeya, Ayush Satyajit Virnodkar, Sejal Chandrajeet Ahir and Dr. Shyam
Suryakant Palkar

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL STUDY OF KAMWARI RIVER AND ITS ESTUARY TO 22 – 31

EVALUATE WATER QUALITY

Vicky Patil and Poonam Kurve

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MANGROVES: A CASE STUDY OF MUMBAI 32 – 36

METROPOLITAN REGION

Ms. Poorna Venkatesan, Dr. Prakash Dongre and Dr. Vilonia Ashok Kumar

BIODEGRADATION OF TEXTILE DYES USING SOME FUNGI 37 – 40

Nikita Jagdale and Rachana Birje

LOCAL AND REGIONAL SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES IN INDIA: A META- 41 – 45

ANALYSIS

Dr. Aashu Vajpai, Ms. Riya Gupta and Dr. Shalini Rai

ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL CONTENT IN VEGETABLES GROWN NEAR 46 – 52

RAILWAY TRACKS IN AND AROUND MUMBAI CITY (MS INDIA)

Rashmi Jadhav and Poonam Kurve

CARBON SEQUESTRATION POTENTIAL OF TREES IN URBAN AREA: A CASE 53 – 59

STUDY

Valaya Mithbavkar, Mrunmayi Jadhav, Dhruvi Ganekar and Sagar Gavas

DRONES: A STEP TOWARDS MODERN AGRICULTURE 60 – 63

Sejal Ahir, Kanishka Ail, Swaranjali Dubey and Shyam Palkar

POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TRIBAL LAND ACQUISITION IN INDIA 64 – 67

Shantaram V. Sonawane
MICRO FORESTS: A HINDRANCE FOR GROWTH OF INDIAN NATIVE SPECIES 68 – 69

Miss Sushmita Patole, Miss Amisha Sansare, Miss Aastha Somji and Dr. Shyam Palkar

IDENTIFICATION OF WATER CONSERVATION SITES IN KALU WATERSHED FOR 70 – 80

SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Dr. Vilonia Ashok Kumar, Dr. Prakash Dongre and Mr. Ramesh Sankpal

EVALUATION OF ANTI-BACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF SEMECARPUS ANACARDIUM 81 – 84

LINN. LEAF EXTRACTS AGAINST GRAM POSITIVE AND GRAM NEGATIVE
BACTERIA

Surya Prabha U, Dr. B. Meena and Dr. Sumit Rose

PHYTOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL OF SOME ORNAMENTAL PLANTS: A REVIEW 85 – 94

Snehal Unde and Sakshi Raj Kumar

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF CARAPACE EXTRACTS OF CRUSTACEANS FOUND IN 95 – 99

COASTAL REGIONS OF MUMBAI

Khadija Parkar, Minakshi Gaurav and Vaishali Rajurkar

GREEN ROUTE FOR BENZIMIDAZOLE SYNTHESIS USING SYZYGIUM CUMINI 100 – 101
WATER EXTRACT

Hrushikesh P. Deokar, Suhas P. Janwadkar and Bhavesh Shinde

DETECTION OF MICROPLASTICS ALONG COASTAL REGIONS OF MUMBAI 102 – 108

Roshan Mahadik, Aditi Jaiswal and Vaishali Rajurkar

PRODUCTION OF CITRIC ACID USING SOME FUNGI 109 – 111

Kajal Kamble and Neha N. Sawant

EDUCATION FOR OF SOCIAL CHANGE, THE CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL 112 – 115

REFORMERS: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Mr. Shramik Sopan Kharat

ECO- SUSTAINABILITY OF THE DIVERSITY OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES IN CAMPUS 116 – 121

OF THE DR. HOMI BHABHA STATE UNIVERSITY, INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, FORT,
MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

Manisha Kulkarni and Aparna Ghadi

ASSESSMENT OF ANTICIPATED PERFORMANCE INDEX (API) OF SELECTED 122 – 127

DOMINANT SPECIES OF GOREGAON CHECK NAKA

Shivani More, Rakshita Gowda and Sagar Gavas

IMPACT OF E-LEARNING FROM STUDENTS AND TEACHERS PERSPECTIVE 128 - 144

AMID COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN INDIA

Sharma V. J and Bhagat S. A

International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
ISSN 2394 - 7780
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

SUSTAINABLE GREEN BUILDINGS AND CHALLENGES

Anusha Vemula and Gayathri N

Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai- 400104

ABSTRACT
The Goals and the narrative of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development emphasize the importance of the
spatial dimension of sustainable development. Population growth rate is one of the major concerns in most of
the world’s low-income countries. There exists a bilateral relationship between population growth and
housing/commercial building development in parallel. On one hand, rise in population creates a demand for
housing and commercial facilities and on the other hand supply of them ensues opportunities for high
population density through migration. A step towards an ecofriendly approach in the construction of housing
and commercial premises is the concept of ‘green’ buildings. Designing, constructing and effectively
maintaining green buildings will improve the quality of life. This article discusses the concept of sustainable
green buildings and the challenges for the same.
Keywords: Green house, LEED certification, recycles, IGBC

INTRODUCTION
Rapid increase in population is both a cause and a consequence of slow progress in development. Low and
lower-middle-income countries facing multiple challenges with limited resources may achieve slow progress in
reaching certain Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development due to population growth.
As population increases more space is required for accommodation and commercial areas for employment. This
necessitates the construction of more buildings. Consequently this results in increased energy consumption,
waste generation and pollution which negatively impact the environment. On a long term basis, this could
manifest as an environmental threat. A sustainable approach to this scenario would be construction of Green
Buildings. As the word “green” suggests, it definitely implies something which is eco-friendly. A green
building is constructed with proper planning and designing with strategies to achieve sustainability in use of
resources and management of waste [1]. In this article, the concept of green buildings and challenges are
discussed with a few examples.
GREEN BUILDINGS
Green buildings provide solutions for accommodating large populations in a sustainable way. It reduces the
impact of over-population on the environment by effective methods of construction and practices. Green
buildings can be constructed for housing as well as for commercial purposes. Either a completely new green
building can be constructed or a conventional existing building can be converted into a green building by
adhering to some green practices. Although green building is a famous concept, its implementation is a tedious
task as it requires knowledge and skills, quality materials and most importantly concern and responsibility
towards the environment. Principles of green building revolve around the goal of environmental sustainability.
It focuses on its impact on the environment which makes it different from other sustainable buildings. Basic
principles for the construction of green buildings include - energy efficiency, water conservation, efficient use
of land, waste reduction, minimal environmental impact and conservation of natural characteristics and material
efficiency [2-4]. Construction of sustainable buildings takes into account the aspects of people, planet and profit
simultaneously whereas green buildings are primarily concerned with the environmental aspects [5]. To achieve
these principles, appropriate design techniques, construction practices and affordable housing is required.
COMPONENTS AND STRATEGIES
For a green building to be fully efficient it has to be properly built by taking into account every possible way to
increase its sustainability towards the environment. There are many strategies followed and components used
according to the infrastructure and budget of the project - some of which are discussed here in brief. The
components used can be modified and renewed by innovation and new technology.
● Building orientation - Orientation provides a building with passive thermal and visual comfort. Successful
orientation minimizes energy loads and maximizes free energy from the sun and wind. Good solar
orientation favors efficiency of solar devices in relation to the direction of sunlight [6].
● Using passive solar panels - Passive solar panels can be used to deflect sun rays according to the needs
during weather change. The amount of heat allowed depends on window size and orientation [6]. Though it
is less efficient than active solar panels, passive solar panels are less expensive to install and maintain.

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International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
ISSN 2394 - 7780
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

● Site Design and Planning - Building design should include surrounding natural features like trees, streams
and soil in its development pattern. Buildings must be connected to natural sunlight and wind for significant
energy saving and improve wellbeing of occupants. One more strategy would be to group buildings to
reduce impacts, provide valuable community green space and cut costs.[7]
● Water harvest system and greywater usage - For water conservation, water harvesting systems can be built
to store water during rains. Grey water can be made to use for watering plants, in toilets etc. Another
adaptation would be planting more xerophytic plants which require less water.[3]
● Compost and recycle system - Waste generated can be managed by building compost pits for organic waste
and other waste like plastic, glass etc. can be recycled. Proper segregation of waste is required to achieve
this.
● Constructing green - Implementation of green windows, green flooring, green roofs and green plumbing.
These green techniques include use of mostly natural and high efficiency material with high durability.[6]
● Improving indoor air quality - Indoor air refers to air quality inside buildings with less toxins and pollutants.
It mainly depends on proper design, material used, location, ventilation, humidity control and use of green
appliances with less CFCs. Control on these would automatically improve indoor air quality leading to well
being of occupants with less respiratory problems.[8]
● Renewable energy - Use of solar water heaters, solar photovoltaic panels and green appliances are energy
efficient.[6]
● Green Appliances - Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Government of India proposes to make it
mandatory for certain appliances in India to have ratings by the BEE to conserve energy.
RATING SYSTEMS AND BENEFITS
A building is said to be green even if it follows any one of the green practices and not every green building have
the same impact on the environment. The degree of greenness depends on the overall efficiency of the building
during its life cycle and also well-being of its occupants. It is based on the components and strategies used to
construct it. Green buildings are rated to measure its actual impact on the environment. In India there are three
rating system to check the efficiency of a green building:
Indian Green Building Council (IGBC): It is mainly designed for newly built structures, both air-conditioned
and non-air-conditioned buildings including residential, factories, schools, integrated townships, offices,
commercial buildings, etc. The validity of the IGBC certification is for a period of three years. Based on the
total level of credits earned, a building is awarded a level of certification which is related to some recognition of
buildings which are certified (good practice), silver (best practice), gold (outstanding performance), platinum
(national excellence) and super platinum (global leadership) [9].
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) - It comes under the purview of IGBC. LEED India
encompasses rating systems for: Existing Buildings (EB), New Construction (NC), Core and Shell (C&S) and
Green Homes [10]. Their rating system is based on points and is abided by some criteria behind every credit.
Based on the number of points received, a project can earn one out of four levels of LEED certification which
are: Certified (40-49 points earned), Silver (50-59 points earned), Gold (60-79 earned), Platinum (80 + earned)
[9].
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) - The framework was developed by TERI (The
Energy and Resource Institute) in the year 2005, keeping in mind the local climatic conditions and national
codes and bylaws [11]. The objective of GRIHA is to reduce the consumption of resources and promote the use
of renewable and recycled materials. The validity of GRIHA certification is for five years. Rating system is
based on stars awarded for points: one star (50-60 points), two stars (61-70 points), three stars (71- 80 points),
four stars (81- 90 points), five stars (91 - 100 points) [9].
High rated green buildings prove very beneficial to the environment as well as to society. The benefits of green
buildings can be divided as environmental, social and economical [12]. Environmental benefits is the obvious
purpose of green building, being eco friendly is ultimately in the favor of humankind itself. Being eco-friendly
also offers social benefits like positive changes in psychological, emotional and spiritual aspects of one's life.
Being near to nature and environment heals a person from within and brings peace,calmness and stability.
Employees, workers and occupants in green buildings prove to show an increase in productivity, high cognitive
scores, better sleep experience and improvement in performance. Reduction in cost of electric and water bills
and improved health conditions are something which fall under economic benefits of a green building, going
green turns out to be a good business strategy.
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International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
ISSN 2394 - 7780
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

Examples of Green Buildings

Green building is just not a theory concept, it is the practical solution for today's existing environmental
problems mainly due to population explosion. The benefits of constructing a green building encourages society
to go green. Below are examples of green construction including housing and commercial premise, which are
taken randomly without any preferences.
1. Indian - Suzlon One Earth, Pune : This is an office, a commercial area in Pune which received LEED
platinum rating in 2010. The architect and builder came up with the concept of “office in garden”. The area
is spread over 10 acres and is one of the largest green projects of the country with LEED certification [13].
2. T-ZED Homes, Bengaluru: T-ZED, completed in 2009 is India’s first IGBC Platinum-rated residential
apartment complex. The project was accomplished by the company Biodiversity Conservation India Ltd.
(BCIL), Bangalore. Completed in 2009, the building was constructed without the use of concrete blocks,
bricks, vitrified tiles, chemical paints, or ceramics , and a very reasonable amount of reinforced steel and
composite cement was used. In the complex that spreads in 5 acres, there are 80 apartments and 15
individual houses [14].
3. Infosys limited, mysore : Infosys Limited has been awarded the LEED India 'Platinum' rating by IGBC for
its Software Development Block 5 (SDB 5) in Mysore, India. The Project completed in the year 2011. SDB
5 has been built keeping in mind key areas constituting the principles of green buildings and heading
towards environmental sustainability [15].
4. Indira Paryavaran Bhawan : Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, the new office premises for Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF) is India’s first new on site net zero building. The building is located in
New Delhi and has the accommodation capacity of around 600 officials. It uses innovative solar
mechanisms for energy generation and has been built by using energy efficient building materials [16]. The
Project received an award from Adarsh/GRIHA of MNRE for exemplary demonstration of Integration of
Renewable Energy Technologies, Feb 2013. The Project was accorded 5-Star Green Building Certification
by GRIHA under MNRE, Jan 2014 [17]. It is now India’s highest rated green building i.e.GRIHA 5-Star
and LEED India Platinum.The building is also earthquake resistant. More than 50% of the area outside the
building has plantations and grassing. Even circulation roads and pathways are a soft area to enable
groundwater recharge, solar power generation systems have been provided at terrace level along with many
other sustainable features [16].
Currently, Hospitality and travel-tech firm Oyo, is working towards bringing a 'green tag' for sustainable hotels
listed on its platform, informed by its CEO. The 'green tag' will be assigned to hotels that are eco-friendly in
terms of features like using solar power, enhanced efficient lighting and rainwater harvesting. The future plan is
to launch green tagged hotels for more eco- friendly customers [18].
CHALLENGES
In spite of knowing the environmental issues and the benefits of green building, the number of green buildings
is so low and not every building constructed is a green building. The investigation of these questions lead us to
the challenges and shortcomings in the construction of green buildings.
The main challenge is lack of awareness. Though it is thought that green building is the most famous and
trending thing, there still exists a large sector of population inadequately aware of green buildings and green
practices. Secondly, even if the concept is known, the implementation becomes difficult because of the attitude
towards the idea of green buildings. The false notion that it is an unachievable goal is a hindrance. Further
construction of green buildings is a tedious task and requires effective planning, design and use of high quality
sustainable materials. Expert guidance including skilled Engineers, Architects, Workers and high investment in
the initial stages of building is required which makes its adoption difficult by profit loving contractors [19].
India is setting its goals for green building but these initiatives are not complemented by government rules and
regulations. There are no sufficient government policies in order to support large scale implementation of green
building construction. There is a long tedious process which builders and developers have to face in order to get
approvals. Currently, incentives plans available in favor of green buildings are not sufficient to encourage its
extensive adoption in India. Also, the ones which exist are not uniform due to diverse governing bodies across
different states and cities. All these form potential reasons for why the adoption of green building practices is
challenging [19].

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International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
ISSN 2394 - 7780
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

Alternative for Sustainable Green Building Materials

Materials used for building conventional buildings are not environmentally sustainable. Concrete and cement
have been the most fundamental ingredients in buildings since the 1950s in India [20]. It has adverse
environmental impacts like increase in carbon and greenhouse gas emission, global warming, damage to topsoil
etc. Production of concrete requires extensive mining of stone to produce coarse aggregates, creating many new
fault lines in the natural rocky terrain, making it prone to earthquakes and other environmental threats . An
alternative to this would be the use of Green Concrete. Concrete produced with recycled or waste materials
from construction and demolition of buildings or with substitutes such as flyash, quarry dust, marble
powder/granules, plastic waste and masonry as aggregates has less impact on the environment and may be
termed as Green Concrete [21]. Its production process does not lead to environmental destruction, has high
performance and life cycle sustainability and can be used for construction purposes [22]. However, this
alternative is not so straightforward in the sense that even green concrete has some drawbacks which has to be
taken into consideration.Water absorption, shrinkage and creep are high compared to conventional concrete,
flexural and tensile strength are less, and has a shorter lifespan [21]. However there is a need to check whether
these disadvantages overcome the benefits of green concrete on the environment compared to traditional
concrete in today's urban world and accordingly changes can be made.
In India a company named Navrattan Green Cement Industries Pvt. Ltd. (NGCIPL) is involved in the
production of green cement called green crete. NGCIPL is the one-sixth part of the entire Navrattan Group of
Companies. The business group is involved in innovating and acquiring Intellectual Property Rights from all
over the world. Navrattan Green Crete, a product of NGCIPL, is an Environment-friendly crete that is a stronger
and more durable alternative of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). The company is one of its kind ventures in
the world that has worked with researchers and scientists and innovated Green Crete [23].
There are also alternatives to other building materials such as use of Bamboo Concrete Blocks, Ferrocement and
Aerocon panels, FiberCement composites, Flyash bricks, Mud Blocks (compressed), Rice husk, Straw bale
(with bricks), Bagasse-Cement Boards and Panels, Bagasse-PVC Boards etc.[24].
Conversion of Existing Buildings into Green Buildings
The concept of green buildings is achievable in two possible ways: either a completely new green building can
be constructed or an existing conventional building can be converted into a green building. The latter can be
achieved by introducing and implementing some green practices. Construction of green buildings de novo is a
tedious task and it is gaining pace currently but the beneficial outcomes will come in near future, meanwhile
ideas to convert existing buildings to green buildings will drive us more towards environmental sustainability.
By looking into marketing dynamics, infrastructure and other factors certain green practices can be introduced
to upgrade a building to green building. Some of the techniques and ways are mentioned below which can be
adopted to turn a building green.
● Vertical gardening - As the name suggests, it is a garden that grows vertically upward with the help of
trellis or other support system, rather than on the ground (horizontally). These vertical gardens can be self -
sufficient green walls /Living walls that can act as a natural air conditioner,control humidity levels and also
help to improve indoor air quality.
● Grass pavers - Grass pavers are the paving tiles which have a large number of rhombus shaped openings so
that water can percolate through ground and thereby help in raising the ground water table. By using this
product, it allows surface water to seep into the aggregate and slow down the runoff that would have been
on a concrete or asphalt surface.
● Vermicomposting - Vermicompost is the end product of a process called vermin composting, which uses
earthworms to increase the speed of the composting process and ensure higher-quality compost. Vermin
compost essentially ends up being applied to plants in the garden [25].
● Water harvest system - Water harvest system can be implemented in existing buildings by some simple
steps including cleaning the catchment area where most water collects during rains,redirecting water with
pipes,installing rain separator and storage tank filter and overflow pipe for extra water [26].
● Aluminum paint -Aluminum paint would be a better alternative than conventional paints for protective
coating of walls. It consists of a base made up of resin which is filled with solid freckles of aluminum. It
gives strength and durability to walls along with a shiny appearance. Aluminum based paint has the
capacity to reflect the sun rays falling on it which ultimately reduces the heat intake in the building and
thereby creates a better atmosphere to live in.
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International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research
ISSN 2394 - 7780
Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

● Solar power plants - Photovoltaic (PV) solar power plant is used for larger development of solar power
generation. This may come up with storage facilities using battery or grid connections. In a solar rooftop
system, the solar panels are installed on the roof of any building whether it could be residential,
commercial, institution or industrial. By photovoltaic process these solar PV cells generate electricity by
using sunlight. Solar water heaters can also be installed to convert the sun's energy for heating water which
is used mostly in residential and industrial buildings.
● LED lighting - LED lights are up to 80% more efficient than traditional lighting such as fluorescent and
incandescent lights.
Overall cost analysis will give an insight on the advantageous outcomes of once the building is converted to
green building. However, the advantages and benefits of the green buildings are spread out over the life span of
the building and should be looked upon on a long term basis rather than initial cost [25].
Role of Government for Green Buildings
There are some government schemes and plans existing to increase adoption of green building practices.Some
of which provide incentives like reduced property tax, extra percent ground coverage for FAR (floor area ratio)
free of cost, reduction in permit fees etc. depending on the certification received by IGBC. The magnitude of
these incentives differ from state to state governments [27]. The government is currently providing subsidies for
solar panels on rooftops to ensure sustainable use of electricity. The subsidy on the solar panels is available
broadly in many categories differing from state to state. India had a target to install 40GW solar panels at
residential home buildings, but India has achieved only 5GW till 2021. The Indian Government sets a target of
280GW solar panels by 2030 [28-30]. Other suggestion would be to successfully incorporate green building
ideas in upcoming redevelopment projects in order to increase their number and ensure enhanced well being of
the occupants.
CONCLUSION
In today's world of increasing population and pollution, going green is the best option to ensure environmental
sustainability and survival. The idea of green building serves a way to achieve this incentive. However there is a
need to take this idea more seriously by people and government for implementation and adoption of green
building practices. Existing schemes and incentives of government are good but there is a need to monitor their
effectiveness on green building development, updating them whenever necessary and also coming up with new
plans. Advanced technology has to be incorporated in green buildings to ensure high energy efficiency. Green
concrete supplements as a better substitute for traditionally used concrete in order to ensure higher
environmental safety. There are also other alternative materials available for sustainable green construction.
Thus the idea of green building is still gaining its pace in India and we may be able to see its development in the
near future with collective efforts from government as well as citizens. One way to do this in the current state is
to incorporate green design ideas in new upcoming redevelopment projects to ensure its early establishment.
REFERENCES
1. Akula Prakash and Rathod Ravinder,” Analysis On Green Building (Case Study: Griet, Hyderabad, India)”,
Researchgate.Net, Accessed 30 Aug 2022, www.researchgate.net/ publication/ 326668062_ Analysis_ On_
Green_Building_Case_Study_GRIET_Hyderabad_India
2. “The 7 Components of Green & Sustainable Building Design”, structure1, www.structure1.com/7-
components-of-green-buildings/ , Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
3. Jackson, Chris. “The 7 Green Building Components”, Construction21.org, 29 June 2022, www.
construction21.org/articles/h/the-7-green-building-components.html
4. “Elements of green building design”, The constructor building ideas, https:// theconstructor.org/ building/
elements-of-green-building/5375/, Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
5. “What's the difference between green and sustainable buildings”, British Assessment Bureau, www.british-
assessment.co.uk/insights/whats-the-difference-between-green-and-
sustainablebuildings/#:~:text=The%20key%20difference%20between%20sustainable,focus%20solely%20o
n%20the%20environment, Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
6. Nielson,Craig,“Green Building Guide- Design techniques,Construction practices and Materials for
affordable housing”, Published by Rural Community Assistance Corporation (RCAC), rcac.org,2009,
www.rcac.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/grn-bldg-guide_4-20-09.pdf .

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7. “Elements of Green Building”, Greenspace, www.greenspacencr.org/ building/ pros/how_b/ envision_b/

elements_of_green_building.html,Accessed 1 Sept 2022.
8. “What Are The 7 Components Of Green Building?”, Ecobuild Architect, www.ecobuild.com/7-
components-of-green-building ,Accessed 1 Sept 2022.
9. “Green building Rating Systems in India”, BuildersMART, 23 July 2019, www. buildersmart.in/ blogs/
Green-building-rating-in-India/
10. Alphonso Patricia.“What are Green building Rating System in India?”,biltrax media, 23 Aug 2019,
media.biltrax.com/what-are-the-green-building-rating-systems-in-india/
11. “Green rating systems in India”, Rethinking The Future, www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/sustainable-
architecture/a2319-green-rating-systems-in-india/, Accessed 5 Sept 2022.
12. “About Green Building”,World green building council, ,www.worldgbc.org/benefits-green-buildings#:~:
text=Green%20 buildings%20can%20not%20only,own%20energy%20or%20increasing%20biodiversity,
Accessed 30 Aug 2022
13. “7 Certified Green Buildings In India”, architerraX www.architerrax.com/post/certified-green-buildings-in-
india#:~:text=1.,%E2%80%9COffice%20in%20the%20garden%E2%80%9D, Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
14. “10 Most Inspirational Green Buildings in India”, Rethinking The Future, www.re-thinking the future.com/
rtf-fresh-perspectives/a919-10-most-inspirational-green-buildings-in-india/ ,Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
15. “Infosys Limited Mysore Building Awarded Highest LEED Rating”, Infosys Press releases, 2 Feb 2012,
www.infosys.com/newsroom/press-releases/2012/LEED- india-platinum-rating-mysore.html
16. Pande Puskar.“Indira Paryavaran Bhawan – India’s first on site net zero building”, Green Clean Guide, 27
Feb 2014, greencleanguide.com/indira-paryavaran-bhawan-indias-first-on-site-net-zero-building/
17. “Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change”,
pib.gov.in, 25 Feb 2014, pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104214
18. “Oyo working on "green tag" for sustainable hotels on its platform: CEO”, The Economic Times Tech, 21
Sept 2022, economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/startups/oyo-working-on-green-tag-for-sustainable-hotels-
on-its-platform-ceo/articleshow/94334256.cms
19. “Top 6 Challenges Hindering Rapid Adoption Of Green Building Practices In India”, Smart bricks,
gosmartbricks.com/top-6-challenges-hindering-rapid-adoption-of-green- building-practices-in-india/,
Accessed 30 Aug 2022
20. Tappin, Stuart. "The Early Use of Reinforced Concrete in India." Construction History 18 (2002),
architexturez.net/doc/10-2307/41613846#:~: text=For%20 many%20 people%20 who%20 work,of%20
reinforced%20concrete%20in%20India, Accessed 20 Sept 2022.
21. “Green Concrete and its Scope in India”,NBM&CW, www.nbmcw.com/article-report/infrastructure-
construction/construction-demolition/green-concrete-and-its-scope-in-
india.html#:~:text=Green%20concrete%20is%20conventional%20concrete,and%20Demolition%20Waste%
20is%20recommended, Accessed 21 Sept 2022.
22. Suhendro Bambang.”Toward green concrete for better sustainable environment”,Science
direct,reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S1877705814032494?token=D44B2608C7F05CE67D7749BA7A4
9A32BD9DF7AF4A5D89567DA08EC3B28C9FC0848E768244B9FCEA3CBDC19DACEC1D24C&origi
nRegion=eu-west-1&originCreation=2022092103371, Accessed 20 Sept 2022.
23. “navrattan”, Accessed 21 Sept 2022, www.navrattancement.com/about.php
24. Ar.Vidya, Ar.Radha.”Alternative low- cost building materials”, DSATM,www.dsatm.edu.in/ images/
Architecture/ pdf/ Alternative%20Low-Cost%20Building%20Material-%20 Ar.Vidya %20 &%20
Ar.Radha.pdf, Accessed 20 Sept 2022
25. Choudhary Pooja, Gupta Jagriti , Dr. Bharat Nagar. “Conversion of existing building into green building”,
irjet.net , 9 Sept 2018, www.irjet.net/archives/V5/i9/IRJET-V5I9270.pdf

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26. “Rain water harvesting at your home in four simple steps”,The Economic Times News, 16 Aug 2021,
economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/rainwater- harvesting-at-your-home-in-four-simple-
steps/articleshow/85366262.cms?from=mdr
27. “Government Incentives for Green Building Projects”,Conserve,13 March 2020,www.conserve
consultants.com/ government-incentives-green-building-projects
28. R Lakshmi.” Conversion of Existing Conventional Building to Green Building using simple Versatile
affordable green rating for integrated habitat assessment and cost analysis”, eprajournal.com, December
2021.
29. Chandra Nishi.”Solar Panel Subsidy in India, 2022”,LOOM SOLAR, 20 Feb 2022, www.loomsolar.com/
blogs/collections/solar-panel-subsidy-in-india
30. “Subsidy On Solar Panel: Everything You Need To Know About Solar Power Government
Subsidies”,Citizen solar, www.citizensolar.com/subsidy-on-solar-panel/#:~: text= The%20 state%20
subsidy %20 of%2040,maximum%20capacity%20of%2010%20k , Accessed 20 Sept 2022.

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SEGREGATION OF WASTE: A CHALLENGE DURING PUBLIC FESTIVAL TIME

Pradnya Pramod Nadkarni

Assistant Professor, R.A. Podar College of Commerce & Economics (Autonomous), Matunga, Mumbai- 19,
Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT
Segregation of waste into dry and wet components has been made mandatory by the municipal authorities in
Mumbai since a long time. It is an essential step towards reduction of burden on waste management methods.
Large area, ever growing population and social diversity have proven to be several challenges in achieving the
desired success with regards to waste segregation in Mumbai city. These challenges are more evident during
social festival times, when the waste is generated in tremendous amount as compared to the normal times.
Segregation of such huge amount of waste is not only environmentally but socially harmful. Thus, it calls for a
need to assess the level of awareness among population about waste segregation methods and its importance.
This paper makes an effort towards understanding the acceptance, adaptability and challenges faced by waste
segregation methods during festive times. It also tries to suggest effective approaches towards creating
awareness.

1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste management is a challenge faced by every human habitat in the current times. Tremendous
population growth, expansion of new suburbs, uncontrolled use of resources and lack of seriousness about the
aftermaths of waste disposal are leading to chronic issues related to waste disposal. The nature of waste also
differs from one another depending upon the source. Whereas certain types of wastes can be seemingly non-
hazardous (e.g paper), more serious threat can be caused due to waste materials like bio-medical waste. If not
treated in the prescribed method, any type of waste can be a nuisance for the well-being of the members in the
surrounding area.
A city like Mumbai creates several thousand metric tons of waste in a single day. Managing such large amount
of waste is a challenge for the waste management systems. Basic strategies like segregation of waste into dry
waste and wet waste may help in managing the issue to a certain extent. However, the segregation
methodologies do not seem to be followed in many parts of the city, even after them being made mandatory.
The challenge of waste segregation is intensified further during the public festival times, such as Ganesh Utsav,
Navratri, etc. These festivals are celebrated not only in the public spaces, but also at the household levels. Large
amount of material is utilized for decoration and during worshipping, containing both: ecofriendly and non-
ecofriendly substances. In ideal circumstances, the segregation of waste during such festivals will help in lifting
off pressure from the already crumbling waste disposal methods. However, according to the recent statistics,
such festivals add up to the waste generation by one thousand to three thousand metric tons of waste during the
time they are celebrated. This waste is usually not segregated and thus leads to even more trouble. The dry
waste consists of paper, plastic, thermocol, synthetic fabric, etc. The wet waste generally contains natural
flowers, paper, etc.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE PAPER
• To estimate the level of awareness among the general public towards the segregation of waste
• To co-relate the level of awareness with the age group
• To co-relate the level of awareness with exposure to education
• To suggest measures to create awareness to reduce the amount of harmful waste during the Ganpati festival
at the household level
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The paper required the study of secondary data as well as primary data.
The secondary data was collected from the websites, e-journals and newspapers. Data was also collected from
various previously published research papers and review papers on the topic of segregation waste in the urban
areas.
For the purpose of collecting the primary data for this paper, the recent public festival of Ganesh Utsav was
considered. The focus of study was concentrated only on the household Ganesh festival and not the publicly
celebrated one. Thus, the sample study was made only on people who celebrated the festival at home. The data
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was collected through an online structured questionnaire, asking questions about the level of awareness and
willingness to segregate the waste during Ganesh festival at their homes.
The data was gathered from a sample size of 140 respondents.
The data was further studied to understand the current practices followed by the respondents in order to gauge
their cautiousness towards segregation of waste.
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The data collected from the primary sources was subjected to filters and the following key observations were
made:
For 140 responses:
Age groups:
 45% people from 0-25 years
 55% people from 25-40 years
Duration of Ganpati festival:
 40% people have for 1.5 days
 25% people have for 5 days
 15% people have for 7 days
 15% people have for 10 days
Material used for decoration:
 90% people used mainly eco-friendly material (Natural flowers and paper- 65%)
 10% people used mainly non eco-friendly material (Thermocol- 20%, Plastic- 10%)
Material of the Ganpati idol:
 65% people had an idol made from natural material
 35% people had an idol made from artificial material
Total amount of garbage generated per day:
 95% of people say between 0-2 kg
Proportion of the waste (Dry waste: Wet waste)
 30% people say it was 25:75
 25% people say it was 75:25
 20% people say it was 50:50
Active segregation of waste:
 75% people segregated the waste
 25% people did not
Method adopted for treating the waste after collection:
 60% people dumped the waste in the dustbin separately after segregation
 25% people dumped the waste in the dustbin together
 15% people dumped the waste directly in a water body outside
Awareness about importance of segregation of waste:
 90% people are aware
 5% are not
 5% are not sure

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Need for reform in order to reduce waste generation:

 90% people agree
 5% do not
 5% are not sure
Source of information about segregation of waste:
 65% from school/college syllabus
 20% from municipal initiatives
 15% from social media
5. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION
• Higher number of people claiming to use eco-friendly material for decoration (90%), but still at least 25%
of the total waste is non-ecofriendly.
• Significantly less people used non-ecofriendly material for decoration (10%).
• However, people using Ganpati idol of artificial material is still significantly higher (35%).
• There is a gap between people segregating the waste (75%) and actually dumping it separately (60%).
• High level of awareness (90%), but low level of practice (60%).
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
• Fundamental information about what constitutes dry waste and wet waste.
• Emphasis on awareness imparted through education.
• Positive use of social media by municipal corporations. Awareness can be created through posters, street
plays etc.
5. REFERENCES
 https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/ganesh-chaturthi-pune-diverts-120-tonnes-of-waste-from-going-into-the-
mula-mutha-river-25267/
 https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/ganpati-immersions-leave-behind-2033-metric-tonnes-of-
garbage/
 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/organic-waste-collected-during-ganesha-visarjan-being-
made-into-manure/articleshow/71119584.cms
 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/bmc-will-create-manure-from-1083-metric-tons-flower-
waste-collected-during-ganesh-festival/articleshow/54368818.cms

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IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH AND ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES IN INDIA

1
Dr. Manish Madhav Deshmukh and 2Ms. Mitali Sankhe
1
Assistant Professor & Head and 2Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, Sonopant Dandekar Arts,
V. S. Apte Commerce & M. H. Mehta Science College, Palghar

ABSTRACT
Burgeoning population growth has a significant impact on anthropogenic activities. Uncontrolled urbanization
along with industrialization has caused destruction of natural habitats. The present paper is an attempt to study
the impact of population growth on land, forest, water and energy resources. The analysis reveals that huge
population growth rates are causing population density to rise thereby pushing people below the poverty line.
Excessive population growth contributes to land degradation, soil erosion which in turn affects overall
productive resource base of the economy.
The rising population and growing affluence have resulted in excess demand for energy production and over
utilization of resources in India.
The environmental side effects like ground water pollution, air pollution and global warming are the aftermaths
of this excessive consumption. The paper concludes with policy analysis and emphasizes the need of energy
conservation keeping sustainability as a crucial factor.
Keywords: Population, India, Sustainability, Environment and Degradation.

INTRODUCTION
The fundamental cause of environmental degradation can be attributed to burgeoning population growth of a
country which affects the quality of natural resources and environment available for next generations.
Sustainable development in India faces major threat due to the uprising population and callous attitude of
general public towards consumption of natural resources. Changing consumption pattern has resulted in
exceeding demand of energy resources. There is intense pressure on ground water, land, soil, natural habitat and
biodiversity. Due to excessive urbanisation and industrialization, there is tremendous pressure on environment
in India.
As per United Nations Report global population has almost tripled amounting to 8 billion people in 2022. China
and India together contribute for roughly 36% of the world population. As of 2022 China amounts to 1.44
billion people and India amounts to 1.39 billion people. India is the second most populated country in the world
and accounts for 17.5% of the world’s total population on 2.4% of world’s geographical area.
There has been a steady growth of population in India from 1950s onwards till 2022.

Source – World Bank Reports

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Source – Census 2011

Source – TOI
Rising population creates demand for food and energy thereby altering the land usage, cropping patterns and
excessive ground water consumption. India’s food production has increased 6 times over 7 decades. The
pressure on environment intensifies significantly with rise in population. To add fuel to the fire India is plagued
with the problem of poverty along with unequal distribution of resources which manifolds the problem of
environmental degradation. A sustainable growth strategy in line with UN sustainable goals is need of the hour
to tackle this double-edged sword of population growth and environmental degradation.
OBJECTIVES
1. To elucidate trend of population growth in India
2. To understand impact of population growth on natural resources
3. To analyse the impact of population growth and urbanization on natural ecosystem
4. To provide solutions keeping sustainability as a crucial factor
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The primary research area involves analysing the direct role of population growth on anthropogenic activities in
India. The study is primarily based on secondary data derived from census reports, World Bank reports, United
Nations reports and literature review of ecological journals, government ministries and websites.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Impact of population growth on land in India

Source – World Bank Report

There is tremendous pressure on agriculture land in India. As per World Bank report in 2018 agriculture land in
India amounts to 60.43% and one can notice a stagnation in land available for agricultural purposes. In order to
offer food security for rising population farmers need higher yields thus causing excess increase in cropping,
irrigation, over use of chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides. This in turn causes exploitation of
underground water resources. Excess use of chemical fertilisers contributes to water pollution.
Impact of population growth on forests in India

Source – World Bank Report

Forests play a pivotal role in maintaining environmental and ecological balance. As per ISFR (India State of
Forest Report 2021) total forest area amounts to 21.71% of the geographical area as against 33% as per
national forest policy 1952 and 1988. There has been a decline in forest cover in comparison to the
mandated 33% due to population growth, economic development, industries, housing and lastly to meet the
food requirements of a population.

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Impact of population growth on water resources

Source – Niti Ayog Report 2018

It is a fundamental human right and basic need to have access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation
facilities. As per World Bank reports India is among the most water stressed countries in the world. In India in
1950 per person there was a water availability of 3000 to 4000 cubic meters of water. As of 2019 this has
fallen to 1000 cubic meters of water per person. India is the largest user of ground water roughly
pumping 25% entire ground water in the world.
As per NITI Ayog report titled composite water management index (2018) there is heavy mismatch in the
demand and supply of water resources. The demand for water resources is going to be twice the supply and
approximately 40 % of India’s population will have no access to drinking water by 2030.
Impact of population growth on energy resources

Source – India Energy Outlook report 2021

As per India Energy Outlook report 2021 the consumption of energy has doubled since 2000 to 2019.
India’s rising urbanisation and population growth will create need for huge energy demand. Most of commercial
energy needs are achieved by burning fossil fuels which causes severe air population as it increases C02 in the
atmosphere and respiratory diseases and greenhouse gases further contributing to global warming

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Solutions for sustainable population control in India

 Offer tax benefits to all non-government employees who take efforts to keep population in check by having
two or less children
 People having two or less children and who are following population control measures should be motivated
by offering increments, housing loan concessions and job promotions
 Government employees across all religions who follow two child norms should be given benefits under
NPS, maternity benefits and increments
 A couple which has only one living child and by free will choses to get sterilized the government can
incentivize by offering free higher education to such child and even employment post his education
 Encourage informed family planning by making contraception easily accessible for the vulnerable and poor
sections of the society
 In order to reduce the total fertility rate, we need to improve our medical infrastructure
 As per United Nations DESA policy India’s economy growth must be more than its population growth to
ensure sustainable growth
CONCLUSION
The study concludes that India’s population growth is adding burden on the country’s limited natural resources.
It is going to be a tough task for government to satisfy the needs of ever-increasing population as the energy
consumption needs increase. There will be a huge pressure on the arable lands which in turn will affect the
overall resource productivity. There is immense pressure on ground water resources to satisfy the human needs
of water consumption and one can only expect the need to only keep escalating. One can conclude to sum up
there is crucial need to control population growth, conserve and protect natural resources, look for eco-friendly
energy resources and to keep environment healthy for future generations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank our college and colleagues for their valuable inputs, support and suggestions. We are
grateful to Ruparel College for giving us the opportunity to work on such an interesting topic. I am grateful to
my college librarian for providing me the resources for conducting my research.
REFERENCES
 https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-130-why-population-
growth-matters-for-sustainable-development/. (n.d.).
 https://paa2007.princeton.edu/papers/7192. (n.d.).
 https://www.niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/2018-05-18-Water-index-
Report_vS6B.pdf. (n.d.).
 https://tradingeconomics.com/india/forest-area-percent-of-land-area-wb-data.html. (n.d.).
 https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/IND/india/population-growth-rate. (n.d.).
 https://www.iea.org/reports/india-energy-outlook-2021/energy-in-india-today. (n.d.).
 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/03/22/helping-india-manage-its-complex-water-
resources. (n.d.).

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THE EFFECTS OF GREENWASHING IN COSMETIC INDUSTRY

Mudra Vinay Pandeya, Ayush Satyajit Virnodkar, Sejal Chandrajeet Ahir and Dr. Shyam Suryakant
Palkar
Department of Botany, D.G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science, and Commerce, Mahim, Mumbai- 400016

ABSTRACT
Cosmetics are one of the fastest growing industries. These cosmetics are formulated using various chemicals,
some of which are major causatives of almost every type of pollution. This brings a hike in popularity of herbal
products which results in a fierce competition between various agencies involved in this business. Because of
this, marketing agencies play an important role in manipulating the psyche of the consumers. Here,
greenwashing comes into picture. Greenwashing is when an organization spends more time and money
on marketing itself as environmentally friendly than on actually minimizing its environmental impact.
(Robinson, D. 2021) It has become a market trend where products are claimed to be natural, vegan, organic
and many more, by using green packaging techniques. The benefits of such products are increasingly being
portrayed falsely. In our approach, we try to ascertain the reality of products claiming to be sustainable by
identifying and testing toxic chemicals that are present in such products. We further surveyed the consumers to
evaluate the effect of such marketing techniques on the sale of the product. Even though these products may
contain some natural ingredients, the process of deriving these can harm the environment in irreversible ways
which in turn becomes a disadvantage to the environment. On the contrary, we encourage techniques like green
marketing which is when companies sell products or services based on legitimate environmental positives. Our
area of focus is to grab the attention of consumers and the manufacturers on this concern and provide
sustainable alternatives for the same.
Keywords: Greenwashing, Cosmetics, Pollution, Sustainability.

INTRODUCTION
The cosmetic industry describes the industry that manufactures and distributes cosmetic products. These include
skincare, haircare, and a lot more. These products are widely used all over the world which makes this industry
one of the fastest growing industries, and also one of the most profitable businesses. Due to the high demands
and better profits, the industry is constantly developing and coming up with new innovations in marketing
strategies. Various products are being developed based on the demand trends which are being analyzed by
marketing agencies that are capable of manipulating the psyche of the consumers. Various marketing campaigns
in the current market focus on proving themselves to be sustainable. (Danley, S. 2012) This paper explains the
effect of these marketing trends on the consumers and also the effect of these products on the environment, and
offers credible alternatives for such false portrayal by these companies.
The growing pace of environmental concerns has led many people to adapt a more sustainable lifestyle which
has become a trend that most of the people are following. Taking advantage of this, many companies have
started advertising their products as sustainable to attract more customers. These efforts can sometimes result in
misleading marketing techniques such as greenwashing.
GREENWASHING
Nowadays, many companies are coming up with innovative marketing strategies with the sole purpose of
increasing the sale of their products, one of which is greenwashing. Greenwashing is basically deluding people
so that they will buy the products irrespective of the reality behind them, but we are going further and stating
that it's not just bad for human health but harmful for the environment as well. The effects that greenwashing
can have, are far more hazardous in the long run than what is seeming right now. It’s not just about the pollution
that they are causing, but about the green skin that these brands are wearing which is deceiving. Our concern is
only that what we, as consumers, think is sustainable is not really sustainable and we need to change our
perspective before it's too late because the environment is degrading at an alarming rate.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
According to the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 and Rules, 1945, (by Government of India)
[17C. Misbranded cosmetics. — For the purposes of this Chapter,] a cosmetic shall be deemed to be
misbranded, --
(a) If it contains a colour which is not prescribed; or
(b) If it is not labelled in the prescribed manner; or
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(c) if the label or container or anything accompanying the cosmetic bears any statement which is false or
misleading in any particular.
฀ This implies that the brands that are posing as natural, but in reality, aren’t so, are also violating the law.
(Drugs and Cosmetics Act,1940 and rules 1945)
PSYCHOLOGY OF INDUSTRIALISTS:
Anthropocentrism means human centric view towards nature i.e., exhibiting efforts towards sustainability which
are directed to concerning only human welfare (Gribben. J. 2016), is the point of view of industrialists behind
inventing marketing techniques like greenwashing.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
With an objective of being all inclusive, pH testing is the method incorporated, as the vital pH range for the skin
is relatively identical.
Materials: Distilled water, Universal Indicator, Test tubes, Test tube stand, Beaker, Pipettes.
Cosmetics: Conditioner, Body Washes (3 Samples), Face Wash, Sunscreen, Lip Balm, Soap, Face Cleanser,
Tooth Paste.
The samples used in the experimentation are products of the brands pretending as herbal.
We had taken 2ml of distilled water in a test-tube and added two drops of Universal Indicator in it. The pH of
distilled water was used as a standard, which was found to be 7.5. All the samples were dissolved in 2ml of
distilled water and two drops of Universal Indicator were added in each. Then the pH was calculated according
to the standard pH scale. Total 10 products were tested.
SURVEY
We have conducted an online survey in which we have asked people about their preferences on the following
things.
1. Checking the ingredient list before buying.
2. Awareness about the harm caused by the cosmetics.
3. Awareness about effects of manufacturing process on environment.
4. Side effects of synthetic products.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
pH Test:
The results of pH test were as follows:

1. No. of products whose pH was found to be <7 (Acidic)= 4

2. No. of products whose pH was found to be =7 (Neutral)= 1
3. No. of products whose pH was found to be >7 (Basic)= 5
(From right to left according to the image above)
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Products pH value Property

Standard (water) 7.5 Basic
Conditioner 6.0 Acidic
Body wash sample 1 7.5 Basic
Body wash sample 2 6.0 Acidic
Body wash sample 3 5.5 Acidic
Face wash 9.0 Basic
Sunscreen 7.0 Neutral
Lip balm 8.5 Basic
Soap 9.5 Basic
Face cleanser 6.0 Acidic
Tooth paste 7.5 Basic
The optimal pH of a product which is not harmful for the human skin is 5.5 but only 1 product out of 10 was
found to have pH 5.5.
1. EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT
Chemical and solid pollutants released from factories which manufacture cosmetics can include heavy metals,
detergents, micro-fibre, plastic or non-plastic waste materials, toxic chemicals, and preservatives, etc.
● Effects on Aquatic Life
Most aquatic ecosystems have a normal tendency to dilute pollution to some extent, but severe contamination of
aquatic ecosystems results in alteration in the flora and fauna of the community. Chemicals reaching aquatic
ecosystems like, industrial solvents and volatile organic compounds, preservatives- methylisothiazolinone,
methylchloroisothiazolinone and other toxic chemicals like sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium laureth sulphate,
methyl paraben, polyethylene glycol (PEG) can pose serious threat to aquatic life. (Bashir, I. 2020)
These contaminants are toxic to aquatic life in many ways, most often reducing an organism’s lifespan and
ability to reproduce, also affecting their ecosystem.
Residue of the cosmetics containing chemicals goes into drainage systems which later reaches the sewage
systems which contains industrial wastes, municipal wastes and domestic wastes. It is estimated that 58% of the
waste water from urban areas and 81% of industrial wastes are discharged directly into waterbodies with no or
inadequate treatment which results in contamination of nearly 73% of the waterbodies. (Bashir, I. 2020)
● Effects on Agriculture
The process of manufacturing these cosmetic products includes the extraction of natural herbs from the
environment on a large scale which leads to overexploitation of these resources.
The toxic chemicals contained in the water bodies tend to seep into agricultural land along the riverbed. Thus,
crops cultivated on such land have high concentration of these toxic chemicals which can be hazardous for
everyone feeding on such crops.
2. EFFECT ON HUMANS:
● Effects of Acidic pH:
On human skin, the effect of acidic pH includes Acne, Dryness, Itching, Rashes.
● Effects of Neutral pH:
On human skin, the effect of Neutral pH includes Dehydration of skin, Irritation, and Allergies.
● Effects of Basic pH:
On human skin, the effect of Basic pH includes Dryness, Broken Skin Barrier, Wrinkles, Bacterial Outbreak.

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Survey:

Graph A Graph B
The Graphs for, “Checking the ingredients list before buying”.
Graph A shows that 81.6% of people are conscious about knowing the contents of the cosmetics that they use.
Graph B shows that 86.8% of people are inclined towards choosing herbal products over artificial ones, which
alternatively states that the chances of people buying products which are portraying themselves as herbal are
more.

The Graph for, “Awareness about the harm caused by the cosmetics”.
The graph above shows that for 64.9% of people the name of a popular brand matters.

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The Graph for, “Awareness about effects of manufacturing process on environment”.

The graph shows that 55.3% of people are aware of the harmful effects of the manufacturing process of these
cosmetics on the environment.

The Graph for, “Side effects of synthetic products”.

The graph shows that most of the people have experienced some kind of side effects after using synthetic
products.
42.1% of people have experienced dry skin as a side effect.
39.5% have experienced itching, rashes, redness.
10.5% have experienced some or the other allergies.
Very few people experienced onset of pimples and acne.
CONCLUSION
Marketing techniques such as greenwashing are not new, but just another way of making people believe what
they see. In today’s time, such strategies have become a serious threat to the environment as well. The damage
that these activities are causing are irreversible and need to be stopped as early as possible. This would not be
possible without changing our view towards sustainability.
If viewed from a different perspective, marketing techniques can have a really good impact on psychology of
customers which can be used in a positive way by encouraging sustainable marketing practices like green-
marketing. Green-marketing represents marketing where brands stick to the values of sustainability and
maintain transparency in advertising their products. (Kotler, P.,2011-2013) However, some companies can still
conceal the toxic ingredients used, behind labels such as “Base”, “Fragrance”, etc. which can still be
misguiding. Such loop holes in the system can not be avoided even after making strict rules to protect the rights
of the brands. That’s why, change in everyone’s perspective is essential.
Anthropocentric view of business personnel is the main cause behind such practices which leads to false belief
in customer’s mindset that a product is sustainable even though it is not. If we change our perspective to being
non-anthropocentric and treat humans as a part of nature and not as a superior entity to nature, (Gribben. J.
2016) then our efforts towards sustainability will also become more considerate towards nature which can lead
to more realistic approaches towards sustainable market trends such as green marketing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors would like to thank Dr. Dilip Maske (The Principal of The D.G. Ruparel College, Mahim).
Authors also gratefully acknowledge the guidance received from Mr. Suyash Singh (Asst. prof. The D.G.
Ruparel College, Mahim)
REFERENCES
฀ Acharya, S., and Bali, S. (2021). Green Cosmetic: Trends, Challenges and future scope in India. from
pg.170-179
฀ Bashir, I., Lone, F.A., and Dar, S., (2020) Concerns and threats of contamination on aquatic ecosystems,
Pubmed Central.
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฀ Brouwer, A. (2016), Revealing greenwashing: a consumer’s perspective, International Conferences ITS,

ICEduTech and STE 2016.
฀ Danley, S. (2012). The sustainability movement and its effects on the trends of beauty product packaging,
from Pg.6-7
฀ Drugs and Cosmetics Act,1940 and rules 1945.
฀ Gribben, J., and Fagan. J. (2016). Anthropocentric attitudes in modern society, Rutgers University.
฀ Hodgson Ernest, A textbook of Modern toxicology Fourth Edition, Wiley Publication (2010)
฀ Kotler, P. (2011-2013). Green marketing. Washington-dc: John Wiley and sons.
฀ Salvador Amparo and Chisvert Alberto, Analysis of Cosmetic Products, Elsevier Science Publication
(2007)

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HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL STUDY OF KAMWARI RIVER AND ITS ESTUARY TO EVALUATE

WATER QUALITY

Vicky Patil* and Poonam Kurve

Department of Environmental Science, VPMs B.N Bandodkar College of Science (Autonomous), Thane

ABSTRACT
Over the past few decades there has been considerable deterioration in the water quality of major rivers and
their tributaries over the globe due to increased population overburdening the existing waste management
systems. The rapid booms of infrastructure coupled with the discharge of untreated industrial effluents are
adding to the pollution. The present study focuses on the evaluation of Hydro-biological parameters of River
Kamwari and its estuary flowing through Bhiwandi city and adjoining areas. A seasonal assessment of the
physico-chemical and biological parameters of river water was carried out to understand the impact of
anthropogenic activities on river water. Pollution indicating parameters like DO, BOD, COD, Oil and Grease
ranged between 0-8 mg/l, 5.71 to 200 mg/l, 20-360 mg/l, and 20-270 mg/l respectively whereas; nutrients like
Phosphate and Nitrate ranged between 0.94-4.1 ppm and 0.5-3.5 ppm respectively. The presence of Coliform
was detected throughout the river stretch while the Total Coliform count was higher (>1600) within zone 2
(Location 3 and 4) of the study area. The presence of coliform indicates faecal matter contamination which
makes the water unfit for domestic usage and also increases the chances of water-borne diseases. Zone 2 of the
study area was found to be highly polluted. Discharge of untreated sewage from residential areas and effluents
from textile units in the adjoining areas, agricultural runoff, and waste from slaughterhouses and cattle sheds
along with dumping of solid waste were found to be detrimental to the riverine ecosystem.
Keywords: Kamwari River, Pollution, Coliform, Seasonal Variation

INTRODUCTION
Rivers are known to be present on every continent providing fresh water, varied ecological and consumptive
services (Masseger. M. et. al.2021). These flowing water bodies have a fundamental role in supporting global
biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles and human societies. It is one of the main reasons why ancient civilizations
flourished on river banks all over the world which can be even observed today. Not only Major cities of India
like Delhi and Kolkata are situate at river banks but also foreign cities like London and New York are situated
on river bank. It was estimated that there was a six-fold rise in demand for water from 1990 to 1995 which was
more than the rate of population growth (Postel, 1997). With a rising standard of living and easy availability of
amenities in cities, an increase in migration rate from rural to urban areas occurred. Increased population led to
increased generation of waste and wastewater exerting pressure on the existing waste management facilities.
Further, the amount of water required by urban establishments is more as compared to rural and the quality of
wastewater is also considerably more toxic (Bandy J.T., 1984). Population pressure, unplanned development,
discharge of waste water at inappropriate places enhanced the infusion of harmful compounds into water bodies.
Further discharges of partially treated or untreated wastewater without consideration of the assimilative capacity
of the receiving water body have resulted in pollution of river globally (Zingde M.D., 1999). Dumping of solid
waste in areas adjacent or in the river basin has aggravated the riverine pollution thereby affecting the quality of
life.
Even though being a country with more than four hundred perennial rivers, the Indian sub-continent is facing
water scarcity. Surface water pollution has reached a critical point in India where, almost every river system in
India has been polluted to a considerable extent. A study by NEERI, Nagpur revealed that, about 70% of the
water bodies in India are polluted (Martin P., 1998). Major rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, and Gomati
have been assessed for their water quality. The majority of monitoring stations under the National water quality
monitoring program are stationed on major and perennial rivers. Non-perennial rivers and streams that
periodically cease to flow tend to be overlooked from a pollution study point of view.
Identification and quantification of pollutants play a crucial role in planning mitigation strategies and
establishing management approaches for the future. Water quality assessment for different water use purposes,
such as domestic use, irrigation, conservation and industrial usage, form an important strategy for food safety
and human health. The present study focuses on the assessment of hydro-biological parameters along the stretch
of the Kamwari River flowing through Bhiwandi, Maharashtra.
STUDY AREA
Geographically, Bhiwandi taluka lies in the coastal lowland of Maharashtra’s Konkan region. At an elevation of
24 m from the mean sea level, it is situated at the northeast of Greater Mumbai. The city of Bhiwandi was a
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historic port and is known for the largest number of power looms in the country. Due to the Handloom and the
textile industry, it was nicknamed “Manchester of India”. There have been tremendous changes in land-use
patterns in and around the Bhiwandi. Surrounding notified areas are witnessing intensive industrial development
(Kandpal, R. & Saizen, I., 2018)

Figure 1: Political and Geographical map of the study area

Kamwari River which is a tributary of Ulhas River, originates in the foothills of the Tungareshwar mountain
ranges in the Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary near Depoli, Dist. Palghar. After running southwest for 34.5 Km
through Bhiwandi City it confluences with the Ulhas River at Kevni Village. Kamwari River is a Monsoon fed
river and is the only river in this part of Bhiwandi taluka. It is one of the major sources of water for irrigation
purpose after monsoon. A stretch of 21km was considered for the study which was further divided into three
zones based on geography and the land use pattern around the river. Water samples for studying various
parameter were collected from six locations from three zones
Table no 1.Sampling Locations
Zone Location No. Latitude/Longitude
Location 1 19°16'31.85"N 73° 0'27.00"E
Zone 1
Location 2 19°17'43.03"N 73° 0'9.06"E
Location 3 19°18'2.60"N 73° 2'22.10"E
Zone 2
Location 4 19°18'11.95"N 73° 4'24.83"E
Location 5 19°19'31.17"N 73° 4'24.83"E
Zone 3
Location 6 19°18'52.76"N 73° 3'56.13"E
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The Present study was carried out to assess the hydro-biological condition of the Kamwari River to gain insight
into the prevailing pollution levels. The study period was divided into three seasons i.e. Pre-Monsoon (PrM),
Monsoon (MoN) and Post-Monsoon (PoM). Water samples were collected twice every season from six
sampling stations in three different zones within the study area. Grab samples were collected in clean
polyethene bottles while the samples for microbiological analysis were collected in sterile bottles. Parameters
like temperature, pH and DO were assessed on the field whereas other parameters like COD, BOD, TDS, TSS,
Nitrate, Phosphate, Oil and grease were assessed using standard methods prescribed by APHA and AAWA.
Most Probable Number was used to assess the Total Coliform Count.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Seasonal variation and the prevailing land-use pattern have a major impact on the water parameters influencing
its quality which in turn impacts the biotic components within an aquatic ecosystem. Rivers flowing through
urban habitats predominately receive untreated sewage and effluent polluting the riverine ecosystem. Solid
waste disposal has been reported in major river basins over the globe adding to the riverine pollution.
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Figure 2: Variation in Temperature

Figure 3: Variation in pH

Figure 4: Variation in Dissolved Oxygen

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Figure 5: Variation in Biological Oxygen Demand

Figure 6: Variation in Chemical Oxygen Demand

Figure 7: Variation in Salinity

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Figure 8: Variation in Total Hardness

Figure 9: Variation in Total Dissolved Solids

Figure 10: Variation in Total Suspended Solids

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Figure 11: Variation in Nitrate

Figure 12: Variation in Available Phosphorus

Figure 13: Variation in Oil and Grease

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Figure 14: Variation in Total Coliform

The importance of temperature in the riverine ecosystem has been studied by several researchers (Smith, 1972;
Ward, 1985). The temperature within the study area was found to be ranging between 26°C to 33.25°C. It was
observed that the atmospheric temperature governed water temperature. A similar phenomenon was observed
by Quadros G. et .al. 2003 in Thane Creek. The temperature within zone 2 was highest during the study period
which could be attributed to the anthropogenic activities on the bank. The pH values indicate the level of acidity
or alkalinity in the present ecosystem. Water pH in the study area was found to mildly acidic to slightly alkaline
with slight spatial variation. The pH values were in the range of 5.5 to 7.75 which is slightly acidic for the
propagation of wildlife and fisheries as per the designated best water quality criteria by MPBP. Acidic condition
was observed at location 3 owing to the effluent load being discharged whereas alkaline pH was observed at
locations 1 and 2 due to the proximity to Ulhas Creek.
DO, BOD and COD are usually used as indicators of health of the aquatic ecosystem (Zaghloul A. et al., 2019).
Low DO values indicating hypoxic condition (Laponite B.E.and Clark M.W., 1992) were observed throughout
the study area, except at location 2, 5, and 6 where the DO levels were within the permissible limits required for
propagation of commercial fishery, bathing and contact water sports (Schedule VI, EPA,1986) The
concentration of DO in water is inversely proportional to BOD/COD concentrations (Edokpayi, J.N.et.al. 2017).
BOD and COD levels in the study area were in the range of 5.71 to 200 mg/l and 20 to 360 mg/l respectively.
Except for location 6 and to some extent at location 5, rest all locations showed BOD levels higher that the
permissible limit of 30 mg/l (effluent discharged by industries) put forth by MPCB. COD values above the
permissible limit of 250 mg/l (Schedule VI, EPA, 1986) were observed at location 2, 3 and 4 which could be
predominantly due to the discharge of untreated industrial and domestic sewage within this stretch of the river.
DO, BOD, COD showed seasonal and spatial fluctuation.
Salinity fluctuation can be observed in aquatic habitats like estuaries owing to the influx of saline and
freshwater alternately during tidal currents (Anirudhan T.S. & Nambissan P.N.K., 1990). Higher Salinity was
observed towards the estuarine end whereas; lower salinity was recorded upstream. A similar trend was
observed with Total hardness levels. The total Hardness of water was maximum towards the estuarine end
which might be due to the presence of higher salt content as compared to the freshwater upstream. The salinity
and Total hardness value were in the range of 0.18 to 14.72 ppt. and 85 to 2475 mg/l could. The hardness values
were above the permissible limit of 600mg/l (IS 10500:2012) within location 1, 2 and 3 making the water hard
for domestic usage. Total dissolved solids are known to create an osmatic imbalance in aquatic organisms
whereas; higher Total suspended solids may impact the gaseous exchange within aquatic organisms. Total
Dissolved values were found to be high during the Pre-monsoon (PrM) while total suspended Solids were high
during the Monsoon (MoN). Total dissolved Solid and Total Suspended Solids ranged from 920 to 11450 mg/l
and 230 to 3620 mg/l respectively. Higher Suspended solids during Monsoon could be attributed to agricultural
runoff and storm water carrying particulate matter. TDS and TSS values were above the permissible limit of
500 to 2000mg/l for TDS (IS 10500:2012) for sewage water and 100mg/l for suspended solids for effluents to
be discharged in inland surface water (Schedule VI, EPA, 1986).
Phosphate is the nutrient that, regulates productivity in aquatic ecosystems. In surface water, natural levels of
phosphate do not pose any threat to living organisms or the environment. Effluent discharge and agricultural
runoffs are known to increase nutrient content in water bodies (Czerniawski et.al. 2020). In present study
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available phosphorus varied between 0.94 to 4.1 ppm. Higher levels of available phosphorus were observed at
location 3 and 4 throughout the study period. This is majorly due to the release of untreated sewage and waste
from cattle sheds present on the bank of the River (Prakasa R., et.al 2017).Most of the Indian rivers observe rise
in phosphorus level due to agricultural runoff carrying the washed fertilizers. Nitrate was in the range of 0.5 to
3.5 ppm. Higher nitrate levels could also be attributed to discharge of sewage and agricultural runoff. Constant
fluctuation within nutrient levels was observed. Large patches of Eichhornia sps. could be observed near
location 5 within zone 3 during the post-monsoon indicating presence of high nutrients levels within the river
water (Yu H , et.al.2019).
Oil and grease contribute to the organic load within the water body thereby increasing the demand for oxygen.
If present in larger volume it may cause formation of oil layer on the surface affecting the gaseous exchange.
Devastating physical effects, such as coating animals and plants with oil and suffocating them by oxygen
depletion has been observed (USEPA, 2019). In present study Oil and Grease ranged from 30 mg/l to 270 mg/l.
The Oil and grease values were above the permissible limit of 100mg/l (EPA, 1986) throughout the study
location except location 6 which has very minimal human activity. Higher Oil and Grease value could be due to
effluents, washing of vehicle or spills from the boats in the estuarine end.
Coliform bacteria are a group of aerobic and facultative anaerobic forms found in the intestinal micro flora of
all warm blooded animals including humans. (Li D. and Liu S., 2018; Martin N. H. et al., 2016). Presence of
coliform in water sources indicate contamination of the water body by faecal matter which may eventually lead
to serious water borne diseases. About 80 % of communicable diseases in the world are water borne In the
present study Total coliform count was found to be higher than the permissible limit of 100MPN /100ml
throughout the study area except for location 6 upstream. The high Total Coliform count could be due to the
indiscriminate release of sewage and waste water from cattle shed and Slaughter houses. Washing of cattle
upstream at location 6 may be the reason for presence of coliform in water. Such higher coliform counts may
prove lethal as it can lead to epidemics.

Available
Total Phospho Oil and Total
pH Temp. DO BOD COD Salinity Hardness TDS TSS Nitrate rus Grease Coliform
pH 1
Temperature (º C) -0.11266 1
DO (mg/l) 0.373873 0.039162045 1
BOD (mg/l) -0.48207 0.087570037 -0.804340911 1
COD (mg/l) -0.5599 -0.0195372 -0.750079238 0.871862961 1
Salinity (ppt.) 0.424546 -0.263373774 0.10651678 -0.064340628 0.0772418 1
Total Hardness (mg\l) 0.300179 -0.147762031 -0.114940168 0.177607421 0.286744641 0.892801 1
TDS (mg/l) 0.160004 -0.022120337 -0.425173798 0.452531611 0.488690864 0.706387 0.826139 1
TSS (mg/l) -0.39221 0.192396044 -0.106746053 0.421270065 0.594951288 0.110263 0.213158 0.248602 1
Nitrate (ppm) -0.68805 0.103317995 -0.44820445 0.560892077 0.64300806 -0.31775 -0.18888 0.03039 0.492899 1
Available Phosphorus (ppm) -0.70005 0.105344926 -0.462063906 0.642122028 0.709677183 -0.40554 -0.2067 0.014322 0.633797 0.730863 1
Oil and Grease (mg/l) -0.14149 -0.175331151 -0.622479204 0.646048863 0.708739362 0.372409 0.45687 0.554974 0.322301 0.387382 0.377775 1
Total Coliform -0.37828 0.044314105 -0.792986169 0.866671215 0.846156908 0.07652 0.351405 0.550228 0.338087 0.498703 0.530828 0.685723 1
Figure 15: Correlation between parameters
Pearson’s correlation analysis makes an attempt to institute linear relationship between multiple variables
(Florence P.L.et.al.., 2012). Pearson Correlation Coefficients test was computed during the present study to
understand the influence of parameters on one other. A strong positive correlation was observed between COD
and BOD (r-0.8718) while DO showed negative correlation with both BOD (r- -0.8043) and COD (r- -0.7500).
TDS showed correlation with Salinity (r- 0.7063) and Hardness (r-0.8261) as these variables are dependent on
salt concentrations. Sewage inputs may decrease pH while there may be increase in nutrient levels. Positive
correlation was observed between Nitrate and COD (r-6430), Available Phosphorus and BOD (r-0.6421) and
COD (r-0.7096) while both Nitrate and Phosphorus showed a negative correlation with pH. Oil and grease
showed a positive correlation with BOD (r-0.6460) and COD (r-0.7087) while a negative correlation with DO
(r- -0.6224). Total Coliform Count increases with increase in sewage load hence positive correlation was
observed with BOD (r- 0.8666) and COD (r-0.8461) while it showed a negative correlation with DO (r--
0.7929). A strong positive and negative correlation was seen among the water parameters.
CONCLUSION
In the present study hypoxic condition with nutrient build-up was observed in Zone 2 and some parts of Zone 1
of the study area indicating poor water quality within the Kamwari River. Water parameters like DO, BOD,
COD, Hardness, Nitrates, Phosphorus, Oil and grease were found to be beyond the permissible limits set by
monitoring authorities for the majority of the study period. Seasonal and Spatial variation in water parameters
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were seen. The spatial variation can be attributed to the changing land use pattern or the anthropogenic activities
in and around the river stretch. Water quality was found to be good in the upper stretch of the river in zone 3,
but as soon as the river enters the city limit, pollutants are being added through multiple sources thereby
deteriorating quality of water downstream within zone 1 and 2 before the confluence into Ulhas River.
Agricultural runoff, discharge of untreated wastewater from residential settlements, textiles units, slaughter
houses and cattle sheds along with unmanaged solid waste disposal are responsible for the decline in the water
quality of Kamwari River. A detailed study of the pollutant sources is needed to develop future plan to restore
and prevent further deterioration of the Riverine ecosystem. All anthropogenic activates and the Land use
change has to be carried meticulously so as to avoid the undue pressure on the ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to University of Mumbai for providing financial assistance for this project. Authors are also
thankful to Principal, VPM’s B.N. Bandodkar College of Science (Autonomous) for support.
REFERENCES
 Anirudhan, T.S. and Nambissan P.N.K., (1990) Distribution pattern of salinity and silicon and their
interrelationship in Cochin backwaters. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences. Vol.-19 (June): 137-139.
 Bandy, J.T.,(1984). Water characteristics. J. Wat. Poll. Cont. Fed. 56(6):544-548.
 Czerniawski R., Sługocki Ł., Krepski T., Wilczak A., Pietrzak K.,(2020) Spatial changes in invertebrate
structures as a factor of strong human activity in the bed and catchment area of a small urban stream.
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 Dwivedi, A.,(2017). Researches in water Pollution: A Review. 10.13140/RG.2.2.12094.08002.
 Edokpayi, J.N.; Odiyo, J.O.; Durowoju, O.S., (2017) Water Quality; Chapter 18. Intech, pp. 401–416.
Available online: http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.5772/66561
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India: a spatial and temporal analysis, 11th ESRI India User Conference 2010
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industrialisation: the case study of Bhiwandi in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, India. Spatial
Information Research. 27. 10.1007/s41324-018-0221-z.
 Laponite, B.E. and Clark, M.W., (1992).Nutrient inputs from the water shed and coastal eutrophication in
the Florida Keys, Estuaries.15 (4):465-467.
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 Quadros, G., Mishra, V., Ullal, V., Gokhale, K. S., & Athalye, R. P. ,(2001). Status of water quality of
Thane creek (India). Ecology environment and conservation, 7, 235-240.
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Directions (Ed Somayajulu B L K), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp.229-246

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MANGROVES: A CASE STUDY OF MUMBAI

METROPOLITAN REGION
1
Ms. Poorna Venkatesan, 2Dr. Prakash Dongre and 3Dr. Vilonia Ashok Kumar
1
Research Scholar, Department of Geography, University of Mumbai
2
Principal, St. John’s College of Humanities and Sciences, Palghar
3
Assistant Professor, Vivekanand Education Society’s College or Arts, Science and Commerce

ABSTRACT
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, precipitation, humidity and other weather elements.
Since the beginning of industrial revolution anthropogenic activities have been the main driver of climate
change, primarily due to burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. The impacts of climate change
in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) are already being witnessed through increase in flooding, erosion of
coastlines, salt water intrusion, increase in number of cyclones and storm surges. The best estimates of climate
change are presented by extensive review of literature work. It was found that rise in sea level is the most
important factor influencing the future density and diversity of mangrove species. The predicted increase in air
temperature and moisture was likely to cause thermal stress which would start affecting roots and seedlings and
at times make the leaves stop their process of photosynthesis.
Keywords: climate change, mangroves

INTRODUCTION
The term mangrove comes from the Senegalese word ‘mangue’ which means ‘into the sea’. Mangroves are
characteristic littoral plant found in sheltered waters of tropical and subtropical coastlines. They support
genetically diverse communities of terrestrial and aquatic flora and fauna which are of direct and indirect
environment, economic and social value to human societies across the globe. Mangrove ecosystems are now
being subject to increasing non-sustainable developmental activities as economic and population pressure rises
in many of the coastal zones in tropical regions of the world. Mangrove forests are important sources of energy
for detritus based coastal food-chains involving fish, mollusks and crustacea of economic value. They also help
to reduce coastal erosion by dissipating the force of wave action.
Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is spread over 6,328 sq. kms. The area takes up four districts of
Maharashtra State i.e., Mumbai City, Mumbai Suburban District, Parts of Thane and Raigad Districts. As per
the Forest Survey of India (2021) report, the total mangrove cover of MMR was 282 sq. kms with 20 to 22 true
mangrove species found. The mangroves of Airoli and Vikhroli are counted among the 12 unique mangrove
forests of India.
Mangrove ecosystems are dynamic and there is geological and contemporary evidence that they can extend or
contract rapidly in response to regional topographical and climatic changes. They are also likely to be affected
by stress related activities by man and they will exhibit marked spatial and temporal fluctuations as a result of
such influences. It is thus important to identify changes to mangrove ecosystem due to climate change. The
primary climatic factors to be considered are temperature, rainfall, atmospheric carbon di oxide concentration
and rise in sea level (Field, 1995).
CLIMATE CHANGE
Many reports have been published which address the issue of climate change that might arise as a result of
man’s activities, examining the possible effects. This review will not attempt to reiterate the extensive
discussion that exists on the relatively short-term changes to our climate that are likely to result from the
activities of man. It will try to summarize the key predictions and then examine what these may imply for the
future of mangrove ecosystem. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) in partnership with United
Kingdom’s Climate Change Research Center studied the impact of climate change in Maharashtra, submitted a
project report to the state’s environment department in 2014. It predicted that the temperature of Maharashtra is
likely to increase by 1 to 30C in the next 50 years, making evening and nights warmer by 1.5 to 2 0C. It also
stated that by 2030 the coastal areas of the state would have a higher ambient temperature as compared to
central areas of the state. The mean sea level along the coast was projected to increase by 2 to 4 m between
2050 - 2100. As per its findings, even rainfall shows an increasing trend of 20 to 40 percent throughout the
state.
Evidences from radiocarbon age data of beach rocks indicate that the sea level along the Konkan coast has risen
by +6 m from the mid-holocene period - 15,000 years before present YBP (Agrawal, 1967 and Guzder, 1980).
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Historical analysis of 100-year tide gauge data and 17-year satellite data showed a sea level rise of 0.13 - 2 cm.
In the near future, mean sea level is projected to increase by 30 to 55 cm by the end of 21 st century for a
medium range climate scenario. The Monument Management Board (MMB), in its shoreline management plan
estimated an SLR of 0.45mm/yr along the entire coast of Maharashtra (Black, Mathew and Anjali, 2017). This
makes the tide move steadily inwards and the water level in the creeks to rise alarmingly. It also translates into
the salt water intruding up to 1 km inland damaging mangroves, eroding beaches and filling creeks with sand
and silt through erosion. The reasons are attributed to global warming and disturbance from construction along
the sea coast. The impact is more along the flatlands than in areas where the coast is rocky (Karlekar, 2010).
The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (2006), predicted an increase of 1.2 to 1.4 0C in the surface
temperature of sea water, increasing the wind speed by 5% resulting in severe cyclones and storm surges. An
analysis on the frequency of cyclones in the west coast of India during 1891 - 2006 revealed than 48 tropical
cyclones crossed the west coast, out of which only 24 were severe cyclonic storms. Maharashtra recorded 13
such severe cyclones. Out of which Mumbai recorded 3, Thane 4, Raigad 0. The recent occurrence of two
cyclones in consecutive seasons (Nisarga - 2020) and (Tuktae - 2021) has been highly unusual for the west
coast of India, making it clear how important it is to protect mangroves and other coastal features that act as
buffers against storm surges, high winds and flooding. Many studies have shown that up to 60% of the wave
force is dissipated by the first 100 m of mangroves along a coast (Bavadam, 2021). The rising sea levels,
accompanied by stronger waves and currents has started reshaping the coastline of MMR and potentially
inundating or even submerging many low-lying areas on a regular basis (Rajasree, Gopikrishna and Deo, 2018).
Overall, the summer monsoon will show a 20% increase than the current rate. Simulations with climate models
and observations indicate that rainfall extremes such as the Mumbai deluge of 2005 could become more
frequent in India under the impact of climate change. Both 2005 and 2006 had spells of excessive rainfall that
normally would have occurred once in about hundred years. It has been observed that till 1989 the average
rainfall of Mumbai was 2129 mm. However, in 2005 - 2006 the average annual rainfall was found to be 3214
mm, an increase of 50%. The increase in rainfall and rise in mean sea level (MSL) in addition to the poor
drainage of the city will increase the frequency of floods. Almost one fourth of Mumbai comprises of low-lying
areas below or at MSL, making 50% of its population very vulnerable to profound consequences from climate
change (Kumar, Jawale and Tandon, 2008). The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
(NEERI), commented that Mumbai could face damages worth Rs. 35,00,000 crores by 2050 because of climate
change. The wave action has increased in the north western area and has eroded the 16 km long coastline by 500
meters in the past 35 years (Shyam, 2016). The coastal vulnerability index has placed 20% of the coastline
along MMR as highly vulnerable to sea level rise and identified it as a hotspot for cyclones and severe storm
surges. Areas most prone to flooding include Colaba, Cuff Parade, Worli, Dadar, Girgaum, Kurla, Deonar,
Trombay, Thane Creek, Gorai, Andheri, Mira-Bhayandar, Navi Mumbai, Uttan, Uran Alibaug and Murud.
Alterations to coastal features and landforms corelated with inundation characteristics make the coastal areas of
Mumbai more vulnerable in the coming decades due to huge developmental activities and population pressure
(Pramanik, 2017).
The coastal areas of Thane district have become very vulnerable to excessive flooding as the creek is getting
shallower and its drainage capacity during monsoon is getting badly affected. During heavy rains and high tide
days water is easily entering the city spaces even with a subtle increase in the sea level scenario. Siltation at the
mouth and shrinking width of the creek along Mumbai, Thane, Navi Mumbai and Uran has complicated the
problem. The volume of water in the estuary between high tide and low tide during non-monsoon months has
been altered due to changes in land use, putting many coastal townships in the region at risk of inundation
during the monsoon months. The shoreline changes along Alibaug coast have been investigated and studied
extensively. On a comparison with topographical map and satellite imagery, it was found that a large variation
in the shoreline existed at many places along the coast. Accretion was found to be about 6.5 km2 during the
period 1971 to 2005, with an average accretion rate of 0.2 km2 per year.
Impacts of sea level rise in MMR are being witnessed more frequently along patches of the creeks, with local
livelihood of the coastal communities being at stake. A basic visit to any of these settlements located near the
coast will reveal how agricultural land is being lost due to excess siltation. While protecting mangroves is a
necessity in the face of more cyclones and sea level rise, losing existing farmlands, khar lands and water ways
will be double whammy for local residence. Thus, there is a need to boost ecologically sensitive policy
measures and ramp up disaster preparedness keeping these scientific submissions in mind (Kesbhat, 2021).

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RESPONSE OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

SEA-LEVEL RISE
As all mangrove systems occur between high and low tide mark it is clear that they are likely to be significantly
influenced by any change in sea level. Different mangrove species appear to have a marked preference for the
level of salinity of the surrounding environment and therefore they are found to be at varying distances and
elevations from the seaward edge reflecting the degree of mixing of freshwater input and tidal influx. Mangrove
ecosystem accumulates peat or mud and this gives them the opportunity to adjust to a rising sea level. If the
sediment accretion rate equals the rate of rise in sea level, then inundation preferences of the different mangrove
species can be maintained. If the rate of sea level rise exceeds the rate of accretion, then some rearrangement of
existing vegetation will take place and loss of mangroves will occur if the mean tide level becomes higher than
the elevation of the substrate. Mangrove ecosystem should be able to keep pace with a rising sea level of 8 - 9
cms per 100 years. They come under stress between 9 to 12 cms per 100 years and cannot adjust at rates above
this level. The predicted rates of sea level rise caused by climate change would be too fast for such mangroves
to adjust and that there would be a collapse of mangroves as a viable coastal ecosystem (Ellison and Stoddart,
1991). From geological record it appears that previous sea level fluctuations presented a series of crises and
opportunities for mangroves and that they tended to survive or even expand in several refuges, the most
important being continental coastlines with healthy sediment budges.
The Maharshtra’s Forest Department has predicted that most of the mangrove species in Mumbai’s wetlands
will not survive the rising sea levels. The present mangrove species distribution, especially grey mangroves
(Avicennia marina) which make up 95% of Mumbai’s mangrove trees have aerial breathing roots that rise 15 -
20 cm over the soil, with the predicted sea level rise its roots would be under complete submergence, thereby
killing the trees. It has been reported that during the last 25 years about 40% of mangrove area in Maharashtra
has been reduced due to human activities. Satellite imagery data shows that in Maharashtra coast the mangrove
area is only 148.4 km2. The examples of this are already being witnessed at Thane creek where Avicennia
Marina trees are getting submerged during high-tide and dying. In isolated cases, other species with higher roots
like Sonneratia alba or Sonneratia apetala roots ranging between 30 - 80 cm are taking over.
TEMPERATURE RISE
Many species show considerable variation in their sensitivity to temperature but the majority of them seem to
produce maximal shoot growth when the mean air temperature rises to 25 0C and only Avicennia marina
continues to produce leaves when the mean air temperature drops below 150C (Saenger and Hutchings, 1987). It
would therefore appear that if the average air temperature increases, the species composition of the mangrove
forests may change and the presences of mangroves move further north and south. Some species demonstrate a
decline in leaf formation rate at temperatures above 250C (Saenger and Moverly,1985). The optimum leaf
temperature for photosynthesis in mangroves appears to be 280C to 320C and photosynthetic capacity falls close
to zero at leaf temperature of 380C to 400C (Clough et.al., and Andrews et.al., 1984). It is generally accepted
that plant development will be accelerated by increased temperature, as long as the temperature reached does
not exceed the upper threshold. Very little is known about the effect of changing temperature on metabolic
processes in mangroves. Superficially the predicted global warming between 1.50C and 4.50C over the next
century would seem likely to be of little consequence for the development of various species of mangroves.
This impression is reinforced when the expected increase is compared to the diurnal oscillations in temperature,
which can be in excess of 200C at the limits of mangrove occurrence. However, the temperature increase could
become significant when the cumulative effects of temperature on plant development are considered. The
elevation of the average temperature of the plant will be a critical factor in terms of growth but how this will
manifest in mangroves remains unknown (Field, 1995).
RISE IN ATMOSPHERIC CO2 LEVELS
A change in atmospheric CO2 level alters the net carbon balance of the plant by changing the substrate resources
but development of the plant will still be determined principally by the rate of temperature and other controlling
factors such as enzyme activity and photoperiod. It is therefore difficult to generalize the effect of changes of
atmospheric CO2 levels on plant development (Rawson, 1992). For Avicennia marina and Aegiceras
corniculatum the rate of photosynthesis was limited by stomatal conductance to CO2 and the internal efficiency
of carboxylation which suggest that for these species photosynthesis would be enhanced if the ambient C0 2
levels increased (Ball and Farquahar, 1984). Contrary to these results, Cheeseman et. al., (1991) working with
Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza suggested that the photosynthesis
performance was unlikely to be enhanced by increased levels of ambient C02. The effect of CO2 enrichment on
mangrove forests cannot be interpreted within a simple framework as it will depend on complex interactions
between several different physiological and environmental factors. Information is needed from long term
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assessments of growth where high CO2 concentration, temperature, water stress and nutrient stress are
controlled (Field, 1995).
WATER AVAILABILITY
It is well established that mangroves flourish in warm wet humid conditions where there is plentiful input of
fresh water into their normal saline environment. One of the effects of global warming may be change in the
pattern of precipitation in the tropics and this could have profound effect on the growth of mangrove areas. The
growth rate of mangrove is critically related to the availability of water to the trees and this is reflected in the
soil water content and soil salinity. As most mangroves are tidally inundated, soil water content only becomes a
problem when the inundation is occasional and the rainfall is very limited. However, soil salinity characterizes
the mangrove habitat and growth of some mangrove have been shown to be maximal under relatively low
salinities (Burchett at.al., and Clough, 1984). As the salinity of the soil increases mangrove face the problem of
increasing salt levels in the tissues and decreasing availability of water. The increasing salt levels in the tissue
may bring about a lessening in the net assimilation rate per unit of leaf area and therefor reduce growth (Ball,
1988). Water availability can also control growth and growth can be expressed as the product of transpiration
rate and the carbon gain per unit water loss or water use efficiency. As the salinity increases above optimum
levels the stomatal conductance inhibits CO2 diffusion into the leaf and leads to low assimilation rates. The
humidity of the surrounding atmosphere and leaf temperatures are also critical factors in these processes (Field,
1995).
Mangrove have unusually high-water use efficiency showing adaptation for minimal water use for a given
carbon gain, which is reflected in relatively low rates of growth (Ball, 1988). The water use efficiency of
mangroves increases with increasing environmental stress thereby maximizing photosynthetic carbon fixation
while minimizing water loss (Clough and Sim, 1989). Elevated CO2 can enhance the water use efficiency of
mangroves but this may or may not result in enhanced growth. There may be enhanced growth with elevated
CO2 if growth is limited by water, carbon and nitrogen but that elevated CO2 would have little effect on growth
when the salinity is too high for a species to maintain water uptake (Ball and Munns, 1992). If the change in
precipitation pattern in reduces the soil salinity, then an improvement in growth rates can be expected in some
species.
FUTURE ACTION
Considering the ecological significance and critical role that mangroves play as ‘shore keepers’, it is thus
imperative to protect them from adverse effects of climate change by bringing in correct and timely mitigation
measures. Some of them include working out nature-based solutions, making sustainable choices, clearing
wetlands from waste, debris and encroachments, planting mangrove samplings in nursery, restoring degraded
mangroves, promoting eco-based livelihood for locals, creating better awareness, involving youth in
conservation and management activities, constant patrolling, razing down illegal structures, enforcing stricter
rules and regulations, fast tracking cases related to mangrove destruction and degradation, celebrating world
mangrove and wetland day etc. Further, adopting a multi-disciplinary approach in solving problems and
deriving meaningful solutions would go a long way in its conservation and management.
REFERENCES
 Bavadam, L., (2021): The importance of mangroves to protect India’s coast from the adverse effects of
climate change, Details Available on https://frontline.thehindu.com/environment/importance-mangroves-
protect-india-coast-from-adverse-effects-climate-change/article35249433.ece, last accessed on 30 March
2021
 Field, C.D., (1995): Impact of expected climate change on mangroves, Hydrobiologia, Vol. 295, pp 75 - 81,
1995, Details Available on https:// www.researchgate.net/ publication/ 225218992_ Impact_of_expected_
climate_change_on_mangroves#:~:text=The%20socio%2Deconomic%20impacts%20of,intrusion%20and%
20increased%20storm%20surges, last accessed on 14 September 2022
 Forest Survey of India (2021): India: State of Forest Report, Details available on https://fsi.nic.in/fsi-node,
last accessed 12 March 2022
 Karlekar, S., (2010): In Ocean’s Way, Details available on https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/in-
oceans-way-1558, last accessed on 24 March 2021
 Kumar, R., Jawale, P., and Tandon, S., (2008): Economic Impact of Climate Change on Mumbai - India,
Regional Health Forum, Vol. 12, 2008, Details available on https:// www.researchgate.net/ publication/
237403942_Economic_impact_of_climate_change_on_Mumbai_India, last accessed on 16 March 2021
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 Maharashtra State Action Plan on Climate Change (2014): Accessing Climate Change Vulnerability and
Adaptation Strategies for Maharashtra, Details available on http:// krishi.maharashtra.gov.in/ Site/
Upload/Pdf/MSAAPC.pdf, last accessed on 22 March 2021
 Maharashtra Forest Department (2019): 95% of Mumbai’s mangroves could perish from rising sea levels,
Details Available on https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/95-of-mumbai-s-mangroves-could-
perish-from-rising-sea-levels-state/story-JTbYJ7bvi6KTCWsY LJwhML.html, last accessed on 28
March 2021
 Pramanik, K.M., (2017): Dangerously Rising Sea Level could Submerge Mumbai in 100 Years, Details
available on https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/beware-dangerously-rising-sea-level-
could-submerge-mumbai-in-100-years/story 9R2AQD3UEuhsZsaqVKjT5H.html, last accessed on 20
March 2021
 Rajasree, B.R., Gopikrishna, B., and Deo, M.C., (2018): ‘How climate change can erode Indian coastline
more intensely than ever’, Details available on https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/climate-
change-research-indian-coastline-rising-sea-level-5244688/, last accessed on 16 March 2021
 Shyam, A., (2016): Impact of Development on the Mangrove Cover in Mumbai Metropolitan Region,
Details Available on https://mumbaipaused.blogspot.com/2016/05/guest-post-impact-of-development-
on.html, last accessed on 14 September 2022

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

BIODEGRADATION OF TEXTILE DYES USING SOME FUNGI

Nikita Jagdale and Rachana Birje*

Department of Botany, D. G. Ruparel College, Senapati Bapat Marg, Mahim- 16

ABSTRACT
A large amount of dyes is used in textile industries and these dyes have become one of the major contributors
to water pollution across the world. The conventional methods of waste water treatment are not always efficient
in degrading the dyes. Therefore, an innovative and effective alternative method of degradation of dyes from
wastewater is required. In present investigation, biodegradation of two dyes Sudan IV and Bromophenol blue
have been carried out using three fungal isolates viz., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus giganteus and Fusarium
oxysporum. The fungi were isolated from soil using Warcup method. Each fungus was grown separately on
liquid media as well as solid medium containing the said dye to explore their dye degradation capacity.
Aspergillus niger is the most effective in degradation of both of the dyes among the three fungi. Aspergillus
niger recorded maximum decolourization of the dye bromophenol blue (96.69%) followed by Sudan IV
(95.32%). Aspergillus giganteus also showed maximum decolorization of the dye bromophenol blue (96.69%)
followed by Sudan IV (95.32%). However, Fusarium recorded maximum decolourization in Sudan IV (91.04%)
followed by bromophenol blue (57.74%). The results of this study suggest that A. Niger and A. giganteus can be
used effectively for the biodegradation of these dyes.
Keywords: Textile dye, water pollution, biodegradation

INTRODUCTION
Prior to 1856, dyes were prepared from natural sources such as flowers, vegetables, woods, root, insects, etc.
However, with the increasing needs and demands, industries became dependent on dyes manufactured from
petrochemicals, i.e., synthetic dyes. These dyes are soluble in water, easily absorbed, and very fast in coloration
as compared to the natural dyes and provide a large versatility in colors. In the current picture, the worldwide
production of dyes is nearly 800,000 tons per year. A large amount of dyes produced is used in textile
industries. Textile processing is water-intensive, releasing a huge amount of wastewater. Unfortunately,
incomplete exhaustion of dyes onto textile fiber from an aqueous dyeing process leads to a major fraction of
dyestuff being released with the wastewater. The released wastewater contaminates water and soil, resulting in a
considerable amount of environmental pollution. In addition, it can alter oxygen levels and pH, can impede the
penetration of light in the water causing disruption of the aquatic ecosystem, and is potentially toxic and
mutagenic to aquatic flora and fauna. Several human health impacts are also associated with the residual
dyestuff including irritation, respiratory problems, and effects on the immune system (Jamee and Siddique,
2019).
A variety of physiochemical treatments have been devised previously for the dyes and textile wastewater.
However, these suffered from some serious drawbacks in terms of their limited applications or their high cost.
Besides, chemical treatments created an additional chemical load in water bodies that eventually resulted in
sludge disposal problems thus causing a negative effect on photosynthesis (Rani et al., 2014).
Microorganisms are able to degrade synthetic dyes to non-coloured compounds or even mineralize them
completely under certain environmental conditions Bioremediation is one of the most effective and successful
cleaning techniques for the removal of toxicants from polluted environments (Singh, 2017)
Biodegradation of different dyes of Textile Effluent by different microorganisms was reported by many authors
(Singh, 2011; Nascimento et al., 2011; Bumpus et al., 2004). Al-Tohamy et al. (2020) concluded that
Sterigmatomyces halophilus SSA1575, is valued for textile azo dye wastewater processing and detoxification.
Priyadarshani and Sumathy (2014) and Mohan et al. (2012) studied biodegradation of textile azo dyes using
various fungi under stationary and shaking conditions. Ali et al. (2010) studied role of brown-rot fungi in the
bioremoval of Azo Dyes under different conditions.
The present study aimed at testing the efficiency of few fungi to test their capacity in degradation of textile
dyes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Three fungi viz., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus giganteus and Fusarium oxysporum were isolated from soil
collected from D. G. Ruparel college campus using Warcup method (Nagmani et al., 2004). The cultures were
purified, sub-cultured and maintained on PDA media throughout the study. Sudan IV and Bromophenol blue are
selected as textile dyes for the present study.
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Dye degradation at the liquid media was performed using PD broth. PD broth with 1 per cent dye solution was
prepared. 50 ml media supplemented with dye was taken in four Erlenmayer flasks of 150 ml capacity. The
contents of the flasks were autoclaved at 1210C for 15 minutes. After cooling, three flasks were inoculated with
adding 8 days old fungal culture disc in sterilized conditions. All the flasks were incubated at room temperature
for 8 days.
Dye Degradation Assay at liquid medium was performed according to Roy et al., (2018) by a
spectrophotometer. The percentage of dye degradation by each fungus was examined by analyzing the reduction
in absorbance. After 8 days of incubation, the medium was filtered with Whatman filter paper no. 1 and
absorbance was recorded using spectrophotometer. PD broth was used as blank. Un-inoculated PD broth
containing respective dyes was used as a control. For bromophenol blue absorbance was recorded at 530 nm
while for Sudan IV at 520 nm.
The dye degradation was calculated using following formula:
Initial Absorbance − Final Absorbance
Percent dye degradation = x 100
Initial Absorbance
The dye degradation at solid media was also tested. PDA medium supplemented with 1 per cent dye was used.
Three PDA plates were inoculated with fungal disc of 8 days old fungal culture. All the plates were incubated at
room temperature. A visual observation was recorded after 8 days of incubation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fungal isolates used in the present study showed a noticeable decolorization of both the dyes used in liquid as
well as in solid media. Dyes decolorization may be due to both fungal biosorption and biodegradation (Ali et
al., 2010). Fungi and bacteria, both are the principal degraders of organic matters, but fungi are better known for
the purpose due to their superiority in the enzyme production (Singh, 2017).
Table no. 1.A showed Bromophenol Blue Dye decolorization while Table no. 1.B showed Sudan IV dye
decolourization in liquid media. The control flask showed highest ΔOD throughout the study while the all the
fungi inoculated flasks showed a prominent decrease in ΔOD compared to control flask. The fungal isolates
Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus giganteus showed a clear removal of both the dyes. However, Fusarium
oxysporum showed least decolorization of both dyes.
Table No. 1.A. Absorbance (Δ OD) for Bromophenol Blue Dye Decolourization
Fungus used Control 1 2 3 Average
Aspergillus niger 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.033
Aspergillus giganteus 0.97 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.070
Fusarium Oxysporum 0.37 0.42 0.45 0.410
Table No. 1.B. Absorbance (Δ OD) for Sudan IV Dye decolourization
Fungus used Control 1 2 3 Average
Aspergillus niger 0.082 0.084 0.081 0.082
Aspergillus giganteus 1.754 0.142 0.143 0.156 0.147
Fusarium oxysporum 0.121 0.179 0.171 0.157

Table No. 2: Per cent discoloration of Bromophenol blue

Per cent decolourization
Fungus used
Bromophenol Blue Sudan IV
Aspergillus niger 96.690 % 95.32 %
Aspergillus giganteus 92.780 % 91.61 %
Fusarium Oxysporum 57.739 % 91.04 %
From Table no. 2, it is cleared that A. niger showed highest discolouration of the dye while Fusarium
oxysporum showed lowest decolourization of both the dyes. A. giganteus also gave a sharp decrease in ΔOD
exhibiting large amount of discolouration. A dye degradation capacity of Aspergillus niger is supported by
many authors (El-Rahim et.al., 2021; Priyadarshini and Sumathy, 2014). Aspergillus giganteus also showed the
quite high degradation of dye about 93% and 92% in Bromophenol Blue and Sudan IV respectively. Fusarium
oxysporum showed the least decolourization. A decrease in absorbance showed there is some degradation of
dye. However, Fusarium produces some colored compounds which may be the reason of such high absorbance.
As compared to liquid media, solid media showed similar degradation of bromophenol blue dye. However, the
fungi failed to show satisfactory degradation of Sudan IV dye on solid media.
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Photoplate 1: Biodegradation of Bromophenol Blue

Aspergillus niger Aspergillus giganteus Fusarium oxysporum

Photoplate 2: Biodegradation of Sudan IV

Aspergillus niger Aspergillus giganteus Fusarium oxysporum

CONCLUSION
Although textile dye degradation or decolorization is a difficult process, several fungi have been identified as a
potential degrader of textile dye. In the present study, three fungal isolates viz., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
giganteus and Fusarium oxysporum were explored for their dye degrading capacity. Aspergillus niger was the
most effective in degradation of both of the dyes among the three fungi. Aspergillus niger recorded maximum
decolourization of the dye bromophenol blue (96.69%) followed by Sudan IV (95.32%). Aspergillus giganteus
also showed maximum decolorization of the dye bromophenol blue (96.69%) followed by Sudan IV (95.32%).
However, Fusarium recorded maximum decolourization in Sudan IV (91.04%) followed by bromophenol blue
(57.74%). The results of this study suggest that A. niger and A. giganteus can be used effectively for the
biodegradation of these dyes and can be employed for waste water treatment in textile industries in order to
biodegradation of dyes. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, this study indicates the first report of
Aspergillus giganteus strains to degrade dyes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to Dr. Dilip Maske, Principal, D. G. Ruparel College, for providing research facilities. Also, we
would like to thank Mr. Sagar Gavas, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College for
the constant encouragement and support. We are thankful to the supporting staff of Department of Botany, D.
G. Ruparel College for their help.
REFERENCES
1. Abd El-Rahim, W.M. 2021. Biodegradation of azo dyes by bacterial or fungal consortium and identification
of the biodegradation products Egyptian journal of Aquatic research 47, pp 269-276.
2. Ali Naeem, Abdul Hameed and Safia Ahmed (2010) Role of brown-rot fungi in the bioremoval of azo dyes
under different conditions. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 41: 907-915.
3. Al-Tohamy, R., Sun, J., Fareed, M.F. El-Refaie Kenawy and Ali S.S. (2020) Ecofriendly biodegradation of
Reactive Black 5 by newly isolated Sterigmatomyces halophilus SSA1575, valued for textile azo dye
wastewater processing and detoxification. Sci Rep 10, 12370.
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4. Bumpus, John. (2003). Biodegradation of Azo Dyes by Fungi. Cited at: https:// www.researchgate.net/
publication/265796409_38_Biodegradation_of_Azo_Dyes_by_Fungi
5. Jamee, Radia and Romana Siddique (2019) Biodegradation of synthetic dyes of Textile Effluent by micro-
organisms: An environmentally and economically sustainable approach. European Journal of Microbiology
and Immunology. Vol 9, pp 1-5.
6. Mohan, Gaanappriya & K, Logambal & R, Ravikumar. (2012). Investigation on the removal of direct red
dye using Aspergillus Niger and Aspergillus flavus under static and shaking conditions with modeling.
International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology. vol. 1, No 3, 144 - 153.
7. Nagmani R. (2004) Handbook of soil fungi, I.K. International publisher.
8. Nascimento Carlos, Danielly de Paiva Magalhães, Martha Brandão, André Batouli Santos, Marcia Chame,
Darcílio Baptista, Marília Nishikawa and Manuela da Silva. (2011) Degradation and detoxification of three
textile Azo dyes by mixed fungal cultures from semi-arid region of Brazilian Northeast. Braz. Arch. Biol.
Technol. v.54 n.3: pp. 621-628.
9. Priyadarshani R. and Sumathy VJH (2014) Biodegradation of Azo dyes using fungi. IJMPR, 2014,
Vol.2(3):611-621
10. Rani Babita, Kumar Vivek, Singh Jagvijay, Bisht sandeep, Teotia Priyanku, Sharma Shivesh, Kela Ritu
(2014) Bioremediation of dyes by fungi isolated from contaminated dye effluent sites for Bio-usability,
Brazilian Journalnof Microbiology 45: 1055 - 1063.
11. Roy, D.C., Biswas, S.K., Saha, A.K., Sikdar, B., Rahman, M., Roy, A.K., Prodhan, Z.H., Tang, S.-S., 2018.
Biodegradation of Crystal Violet dye by bacteria isolated from textile industry effluents. PeerJ 6, e5015.
Cited at: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5015
12. Singh Lokendra. (2017) Biodegradation of synthetic dyes: a mycoremediation approach for
degradation/decolourization of textile dyes and effluents. Journal of Applied Biotechnology &
Bioengineering. Vol 3(5), 430-435.
13. Singh, Kamaljit & Arora, Sucharita. (2011). Removal of Synthetic Textile Dyes From Wastewaters: A
Critical Review on Present Treatment Technologies. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology. 41. 807-878.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

LOCAL AND REGIONAL SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES IN INDIA: A META-ANALYSIS

Dr. Aashu Vajpai*, Ms. Riya Gupta and Dr. Shalini Rai
Department of Life Sciences, Kishinchand Chellaram College, HSNC University, D.W Road, Churchgate,
Mumbai- 400020

ABSTRACT
Over the past three decades, “sustainable development” has been one of the key goals in spatial and
environmental planning. A varied range of initiatives have been proposed and implemented for mitigating the
environmental damage together with facilitating human economic and social development. These initiatives
vary in their characteristics like, their targets for planning and management, their bureaucratic structure and
their sustainability goals.
The objective of this paper is to produce an easy analytical framework of diverse array of sustainable initiatives
in India for assessing their objectives, strengths and weaknesses at both urban and rural scale. Drawing upon a
review of theoretical and applied research based on local and regional sustainability development initiatives,
we categorized them into different typologies, including a. Smart development strategies in urban cities; b.
Rural areas sustainability strategies; c. effective waste management and d. Climate change mitigation using
renewable resources. Each one of these initiatives is analyzed based on their focus, scope, fields of action and
successes.
Through this analysis, we aim to highlight the prominent characteristics between diverse approaches to
sustainability.
Keywords: Sustainable development, smart city, smart villages, effective waste management, renewable
resources

INTRODUCTION
Environmentally sustainable economic growth is the ‘need of the hour’ in today’s world since, for the past
two to three decades we have seen that, the health of the environment has taken a toll for the sake of economic
growth [1]. As a result, there has been an impact on the environment such as decline in air quality and climate
change because of greenhouse gases. Sustainability development encourages the citizens to conserve and
enhance our resources by which it can exist for a long duration without compromising on the provision of
resources for future generations. There are three pillars of sustainability development; a. Economic pillar which
includes the companies’ ability to contribute to economic development and growth, that is , they must
encourage and promote the protection of the environment by limiting the risks posed by their production.; b.
Environmental pillar which includes saving and preserving natural energy or agricultural resources, assessing
the carbon footprint and reducing total greenhouse gas emissions and forestall water scarcity and reduce overall
waste in both urban and rural areas and lastly, c. Social pillar that refers to values that promote equality and
respect for individual rights. All United Nations Member States in 2015 adopted the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainability Development which provides a blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and therefore the
planet, now and into the future. An urgent call for action by all countries, developed and developing were the
seventeen sustainable development goals which were adopted by all the United Nation Member States. These
sustainable goals must be followed not only by the member countries or states but also at an urban and local
scale at an individual level. In this paper, we explore the various local and regional sustainable development
strategies that were adopted and that can be adopted at both urban and rural scale.
Smart Development Strategies In Urban Cities
There is a rapid increase in urban population [2] from 26% in 1990 to 32% in 2014 and is predicted to reach
about 50% by 2050. The urbanization in India is filled with contradictions. With having such high percentage of
country’s population living and working in urban areas, these cities witness varied range of issues like informal
settlements, insecurity, high levels of pollution, etc. A new style of a city planned to encourage healthy
economic activities with the help of information and communication technology (ICT) [3] while improving
quality of life and providing sustainable growth is a ‘smart city’. A ‘bottom-up’ approach is followed by smart
cities which suggest that the concept of a smart city is oriented towards local needs and challenges rather than
global, as each smart city may have its own environmental and socio-economic structure. The various factors to
be considered while strategizing to achieve sustainable development in smart cities in local and urban areas are
as follows:

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Climate
The cities will need mitigation measures to scale back urban heating, pollution and vulnerability to natural
disasters. To devise policies to mitigate the effect of climate change on cities, climate data from global and local
organization/institutes are needed. A few of the cities such Haryana and Uttarakhand are already doing real-time
monitoring of the climate for purposes of devising these policies
Geography and Land
The primary challenges which require to be addressed through land-use management are climate change
adaptability and food security and each city local or regional areas need its own designing to overcome the
challenges posed by geographical conditions. For instance, Jaiselmer which is a city close to desert areas will
face challenges of particulate matter pollution and water scarcity; therefore, the management policy of these
cities will need to focus particularly in that aspect.
Atmospheric Pollution
One of the highest numbers of people affected due to air pollution in the world is India. The cities need
continuous monitoring, identification of sources, and finding solutions to air pollution to create sustainable
smart cities. . The air pollution can be reduced effectively using, separate lanes for bicycles, more green-belt
areas, green transport, more renewable energy, and discouraging burning of municipal and agricultural wastes.
The rapid collection of big data, modeling, analyses, and forecasting, and converting it to tangible information
is important for the benefit of the smart city citizen
Water Resources
The major challenges that smart cities face are the, pilferage during supply, depletion of ground water tables and
issues of economic valuation and allocation for agriculture and households. Watershed, maintenance of
wetlands management, renewal of step wells, and water harvesting are some important measures that are needed
in India
Energy Resources
The reliance on green energy for most of the demand fulfillment [8] should be encouraged as well as efforts at
trying to minimize the carbon footprint should be advertised. The green building concept should be promoted to
reduce energy consumption right from household level, local and regional scale and the state level. Energy
consumption in the cities needs to be in balance with its surroundings and the environment.
Urban Green Space (UGS)
UGS provides several ecosystem services [4][7] such as natural forests, wetlands, grasslands parks, and
gardens. These ecosystem services range from agriculture, carbon sequestration, health benefits, pollination, air
purification, wetland and water purification, urban cooling, and noise reduction which are very useful in
overcoming several environmental problems.
Sustainability Strategies in Rural Areas
Rural communities are face challenges in the context of, land degradation, deforestation, climate change
biodiversity loss and fragmentation of natural habitats, poverty, and geographical isolation.
The closest to the environment that have the potential to play a cardinal role in protecting land conserving,
water, and forests are the rural households. It is imperative to link the global and local use of natural resources.
Success of local and regional development programs in rural areas is dependent on several factors.
Local Participation and Sustainability Programs
Local participation builds transparency, a participative approach, and local capacity and sustainability programs
create awareness among communities that tend to have an advantageous effect. Working with communities to
improve knowledge and choices in village development programs is one of the best ways forward for inclusive
and sustainable development.
Renewable Energy
Setting up renewable energy resources in the rural areas can impact on long term sustainability of rural
communities [6]. This can also lead to capacity building and community empowerment. As people become
more specialized and accumulate skills in the new industry, their capacity to learn and innovate is enhanced.
Several rural regions have developed specific institutions and authorities to deal with renewable energy
deployment, often in reaction to large investments and top-down national policies. This dynamic has been
observed both in regions where local communities fully support renewable energy, and in regions where the
population is against potentially harmful developments. Renewable energy can reduce the “fuel poverty” that
can be a common feature of remote regions, by allowing isolated communities to produce their own energy
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instead of importing expensive conventional fuels. Eco-houses can built, a climatically appropriate house,
which integrates solar cooking and water heating with rooftop rainfall harvesting using a multi fed biogas plant.
This would raise the standard of living of people living in rural areas and promote renewable and environment
friendly technologies in remote villages.
Smart Villages
62 villages, all over India in 19 states have been recognized under smart villages. Clean and big roads, , broad
streets, pucca homes big trees for shade, proper school for the children, properly demarcated properties, waste
management, potable water, regular electricity, in short, a model place of residence. One of the examples of
smart villages is the Dhanora village [9] in Dholpur district of Rajasthan and this project was undertaken by a
regional organization. Under this project, various efforts were made towards sustainable development including
proper housing, road reconstructions, sanitation access to solar power and clean drinking water, tree plantation,
and water conservation, among others.
Agriculture
India has maximum area of arable land after USA but productivity per hectare is nowhere near the best.
Cardinal reasons behind this are highly fragmented nature of Indian farming with near 33% of arable land held
in units of less than 2 hectares per owner. It doesn’t let farmers enjoy the economies of scale in operations and
modern farming equipment proves very expensive for them and because of it qualityis additionally an issue.
One of the initiatives to combat this was the launch of a virtual app called ‘e-Choupal’ which means “village
meeting place [10]. Internet access is given to the farmers as a part of the e-Choupal project which enables the
farmers to acquire information on mandi prices, good farming techniques and also place orders for agriculture
inputs like seeds and fertilizers. This helps farmers in improving the quality of the produce and helps in
realizing a better prize.
Effective Waste Management
A key concept of the circular economy is sustainable waste management that offers many opportunities and
benefits to the society, the economy and the environment. Collecting, sorting, treating, recycling, and when
properly facilitated providing a source of energy and resources are involved in sustainable waste management.
Hence, improving waste management methods, and lessen the impact of human activities on the environment,
therefore, enhancing the air and water quality. It also keeps heavy environmental costs at bay, reduces food
wastage and prevents some human health conditions. Avoidance, reduction, reuse, recycling, energy recovery,
and finally, treatment or disposal is the aspects of a sustainable waste management hierarchy. Solid waste
management and liquid waste management are the two main categories of sustainable waste management and to
follow these, the segregation of waste right from the grass root level is cardinal.
Solid Liquid Waste Management Techniques
Sustainable solid waste management techniques involve composting methods. NADEP method where
composting takes place in a rectangular brick tank with aeration holes is one of the methods along with
vermicomposting, biogas from organic solid waste
Liquid waste management is done through waste water treatment techniques such as water stabilization pond
system, duckweed pond system, constructed wetland, up flow anaerobic sludge blanket, package and extended
aeration system, sequence batch reactor system.
Apart from these strategies, establishing local and regional collection and safe disposal of wastes, preventing
and avoiding solid waste incineration, reducing and treating food waste, boosting recycling rates and setting a
zero waste goal to reap social, economic and environmental rewards are some of the actions to improve waste
management and reduce greenhouse emissions. [11]
Waste to Energy Technologies
The waste to energy narrative is to clean the city by scientifically disposing the solid waste and by generating
energy it can help reduce the large electricity deficit. To put this initiative into action, it is imperative that the
quality of the waste is good enough to generate clean energy which can be achieved if the waste is segregated at
each of the level of waste disposal. India however has not yet managed to achieve that, hence the waste to
energy technologies is still at its very initial stage and under debate to be implemented or not. [12]
Climate Change Mitigation Using Renewable Sources
The main objective of renewable energy deployment in India is to enhance energy security, encourage
economic growth, increase energy access, and reduce climate change. By the use of clean energy and by
ensuring access to affordable and reliable energy for every citizen sustainable development is possible [13].
Some of the successful local and regional strategies and initiatives are:
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NIWE, The National Institute of Wind Energy has installed a remote sensing instrument called LIDAR for
assessment of offshore wind resource at the Gulf of Khambat situated off the Gujarat Coast [14]. Renewable
energy of capacity 31.67 GW has been installed through the implementation of various renewable energy
programmes.
Infosys, India’s second-largest software services firm saw over 43% of its electricity requirements being met
through renewable energy sources during 2017/18 and 43.7% of the company’s electricity requirements that
equates to more than 100 million units. This energy is sourced from renewable resources. They have an installed
a capacity of 46.1 MW of solar energy across the country.
The Gosaba Island situated in the Sunderbans region of West Bengal in India is brings water of high salinity
(more than 30 dS/m) because it is surrounded by tidal rivers connected with the Bay of Bengal, making it unfit
for irrigation in agriculture. Due to various technical reasons Good quality groundwater is also unavailable for
irrigation. Farmers in this village are unable to grow Rabi crops due to these difficulties and farm ponds are the
only source of water for irrigation in the post-monsoon period which harvests the rainwater during monsoon.
So, in order to increase the cropped area, solar powered drip irrigation technology has been introduced in the
island [15].
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The growth of smart cities and smart villages in the future will depend on the success of the inclusion of big
data and the management of our resources, effective waste management and efficient use of renewable
resources for climate change mitigation for society’s use. Efficient use of environment is going to need good
evaluation, monitoring, feedback, and policy formulation, both at local and regional levels and global level at
urban and rural scale, which is only possible through meaningful information. Information on the environment
of smart cities and smart villages can be obtained from several international, national, and local authorities or
agencies. This will thus require technological expertise for the information to be processed since the
information collected will be big. Prior to establishing infrastructure for smart cities and smart villages for
sustainable development, the formation of data centers is paramount, which will lead to the identification of
problems and also help in providing solutions. An incessant monitoring system of water quality, land use
changes, green space, energy consumption and waste management should be made public through an online
platform to ensure that the society is also able to participate. The calculation of carbon footprint of each
household should be encouraged so as to reduce greenhouse emission It is also imperative that we include
various components of the environment’s ecosystem, as these parameters provide a holistic view to the Indian
mission of smart cities The digital ecosystem, consisting of big data, ICT should be integrated into our natural
environment to make sustainable development a success.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Dr. Hemlata Bagla, Principal, K.C College, Mumbai and the Department of Life Sciences, Kishinchand
Chellaram College, Mumbai.
REFERENCES
1. Akadiri, S.S., Adebayo, T.S. Asymmetric nexus among financial globalization, non-renewable energy,
renewable energy use, economic growth, and carbon emissions: impact on environmental sustainability targets
in India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 16311–16323 (2022).
2. Aman randhawa, Ashwani Kumar. Exploring sustainability of smart development initiatives in India. (2017)
3. Milan Husár et al 2017 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 245 082008
4. Swatilekha Sen, Sanat Kumar Guchhait. Urban green space in India: Perception of cultural ecosystem
services and psychology of situatedness and connectedness, Ecological Indicators, Volume 123(2021)
5. Singh, Mudit. "Politics and Community Narratives of Participation in Local Governance of Rural
India." Program on Governance and Local Development Working Paper 54 (2021).
6. Richa Kothari., Ashutosh vanishtha., Har Mohan Singh., Vinayak V Pathak., v.v Tyagi., B.C. Yadav.,
Veeramuthu Ashokkumar., DP Singh. Assessment of Indian bioenergy policy for sustainable environment and
its impact for rural India: Strategic implementation and challenges (2020)
7. Ramaiah, M.; Avtar, R. Urban Green Spaces and Their Need in Cities of Rapidly Urbanizing India: A
Review. Urban Sci. 2019, 3, 94.
8. Kumar. J, C.R., Majid, M.A. Renewable energy for sustainable development in India: current status, future
prospects, challenges, employment, and investment opportunities. Energy Sustain Soc 10, 2 (2020).
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9. Dr. Sumanta Bhattacharya., Bhavneet Kaur Sachdev., Smart Village: A new dynamic to end rural urban gap
and move towards sustainable development for all (2021)
10. Bowonder, B., Vinay Gupta, and Amit Singh. "Developing a rural market e-hub: The case study of e-
Choupal experience of ITC." Indian Planning Commission Report (2002).
11. Sahu, Sonam, Sindhu J. Nair, and Pankaj Kumar Sharma. "Review on solid waste management practice in
India: A state of art." International Journal of Innovative Research & Development 3.3 (2014): 261-264.
12. Paulraj, Charles Rajesh Kumar James, et al. "Sustainable waste management through waste to energy
technologies in India-opportunities and environmental impacts." International Journal of Renewable Energy
Research (IJRER) 9.1 (2019): 309-342.
13. Olabi, A. G., and Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem. "Renewable energy and climate change." Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 158 (2022): 112111.
14. Chaurasiya, Prem Kumar, et al. "Advancement in remote sensing of wind energy." Advances in Clean
Energy Technologies. Academic Press, 2021. 207-233.
15. Remesan, Renji, et al. "Modeling and Management Option Analysis for Saline Groundwater Drainage in a
Deltaic Island." Sustainability 13.12 (2021): 6784.

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ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL CONTENT IN VEGETABLES GROWN NEAR RAILWAY

TRACKS IN AND AROUND MUMBAI CITY (MS INDIA)

Rashmi Jadhav* and Poonam Kurve

Department of Environmental Science, VPM’s B. N. Bandodkar College of Science (Autonomous), Thane (W)

ABSTRACT
The migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of job opportunities adds to the demand for basic
resources. To cope with the ever-increasing demand for resources particularly, food resources farming has
been practiced along the railway tracks in cities wherein there is less availability of land. Uncontrolled use
of chemical pesticides and fertilizers by such farmers leads to pollution of water and soil proving lethal and
toxic to the consumers. The present study was carried out to assess the presence of heavy metals in water, soil,
and vegetables grown near railway tracks in and around Mumbai city. Physio-chemical assessment of
water and soil from the agricultural area was carried out. MPN, Turbidity, and COD values were found to be
high during monsoon throughout the study area. COD, TDS and Nitrate values were between 290 - 450mg/L,
300 - 5200mg/L and 0.5 - 50mg/L respectively. Soil pH and Potassium levels were less than the IARI standard
which is 6-8 for pH and 120kg/hectare for Potassium. During late post-monsoon, heavy metals assessment
revealed cadmium levels higher than allowed by WHO 1996and FAO in both the leafy vegetables. Heavy
metal toxicity could prove detrimental to the lives of the consumer and consumption for a long duration
may lead to Cancer.
Keywords: heavy metals, total dissolved solids, railway tracks, monsoon season

1.0 INTRODUCTION
India is an agricultural country with almost 58% population depending upon agriculture as a primary
source of livelihood in India. (IBEF, 2022). Reduced quality of agricultural land coupled with uncertain rains
has forced farmers to migrate from rural areas to the city in a search of job opportunities to fulfill their basic
needs. To cope with the ever-increasing demand for resources particularly, food resources farming has been
practiced along the railway tracks in cities wherein there is less availability of land. Most of the unhygienic
places like dumping grounds, construction sites, slums, industrial outlets, and gutters are near railway tracks.
These unhygienic places create favorable conditions for pests and insects to grow which leads to the increased
chances of attacks on vegetables grown near railway tracks. To minimize the losses of vegetables uncontrolled
use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides for profit leads to pollution of water and soil proving lethal and toxic
to the consumers. Vegetables like spinach, radish, amaranth, red amaranth, taro, cauliflower, lady’s
finger, etc. are grown throughout the year near the railway tracks (Vzhacharickal P.J., et al, 2013) Leafy
vegetables are an important part of our regular diet. They are rich in many essential nutrients, vitamins, and
dietary fibers and low in calories which helps to maintain blood pressure, and reduced the risk of obesity,
digestion problems, heart diseases, etc. The quality and quantity of vegetables are also equally important in
the diet. One of the main concerns of agricultural practices near railway tracks is the use of sewage water
for irrigation purposes. Wastewater contains industrial effluents, drainage pipelines, and domestic discharge
which may contain several harmful elements like heavy metals and other toxic chemicals (Doshi and Zele,
2014). Agriculture runoff also contains chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides and the use of such
water for irrigation purposes leads to the contamination of soil and vegetables. Consumption of such vegetables is
proven to induce hypertension, depression, memory decline, destabilization of moods, migraine problems, etc.
These heavy metals have chronic effects like cancer, birth defects, and decreased fertility (Balali-mood M., et al,
2021). In many cases, they imitate human hormones which may be lethal. These chemicals can even
transmit toxicity genetically which is the real worry. The present study focused on the assessment of heavy
metal content in the soil, water, and vegetables grown near railway tracks in and around Mumbai city and the
physiochemical parameters of soil and water.
2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY STUDY AREA
Mumbai is the largest metropolitan city in Maharashtra and Navi Mumbai is a part of the Mumbai metropolitan
region. The study was carried out near Central, Trans-harbour, and Harbour railway tracks and compared with
organic agricultural practices in the Mumbai Metropolitan region. Table no. 1 provides geographical coordinates
for the study location.

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Map 1: Geographical map of the study area

Table No. 1: Geographical co-ordinates for study location
Study Locations Code Latitude and Longitude
Central line CL 19.1968 N, 72.9977 E
Harbour line HL 19.0265 N, 73.0595 E
Trans- harbour line THL 19.1585 N, 72.9994 E
Organic farming OF 19.2100 N, 73.1849 E
The study locations are in the vicinity of construction sites, gutters, slums, dumping grounds, and the footwear
industry. The study period was divided into 3 seasons i.e., Late post-monsoon, Pre- monsoon, and Monsoon
whereas sampling was carried out once every 3 months. Random composite sampling was carried out and
collected soil samples were stored in plastic pouches. The grab sampling technique was used to collect water
samples in plastic bottles (Almaleeh A., 2022).

Physico-chemical analysis of soil and water was performed using standard procedures given by APHA (20th
Edition 1998). The physico-chemical like pH, COD, TDS, Nitrate, Sulphate of water and pH, Organic matter,
Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potassium of soil were studied. The heavy metal content in vegetables, water, and soil
samples was assessed by using the ICP-AES method.
3.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Figure No.1 pH of water samples Figure No.2 C.O.D. of water samples

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Figure No.3 Nitrate in water samples Figure No.4 T.D.S of water samples

Figure No. 5 Sulphate in water samples Figure No.6 pH of soil samples

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Figure No.7 Organic matter content of soil Figure No.8 Nitrogen content of soil samples

Figure No.9 Phosphate content of soil samples Figure No.10 Potassium content of soil samples

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PS – 1 CADMIUM ( PPM) PS – 2 CADMIUM ( PPM)

Late post monsoon Pre-monsoon Monsoon Late post monsoon Pre- post monsoon Monsoon

C ENTR AL HAR B OUR TR AN S - O R G A N IC

C E NTR AL HAR B OUR TR ANS- O R G A N IC
HAR B OUR
HAR B OUR

Figure No. 11 Heavy Metal Cadmium-PS1 Figure No. 12 Heavy Metal Cadmium-PS 2

Figure No.13 Heavy Metal (As) in soil samples Figure No. 14 Heavy Metal (Cd) in soil samples
The pH of the water was found to be in the range of 5.25 to 8 during the study period (Poyen F. B., et al,
2018). Water pH was found to be moderately acidic during the monsoon, whereas it was found to be near
neutral in late post-monsoon and pre-monsoon. A slightly alkaline pH of 8 was found in a Central line during
pre-Monsoon. Use of rainwater for irrigation in agriculture practices is common in India and rainwater is
naturally acidic. The COD level for all the sampling locations was found to be in the range of 20-450 mg/L.
During monsoon season COD for water was found to be in the range of 290 to 450 mg/L which is higher than
the permissible limit of 250 mg/L set by MOEF (Fig.2) (Desai P. and Jadhav R., 2016). High COD level in
water indicates the presence of contamination by chemicals and the use of such water for agriculture practices
may affect the quality of the soil in the future. The TDS values were found to be in the range of 140 to 5200
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mg/L. During monsoon season, an unusually high amount of TDS was observed (5200 mg/L) at the trans-
harbour location which was higher than the permissible limit provided by BIS 10500: 2012 for sewage water
i.e., 500 to 2000mg/L (Fig.4). High TDS indicates the mixing of particles in water due to agriculture and
surface runoffs during monsoon season. A continuous supply of water with high TDS levels also affects plant
growth. The nitrate level throughout the study locations was found to be in the range of 0.5 to 50 mg /L during
the study period. For monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, nitrate was found to be 50 mg/L, whereas the
acceptable limit of nitrate is 10 mg/L (LaBorde L. 2019). The high concentration of nitrate in water samples
indicates pollution due to chemical fertilizers and urban drainage (Kiani A. et al, 2022). The sulphate
concentration of water samples was found to be very less than the standard range prescribed by CPCB i.e., 200-
400mg/L. If water containing higher sulphate levels is used for irrigation purposes it affects the growth,
yields, and quality of fruits (Papadopoulos I., 1984).
The pH values for soil at Central, Trans-harbour, Harbour, and Organic locations were found to be 5 -6.8 which
was less than the standard range of CPCB 6-8 pH. The soil pH was found to be acidic throughout all the seasons
(Fig.6) and leafy vegetables like amaranth, radish, spinach, cauliflower, and okra can grow in acidic soil
(Ganeshmurthy A. N., et al, 2016). The organic matter content of soil samples was found to be in the range of
3.448 to 87.2% which indicates a good quantity of carbon in the soil. As the sampling areas are nearing the
dumping ground, slums, and sewer lines, biomass generated from such agriculture practices is sun-dried and
again mixed with the soil which increases the carbon content of the soil. Such type of soil is good for the
growth of vegetables (Desai P. and Jadhav R., 2016). The potassium in soil was found to be in the range of 0.01 to
147.39
Kg/hectare during the study period. Potassium content in soil was found to be in the range of 0.01 to
0.17Kg/hectare which was remarkably less than the I.A.R.I. standard of 120 Kg/hectare. A low concentration of
potassium in soil affects the soil fertility and the productivity of vegetables. Using chemical fertilizer to full fill
potassium levels in soil on regular basis has minor adverse effects on humans. Low pH soil (acidic soil) is also
responsible for less potassium content in soil (Ganeshmurthy A. N., et al, 2016). Nitrogen is one of the
essential elements for the growth of plants. The nitrogen content was found to be in the range of 0.0809 - 0.255
% which indicates the soil is good for the cultivation of vegetables. The high amount of nitrogen is necessary to
maintain soil fertility and also helps to increase crop yields and accelerate the growth of vegetables (Doshi and
Zele, 2014). The phosphate content in soil was found in the range of 0.98- 4.121Kg/hectare. As per the
government document manual for soil fertility nutrients, the phosphate content in soil was found to be very
less. (Shah and Pawar, 2009). (I.C.A.R.). The pH level must be increased with the application of lime.
The assessment was carried out to gain insight into the presence of heavy metals like Arsenic (As), Cadmium
(Cd), and Lead (Pb) in water, soil, and vegetables. These heavy metals are naturally available in soil but the
concentration rarely reaches the toxic level. The anthropogenic activity like excess use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture activity, mining, industrial, pharmaceutical, or discharge of effluents
are responsible for the increase in toxicity levels due to heavy metals in soil. The arsenic level of soil was
found to be in the range of 0.05 to 6.06 ppm, which was less than the permissible limit recommended by WHO
1966, FAO, and European Union for agricultural soil (20ppm) (Gupta N., et al, 2012). During late post-
monsoon, the cadmium level in soil was found to be in the range of 0.06 to 0.16 ppm which was less than
the standard permissible limit recommended by WHO 1996 i.e., 3 to 6 ppm (Gupta N., et al, 2012). The
cadmium level was found to be in the range of 0.01 to 0.24 ppm in both plant 1 and plant 2. During post-monsoon
cadmium was found to be in the range of 0.06 to 0.24 ppm in both the plant samples, which was higher than the
permissible limit of leafy vegetables provided by WHO 1996 and FAO (0.02ppm). A high concentration of
cadmium in soil indicates the higher use of chemical fertilizer. Heavy metals were absent in water samples
from all the study locations during the study period (Mensah E., et al, 2009)
4.0 CONCLUSION
The quality of water used for irrigation and soil in which vegetables are grown was found to be comparatively
low. The presence of arsenic and cadmium in soil and leafy vegetables grown near railway tracks is undesirable
to consumers. The quality of soil and water needs to be upgraded by sustainable practices. Uncontrolled use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides must be avoided. To increase crop productivity and improve soil quality,
chemical fertilizers and pesticides must be replaced with organic fertilizers and pesticides. To tackle the
problem, sensitization of agricultural workers at the grassroots level must be carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to Principal, VPM’s B. N. Bandodkar college of science and Mr. Vicky Patil for support
and encouragement.
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REFERENCES
 Almaleeh A.A., Zakaria A., Kamrudin L.M., Rahiman M.H.F., Ndzi D.L., (2022). Inline 3D Volumetric
Measurement of Moisture Content in Rice Using Regression-Based ML of RF Tomographic Imaging.
Science gate, volume 22(1) 10.3390/s22010405: pp 405.

 Balali-Mood M., Naseri1 K., Tahergorabi 1 Z., Khadair2 M. R. and Mahmood sadeghi1*, (2021)
Toxic Mechanism of Five Heavy Metals: Mercury, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium and Arsenic.
 Desai and Jadhav, (2016). Study the Quality of Water and Soil Used in Agricultural Activities Near
Various Railway Tracks in Navi Mumbai Region. Int. J Environmental Science, volume5 (3&4): pp137-
144.
 Doshi, and Zele, (2014) Monitoring the Status of Agricultural Activities Carried Along Railway
Tracks in Navi Mumbai Region. Int. J. Environmental Science, Volume 3: ppl131- 138.
 D. Rigby and D. Caceres, (2001) Organic Farming and Sustainability of Agricultural Systems, volume68
(1): pp24-40.
 Fernando P. Carvalho, (2017) Pesticides, Environment and Food Safety. Volume 6, Issue 2,9.

 Poyen1 F. B., Kundu2 P. K., Ghosh1 A. K., (2018). pH Control of Untreated Water for Irrigation, J. Inst.
Eng. India Ser. A.
 Ganeshamurthy A.N., Kalaivana, D and Satisha, G.C., (2016) Management of Vegetable Crops in
Acidic Soil of India. Innovations in Horticultural Science, pp559-584.
 Gunalan S., K.R. Vijayalatha and T. Anitha, (2019) Heavy Metals and Its Impact in Vegetable Crops.
Int. Jr. of Chemical Studies, ISSN 2349-8528, volume 7(1), pp 1612-1621.
 IBEF, (2022) Agriculture and Allied Industry Report.
 Papadopoulos, (1984) Effect of Sulphate Waters on Soil Salinity, Growth and Yield of Tomatoes,
Springer link, plant and soil 81,353- 361.
 Kiani A., Sharafi K., Omer A.K., Matin B. K., Davoodi R., Mansouri B., Sharafi H., Soleimani H.,
Massahi T., Ahmadi E., (2022) Accumulation and Human Health Risk assessment of Nitrate in Vegetables
Irrigated with Different Irrigation Water Sources- Transfer Evaluation of Nitrate from Soil to Vegetables,
volume 20: 112527.
 Kooner R., Mahajan B.V.C., and Dhillon W.S., (2014) Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables,
Fruits, Soil and Water –A Critical Review. Int. Journal of Agriculture, Environment and
Biotechnology 7(3): pp603-61.
 Labhade K. R., (2013) Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables Grown in and
around Nashik City, Maharashtra State, India. IOSR – JAC e- ISSN:2278-5736, Volume 5, Issue3,
pp09-14.
 LaBorde L., (2019) Effect of Irrigation Water Nitrate Levels on Post- Harvest Mushroom Nitrates.
Penn State Extension- In Mushroom news. 60(11):4-11.
 Mensah E., Baffour N. K., Ofori E., Obeng G.Y., (2009). Influence of Human Activities and Land Use
on Heavy Metal Concentrations in Irrigated Vegetables in Ghana and Their Health Implications., DOI:
10.1007/978-1-4020-9139-1_2.
 Gupta N., Khan D.K., Santra S.C., (2012). Heavy Metals Accumulation in Vegetables Grown in a
Long-Term Waste Water Irrigated Agricultural Land of Tropical India Environment Monitoring
and Assessment, National Library of Medicines, Volume 184 (11), pp 6673-6682.
 Potdar R. P., Shirloka M. M., Verma A., Pravin S. P.S., (2021) Determination of soil nutrients (NPK)
using optical methods: a mini-review, Journal of plant nutrition, 44(1):1-14
 Shakya P.R. and Khwaounjoo N. M., (2013). Heavy Metal Contamination in Green Leafy
Vegetables Collected from Different Market sites of Kathmandu and Their Associated Health Risks.
Scientific World, volume 11, pp-11.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

CARBON SEQUESTRATION POTENTIAL OF TREES IN URBAN AREA: A CASE STUDY

Valaya Mithbavkar, Mrunmayi Jadhav, Dhruvi Ganekar and Sagar Gavas*

Department of Zoology, D.G.Ruparel College, Senapati Bapat Marg, Mahim Mumbai- 40016

ABSTRACT
Carbon sequestration is the process of transferring CO2 from the atmosphere into the soil, plants or plant
residues, and other organic solids, which are stored or retained in the unit as part of the soil organic matter.
Retention time of sequestered carbon in the soil (terrestrial pool) can range from short-term (not immediately
released back to the atmosphere) to long-term (millennia) storage. In the present investigation aboveground
biomass and belowground biomass carbon sequestration potential of selected tree species of D.G.Ruparel
college campus in Mumbai city coordinates at 19° 1' 40"NL & 72° 50' 42''EL and covers around 10 acres was
measured. The total of 260 trees of 25 tree species present in the campus area of D.G.Ruparel College, Mumbai
was taken for study. Total biomass and carbon sequestration in the tree species have been estimated using non-
destructive methods. The aboveground and belowground organic carbon (unit) and total organic carbon of
each species were calculated. The calculated total organic carbon has been compared with an allometric
model. Ficus benghalensis species were found to be dominant with an average sequestration of 93364.38CO2
equivalent per tree, followed by Caryota mitis sequestrated average of 13084.61 CO2 equivalents per tree. The
species Neolamarckia cadamba has lowest average carbon sequestration potential i.e. 120.49 CO2 equivalent
per tree. The average carbon sequestration of each species was taken and the sum of the average carbon
sequestration of all species was 166119.3937 CO2 equivalent till date.
Keywords: College campus, Carbon Sequestration, Climate change.

INTRODUCTION
There has been major expansion in terms of industries, automobile manufacturing, and infrastructure since a
long time and there are many key factors that are responsible for pollution that go hand-in-hand with the urban
developments. The biosphere includes a complex mixture of carbon compounds, They are originated,
transformed and decomposed within this sphere. Carbon (C) is the fourth most abundant element in the
Universe, after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen, and is the building block of life. Carbon is a chemical element
that is an essential part of all living organisms. It is found in the bodies of plants and animals. Carbon bonds
with itself to form long chains. Other elements then bond to the sides of such carbon chains, forming millions
of different organic compounds that serve as the building blocks for the bodies of plants and animals. For
example, enzymes, carbohydrates, and DNA are all based on carbon. Carbon dioxide,which remains in the
atmosphere for more than 100 years, is responsible for more than 55% of the current global warming from
GHGs produced by human activities. Its concentration has increased by more than 30% since pre-industrial
times (around 1750), and currently increasing by 1 % every year. (Houghton RA, 2016)
Carbon dioxide being the important one, whether the carbon is in the form of a sugar or carbon dioxide gas, we
all need it.The Earth only has a fixed amount of carbon. Carbon dioxide is constantly being released from
burning fossil fuels, plants, and animal respiration. The rise of greenhouse gasses, especially anthropogenic
emissions of CO2, is the main cause of global climate change. (Wang Y ,2019) (Xiaojing Zhao, 2022) In 2021,
global CO2 emissions from energy consumption and industrial processes rebounded to reach an amount of 36.3
gigatonnes (Gt), the highest ever annual level (IEA, 2022). According to the World Economic Forum (WEF),
without stronger action, global capacity to mitigate and adapt to climate change will be diminished,eventually
leading to a “hot house world scenario. CO2 is a major contributor to global warming. Thus increasing CO2
emission is one of the major environmental concerns and it has been well addressed in ‘Kyoto protocol’
(Hangarge 2012).It has direct effect on carbon sequestration, more than 116 millions tons of CO2 per year is
sequestered contributing to reduce atmospheric carbon. (SKS Jasmin 2011) (Hangarge, 2012)
Change is a fundamental characteristic of the environment. But what is disturbing today are the human activities
that lead to an unprecedented acceleration in climate changes. The scientific evidence suggests that the earth’s
climate is changing, the atmosphere is warming and this trend will continue. By the year 2050, scientists predict
that the world will be warmer by an average of between 1.5 and 4.50C (IPCC, 2003, 2006).
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of
people living in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change. The process whereby a
society changes from a rural to an urban way of life. It is predicted Carbon dioxide is one of the 3 greenhouse
gasses that are receiving increasing attention, CO2, methane and nitrous oxide are believed to trap heat from the

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atmosphere the same way glass does in a greenhouse. Accumulation of gasses likely to cause changes in climate
(Williams and Nelson, 2000).
Other observed climate changes reportedly caused by emission of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) through
anthropogenic activities including land-use change, deforestation, biomass burning, draining of wetlands, soil
cultivation and fossil fuel combustion. Consequently, the concentration of atmospheric GHGs and their
radiative forcing have progressively increased with increase in human population, but especially so since the
onset of industrial revolution around 1850 (Lal 2008). There has been a worldwide attempt in management of
the same through summits and conferences and various methods have been studied and carried out for reduction
of the emission of these gasses.
Carbon sequestration is a process, therefore created and is defined simply as the 'removal of carbon dioxide gas
and its storage in a system'. It can also be elaborated as a method to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in
order to reduce global climate change. Carbon sequestration in soils, grasslands and woody perennials, and the
transfer of carbon credits through market structures, represent win-win opportunities. Among the alternatives,
tree planting offers perhaps the greatest potential. There is also considerable evidence that urban gardens
including trees planted in educational institutes and large landscaping projects in developing countries provide
substantial benefits to the environment and national economies. (Juwarkar 2011) It can be carried out in various
other ways but trees prove to be more beneficial as they are what can be called as the "largest terrestrial sink of
carbon dioxide" and are also very beneficial and most importantly a convenient method.
There are five most important systems in this process altogether, namely, Above ground biomass, Below ground
biomass, Soil organic matter, wood debris and Litter. In which, The Above ground biomass and Below ground
biomass are considered to be more prominent. The partitioning of above- with respect to below-ground plant
biomass influences many of the functions performed by diverse terrestrial communities as well as the functions
performed by individual plants (Cheng 2007). Biomass refers to all organic matter existing in the biosphere,
whether of plant or animal origin, as well as those materials obtained through their natural or artificial
transformation. (Ostertagová 2013) Biomass can be further explained as the estimation of plants taking up
carbon dioxide in presence of sunlight and storing it in the form of starch in the tissues. Hence, carbon content
in these tissues is half their biomass. Therefore, through the course of time, trees go onto sequester carbon
dioxide and store it in the form of carbohydrates till its death. Trees absorb carbon dioxide through
photosynthesis and release it through respiration; the difference is new biomass. Some of this biomass is
dropped to the forest floor as litter. Trees produce food and help stabilize the environment cycle. When the trees
die, the carbon dioxide is respectively given back into the atmosphere hence completing the Carbon cycle.
Trees also influence air temperature in urban environments along with adding aesthetic value to it. Trees,
through their growth process, act as a sink for atmospheric carbon. Therefore, growing trees in urban areas can
be a potential contributor in reducing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere by its accumulation in the
form of biomass (Baes et al., 1977). In terms of atmospheric carbon reduction, trees in urban areas offer the
double benefit of direct carbon storage and stability of natural ecosystem with increased recycling of nutrient
along with maintenance of climatic conditions by the biogeochemical processes. (Juwarkar 2011) Therefore,
quantification of carbon in the form of tree biomass can help us in understanding the current ongoing situation
of carbon concentration in our surroundings and thus help predict potential future status of local and global
climatic conditions. The present study tries to identify the species suitable for the urban environment based on
their carbon sequestration potential (Sahu 2020). Carbon sequestrated or stored carbon is not emitted into the
atmosphere and this will reduce the greenhouse gas effect on the environment and lessen the impact of climate
change.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Geographical Location of the Area, Sampling and Instruments
The urban area selected for the present study is D.G.Ruparel college in Maharashtra, Mumbai, on the western
coastal region of India .It is geographically located at 19° 1' 40"N Latitude & 72° 50' 42''E Longitude. It was
founded in 1952. The campus is located in Mahim, a suburb of Mumbai known for educational institutes. Since
trees are the major component and an efficient prerequisite for this process and D.G. Ruparel College being
situated at the heart of Mumbai city, with over 300 trees in record, from which 260 trees of 25 species had been
selected to carry out Carbon sequestration and estimate the amount of carbon dioxide that has been given out.
The total area of 10 acres was considered for the sampling in year 2022.
The tree species were identified by the name and species tags given to the trees by the college. The app used for
mapping the position of the trees in college is Trees GPS System (Tree count).
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Image1- Map showing the aerial view of trees distribution in D.G Ruparel College.
The biological analysis was carried out over three months during monsoon from June to August of the year
2022. The number of trees for individual species were considered on the basis of availability of trees on the
college campus. Calculation of annual CO2 sequestration by certain dominant species with the help of girth and
height of the tree was done by non-destructive method for carbon estimation, in this method we need not harvest
the Entire Biovolume and Sacrifice the Trees (Avadh 2021).
Table 1: Average GBH (m) and Average Height (m) of the trees in college campus during 2022
Sr. No. Species Name Local name Species GBH HEIGHT
abbreviation (average/sp) ( average/sp)
1. Polyalthia longifolia Fake Ashoka P.l 0.899497142 11.18620557
2. Acacia catechu Supari A.c 0.412941304 9.369335664
3. Cocus nucifera Coconut C.n 0.963269047 8.345332462
4. Roystonea regia Royal palm R.r 1.587188235 18.34223458
5. Peltophorum Copper pod P.p 1.918833333 10.78107893
pterocarpum
6. Delonix regia Gulmohar D.r 1.663927273 10.81828656
7. Mangifera indica Mango M.i 1.379230769 9.147455441
8. Casuarina equisetifolia Suru C.e 0.699 13.29796951
9. Artocarpus Jackfruit A.h 1.926666667 9.418851626
heterophyllus
10. Ficus religiosa* Peepal F.r* 1.777777778 8.666155149
11. Syzygium cumini Jambool S.c 4.11 11.89164634
12. Azadirachta indica Neem A.i 0.815 6.164634146
13. Alstonia scholaris Saptaparni A.s 3.2 12.93823171
14. Sterculia foetida Jangali badam S.f 2.43 14.35481707
15. Couroupita guianensis Cannon ball C.g 1.0236 9.707317073
16. Cassia fistula Bahava C.f 1.1 7.01949187
17. Caesalpinia pulcherrima Peacock flower C.p 1.3 5.530304878
18. Psidium guajava Guava P.g 0.645 2.743902439
19. Phyllanthus emblica Amla P.e 1.88 4.906097561
20. Ficus racemosa** Umbar F.r** 0.95 5.499237805
21. Millettia pinnata Karanj M.p 0.83 6.165121951
22. Nyctanthes arbor Parijat N.a 0.7874 9.403597561
23. Neolamarckia cadamba Cadamba N.c 0.53 5.487987805
24. Caryota mitis Fishtail palm C.m 1.4025 15.96574695
25. Ficus benghalensis Banyan F.b 5.6 22.4219054
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Estimation of Carbon Sequestration potential of trees. There are generally two methods to estimate carbon
sequestration in plant biomass (i) direct method- that involves cutting of the trees (ii) Indirect method - that is
calculated through the above ground biomass and below ground biomass method without cutting the trees (Sahu
2020).To prevent the degradation of the biomass in our current surrounding the second method is considered
more feasible for this study.
Allometric methods were used for estimation, girth at breast height (GBH) of trees was measured using a
measuring tape at a height 1.22m from the ground surface. The trees under study was selected based on the
their girth at breast height (GBH) to be at least 0.15m.The height of the trees was calculated using Abney Level
(an instrument used for the measurement of slopes, taking cross-sections, tracking contours,etc) for which the
distance between the tree (whose height was to be found) and the height of the person using the Abney level
was noted , further using the Abney level the angle that coincided with the tip of the tree was noted .For detailed
description of Abney level instrument, it is highlighted in (“Abney Level”, n.d.) (“Using an Abney Level to
Measure Relative Heights” 2015)
● Formula for calculating height of the tree = tan theta of observed angle(noted) × horizontal distance (noted)
The above ground biomass (AGB) and below ground biomass (BGB) was calculated by:
● Basal area(m²)= (GBH)²/4π
● Bio-volume (m³) =Basal area× Height of the tree
● AGB (kg)= Bio-volume × wood density (kg/m³)
● BGB (kg)= AGB x 0.26
Where, 0.26= Root to shoot ratio
● Total Biomass(TB) in kg/tree= AGB+BGB
● Total Carbon Sequestration (TC) in kg/tree= TB/2
The CO2 equivalent was calculated using formula:
● CO2 equ.= (TC×44)/12
Where, 44 and 12 are the molecular and atomic weight of CO2 and C, respectively
The average carbon sequestration of each of the species was taken which is mentioned in table 2 .The wood
density of individual species was obtained from the literature in [1] (“List of Indian timber trees”, n.d.),(“Wood
Density”, n.d.) The site for observing wood density was mentioned in (Kale 2022)
Table 2 - ANOVA TEST FOR SPECIES OVER 9 NUMBER OF SAMPLE SIZE (SS- Sum Square, df- degree
of freedom, MS-Mean Square, F- ratio of two variance, P value- probability of obtaining F ratio, Fcrit- F
critical)
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 1277322032 8 159665253.9 43.593938 0 1.98124882
Within Groups 794774722.4 217 3662556.325
Total 2072096754 225
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical procedure concerned with comparing means of several samples.
It can be thought of as an extension of the t-test for two independent samples to more than two groups. The
purpose is to test for significant differences between class means, and this is done by analyzing the variances.
(“Methodology and Application of One-way ANOVA”, 2013)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Due to varying size of Girth at breast height (GBH) and height as well as different wood densities of the trees
along with the age of the plant, the carbon sequestration potential of the tree varies. The carbon sequestration
potential of the tree was found to be higher in older trees and faster in younger trees. The trees not only fix
carbon in the environment above the soil surface but it also fixes it below the soil therefore it is important to
study both above ground and below ground biomass of the trees ,this study can provide an insight into the
ambient air quality of urban areas . The present study was an attempt to assess the growth rate and carbon
sequestration potential of trees in an urban area i.e. Mumbai City.

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Table 3: Total Biomass, Carbon Sequestration and average CO2 equivalent per tree
Sr no Abbreviations TB (kg/tree) Average TC (kg/tree) CO² equivalent
(AGB+BGB) Average Average
1 P.l 605.1056874 302.5528437 1109.360427
2 A.c 101.1038864 50.55194321 185.3571251
3 C.n 405.1929658 202.5964829 742.8537707
4 R.r 4836.725712 2418.362856 8867.330471
5 P.p 2691.908092 1345.954046 4935.164835
6 D.r 1746.855313 873.4276565 3202.568074
7 M.i 1899.468712 949.734356 3482.359306
8 C.e 677.3140599 338.6570299 1241.742443
9 A.h 1968.496131 984.2480655 3608.909574
10 F.r* 1406.008092 703.0040461 2577.681502
11 S.c 3813.518491 1906.759245 6991.450567
12 A.i 342.4259415 171.2129707 627.7808927
13 A.s 5585.847357 2792.923678 10240.72015
14 S.f 1545.512206 772.756103 2833.439044
15 C.g 685.6617907 342.8308953 1257.046616
16 C.f 725.5823937 362.7911968 1330.234388
17 C.p 984.4779274 492.2389637 1804.8762
18 P.g 97.33923448 48.66961724 178.4552632
19 P.e 1391.62676 695.8133801 2551.315727
20 F.r** 184.2181178 92.10905891 337.733216
21 M.p 272.6834224 136.3417112 499.9196078
22 N.a 514.6932035 257.3466017 943.6042064
23 N.c 65.72562318 32.86281159 120.4969758
24 C.m 7137.060858 3568.530429 13084.61157
25 F.b 50926.02642 25463.01321 93364.38178
Table 1 in this study gives the account of average GBH and height of individual species observed in college
campus. Table 3 gives the account of calculated average of total biomass along with average total carbon
sequestrated and CO2 equivalent of the different species. From these tables we observe that the species with
average highest carbon sequestration rate is Ficus benghalensis (93364.38 tons) followed by Caryota mitis with
average carbon sequestration rate of 13084.61 tons. The lowest average carbon sequestration rate was seen in
Neolamarckia cadamba (120.49 tons).
The average carbon sequestration potential of trees in D.G.Ruparel college was in the following order: Ficus
benghalensis (93364.38) > Caryota mitis (13084.61) > Alstonia scholaris (10240.72) > Roystonea regia
(8867.33) > Syzygium cumini (6991.45) > Peltophorum pterocarpum (4935.16) > Artocarpus heterophyllus
(3608.90) > Mangifera indica (3482.35) > Delonix regia (3202.56) > Sterculia foetida (2833.43) > Ficus
religiosa (2577.65) > Phyllanthus emblica (2551.31) > Caesalpinia pulcherrima (1804.87) > Cassia fistula
(1330.23) > Couroupita guianensis (1257.04) > Casuarina equisetifolia (1241.74) > Polyalthia longifolia
(1109.36) > Nyctanthes arbor (943.60) > Cocos nucifera (742.85) > Azadirachta indica (627.78) > Millettia
pinnata (499.91) > Ficus racemosa (337.73) > Acacia catechu (185.35) > Psidium guajava (178.45) >
Neolamarckia cadamba (120.49).The bracket values indicate the average carbon-dioxide equivalent absorbed
by each tree of that specific species .
The calculated value from ANOVA test was found to be more than that of critical value which proves that
different species of trees have different carbon sequestration rates as mentioned above.
When percent increase in carbon sequestration potential of trees was taken into account the young trees were
found to sequester carbon at faster rate. This might be attributed to a faster rate of photosynthesis activity in the
young trees so as to gather the required energy, enhance their chances of survival and acclimatize in the
surrounding environment (Sahu 2020).
Some species of the plants have more carbon sequestration rate than others therefore species with higher CO2
sequestration rate can be strategically planted in urban cities. Awareness can be spread to encourage young
minds and other colleges to take a step towards green energy.

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CONCLUSION
The study was done to calculate carbon sequestration potential of trees in the campus. Based on the carbon
cycle, after a certain period of time, when the trees die the carbon is given back into the atmosphere hence
completing the cycle. But since there is an extreme increase in pollution and deforestation the trees lose their
ability to absorb gasses like carbon efficiently. Therefore the atmospheric gasses remain intact leading up to
consistent manners of pollution and climate change. To overcome that, the result of the study suggests, with an
increase in the GBH and height of the tree, the carbon sequestration rate of trees increases, therefore in urban
cities plants like Ficus benghalensis (bigger GBH and higher heights) can be planted for higher absorption of
carbon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All authors are thankful to the Principal of the College, Head of the Department Zoology, Dr.Rachana Birje for
their encouragement and facilities provided for present work.
REFERENCES
1) N.d. Appendix 1 - List of wood densities for tree species from tropical America, Africa, and Asia. Accessed
September 8, 2022. https://www.fao.org/3/w4095e/w4095e0c.htm.
2) “Abney Level.” n.d. ANU. Accessed September 8, 2022. https://fennerschool-associated.anu.edu.au/
mensuration/abney.htm.
3) Avadh, Anil. 2021. “Biodiversity assessment and carbon sequestration potential of tree species along the
water body - a case study of Kala-Talao, Kalyan.”
4) Cheng, Dong L. 2007. “Above- and Below-ground Biomass Relationships Across 1534 Forested
Communities.” Annals of Botany 99, no. 1 (January): 95–102. https:// academic.oup.com/ aob/article/
99/1/95/2769234.
5) Hangarge, L. M. 2012. “Carbon sequestration potential of tree species in Somjaichi Rai (sacred groove) at
Nandhur village, in bhor region of Pune District.” Annals of Biological Research 3 (7): 3426-3429.
6) Houghton RA. 2016. “The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use.” Tellus B:
Chemical and Physical Meteorology 51, no. 2 (Dec): 298-313.
7) Juwarkar, Asha A. 2011. “Carbon Sequestration potential in above ground biomass of natural reserve forest
of central india.” International Journal of Agriculture : Research and review 1 (2): 8086. ISSN 2228-7973.
8) Kale, Balasaheb. 2022. “Assessment of Carbon Sequestration of Durgawadi Sacred Grove from Junnar
Tehsil, Pune District.” Indian Journal of Plant Sciences Vol.11 (ISSN: 2319–3824): 47-51.
9) Lal, Rattan. 2008. “Carbon sequestration.” research gate. https:// www.researchgate.net/ publication/
6079761_Carbon_sequestration.
10) “List of Indian timber trees.” n.d. Wikipedia. Accessed September 8, 2022. https:// en.m.wikipedia.org/
wiki/List_of_Indian_timber_trees.
11) Mahajan, D. M. 2015. “Assessment of biomass carbon pool of an academic institution in Pune,
Maharashtra.” Scholarly Research Journal 5:503.
12) “Methodology and Application of One-way ANOVA.” 2013. American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
1 (7): 256-261. 10.12691/ajme-1-7-21.
13) Ostertagová, Eva. 2013. “Methodology and Application of One-way ANOVA.” American Journal of
Mechanical Engineering 1 (7): 256-261.
14) Sahu, Chandan. 2020. “Carbon sequestration potential of trees in an urban area: A case study of Sambalpur
Town in Eastern India.” Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 29 (10/2020): 8757-8766.
15) Simkus, Julia. 2022. “ANOVA (Analysis Of Variance): Definition, Types, & Examples.” Simply
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/anova.html.
16) SKS Jasmin. 2011. “Adaptation to climate change through forest carbon sequestration in Tamil nadu,
India,.” International Journal of Research in commerce and mangement 1 (8): 36-40.
17) “Using an Abney Level to Measure Relative Heights.” 2015. The Database of British and Irish Hills.
http://www.hills-database.co.uk/ Using% 20an%20 Abney %20 Level%20 to%20 measure %20relative
%20Heights.pdf.
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18) Wang Y. 2019. “Influencing Factors and CombinedScenario Prediction of Carbon Emission Peaks in
Megacities in China: Based onThreshold-STIRPAT.” 10.13671/j.hjkxxb.2019.0290.
19) Williams, Jeff, and Richard G. Nelson. 2000. “Carbon Sequestration: An Overview of the Issues.” research
gate. https:// www.researchgate.net/ publication/ 238752423_ Carbon_ Sequestration_ An_ Overview_ of_
the_ Issues.
20) “Wood Density.” n.d. ICRAF Database. Accessed September 8, 2022. http://db.worldagroforestry.org/wd.
21) Xiaojing Zhao. 2022. “Threshold Effects of Urban Population Size and Industrial Structure on CO2
Emissions in China.” Frontiers in Environmental Science, (April).

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DRONES: A STEP TOWARDS MODERN AGRICULTURE

Sejal Ahir, Kanishka Ail, Swaranjali Dubey and Shyam Palkar

Department of Botany, D.G Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce

ABSTRACT
Today, with population growth need for food security is rising, agriculture has become the most coveted
occupation, but in reality, majority of people are opting for jobs from service sector due to better income
prospects. Climate change has adversely affected the crops and one of the ways through which the agricultural
sector can grow is through technological advancements. Climate change also alters plant physiology, making
them less resistant to pathogens. When these pathogens infect staple crops and commercial crops, any delay in
detection of pathogens can lead to risk of food and economic security. Early detection of plant pathogens can
save the crops from getting spoilt and guarantees food security. Drones which are unscrewed aerial vehicles
can be used to detect these pathogens. Using image capturing drones in agriculture can help in tackling the
plant pathogens through early detection which will help in providing timely treatment to the plants. As we need
development and sustainability to coexist, plants play an important role in this coexistence. Plants found in
habitats which are difficult to observe, example: mangroves. Manually, collecting information is time
consuming and requires manpower and resources. Here, drones with imaging technology are helpful in
reaching such remote places and can provide information for studies. Data was collected through a online
survey wherein farmers were asked a set of predetermined questions. Our findings based on the survey we
conducted indicate that the uses of drones are an effective way to deal with plant pathogens and monitoring.
Keywords: Drones, Climate change, Agriculture, Early Detection.

INTRODUCTION
During the Paleolithic era, human existence remained mostly vulnerable , revolving around daily survival and
the very basic existential issue of having enough food daily to remain alive, life was nomadic which changed
about 10 millennia back, when the milestone point of Neolithic Revolution entered and this is what marked the
beginning of agriculture, the activity of nurturing farms, which has been a key event that changed the human
race from nomadic hunter-gatherer to being a part of a sedentary permanent settlement. The onset of this period
is conjectured to be an outcome of an important climate change. It began with the end of the last great ice age
that the inclement weather became more bearable, permitting the idea of annual crops and then eventually,
seasonal crops. Agriculture is one of the pillars of human settlements and survival. It contributes to 16% of
India’s GDP out of the total and 10% of the total exports.
In today’s time with the growing human population the need for food security is rising and that calls for
agriculture to be the most anticipated occupation; but the reality is different and more and more people from the
upcoming generations are opting for jobs and professions related to the service sector due to the better lifestyle
and higher income. This brings us to the fact that the manpower is becoming lesser day by day in the
agricultural sector. Agricultural sector is one of the most important sectors as it provides us with economic and
food security to some extent. Climate change has affected all of us in some or the other ways and in that
scenario, plants are no different. The crops are suffering due to climate change and becoming less resistant to
many pathogens attacking them which results in crop failures multiple times. Frequent crop failures due to
pathogen attacks can affect both economic and food security and one of the ways in which the agricultural
sector can benefit is through technological advancements. One such technological advancement can be drones.
Our approach talks about the use of image capturing drones as an early detection tool for the detection of
various plant pathogens and also for the analysis of plants which are found in habitats that are difficult to reach.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND PLANT PATHOGENS
Climate change has resulted in heavier summers and milder winters which has brought significant changes in
the physiology of plants. Changes in physiology also alters their resistance against the pathogens. In a lot of
plants their resistance decreases. Also, these pathogens survive better and become more active at certain
temperatures. With considerably more active pathogens and lesser resistance the chances of crop failures are
more. Climate change is also causing emergence of pathogens on new plants as well. These pathogens
proliferate at a very fast rate and with globalization and trade they easily get spread from one geographical
location to the other.
When such pathogens infest staple crops like wheat, rice, potato, etc., they can affect our food security. Also,
when they infest economically important crops like sugarcane, cotton, maize, etc., it can affect our economic
security. Hence, timely detection of the presence of pathogens and their treatment is a way through which crop
failures can be reduced.
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DRONES IN AGRICULTURE
A drone, an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) which makes it an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or
passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a
ground-based controller and a system of communications with the UAV. The flight of UAVs may operate under
remote control by a human operator, as remotely-piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy,
such as autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.
Drones were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions and were considered too
dull, dirty or dangerous for humans, and by the twenty-first century they have become essential assets to most
militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military
applications. These include forest fire monitoring, aerial photography, product deliveries, agriculture, policing
and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, entertainment, science, smuggling, and drone racing.
In recent times, the agricultural sector has undergone a lot of changes with respect to the tools and technologies
used for farming. Also, the traditional methods of farming are being brought back and the drawbacks of those
techniques are being minimized using certain modernizations through technology. Drones or UAVs are also
becoming an effective tool being used in agriculture for various purposes like spraying treatments, irrigation,
livestock management, etc. (Kalamkar.R,2021)
DRONES AS AN EARLY DETECTION TOOL FOR PLANT PATHOGENS
Drone technology can also be used as an early detection tool for plant pathogens. The use of specific type of
drones which have attached cameras and can capture high quality images can provide us with real time analysis
of the entire cropland and the pathogens present on plants can be detected through these images. Reaching some
crops like tea and coffee which grow at higher elevations is challenging and manually checking these plants for
the presence of pathogens is a quite tedious and time-consuming task. Here, drones can prove to be a game
changer. Further, these images can be analyzed using Data Learning (DL) based technologies for finding out the
type of pathogen present and the extent of damage that has been caused by the pathogens. These DL
technologies also suggest treatments to tackle the identified pathogens (Masood.M,2020) With on time
detection through drones, crop failures due to pathogens can be avoided.
DRONES FOR MONITORING PLANTS FROM SECLUDED HABITATS
Drones can also be used for reaching plants in secluded habitats, example : mangroves. Mangroves grow in
places with limited access and due to various anthropogenic activities like coastal development, wood
harvesting, pollution; one out of six species of mangroves in the world are under the threat of extinction.
Considering the importance of mangroves for a healthy ecosystem, various rehabilitation strategies for
mangrove forests are being implemented. When doing so, monitoring these sites happens to be an important
part of the strategy. Here, UAVs can be used to monitor the sites. This can save a lot of time and other resources
and also provide real time and accurate results consistently.
METHODOLOGY
Data was collected through an online survey. The target population for this survey were farmers. Farmers from
various states of India participated in this survey. A set of predetermined questions were asked. The questions
were formulated with an objective of knowing their opinion on early detection and also collecting basic
information like the total land area of their farm, the crops they grow, the frequency of pathogen encounters on
their croplands, etc.
ANALYSIS

A. “Frequency of pathogens seen on croplands”.

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Graph A shows the frequency of the plant pathogens seen by the farmers on their field. Here, 61.9% agreed to
encountering pathogens once every year and 33.3% agreed to encountering pathogens more than once a year
which somewhere proves how active pathogens are, and how frequently they are present on fields. With this, we
can gauge how damaging they can be.

B. “Opinion of farmers on early detection of pathogens”

Graph B represents the opinion of farmers on whether early detection through drones can save the crops or not.
A whopping 90.5% responded positively which suggests that majority of the surveyed farmers agree with our
objective of the research which advocates the use of drones for early detection of plant pathogens.
CHALLENGES IN USING DRONES
● Registration of unmanned aircraft system on the digital sky platform is mandatory for using drones under
Drone rules, 2021(The Drones rule,2021)
● In certain areas, like places near the borders and in the perimeter of airports and other airspaces the use of
drones is not allowed due to security and safety reasons.
● The initial cost of drones is very high.
● As they fly above the ground, they can cause accidents if they lose control and can also possibly injure
birds which fly around the croplands.
However, these challenges can be subjugated by carrying out certain re-evaluations in policies (Beriya. A,
2022) and developments in technical aspects then, drones can be used more effectively for agriculture.
ADVANTAGES OF USING DRONES
● Saves a lot of manpower and time.
● Effective in reaching remote places which are usually hard to reach for humans.
● Can cover long distances in less time.
● Easy to develop and manage.
CONCLUSION
Agriculture is one of the major occupations of our country. It largely supports our economy and provides us
with food security. Irrespective of the era we live in, agriculture will be something we will always need to
survive as the human race. It will always be our need to have food security, nutritional crops and affordable
produce. These factors make agriculture the cornerstone of sustainability. So, considering the importance of
agriculture for our survival it needs to be our priority.
Due to climate change, which is also a result of various anthropogenic activities, or humans trying to dominate
nature, agricultural sector is suffering. If timely measures aren’t taken, we might have to return back to being a
hunter gatherer which is from were we started.
Drones won’t be able to solve all the problems at once, but every step counts right now and this Techno-centric
approach is one step towards combating one of the effects of the massive climate change problem that we are
dealing with. The need of the hour is to get more out of less, be it man power, or natural resources; and drones
can help us in achieving this need.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Authors would like to thankfully acknowledge the support of Dr. Dilip Maske (The Principal of The D.G
Ruparel College, Mahim)
REFERENCES
● Beriya. A,(2022) Application of drones in Indian agriculture, CSD India Project working paper 73.
● Government of India, Ministry of civil aviation, The Drone Rules, July 2021,
● Kalamkar.R, Ahire.M, Ghadge.P, Dhenge.S, (June 2020) International Journal of current Microbiology and
applied sciences,.
● Masood.M, Saim.H, Taj. M, Awais.M, (2020) Early disease diagnosis for rice crop.
● Wagh. R, Dongre. (January 2016) A, Agricultural sector: status, challenges and its role in Indian economy,
Journal of Commerce and Management Thought,.

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POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TRIBAL LAND ACQUISITION IN INDIA

Shantaram V. Sonawane
Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Patkar- Varde College, Goregaon, West Mumbai

ABSTRACT
Land ownership confers tangible benefits such as shelter and livelihood as well as intangible benefits such as
security and a standing in society. Land owners are thus often reluctant to part with their land unless mutually
acceptable terms for compensation are agreed upon. Problems arise when land is required for “Public
purpose” and the state can invoke laws that allow for compulsory acquisition through “eminent domain”. Land
acquisition for generating public goods such as infrastructure projects has remained an important policy
concern in India. Land is a fixed resource and redistributing it among different groups through the market
might result in second best allocations. In this research researcher has worked on the objectives such as to
study the Tribal Land Acquisition process in India, to study a role of Government in tribal land acquisition in
India and to study Rehabilitation and resettlement policies of Government of India for displaced people. This
study is purely based on doctrinal and qualitative approach for thorough analysis of existing data through
studies, research papers, websites and observation of focus groups. For this research empirical review of
literature been done and on the basis of that gap of research found for the research. Researcher has stated that
to continue with high growth rate, it is an urgent need to address this land acquisition issue especially
displacement and compensation. There should be justifiable compensation for land. Social land audit committee
is essential to set up. The principle of land for land should be focused on compensation policies, especially for
the tribal area. It should be mentioned that it is not only the land owner who actually suffers loss because of the
land acquisition, but there are many other landless people who lose their means of livelihood, attached to the
land which is acquired. Land price can be determined on the basis of opportunity cost which is ignored in the
market system. Compensation based on the market mechanism is insufficient to satisfy all the heterogeneous
land owners having different preferences based on their occupations and skills while acquiring land from them.
Keywords: Land Acquisition, Displacement, Livelihood, Eminent Domain, Compensation policy, Land Price,
Rehabilitation and resettlement.

INTRODUCTION
Land is the most significant natural resource upon which almost all human activities are based since ancient
time. Land is an asset that has significant value for the households as a regular source of livelihood, security for
future and social status. Land continues to have enormous social, economic and symbolic relevance particularly
in case of India where affiliation with land is not only source of livelihood and same time emotional one too.
Access to land, ownership of land its documentation are issues essential to the livelihoods of the population of
India, particularly in the rural and tribal areas (Levien, 2012). Land acquisition refers to the process by which
the government forcibly acquires private land for a public purpose with or without consent of the owner of the
land, which could be different from a market price of the land. Land acquisition for generating public goods
such as infrastructure projects has remained an important policy concern in India. Land is a fixed resource and
redistributing it among different groups through the market might result in second best allocations. This implies
that one group, the buyer or the seller, might be worse-off after the transaction occurs.
It is evident that the entire mechanism of land acquisition, development and transfer to corporates involves
profit for rich without the primary land owners gaining anything in process. It has been observed that the issue
is not about the magnitude of land acquisition but rather about undiscriminating practice of power by the state
and it is becoming a party to accumulation of profit.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
Land is a real estate and is considered to be the main component of wealth Even today, most of the population
in rural areas is dependent on agriculture, and forests and land is the main source of livelihood of the Tribal, But
when the government acquires tribal land, no proper compensation is paid and some generations have far-
reaching consequences.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the Socio-economic condition of the Tribal after the land acquisition in India?
2. How land acquisition impacts on Tribal and what are the changes in the social and economic condition of
Tribal?
3. Did fair compensation given for affected Tribal by government?
4. Are there any changes in the livelihood of Tribal?
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To study the Tribal Land Acquisition process in India.
2. To study a role of Government in tribal land acquisition in India.
3. To study Rehabilitation and resettlement policies of Government of India for displaced people.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study is purely based on doctrinal and qualitative approach for thorough analysis of existing data through
studies, research papers, websites and observation of focus groups.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Singh, S., (2018) Land is a non-expandable factor of production. This very finiteness tends to cause competition
for this scarce resource between various economic activities. In capitalist societies, the industrial and service
sectors, dominated by the bourgeoisie and supported by the state's right of eminent domain, adopt land
usurpation and acquisition by hyper commercialisation and commodification of land. The land acquisition
process in India has come under close scrutiny within the overall context of economic growth and
transformation from an agrarian economy to an industrial economy. Land acquisition with regard to resource
based project becomes more complex as these resources are geographically located and projects becomes region
specific.
Das S, (2011) Researcher argued that while public authorities charged with the responsibility of forcibly
displacing people cannot eliminate human suffering, they are ethically and legally obligated to act with
integrity, to ensure that displaced people are informed of and accorded their rights and receive requisite
resettlement and rehabilitation without harassment and without being subjected to extortion and violence.
Research finds that the human rights failures in the Kalinga Nagar industrial complex raise fundamental
questions about the nature and structure of corporate sponsored and large-scale development, and within it, the
viability of industrialization. Research also finds that the deliberate abandonment of the rights of the project
affected people and their mistreatment on the part of the Government of Orissa, central and corporate authorities
have gratuitously escalated people's experience of dispossession and disenfranchisement in conjunction with the
construction of the industrial project. Further, he also found that the failure of state and corporate authorities to
ethically carry out their responsibilities and uphold the rights of the project affected in the Kalinga Nagar
evidenced the breakdown of governance with affiliated and far-reaching consequences.
Nandal V, (2017) in this research researcher observed that the land acquisition process is too long. It consumes
nearly one or two year. So, the process of land acquisition should be short in the cases studied, whether land
acquiring agency is state or any private company. Farmer's consent plays a vital role in the land acquisition
process. While acquiring agriculture land the farmers should be given full opportunity to find out whether they
want to sell their agriculture land or not. Their free consent must be there. This is the principle nature of justice.
Agriculture land is acquired on the name of 'public purpose'. So, it is very important that before acquiring the
agricultural land this public purpose should be clear to the affected people. The practice of providing
compensation only to landholders, ignoring the landless labour or sharecroppers who depended on that land has
left the agricultural Labours at crossroads. It may be suggested that the land acquiring agency should provide
proper skill development training to the affected landless labour who attached with the acquiring land. The
government or private company should provide them some kind of employment so that they earn their
livelihood and can look after their families too.
RESEARCH GAP / STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
Land acquisition by the government(s) can adversely affect the economic, social and cultural life of tribal’ Land
is the only source of livelihood of the tribal. Their economic and social status depends on the land they own, so
land is a matter of their communion. Whenever the government acquires land tribal are often affected, and
compensation given by government is always in monetary terms not in physical asset this is also being
important issue to be solved. On the basis of the above literature that there is the scope to understand and
extend study on the following aspects, the impact of land acquisition on changes in the socio-economic
condition of the Tribal, Intergenerational occupational mobility, changes in the livelihood and role of
government policies respect to land acquisition and rehabilitation policies or the Tribal.
GENESIS AND RELATED CONCEPTS OF LAND ACQUISITION
Land has been the biggest single source of conflicts among humans, even though it is not a product created by
him, rather a produce of geologic and geomorphic processes. Land being the primary producer of food and one
of the most important assets, the principles of ownership and usufruct rights has drawn attention of thinkers in
all ages. Aristotle in early Greek civilization documented rules on ownership and management of land. In the
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Egyptian and Sumerian history or the Inka civilization, land related principles abound. However, the guidelines
differ. The situation today, however, is no different. However, there is a broad unanimity in following the
policies and processes related to land acquisition. The guidelines of the legal treatise of De Jure Belli et Pacis,
written by the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in 1625, used the term dominium eminence (Latin for supreme
lordship). This is being followed not only by USA, UK and others with free economies but also by the single
party ruled countries like China or Vietnam. He has upheld the authority of the State to infringe upon the
property of subjects on all occasions, where ever the public good was involved.
LAND ACQUISITION IN INDIA
Based on the Agriculture Census 2015-16, conducted by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers
Welfare reveals that the total number of holdings in respect of all sizes is 146,454 thousand. Among them
12,669 thousand (8.7 %) belongs to Scheduled Tribes. Percentage of area operated to total area is highest for
Marginal category (24.03%) for all social groups, Semi-medium category (26.72%) for Scheduled Tribes.
Average operated area per holdings is highest for large category (17.07% for all, 15.11% for ST) and lowest for
marginal category (0.38% for all, 0.48% for ST).
FINDINGS
• India faces serious challenges in creating development processes that generate economic growth while
being socially inclusive, ecologically sustainable, politically feasible, and in accordance with rule of law.
Efficient and equitable acquisition of land by the state for development projects, including infrastructure
and industry, lies at the heart of these challenges.
• Displacement of the STs from their land dose not only make them economically vulnerable, but it also
threatens to destroy their cultural identity as a tribal group
• Public authorities charged with the responsibility of forcibly displacing people cannot eliminate human
suffering, they are ethically and legally obligated to act with integrity, to ensure that displaced people are
informed of and accorded their rights and receive requisite resettlement and rehabilitation without
harassment and without being subjected to extortion and violence
• Public authorities charged with the responsibility of forcibly displacing people cannot eliminate human
suffering, they are ethically and legally obligated to act with integrity, to ensure that displaced people are
informed of and accorded their rights and receive requisite resettlement and rehabilitation without
harassment and without being subjected to extortion and violence
• While acquiring agriculture land the farmers should be given full opportunity to find out whether they want
to sell their agriculture land or not. Their free consent must be there. This is the principle nature of justice.
• Agriculture land is acquired on the name of 'public purpose'. So, it is very important that before acquiring
the agricultural land this public purpose should be clear to the affected people
• There is a protection for tribal land as non-tribal cannot purchase tribal land, but no protection on state land
acquisition of tribal land
CONCLUSION
To continue with high growth rate, it is an urgent need to address this land acquisition issue especially
displacement and compensation. What are the alternative possible policies for land acquisition and
compensation related to development project? There is a need to redefine the compensation mechanism;
otherwise, economic development becomes unsustainable depriving and-losers. There should be justifiable
compensation for land. Social land audit committee is essential to set up. The principle of land for land should
be focused on compensation policies, especially for the tribal area. It should be mentioned that it is not only the
land owner who actually suffers loss because of the land acquisition, but there are many other landless people
who lose their means of livelihood, attached to the land which is acquired. Land price can be determined on the
basis of opportunity cost which is ignored in the market system. Compensation based on the market mechanism
is insufficient to satisfy all the heterogeneous land owners having different preferences based on their
occupations and skills while acquiring land from them.
REFERENCES
1. Saswat K, And Mishra, P., (2017) ‘Determinants of households’ resistance against land acquisition for
mining: Experiences at Talcher coalfields in India’ Land Use Policy 66 (2017) 10–17
2. Michael Levien (2012) The land question: special economic zones and the political economy of
dispossession in India, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 39:3-4, 933-969.
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3. Singh, S., (2018) ‘Political Economy of Land Acquisition and Resource Development in India’ Cambridge
University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316691373.013 pp 279-306
4. Das S, (2011) ‘Land Acquisition, livelihood concerns and Adivasi Protests: A Case study of Jajpur District,
Orissa’ Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to Centre for Political Studies School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru
University.
5. Nandal V, (2017) ‘Land acquisition and agrarian change’ Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to M D University
Rohatak.
6. Sathe., D, (2017), ‘The Political Economy of Land Acquisition in India’, Palgrave Macmillan Publication,
ISBN-978-981-10-5325-2
7. Saravanan, V., (2018), ‘Environmental History of Tribals in Modern India’, Palgrave Macmillan
Publication, 2018, ISBN-981-108-051-8
8. Yoshino, N., Paul, S., (2019), ‘Land Acquisition in Asia: Towards a Sustainable Policy Framework’
Palgrave Macmillan Publication, 2019, ISBN 978-981-13-6454-9
9. Mchugh. P. (2011), ‘The modern jurisprudence of tribal land rights’ Oxford university press, ISBN 978–0–
19–969941–4
10. Buckles, D., Khedkar, R., (2013) ‘Fighting Eviction: Tribal land rights and Research in – Action’
Cambridge university press, ISBN-978-93-8226-492-7
11. Kothari, C., (1995) ‘Research Methodology’ Vishwa Prakashan, ISBN-81-7328-036-3
12. Chhotray., V, (2004), ‘The Negation of Politics in Participatory Development Projects’, Kurnool, Andhra
Pradesh, International institute of social studies.
13. Kahkashan, K., (2017), ‘Acquiring Land in Tribal Areas’ IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science
(IOSR-JHSS) Volume 22, Issue 6, Ver. 9, pp.- 2279
14. Dubey , A., Thorat , S., Tiwari , S., (2015) ‘Growth and poverty across states in India: the social group
dimension’ Journal of Social Inclusion Studies
15. Bijoy, C., Kamodang, M., (2014) ‘Local Governance in the Fifth Scheduled Tribal Areas: A Study of
Maharashtra and Odisha in the Light of PESA Act of 1996’ Indian Institute of Dalit Studies, Working paper
series Volume VIII 01
FOOT NOTES
1. Michael Levien (2012) The land question: special economic zones and the political economy of
dispossession in India, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 39:3-4, 933-969.
2. Saswat K, And Mishra, P., (2017) ‘Determinants of households’ resistance against land acquisition for
mining: Experiences at Talcher coalfields in India’ Land Use Policy 66 (2017) 10–17
3. Singh, S., (2018) ‘Political Economy of Land Acquisition and Resource Development in India’ Cambridge
University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316691373.013 pp 279-306
4. Das S, (2011) ‘Land Acquisition, livelihood concerns and Adivasi Protests: A Case study of Jajpur District,
Orissa’ Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to Centre for Political Studies School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru
University.
5. Nandal V, (2017) ‘Land acquisition and agrarian change’ Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to M D University
Rohatak.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

MICRO FORESTS: A HINDRANCE FOR GROWTH OF INDIAN NATIVE SPECIES

Miss Sushmita Patole, Miss Amisha Sansare, Miss Aastha Somji and Dr. Shyam Palkar
Department of Botany, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce

ABSTRACT
The Earth's green cover continues to shrink as global warming and climate change become more imminent; it is
necessary to be conscious of the fragile ecosystem we live in. Indian organisations are adopting the Miyawaki
Method of Afforestation, which is to grow dense urban forests on small patches of land. The main aspect of the
study is to check the feasibility of Miyawaki method for which surveys were conducted at sites; Colaba Woods
Garden and CRWC in Mumbai, which revealed that the trees grown under inadequate space, grow up straight
without natural maturation and cannot produce natural canopies. The trees are unable to play ecological
services due to stress and competition. This violates the fundamental code of restoring the natural ecosystem to
its original state.
Keywords: Miyawaki Method, Afforestation, Native species and Urban forests.

INTRODUCTION
Global climatic changes, together with recent rapid urbanisation and industrialization, have been the main
anthropogenic effects worldwide in destroying natural environments and increasing risk of desertification. In the
last two decades, scientists all around the world have gained fresh insights into both theoretical and practical
approaches to natural ecosystem restoration and reconstruction. The Miyawaki Afforestation method pioneered
by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki is a unique way to create an urban forest within a short span of 20-30
years.The method involves plantation of 2-7 native plant saplings, per square metre. This amplifies the process
of establishing a mature forest in 20 years which is 30 times denser and becomes maintenance-free after the first
3 years. These forests help lower temperatures in concrete heat islands, create carbon sinks, reduce air and noise
pollution as well as attract local birds and insects.
A conventional forest takes around 600-1000 years to grow naturally whereas in the case of urban forests its
growth is rapid for the first two to three years, but over time the competition for light and water between the
trees begins. Trees that do not have access to sunlight are stunted and after 5-6 years its survival is threatened.
Trees such as Banyan, Peepal, Mango, Jamun, etc that have high canopy reduce the intensity of sunlight
reaching the ground which restricts the growth of surrounding trees planted close to each other making it
difficult for them to synthesise food for themselves. Although these forests do bring back greenery to congested
cities, it is not an alternative to natural forests.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Data collection was done by carrying out site visits to places where trees were planted using Miyawaki
Technique, for which Colaba Woods Garden in Colaba and CRWC in Jogeshwari were selected. These two
sites were selected taking into consideration the year of plantation and the growth which took place in those
years. During the site visit, the people in charge of the project were asked a set of predetermined questions for
instance - No. of trees planted, list of saplings planted, area covered by this method and the maintenance period.
For documentation, photographs were taken to authenticate our observations. The information about sites
chosen is as follows: -
Site 1:- Colaba Woods Garden (Forest Creators)
Address: - T.L, Sadhu Vaswani Marg, Mumbai - 400005
This land at Colaba Woods’s garden has been afforested in the year 2019 and it is still under maintenance.
Site 2:- CRWC Limited (Green Yatra)
Address:- Central Railside Warehouse Company(CRWC), Jogeshwari East, Mumbai - 400063
This project started in the year 2019 which is now maintenance-free.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table A
Site Area covered No. of trees planted Year of plantation
Colaba Woods Garden 1250 sq.m 8000 7 Sep, 2019
CRWC 2000 sq.m 7000 1 Feb, 2019

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In table A, the area covered, number of trees planted and the year of plantation has been mentioned, which
highlights that a large number of trees have been planted in a small area. The study revealed that the trees in the
forests are planted closely without considering the space the tree might need to grow to its maximum size in
near future. For example, Indian native species like Teak, Jamun, Ashoka were planted not even a metre away
from one another which totally contradicts the idea of a forest wherein trees are allowed to grow freely and
expand their branches and roots around. It was observed that the trees were selected without proper research and
consideration of how big the tree would turn out to be and there is a necessity to carry out detailed field surveys
in case potential native vegetation is unknown. The small trees growing under trees with huge canopies
showed less growth as their source of natural light and nutrients from the soil were obstructed by the bigger
trees. As claimed by the technique, the biodiversity would be restored, but no local birds or other fauna could be
seen at the site.
CONCLUSION
A forest is not only restricted to trees but also includes vines, tuberous plants and shrubs. It violates the
fundamental code of restoring the natural ecosystem to its original state. This technique gives the forest a rather
monotonous appearance due to trees being of relatively the same age. The whole concept of this method is to
plant native species in a small area which is not feasible in a country like India that has species which grow up
to be big dense trees with big canopies. It is necessary to take the space required for the tree to grow to its full
potential with adequate necessities into consideration before selecting a group of saplings to grow in the forest.
Accordingly appropriate space needs to be designated to each and every tree that has not been observed in the
urban forests in Mumbai. The overall technique is quite expensive as there is a high cost in the initial phase for
land preparation, survey and tree saplings which are directly bought and planted in Miyawaki. As the density of
saplings to be planted is high, in turn the cost of plants becomes high. So, although it is affordable when
planting trees in a small area, it is not the case for planting trees in a large area.
The present studies can serve as a basis for further work focusing on how proper execution can help the
Miyawaki forest technique flourish in India. Deep research associated with the appropriate species of trees to be
planted, the space between them and how they would be maintained should be carried out before plantation.
REFERENCES
1) http://akiramiyawaki.com/
2) https://forestcreators.com/
3) https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/how-to-use-miyawaki-method-grow-mini-forest-minimal-space-
home-garden/
4) https://www.cntraveller.in/story/world-forestry-day-2021-whats-akira-miyawaki-forest-why-is-it-taking-
over-cities-mumbai-bengaluru-chennai/
5) https://www.greenyatra.org/
6) https://www.sei.org/about-sei/press-room/how-the-miyawaki-method-can-transform-indian-cities/
7) Lewis, Hannah. Mini forest revolution Using the Miyawaki Method to Rapidly Rewild the World Chelsea
Green Publishing Co.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

IDENTIFICATION OF WATER CONSERVATION SITES IN KALU WATERSHED FOR

SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Dr. Vilonia Ashok Kumar1, Dr. Prakash Dongre2 and Mr. Ramesh Sankpal3
1
Assistant Professor, Vivekanand Education Society’s College, Chembur
2
Principal, St. John’s College of Humanities and Sciences, Palghar
3
Research Scholar, Government Vidarbha Institute of Science and Humanities, Amravati

ABSTRACT
Groundwater is a precious natural resource which plays a vital role to cater the demand of water supply
arising due to inadequate surface water resource. The Kalu watershed comprises of Kalyan, Murbad and
Shahapur talukas of Thane district in Maharashtra. Kalu watershed receives enormous amount of rainfall
during monsoon, but during the summer seasons, the rivers are mostly dry. Hence identifying sites to conserve
the groundwater can help to cope the water scarcity in the dry months. Groundwater management remains a
challenging area and hence development and recharge are still to be seen in the holistic phase. However, with
the advent of the tools like Remote Sensing and GIS most of the information are retrieved in a holistic manner.
The main objective of this study is to identify water conservation sites in Kalu watershed of Thane district for a
sustainable groundwater resource development and management. In the present study, the Survey of India
toposheet number 47 E/7, 47 E/10, 47 E/11, 47 E/12 and 47 E/15, the district resource map, LANDSAT 8,
and SRTM (DEM) satellite data were processed in ArcGIS to prepare the various thematic layers i.e., Geology,
geomorphology, topography, soil, land use/land cover, slope, drainage and drainage density. All these
influencing parameters which affects the groundwater development of Kalu watershed were analysed on GIS
platform by using weighted overlay technique through Analytical hierarchy Process (AHP). Sub-watershed wise
action plan of the area has been developed for Kalu watershed using these thematic layers following the criteria
given by NRSA, 1995. Development of water harvesting structures like Check dam, Nala bund, Contour bund
etc. are proposed in this paper.
Thus, it is suggested that execution of the proposed sub-watershed wise action plan will help in development
and management of groundwater resources of the area. Excavation of the proposed structures at their suitable
sites identified at Kalu watershed will enhance the groundwater recharge potential of the area.
Keywords: Conservation site, Groundwater recharge, GIS, Weighted overlay analysis

1. INTRODUCTION
Watershed management is an integration of technology within the natural boundaries of a drainage basin for
optimum development of land, water, and plant resources to meet the basic needs of the people in a sustained
manner. Groundwater being the main source of water especially during non-monsoon months, its development
and exploitation has to be properly managed in a watershed. In order to advocate appropriate strategies to
recharge groundwater the spatial distribution of aquifer system and study of aquifer parameters in spatial
domain is significant. (Aarti Kelkar- Khambete, 2015)
Though large parts of Maharashtra lie in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats, Thane district receives
enormous amount of rainfall during monsoon season. Maharashtra is a relatively better off state in the country
in terms of rainfall, but it may soon become a state facing increasing water crisis with perennial water shortages,
if urgent measures are not undertaken to address quantity and the quality issues related to groundwater. The
variability in rainfall, topography and the geology of the region poses a number of limitations in terms of
groundwater availability, recharge and storage in the state. (Kelkar, 2015)
The main aim of this study is to identify water conservation sites in Kalu watershed of Thane district for a
sustainable groundwater resource development and management. Some of the objectives of this study are to
identifying sites suitable for ground water recharging, enhancing the groundwater storage and to manage and
utilize runoff for sustainable purposes (AHP)
2. STUDY AREA
The study area encompasses the Kalu river basins, which is the sub-basin of the Ulhas River in the Thane
district. The Kalu River lies between 19°18'8" to 73°11'17" North Latitude to 19°20'68" to 73°30'15" East
Longitude (Fig. 1). It flows from east to west. This river after flowing westward in its downstream receives a
small river Bhatsa and later meets the Ulhas River near Kalyan, an industrial suburb of Mumbai. The total
length of the Kalu River is nearly 110 km. The source of the river is at Tolar Khind near Khireshwar village of
Junnar Taluka in Pune District. The annual precipitation in this region is about 2500mm and the post-monsoon
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availability of water is plentiful. However, owing to the higher slopes and scarps of the western limb of the
Sahayadris (Western Ghats) flanking the eastern parts of the basin, the surface runoff is quite high. So quite an
acute shortage of water in dry months specially in the upper part of the Kalu river basin.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The ground water recharge potential has been assessed for quantification of groundwater recharge in study area.
Figure 2 portrays the technique implemented and procedures adopted for groundwater recharge potential
mapping in the study area. The Survey of India Toposheet no 47 E/3, 47 E/7, 47 E/10, 47E/11, 47 E/12 and
47E/15 on 1: 50000 scale has been used. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM Arcnovoid) DEM of
30 meters spatial resolution data and LANDSAT-8 of 30 meters spatial resolution data of the year 2019 have
been used in the present study. The rainfall data was obtained from the Scarcity report of Ground Water Surveys
and Development Agency. Whereas, circle wise rainfall data was acquired from the Rainfall Recording and
Analysis, Department of Agriculture Maharashtra State. The District Resource map was acquired from the
Geology Survey of India for understanding the Geology and lithology of the study area.
Watershed wise action plan of the area has been developed for Kalu watershed using these thematic layers
following the criteria given by NRSA, 1995. Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) method such as Analytic
Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used to delimit the weightage of feature layer to eliminate the biasness in the output
map. Based on MCDA analysis, resultant weightage was given to the thematic layer and suitable ranking was
allotted to each class of respective theme (Kadam A ,2018). The rank was assigned in the scale of 1–9. The
comparisons are made using a scale of absolute judgements that represents, how much more, one element
dominates another with respect to a given attribute. Based on that, the availability surplus water for recharge
was calculated, which helps in calculating watershed groundwater availability. Further, the developed action
plan addresses identification of sites for groundwater recharge, through the anticipated artificial recharge
structures.

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Figure 2: Flow chart of Methodology

3.1 Criterion
A detailed procedure for groundwater resource evaluation of particular area needs the thorough investigation of
various thematic layers like lithology, geomorphology, LULC, slope and rainfall so as to identify groundwater
potential. In the present study all these thematic maps were prepared and the specifics of the thematic layers
prepared from Remote Sensing information and field overview was composed with the groundwater potential
outcomes (Mundalik et al., 2018; Rahman et al., 2012; Rahmati et al., 2015).
3.1.1 Lithology
The major lithological units encountered in the study region are basaltic in nature. Basalt is a common extrusive
volcanic rock. It is the generic term for solidified volcanic lava. The study region comprises the vesicular basalt,
the massive basalt and the mixed basalt (Fig 3). Vesicular basalt units are filled with secondary minerals like
calcite, silica, etc. The upper portion of the lava flow are vesicular in nature, which is generally weathered.
More than 60 per cent of the study area comprising Shahapur and Murbad talukas comes under vesicular
basaltic region. This is also evident with the presence of various dykes, joints and fractures. Hence due to high
porosity and permeability, it serves good potential for the recharge of groundwater. Massive basalt unit
encircles the ridges of Shahapur and cliff section near Savarne of Murbad taluka. This basaltic structure is fine
grained and dark grey-black in colour. They are quite thick and extensive. Here cavities are absent and
comprises 35 % of the Kalu watershed. This type of basaltic unit doesn’t favor groundwater recharge to that
extent. Mixed basalts are found in big pockets near Nadolpada, Adivali and Titwala of Kalyan taluka. They are
filled with secondary minerals like calcite, silica, etc. It occupies around 5 % of the Kalu watershed.

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Figure 3: Lithology
3.1.2 Geomorphology
Understanding the geomorphology of an area is one of the most significant features in the evaluation of
groundwater potential and managing the watershed.

Figure 4: Geomorphology

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The Highly Dissected Plateau is severely eroded due to the sharp relief of Kalu river (Fig 4). Around 60 sq. km
of the study area comprises highly dissected plateau. This landscape unit is dominant in the northern and south
eastern part of the Kalu river basin. It is dissected by the streams of the Kalu river giving rise to flat topped
ridges and steep scarp. Due to its high run off, groundwater infiltration is minimal, hence low weights is been
assigned. Moderately Dissected Plateau are moderately fractured and weathered surfaces. It occupies around
300 sq. km of the study area. It serves as good potential for groundwater hence higher weights are assigned
comparatively. The Slightly Dissected Plateau are poorly weathered plateaus which occupies the major portion
of the Kalu river basin i.e., 406 sq. km. In the Undissected Plateau, the thickness of the weathered material is
more and the stream channel in the basaltic terrain is normally lineament control. Undissected plateau occupies
58 sq. km area. Escarpment slope offers a zone of transition between highly dissected and slightly dissected
plateau in the north eastern region of the Kalu river basin.
3.1.3 Land use/Land cover:
On the basis of the interpretation of the remote sensing imagery, the study area is been classified into five
categories. Out of the total area of Kalu river basin (1134 km2), around 626.79 km2 area comprises of
agricultural land, 188.98 km2 area falls under forest, 270.97 km2 under barren land, 21.91km2 comprises of
water body and 25.85 km2 occupied by settlement Figure 5 shows that agriculture is the predominant occupation
in the study region. Areas under forest are comparatively less than the barren land. Forest, agricultural fields
and water bodies are the potentials sites for groundwater recharge, so maximum score is given in the AHP
criteria table. Built up areas, barren land and settlements indicates poor potentials sites for groundwater
recharge, hence minimum score is given accordingly.

Figure 5: Land use/Land cover

3.1.4 Slope
Slope plays a significant character in determining the surface run-off. Very low and Low surface run-off ( < 10
degree) occupies 82.83 % of the Kalu river basin (Fig 6) . Here, the surface run-off is moderate, enabling good
opportunity for water to infiltrate into subsurface in gentle slopping area thereby serves as good potential for
groundwater recharge. High score is been assigned in the AHP analysis. Whereas, moderate surface run-off (10
-20 degree), high surface run-off (20 - 40 degree) and very high surface run-off (40 > degree) occupies 17.16 %
of the Kalu river basin (Table 1). High slopping zone enables high surface run-off permitting less infiltration.
Hence not suitable for groundwater storage, so low scores are been assigned in the AHP analysis

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Figure 6: Slopes
Table 1: Distribution of Average Slope and Run-off of Kalu river basin
Area
Sr. No. Slope (in Degree) Sq. km Per cent Category of Slopes Category of Surface Run-off
1 <5 717.77 63.28 Gentle Very Low
2 5-10 221.70 19.55 Moderate Low
3 10-20 112.78 9.94 Moderately steep Moderate
4 20-40 49.46 4.36 Steep High
5 >40 32.49 2.86 Very steep Very High
Total 1134.21 100.00
3.1.5 Annual Rainfall
Figure 7 represents the circle -wise annual rainfall for the year of 2018 from nine rain gauge stations of the Kalu
river basin. Saralagaon of Murbad records the lowest precipitation with1963 mm, and Dolkhamb of Shahapur
records the highest precipitation with 2751 mm. The isohyet map gives a vivid idea of the distribution of the
Kalu river basin. The disparity in rainfall is the main cause of variation in recharge. The formation of surface
water is amongst the most critical parameters of rain water harvesting. The average weight given to the rainfall
varies from 1500mm to 2500mm for very low to very high potential of recharge, respectively Accordingly,
scores are been given in the AHP analysis.

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Figure 7: Annual rainfall

3.2. Analytical Hierarchy Process
Analytical Hierarchy Process is a multi-criteria analysis technique, used to define the weightage of thematic
layer to remove the biasness in the resultant map. The AHP technique provides the comparative assessment
between the parametric layers using pair-wise matrix that is further used for deriving the consistency of the
assumption. (Table 2 and 3). The relative importance of parameter within themselves is given by referring the
scale of 1–9 digits (Fig 8), where the 1 value is having equal importance for both comparative parameters while
the 9 is having extreme important of one parameter over other
Table 2. Criterions: Weights, Influences And Scores
Sr. No Main Criteria Weights Influence % Sub-Criteria Score
1 Land use/ Land cover 0.493 49.3 Agricultural land 6
Forest 7
Barren land 3
Water 8
Settlement 3
2 Lithology 0.31 31 Vesicular basalt 7
Massive basalt 8
Mixed basalt 6
4 Geomorphology 0.112 11.2 Highly Dissected Plateau 6
Moderately Dissected Plateau 6
Slightly Dissected Plateau 7
Undissected Plateau 4
Escarpment Slope 7
Weathered Plateau 7
5 Slopes (degree) 0.54 5.4 <5 8
5-10 6
10-20 5
20-40 4
>40 3
6 Precipitation (mm) 0.31 3.1 1500-2000 6
2000-2500 7
> 2500 8
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Figure 8: AHP Ratio Scale, Saaty, 2008

The last step in AHP procedure is to find consistency of resultant weight as well as the reliability of assumption.
Based on AHP analysis for groundwater recharge zone identification, the Consistency Ratio (CR) value got is
7.8% which is below than 10% so the weightages assigned to themes are accepted (Thomas L. Saaty 2008).
Table no 3: Pair-Wise Comparison Matrix
Land use/ Slopes
Criterion Land cover Lithology Geomorphology (degree) Precipitation (mm) % Weights
Land
Use / Land cover 1.000 3.000 5.000 7.000 9.000 49.3
Lithology 0.333 1.000 5.000 7.000 8.000 31
Geomorphology 0.200 0.200 1.000 2.000 7.000 11.2
Slopes (degree) 0.143 0.143 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.4
Precipitation (mm) 0.111 0.125 0.143 0.500 1.000 3.1
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSION
The spatial thematic maps including land use/land cover, slope, lithology, geomorphology and rainfall were
integrated in the GIS environment as per the criteria listed above for the construction of site suitable for ground
water recharge.
4.1 Drainage treatment for water conservation plan for Kalu watershed:
Based on the integrated thematic maps, overlay analysis was carried out in the GIS environment. Drainage
treatment map (Fig 9) was prepared by considering different stream orders of the Kalu watershed. Gully plug
and loose bolder structure are suggested for the first order stream network. Blocking of gullies by stone or earth
check dams or vegetative barriers leads to the deposition of fertile sediments and organic matter which leads to
collection of water during heavy rainfall events. In the Loose bolder structure are measures for preventing soil
erosion and arresting water. This is been suggested for first order streams. Earthen bund and gabion are
suggested for the second order streams. Earthen bunds are the protective bund on the drains having depth less
than 1 meter. generally they are quite bigger structure than the gully plug. This engineered structure will help
Ground water recharge in Kalu watershed. Check dam and KT Weir are recommended across 2nd and 3rd order
streams in moderate slope. It will prevent water from joining higher order stream, instead permit to spread
around the lower order stream and recharge the aquifer. Check dams would be constructed in some of the areas
to promote growth of vegetation that will consequently lead to the stabilisation of the slope area and prevention
of further deepening of gully erosion. Different types of check dams would be required for different conditions
comprising different materials depending upon the site conditions and the easy availability of material at local
level. Above 4th order stream, recharge sites are not recommended, since there are presence of numerous small
dam and tank.

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Figure 9: Drainage Treatment conservation plan

4.2 Area treatment for water conservation plan for Kalu watershed:
The catchment area treatment involves the understanding of the erosion characteristics of the terrain and
identifying and suggesting remedial measures to reduce the erosion rate for ground water percolation. Water
conservation structure like continuous contour trenches, percolation tank, nala bund, check dam and inverted
well is been suggested taking into consideration of the slope of Kalu watershed (Fig 10). The Continuous
contour trenches and contour bund decreases the speed of the run off thereby helps in soil conservation on
slope. Percolation tank, nala bund, check dam and inverted well are recommended in favorable recharge storage
zones to ensure more recharge in the non-monsoon period in forest area. Farm pond and compartment bunding
are suggested in the plain area where storage of the rain water in the agricultural field can be done by
constructing bunds.

Figure 10: Area Treatment conservation plan

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4.3 Suitable site for recharge structure for Kalu watershed:

Distinctive soil water conservation sites have been recommended by various topographical and hydrogeological
constraints and plausibility of structures in the Kalu watershed, site suitable for artificial groundwater map is
prepared using AHP technique to propose different artificial recharge structures (Kumar et al., 2016).
The suitability of the 83 Check Dams, 21 Farm ponds, 37 invert well and 3 major desilting of tank for areas near
the villages was determined (Fig 11). Check Dams are recommended to be located in along the first order
stream of Kanakvira nadi, Jalond nadi and Dohifidi nadi of Murbad taluka and Devi nadi, Umbar ohal,
Danmantak Ohal, Julan nadi and Shai nadi of Shahapur talukas. 21 Farm ponds are recommended to be located
on the cultivable land of Dhasai village, Khapri, Talegaon and Adivali villages of Kalu watershed. Three
desilting of tank are located near Titwala, Takurli and Talegoan. Each of the structures was identified based on
the specific need for the construction and environmental sustainability. The Eastern part of the region has
proven inadequate groundwater recharge potentials. This analysis shows precise site suitability for artificial
recharge in the region.

Figure 11: Suitable sites for groundwater recharge structure

5. CONCLUSIONS
Construction of the Artificial Recharge Structure is the most important conservation measure to effectively
tackle water scarcity problems by augmenting surface water supplies on a long-term basis. However, the
demarcation of potential locations of groundwater storage structures are quite challenging for the planners and
water managers. The current research demonstrated the strong capability of geospatial and AHP multi-criteria
decision analysis method for identification of site suitable for rechargeIn the present research, AHP based
procedure has been embraced to identify Artificial Groundwater Recharge Zone Suitable sites for Artificial
Recharge Structure was proposed to improve groundwater status of the Kalu watershed. Over 83 Check Dams,
3 major desilting of tank, 21 Farm Pond, 37 invert well and 2 Recharge pit were found suitable in the region.
Further, drainage treatment, area treatment for water conservation plan and location for various site suitable for
groundwater recharge will help to augment the present water scarcity experienced during the dry season of Kalu
watershed.
6. REFERENCES
 The Maharashtra Groundwater (Development and Management) Act 2009, Aarti Kelkar- Khambete, India
Water Portal
 Shankar, M.R., Mohan, G. Assessment of the groundwater potential and quality in Bhatsa and Kalu river
basins of Thane district, western Deccan Volcanic Province of India. Environ Geol 49, 990–998 (2006).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0137-5
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 Shinde, S., Choudhari, P.P., Popatkar, B. et al. Assessment of groundwater quality using GIS in Thane
Municipal Corporation, Maharashtra, India. Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 7, 1739–1751 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-020-00906-7
 Rajasekhar M, Raju GS, Raju RS, Basha UI (2018) Data on artificial recharge sites identified by geospatial
tools in semi-arid region of Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Data Brief 19:1–13. https:// doi.org/
10.1016/j.dib.2018.04.050
 Adham A, Sayl KN, Abed R, Abdeladhim MA, Wesseling JG, Riksen M, Fleskens L, Karim U, Ritsema CJ
(2018) A GIS-based approach for identifying potential sites for harvesting rainwater in the Western Desert
of Iraq. Int Soil Water Conserv Res 6:297–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2018.07.003
 Kadam A, Karnewar AS, Umrikar B, Sankhua RN (2018) Hydrological response-based watershed
prioritization in semiarid, basaltic region of western India using frequency ratio, fuzzy logic and AHP
method. Environ Dev Sustain 21:1–25
 Mundalik, V., Fernandes, C., Kadam, A. K., Umrikar, B. N., 2018. Integrated geomorphological, geospatial
and ahp technique for groundwater prospects mapping in basaltic terrain article history. Hydrospatial
Analysis, 2, 16-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21523/gcj3.18020102
 Rahman, M. A., Rusteberg, B., Gogu, R. C., Ferreira, J. L. and Sauter, M., 2012. A new spatial multi-
criteria decision support tool for site selection for implementation of managed

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EVALUATION OF ANTI-BACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF SEMECARPUS ANACARDIUM LINN. LEAF

EXTRACTS AGAINST GRAM POSITIVE AND GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA

Surya Prabha U1, Dr. B. Meena2 and Dr. Sumit Rose2

1
Research Scholar and 2,3Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Presidency College, Chennai

ABSTRACT
Background: The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the antibacterial activity of different
extracts of Semecarpous anacardium. Solvents like methanol, acetone, Ethanol, and aqueous extract were used
and tested against the most predominant human fastidious pathogens. Like B.subtilis, P. aeruginosa, E.coli, S.
aureus.
Methodology: The antibacterial activity was performed using the well diffusion technique, and the MTCC
bacterial strains were obtained from IMTECH Chandigarh. The test samples were loaded into wells with
different concentrations Negative and positive controls were respective solvents and Azithromycin.
Results: The results revealed a good inhibitory activity against the pathogens where the extracts of aqueous
and acetone were exhibited good inhibitory activity followed by methanolic and acetone extracts. The results
suggested that Semecarpous anacardium exhibited a good antibacterial activity
Keywords: Antibacterial; Semecarpous anacardium, multi-drug resistance, Azithromycin.

INTRODUCTION
Plants are vital source of potentially beneficial drugs for the growth of new chemotherapeutic techniques.
Medicinal plants have been a major source of drugs for thousands of years, and even today they are the basis of
systematic traditional medicines in almost all countries of the world (1). Medicinal plants are very rich in
phytochemicals which can be structurally improved and processed into new drugs (2). For the present study, a
highly potent medicinal plant Semecarpus anacardium Linn from Ayurvedic and siddha system of medicine
was selected to understand the potentiality of the plant against selected bacterial strains. Semecarpus
anacardium Linn. belonging to Family Anacardiaceae is a plant recognized for its medicinal importance in
Ayurvedic and Siddha system of medicine. Semecarpus anacardium L. is a deciduous tree distributed in the
sub-Himalayan tract and in tropical parts of India. The word Semecarpus is derived from Greek word simeion
meaning marking or tracing and carpus meaning nut, anacardium means like cardium; - “Heart shaped
marking nut and so the plant is commonly called as Marking Nut commercially. The fruits and the seeds
exhibits abundant medicinal properties, and are used to treat the wide range of diseases like skin diseases,
tumors, malignant growths, fevers, haemoptysis, excessive menstruation, vaginal discharge, deficient lactation,
constipations, intestinal parasites (3). A wide range of phyto-pharmaceuticals of S. anacardium plant parts have
been isolated and reported. Some of the important phyto-constituents present indifferent parts of the plant are
Bhilwanols, phenolic compounds, biflavonoids, sterols and glycosides (4). The fruit and nut extracts of
S.anacardium are remarkable for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-reproductive, CNS
stimulant, hypoglycemic, antiatherogenic, anticarcinogenic and hair growth promoter activity, thus making the
plant mark their own significant value in the traditional system of medicine. Anacardium species comprise
various secondary metabolites in its leaf and shoot powder, fruits and other parts of the plant, which can be used
concerning their nutraceutical, medicinal and biological traits. The problem of increasing antimicrobial
resistance has become a serious public health threat worldwide. The present paper deals with the screening for
anti-bacterial activity of S. anacardium against two gram positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus
aureus) and two gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Gram-positive
bacteria are multi-resistant bacteria that cause infections and affect the mortality and mobility of a person. Gram
negative bacteria like Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are known for the cause of food poisoning
and other food contamination related diseases. Antimicrobial properties of substances are desirable tools in the
control of undesirable microorganisms especially in the treatment of infections diseases (5).The use of plant
extracts with known antimicrobial properties can be of great significance in therapeutic treatments.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
a) COLLECTION AND PREPARTION OF PLANT SAMPLE
Fresh leaf samples of Semecarpus anacardium were collected from Mavelikara, Alleppy, Kerala, India The
plant materials were shade dried and grounded to coarse powder. Exposure to direct sunlight was avoided to
prevent the loss of active components.

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b) PREPARATION OF CRUDE EXTRACT

The fresh leaves were separated, and thoroughly washed with water, and rinsed with 70% ethanol to remove
dirt. Aqueous extract was prepared by boiling 50gms of leaves in 100ml water, whereas the solvent crude
extracts (Acetone, Ethanol and Methanol) were prepared by taking 1 :2 ratio of the sample to solvent and
extracted by Soxhlet extraction method.
c) IN VITRO ANTI-BACTERIAL ASSAY
Test strain bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis (MTCC), Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 96), Escherichia coli
(MTCC) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC) were obtained from IMTECH, Chandigarh and used for in vitro
antibacterial activity.
The antibacterial activity was determined by well diffusion methods (6). About 25 mL of molten Mueller
Hinton agar was poured into a sterile Petri plate (Himedia, Mumbai, India). The plates were allowed to solidify,
after which 18 h grown (OD adjusted to 0.6) 100 µl of above said pathogenic bacteria were transferred onto
plate and made culture lawn by using sterile L-rod spreader. After five min setting of the pathogenic microbes, a
sterile cork borer was used to make 5 mm well on the agar. The test samples were loaded in to wells with
different concentration of 50 μg/mL, 100 μg/mL, 150 μg/mL, 200 μg/mL. Negative and positive controls were
respective solvents and Azithromycin (200 μg/mL). The plates were incubated at 37°C in a bacteriological
incubator for 24 hours. The antibacterial activity was determined by measuring the diameter of the zone of
inhibition around the well using antibiotic zone scale (Himedia, Mumbai, India).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Four preparations from Semecarpus anacardium.L (Aqueous extracts, Acetone extract, Ethanol extract and
Methanol extract) were used to test for antibacterial activity against clinically important bacteria.
The therapeutic properties of medicinal plants are due to the presence of various active metabolites. The Zone
of inhibition for gram positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and gram negative
bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) of Semecarpus anacardium leaf extract is shown in
Table 1 and Figure 1 displays the comparaison of the different extraction against the selected strains . The test
samples were studied with positive control Azithromycin. From the results, we can draw an idea that the
different extractions of the leaves have significant action on the selected bacterial strains. Among the four
extractions, the aqueous extract and acetone extract of the leaf samples shows high anti bacterial activity
compared to the other two extractions. The aqueous extract of S.anacardium leaves in the presence of active
metabolites shows a inhibition value of 16mm at 200µg concentration against B.subtilis whereas for E.coli the
extract exhibits a value of 15mm at 200µg concentration. In the contrary, the methanolic extraction shows high
inhibition activity of 13mm at 200µg concentration against the gram negative bacteria E.coli and shows least
inhibition of 2mm 50µg concentration against the gram positive bacteria S.aureus. Among the four extractions,
Ethanolic extract shows a inhibition zone value of 17mm at 200µg concentration aginst the gram positive
bacteria B.subtilis.
Table 1: Antibacterial activity of Semecarpus anacardium.L Leaf extract against selected Bacterial strains

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Figure 1: Antibacterial activity of Semecarpus anacardium.L Leaf extract against selected Bacterial strains
The antimicrobial properties of plant extracts are awaited tool in the control of undesirable microorganisms
specially in the treatment of infectious diseases and in the food spoilage. Many studies have been reported
against different disease causing pathogens by different types of plants and their parts. In the nuts of
Semecarpus anacardium, the petroleum ether and aqueous extract fractions exhibited inhibitory activity against
Staphylococcus aureus (10 mm) and Shigella flexneri (16 mm) at 100 mg/ml, respectively, Whereas chloroform
extract showed inhibition against Bacillus licheniformis, Vibrio cholerae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the
ethanol extract showed inhibition to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus (7). The alcoholic extract of dry
nuts of Semecarpus anacardium showed bactericidal against three gram negative strains (Escherichia coli,
Salmonella typhi and Proteus vulgaris) and two gram positive strains (Staphylococcus aureus and
Corynebacterium diphtheriae) (8). Anacardium occidentale L belonging to the same family Anacardiaceae
inhibits the growth of the test organisms Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and the mentioned
organisms were found to be very sensitive to the plant extracts (9).
Hydro-ethanolic extracts of leaf and bark of Anacardium occidentale L exhibited positive effects against
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter species, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Corynebacterium
pyogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, multiresistant S. aureus, Acinetobacter species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
multiresistant P. aeruginosa during cavity diffusion tests with inhibition ranges varying from 6 to 14 mm (10).
In addition to well diffusion method, the Broth dilution method antibacterial assay of Petroleum ether nut
extract of S.anacardium was most effective against Gram negative strains (Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella
pneumonia and E.coli) compared to Gram positive strains (Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus aureus and
Bacillus subtilis) (11). Three medicinal plants namely Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare and
Trachyspermum ammi were extracted with aqueous and acetone and were tested against the growth of
Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri. Acetone extracts of all the plants
showed better activity than the corresponding aqueous extracts (12).
Antibacterial activity of the hydroethanolic extract from Caryocar brasiliense against Enterococcus faecalis,
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and and Staphylococcus aureus observed among which the best
activity was observed against P. aeruginosa at 1.5 and 2.0 mg/mL, followed by S. aureus (13).
Leaves of Hypericum roeperianum had the highest yield (12%), followed by Maesa lanceolata (11.12%)
against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus cereus) and Gram-
negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) (14). Gram
positive organisms lack an outer membrane in their cell walls but Gram negative organisms do possess it, this
outer membrane may be liable for the variance in the degree of sensitivity of the organisms to the crude plant
extracts (15).

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CONCLUSION
According to World Health Organization, more than 80% of the world’s population depends predominantly on
herbal medicines. Medicinal plants provide a new approach for understanding the framework for synthetic drug
design and development. Traditional plant medicine will become an area of major importance in the health care
system. The present study could be an alternative approach for the treatment of bacterial disease with less side
effect and cost effective.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jaybhaye, R. V., Pardeshi, I. L., Vengaiah, P. C., & Srivastav, P. P. (2014). Processing and technology for
millet based food products: a review. Journal of ready to eat food, 1(2), 32-48.
2. Ugboko, H. U., Nwinyi, O. C., Oranusi, S. U., Fatoki, T. H., & Omonhinmin, C. A. (2020). Antimicrobial
Importance of Medicinal Plants in Nigeria. The Scientific World Journal.
3. Jain, P., & Sharma, H. P. (2013). A potential ethnomedicinal plant Semecarpus anacardium Linn. A
review. Int J Res Pharm Chem, 3(3), 564-72.
4. Tiwari, D. K., & Upmanyu, N. (2021). Phytochemical analysis for bio-active potential of Semecarpus
anacardium leaves. Plant Archives, 21(1), 635-642.
5. Mohanta TK, Patra JK, Rath SK, Pal DK, Thatoi HN. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity and
phytochemical screening of oils and nuts of Semecarpus anacardium. Sci Res Essay 2007;2:486-90.
6. Holder IA and Boyce ST. Agar well diffusion assay testing of bacterial susceptibility to various
antimicrobials in concentrations non-toxic for human cells in culture. (1994) Burns 20:426-429.
7. Mohanta, T. K., Patra, J. K., Rath, S. K., Pal, D. K., & Thatoi, H. N. (2007). Evaluation of antimicrobial
activity and phytochemical screening of oils and nuts of Semicarpus anacardium Lf. Sci. Res. Essay, 2(11),
486-490.
8. Nair, A., & Bhide, S. V. (1996). Antimicrobial properties of different parts of Semecarpus anacardium.
Indian drugs, 33(7), 323-328.
9. Agedah, C. E., Bawo, D. D. S., & Nyananyo, B. L. (2010). Identification of antimicrobial properties of
cashew, Anacardium occidentale L.(Family Anacardiaceae). Journal of Applied Sciences and
Environmental Management, 14(3).
10. Kudi, A. C., Umoh, J. U., Eduvie, L. O., & Gefu, J. (1999). Screening of some Nigerian medicinal plants
for antibacterial activity. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 67(2), 225-228.
11. Bagewadi, Z. K., Siddanagouda, R. S., & Baligar, P. G. (2012). Phytochemical screening and evaluation of
antimicrobial activity of Semecarpus anacardium nuts. International journal of pharmacology and
pharmaceutical technology, 1(2), 68-74.
12. Kaur, G. J., & Arora, D. S. (2008). In vitro antibacterial activity of three plants belonging to the family
Umbelliferae. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 31(4), 393-395.
13. Paula-Ju, W. D., Rocha, F. H., Donatti, L., Fadel-Picheth, C. M., & Weffort-Santos, A. M. (2006).
Leishmanicidal, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities of Caryocar brasiliense Cambess leaves
hydroethanolic extract. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 16, 625-630.
14. Elisha IL, Botha FS, McGaw LJ, Eloff JN. The antibacterial activity of extracts of nine plant species with
good activity against Escherichia coli against five other bacteria and cytotoxicity of extracts. BMC
Complement Altern Med. 2017 Feb 28;17(1):133.
15. Sizar O, Unakal CG. Gram Positive Bacteria. [Updated 2022 Feb 14]. In: StatPearls Treasure Island (FL):
StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan.

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PHYTOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL OF SOME ORNAMENTAL PLANTS: A REVIEW

Snehal Unde1 and Sakshi Raj Kumar2

1
St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Fort, Mumbai
2
Ramnarain Ruia College of Arts, Science and Commerce (Autonomous), Matunga, Mumbai

ABSTRACT
One of the major contributors to Green Revolution which started in the late 1960s, were the chemical pesticides
and fertilizers. Indiscriminate use of these chemicals over the years has led to their accumulation and
persistence in the soil. Contamination of agricultural soils by heavy metals and pesticides is major problem
faced by modern agriculturists. This leads to these toxic chemicals leaching into the groundwater, or polluting
the rivers through surface run-off, and ultimately posing a threat to human health. The effective solution to this
pressing problem of pesticide or heavy metal contamination lies in the eco-friendly process of
phytoremediation, in which living plants clean-up the soil via processes such as, phytoextraction
rhizodegradation, rhizofiltration, phytodegradation, phyto-stabilization. Some of the plants are able to
metabolize, stabilize, or volatilize such substances. Ornamental plants besides being used for aesthetic
purposes, are now being considered for their phytoremediation potential. An added advantage is that they not
only beautify the location, but also, help in achieving land recovery. Some of the ornamental plants which have
been tested for their phytoremediation potential are Calendula officinalis, Coleus blumei, Celosia cristata,
Tagetes patula, Euphorbia milii, Nerium oleander, Cordyline fructicosa, etc. This opens up new and exciting
avenues to be pursued in the field of phytoremediation.
Keywords: phytoremediation, ornamental plants, contamination, Coleus blumei, Cordyline fructicosa, Nerium
oleander, Euphorbia milii.

INTRODUCTION
Pollution of water, air, soil is an anthropogenic problem of recent times. Management and removal of toxic
substances accumulated in the environment is a significant global issue of importance in agriculture,
environmental health, and human health. Use of physical or manual methods to mitigate this problem is an
expensive as well as tedious task. Hence, people are moving towards green chemistry in order to find a solution
to this problem (Kumar, 2017).
Phytoremediation basically refers to the use of plants and associated soil microbes to reduce the concentrations
or toxic effects of contaminants in the environment. It is also called botanical bioremediation or green
remediation (Kumar 2017). Phytoremediation is widely accepted as a cost-effective environmental restoration
technology. Plants are considered to be natural mitigators for pollutants in the environment. They are ideal
contenders for performing bioremediation because of their autotrophic nature, cost-effectiveness, ease of
management and ability to produce large biomass with minimum nutrient input (Adki, Jadhav, & Bapat, 2013).
Ecological restoration of the environment calls for adopting clean-up technologies that are primarily eco-
friendly and cost-effective. Phytoremediation involves various mechanisms such as phytovolatilization,
phytodegradation, phytoextraction, phytostabilization, and rhizofiltration. Phytoremediation encompasses
physical, chemical, and biological processes to eradicate/ degrade/ transform, or stabilize pollutants within soil
and groundwater (Ghosh & Singh, 2005; Prasad & Prasad, 2012).
Phytoextraction is characterized by accumulation of pollutants into the plant shoot; rhizofiltration shows
accumulation of pollutants into the plant roots; phytostabilization means the roots release certain
enzymes/chemicals that make the pollutants more stable in the soil; phytovolatilization is the evaporation of
volatile compounds by plant roots; phytodegradation means the degradation of toxic compounds in the root
zone; phytotransformation is characterized by the stabilization & subsequent degradation of organic volatile
compounds by plant leaves (Kumar, 2017). Plants with a high rate of biomass production like crop plants and
ornamental plants have been explored for phytoremediation potential.
Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decorative purposes with a range of shapes, sizes, and colors
that are suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and desired gardening characteristics. Ornamental
plants also aid in separating soil contaminants from the food chain. Along with aesthetic importance,
ornamental plants have been found to be of significance in remediating contaminated soils. Contaminated areas
can also be developed for ecotourism via plantations of ornamentals which can also contribute to revenue
generation (Nakbanpote, Meesungnoen, & Prasad, 2016).

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Plants can also be genetically modified in order to show greater remediation potential. The gene transfer can be
done from microbes which perform bioremediation to ornamental plants with a high rate of biomass production.
Genetically modified ornamental plants may have the added characteristics of drought resistance, stress
tolerance and heat & pest resistance, etc. These plants also have the most potential for remediating
contaminated lands with pest/disease infestations and harsh environmental conditions. One of the main goals of
these studies is to bridge the gap between laboratory testing of selected ornamental plants and their applications
in the field.
PREFERENCE FOR ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN PHYTOREMEDIATION
Ornamental plants are those which are grown for the purpose of decorating land in gardens, landscapes, etc.
They are of vital significance in increasing the green cover of urban areas. They are mostly grown for their
attractive foliage, flowers, fruits, and overall appearance. It has been observed that many of these ornamental
plants serve a dual purpose: improving the aesthetic appeal of an area as well as mitigation of pollutants in the
environment. Hence, these plants contribute not only to the beautification of the landscape, but also to the
remediation of polluted soils/water (Nakbanpote, Meesungnoen, & Prasad, 2016).
Such areas where ornamental plants are being used to clean up polluted soils can also be used to generate
revenue through eco-tourism. Plant tourism is a rapidly growing industry with ecological as well as economic
benefits (Rocha, 2021).
It is noted that many of the ornamental plants are hyperaccumulators of heavy metals- they uptake &
accumulate heavy metals in their biomass. This biomass can subsequently be harvested easily & treated/
disposed to get rid of the accumulated pollutants (Cui et. al., 2013). The short life cycle of herbaceous
ornamentals enables us to study their remediation potential throughout all stages of the life cycle. Plants having
tolerance to biotic (pest and disease resistance) & abiotic (heat, drought, salt) stress are considered for
bioremediation activities.
It is evident that genetically modified ornamental plants have the maximum resistance to drought, stress
tolerance and heat & pest resistance, etc. These plants have the most potential for remediating contaminated
lands with pest/disease infestations and harsh environmental conditions (Samudro & Mangkoedihardjo, 2021).
Ornamental plants with greater potential for phytoremediation can be mainly assessed according to their
morphological characteristics. The root, stem, and leaf morphologies play important roles in the
phytoremediation process. Root length, density, and surface area are important characteristics that can directly
influence the uptake or degradation of contaminants. The tolerance and accumulation of contaminants by the
ornamental plants relates with the height as well as the diameter of the stem. The leaf area index plays a major
role in biomass increases through its impact on photosynthesis, and the leaf is also the major site for
volatilization and excretion, which is one detoxification mechanism for hazardous materials (Capuana, 2020).
Screening is done via pot culture by enforcing stress conditions in the laboratory, which is extended into field
trials.
Experiments show that higher the bioavailability of pollutant molecules, higher is the rate of phytoremediation.
In order to improve the phytoremediation potential of ornamental plants, it is important to increase the bio-
availability of pollutants to the plants (Prasad, 2012).
PHYTOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Metals like zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni) are indispensable for many biological functions in plants, but the
problem arises only when they are present in the high intensities in the soil. This condition ultimately may lead
to metal toxicity for the plants (Liu et al., 2017). Toxicity is, also, seen to be caused by arsenic (As), selenium
(Se), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Toxicity caused by such heavy metals ultimately leads to reduction in soil
quality, reduced crop yield, ground water pollution, thereby posing a threat to human and animal health by
entering the food chain. It is important to study the physiological responses of the plants, in the present case,
ornamental plants, to understand their capacity to tolerate such environmental stress. This eventually helps the
researchers to narrow down on the ornamental plants possessing phytoremediation potential.
Plants are known to tolerate excessive concentrations of heavy metals in the environs that they thrive in. The
type of physiological responses of the plants can be attributed to their individualistic character, the concerned
metal and its form, as well as, it depends on the concentration and duration of exposure to the specific heavy
metal (Baker and Walker, 1989).

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METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED FOR CHECKING PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES UNDER

HEAVY METAL STRESS
Growth responses of ornamental plants under heavy metal stress in pot cultures, in a hydroponic set-up, or in
field experiments can be assessed by checking several parameters such as root length, shoot height, and plant
fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll content, anti-oxidant properties, proline content, inhibition rate, tolerance
index, etc. Tagetes erecta has been tested for its heavy metal tolerance against Pb and Ni by carrying out a
hydroponic analysis (Bardiya‑Bhurat et al., 2017). Tagetes patula has also been tested for its potential to
phytoremediate in pot experiments (Sun et al., 2011). Pot experiments enable the researchers to give a variety of
treatments, and help in narrowing down probable ornamental plants for their phytoremediation capabilities.
Such methodology can pave way for field trials. A field trial spanning 180 days was conducted by Li et al.,
2022, to investigate the potential of Tagetes patula L. to remediate Cd polluted soil. Soil total Cd and organic
matter, along with plant Cd extraction was assessed. Field experiments have been considered to have more
validity than any other methodology of assessment, as they can emulate the natural settings in which the plants
grow, hence providing authentic results (Liu et al., 2017).
Many a times heavy metals are accumulated inside different plant parts, with only a few physiological changes
in the plant. Such plants are great contenders for remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils.
Bioaccumulation factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TLF) can be calculated to evaluate plants for their
phytoremediation potential of heavy metals. The formula for calculation of BCF and TLF is given below:
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
𝑇𝐿𝐹 =
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝐵𝐶𝐹 =
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
Values of BCF >100 and TLF >1 have been seen in plants which are ideal for phytoextraction of heavy metals.
Such factors help the researchers to authenticate their studies and bring conclusive evidence to the table. This
paves way for researchers to look for hyperaccumulators of some heavy metals, for e.g., Ni has a vital role to
play in the physiology of plants (Sreekanth et al., 2013), and it is for this reason it has been seen to be
hyperaccumulated in many plants. It is imperative to have standard indices for quantifying a plant’s capability
to accumulated heavy metals.
PHYTOREMEDIATION MECHANISMS OF HEAVY METALS AND THEIR ENHANCEMENT
Ornamental plants, like other plants, can be classified according to the mechanisms they apply for metal uptake.
Uptake mechanisms are influenced by a few factors such as plant species, bioavailability of the metal, soil
properties and the type of enhancer added (Tangahu et al., 2011). Phytoextraction, and phytostabilisation are
pretty reliable than phytovolatilization and rhizofiltration (Laghlimi et al., 2015).
Plants which are ‘Excluders’ can limit the heavy metal mobility and translocation into the shoot. This can be
termed as phyto-stabilisation. Chromium (Cr) containing wastewater could be phytostabilised by Commelina
communis L. as studied by Tang and Xi (2002). Plants like Cyperus alternifolius, Canna indica, Eichhornia
crassipes, and Pistia stratiotes were considered as strong excluders by Sricoth et al. (2018).
Plants that behave as ‘Indicators’ or ‘Accumulators’ amass heavy metals in their parts which are above the soil.
Mentha villosa and Lavandula anqustifolia, along with Helianthus annuus were tested to be accumulators of
heavy metals (Barouchas et al., 2019; Alaboudi et al. 2018).
‘Hyperaccumulator plants’ take up heavy metals from the soil and compartmentalise them in shoots and leaves.
Toxic symptoms are rarely observed in such plants. For e.g., hyperaccumulators of Cd can form organic
complexes containing Cd, thereby influencing the interactions of Cd with other elements. This gives the plants
an ability to tolerate and accumulate toxic degrees of Cd in their tissues (Shanying et al., 2017). Pteris vittata
which is a common ornamental fern, is a very well known hyperaccumulator of As (Xie et al., 2009). Similarly,
Cosmos bipinnata was found to be an hyperaccumulator of Cd by Huang et al., (2017).
Various analysis methodologies have brought forth a plethora of ornamental plants with promising capabilities
to phytoremediate contaminated environments. Ornamentals like Mirabilis jalapa L. and Calendula officinalis
have shown high tolerance towards Cd with maximum tolerance concentration at 100 mg/kg. Celosia cristata
pyramidalis and Chlorophytum comosum have shown a greater tolerance towards Pb, with maximum tolerance
concentration at 5000 mg/kg and 2000 mg/kg, respectively (Liu et al., 2017). Soils containing Ralstonia
eutropha and Chrysiobacterium humi has been seen to reduce loss of biomass, and aids in metal
bioaccumulation in heavy metal exposed plant, such as Helianthus annuus. Similar effect has been seen when
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plants are infected with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi such as Glomus spp. (Nakbanpote et al., 2016).
Uses of soil conditioners such as biochar, peat moss, chelators, compost, biosolids, etc., can also aid in the
bioaccumulation and mobilisation of heavy metals (Khan et al., 2021).
GROWTH RESPONSES UNDER ORGANIC POLLUTANT STRESS
Another major problem, apart from heavy metal contamination, is the contamination of soil by organic
pollutants. Incessant uses of pesticides and herbicides have led to this grave problem.
Persistant organic pollutants (POPs) are of chief concern among the other organic contaminants. The major
POPs are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) and Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) (Megharaj et al. 2011). Their persistence in the soil, bioaccumulation in living organisms and
high toxicity make them quite notorious. Incidences of mutagenicity and carcinogenicity have been prevalent
because of the presence of such compounds in the soil. Kaur et al., 2018, have reported bioaccumulation of
pesticide residues in study group of people selected from Bathinda district of Punjab. Chlorpyrifos is an organo-
phosphate pesticide which poses a great risk the environment. Propargite, an organosulphur compound, is
another notorious organo-sulphur liquid poses a similar threat to mankind. Hlihor et al. (2016) assessed the
health risks of various pesticides and their study revealed that propargite was likely to pose a greater health risk
to children from the age of three to ten years.
Microbial remediation has been effective but researchers are looking for solutions among plants, as well. For
such assessment for organic pollutants, growth parameters such as the height of the shoots, dry biomass of the
plants, photosynthetic rate, and ultrastructure of the leaf cells needs to be checked for damage. Peng et al.,
(2009), have demonstrated that Mirabilis jalapa plant had a good tolerance towards petroleum contaminants in
the soil. Zhang et al., (2010) observed that Pharbitis nil L. had a good potential for remediating soils
contaminated with TPHs. An influence of microbial population of on the phytoremediation potential was also
recorded.
PHYTOREMEDIATION MECHANISMS OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS AND THEIR
ENHANCEMENT
Ornamental plants have been known to have a high tolerance towards organic pesticides/insecticides, as well.
Many plants show no stress symptoms on exposure to organic pollutants; growth parameters are not drastically
inhibited. For example, Mirabilis jalapa has been seen to strongly survive in nitrobenzene-contaminated soils
(Zhou et al., 2012). T. patula was found to be suitable for phytoremediation of B[a]P, and as well as B[a]P–Cd
contaminated sites (Sun et al., 2011).
The mechanisms by which organic pollutants are taken up by the plants are similar to the take up of heavy
metals. Roots translocate the organic pollutants to other tissues. There these pollutants may get stored, partially
or completely degraded, or volatilized. A few processes can be enumerated here to give an idea of how organic
pollutants are treated by plants: 1) Plants uptake organic pollutants from the soil. 2) Xylem then transfers the
organic pollutant to other plant tissues. 3) From some plant tissues the organic pollutants can be volatilized to
the atmosphere. 4) Another mechanism that can take out organic pollutants from the soil is metabolizing the
pollutant, or lignifying it by plant enzymes (Liu et al., 2018). Majorly the mechanism employed by the plants
for uptake of organic pollutants is by phytodegradation. It is also referred to as phyto transformation, in which,
the complex organic pollutants are degraded into their lesser harmful forms. This process entails
phytostimulation, where enzymes or exudates are secreted out in the root zone of the plant to degrade organic
matter along with pollutants. The process is supported by the soil microorganisms, which ultimately leads to the
acceleration in the breakdown of organic pollutants (Sophia and Kodialbail, 2020).
Another aspect that comes to the fore is the enhancement of the degradation process. Microorganisms have been
said to aid in the process of breakdown of an organic pollutant. For e.g., Lolium multiflorum system was used in
the phytoremediation of Arabian medium crude oil, which was supplemented with arbuscular mycorrhiza
individually, and a mixture of Sphingomonas paucimobilis. Another set of plants was supplemented with the
filamentous fungus, Cunninghamella echinulate, or a combination of organisms. This was shown to have a
positive effect on the phytoremediation process (Alarcón et al., 2008). Arbuscular mycorrhizal
phytoremediation was applied on soils contaminated with phenanthrene and pyrene (polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons). Plants like Medicago sativa L. were infected with Glomus mosseae and G. etunicatum, as a
result 98.6% and 88.1% of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were degraded. Using an optimal combination of
mycorrhizal fungi can significantly enhance the phytoremediation potential of plants (Gao et al., 2011).
The addition of organic soil amendments, such as, willow root exudates, a nonionic surfactant (Tween 80), and
carboxylic acids (citrate and oxalate) can aid in the process of the degradation of organic contaminant.
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Mamirova et al., 2020, found out in their study on the phytoremediation potential of Miscanthus sinensis, that
the efficiency of phytoremediation of organo-chlorine pesticides can be increased by addition of activated
carbon and Tween 20 by speeding up the remediation process. Mitton et al., 2012, studied the effect of Tween
80, roots exudates and some carboxylic acids in the uptake and translocation of DDTs by Willow plants.
Carboxylic acid supplemented treatment showed the highest translocation factor. The addition of enhancement
mechanisms for the uptake of organic pollutants serves as good prospect for achieving efficiency in the
phytodegradation of these pollutants.
DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANT BY ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Chlorpyrifos pesticide has been to be removed from water under greenhouse conditions by aquatic plants like
Pistia stratiotes L. and Lemna minor L. (Prasertsup and Ariyakanon, 2011). Similarly, the combination of E.
crassipes and the bacterium Acinetobacter sp. strain WHA present a proficient system for removal of
chlorpyrifos from contaminated waters (Anudechakul et al., 2015). Miticide like propargite is known to be
degraded by certain microorganisms, such as Pseudomonas putida (Sarkar et al., 2010). Propargite and its
metabolite 2-(p-t-butylphenoxy)-cyclohexanol [TBPC] have been known to be existing as residual compounds.
Kumar et al., 2004 have studied the degeneration of propargite in soil by apple and tea plants. With the
evidence available, undoubtedly ornamental plants also can be screened for their potential to degrade pesticides
like propargite and their metabolites. It can be opined that the metabolization of the pollutants serves as the key
for future studies regarding phytoremediation of these pollutants.
Plants like Gaillardia aristata, Echinacea purpurea, Festuca arundinacea Schreb, F. arundinacea), and
Medicago sativa L. were found to effectively reduce petroleum hydrocarbon levels from the soil (Liu et al.,
2012). Fifteen ornamental plants, grown hydroponically, were tested against formaldehyde stress. Out of the lot,
Spathiphyllum floribundum, Alocasia cucullata, Davallia bullata, Syngonium podophyllum, and Schefflera
octophylla showed the best capability to withstand formaldehyde stress (Wang et al., 2020). Such screening
strategies can help researchers to identify ornamentals which can be solely employed for ridding the
environment of contaminants.
SOME PLANTS WITH PHYTOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL
Coleus spp
In a study by Leon et. al.,2011, the capacity of Coleus blumei to extract and accumulate aluminum was
evaluated. It showed that even though Coleus was designated as a non-accumulator of Al, it can be used safely
for the treatment of polluted waters. Coleus blumei, thus, can be designated as a metal stress tolerant plant with
phytoextraction capacity of heavy metals from contaminated soil. There is also evidence to suggest that Coleus
can remediate the soils of cadmium & lead as well (Pandya Kirti, 2022). Coleus shows the ability to concentrate
selenium in its roots & leaves; effects of selenium toxicity are visible at concentrations more than 0.1 mmol/L
of soil solution (Hu, M. H., & Yuan, J. H., 2015).
Five species of Coleus were studied under salinity stress by Kotagiri and Kolluru (2017). Coleus aromaticus
and Coleus amboinicus, showed better phytoremediation performance by increased carbohydrate contents and
water absorption potential. They concluded that increased carbohydrate content under salinity indicates higher
salt tolerance in the plant (Hayat et. al., 2022).
Coleus blumei has also been grown in a floating hydroponic system using plantation cups in domestic
wastewater. It was observed that Coleus showed good growth in this system and significantly reduced the
pollutant load from the wastewater (Liu, 2004). It is also one of the few lead tolerant plants and shows mild lead
accumulation in the leaves without exhibiting toxic effects. Selenium can be used to mitigate the toxic effects of
lead accumulation in Coleus (Yuan, J., & Hu, M., 2013).
Euphorbia spp
The potential of Euphorbia milli to tolerate and remediate soils contaminated by chromium was investigated by
Ramana S, et. al., 2015. Euphorbia prostata is an excellent candidate for remediation & biosorption of heavy
metals such as cadmium, chromium & lead (Husnain, A., Ali, S. S., & Zafar, R. (2013). Euphorbia pithyusa
was observed to have metal ion collecting properties when grown in conjunction with metal-tolerant bacteria
(Sprocati et. al., 2014).
Euphorbia thymifolia remediated soil contaminated with cadmium more efficiently when organic acids were
added to the soil (Shuwei et. al., 2015). Another species of Euphorbia: E. macroclada was found to be a macro
accumulator of Manganese (Lorestani, B., Cheraghi, M., & Yousefi, N., 2011). E. indica is a well-known weed
which commonly grows in fallow lands. It’s investigation has revealed that E. indica is an excellent

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accumulator & detoxifier of chromium in soil (Jabbar, et. al., 2019). Euphorbia tithymaloides, a common
garden plant is a very promising candidate for phytoremediation of diesel contaminated soil (Nangai &
Venkatachary, 2017).
Cordyline Fruticosa
Study carried out by Herlina et. al, 2020, observed that the metal (lead) tolerance index for Cordyline fruticosa
ranged from 90.87% - 93.07%. The Translocation (TF) and Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF) were also of
significance. The authors observed that the TF values indicated towards the translocation of metal from roots to
other organs of the plant, but the TF values decreased with the duration of lead exposure. The value of TF C.
fruticosa ranged between 0.4836 - 1.2810. Hence, it could be concluded by the authors that the lead did move
from the roots to other organs initially, but as the duration was extended, at the end of two months or three
months, the metal translocation was decreased. This led to more accumulation of lead in the roots than any other
plant parts.
Furthermore, the authors deduced that the Bioaccumulation (BAF) values increased with the time of lead
exposure, with the values ranging from 0.2539 - 1.7997. BAF values were high for the T0 treatment, which
indicated that significantly lesser amounts of lead can be accumulated efficiently by the plants under study.
Metal extraction amount (MEA) values also seen to increase in the initial first month for the samples taken from
root, stem and leaves of the study plant.
Muryani et al., 2020 have suggested the use of Cordyline for land rehabilitation in Cinangka Village, Bogor,
Indonesia. The plants that were tested for their lead uptake potential were Cordyline fruticosa and Ipomea
reptans Poir. Cordyline was the preferred choice for rehabilitation of land, as it is an ornamental plant.
Jayanthi et. al, 2017, studied the potential of Cordyline sp. plant and Duranta variegated for the
phytoremediation of heavy metals (Pb, As, Mn, Ni, and Cr) from the leachate contaminated soil. The results
showed that Cordyline sp. tends to accumulate high amounts of heavy metals in comparison to Duranta. Based
on the above findings, the authors concluded that C. fruticosa plants show an adaptability to grow in lead
contaminated areas.
Another facet that can be explored is the potential of Cordyline sp. to degrade organic pollutants. Cordyline has
been seen to uptake the air contaminants toluene and ethylbenzene (Sriprapat et al., 2014). This opens up
several doors for exploration of Cordyline as a phytoremediation plant. Potential of Cordyline to remediate
pesticides from the soil can be explored further.
Nerium Oleander
The capacity of Nerium oleander to phytoremediate has been explored. Ibrahim and Afandi, 2020, in their
study, developed a simple uptake plant model using Nerium. The heavy metals studied were Pb, Cd, and Zn.
The uptake of the mentioned heavy metals was traced by several pathways. Soil-root-leaf pathway, soil-air-leaf
pathway, and their accumulation was tested. It was observed that Pb was accumulated in the root, while Cd and
Zn were concentrated in the aerial parts of the N. oleander plant.
Furthermore, Koucim et. al, 2021, took samples of Nerium oleander from twenty urban areas in Setif Province,
in Algeria. The concentrations of Cd, Mn, Pb, Sb, Cu, Bi and Fe were determined. It was observed that N.
oleander showed high concentrations heavy metal accumulation in its leaves. Conclusively, N. oleander can be
designated as a hyper-accumulator of Sb, Mn and Pb. The authors have suggested the use of N. oleander as a
biomonitoring plant.
Elloumi et al. 2016, studied the response of N. oleander to phosphogypsum amendment of soil. The leaves of N.
oleander contained higher concentrations of Zn, Fe, Ni, and Cr. Bioaccumulation factor values for Zn, Ni, and
Cr were greater than 1 in the roots, which represents the metal deposition potential of the plant. Translocation
factor of Ni and Cr was less than 1 which showed that those metals were phytostabilised in the roots.
Hence, it can be inferred from the available literature that Nerium is an excellent contender to phytoremediate
heavy metals from soils, however, more research needs to be done in the field of phytoremediation of organic
pollutants by N. oleander.
CONCLUSION
Plants in general have several lines of defences when under stress. Specific heavy metal stress triggers the first
line of defence sometimes is seen in the reduction in the uptake of heavy metals when present in high
concentrations. This may also lead to restriction in the entry of metals in the cells. The toxicants can be then
sequestered into the plant vacuoles, and there is a subsequent release of stress related compounds such as
proteins, some signalling molecules, hormones, etc., (Ghori et al., 2019). Hence, employing plants towards
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environmental phytoremediation is a wise path which many researchers have taken up. Moreover, ornamental
plants hold an added advantage of land rehabilitation. To give a significant boost to the economic and
ecological value of the ornamental plants, researchers can venture into this field and subsequently protect the
environment from contaminants and preserve it in the process.
From the studies undertaken by many researchers in the field of environmental sciences, it is evident that the
scientists are working towards minimizing the environmental risks posed by heavy metals and pesticides. Focus
should be further shifted towards molecular mechanisms through which the hazardous substances are being
accumulated by the ornamental plants. The ultimate goal is to find safe and gregarious measures to optimise and
rationalise the final disposal of the ornamental plants. This will only come with coming up with new screening
processes and remediation methods using ornamental plants. The future indeed covets the augmented
approaches to safeguard the environment.
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toxicology, 80(3), 260-265.

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34. Liu, J., Xin, X., & Zhou, Q. (2018). Phytoremediation of contaminated soils using ornamental
plants. Environmental Reviews, 26(1), 43-54.
35. Liu, R., Jadeja, R. N., Zhou, Q., & Liu, Z. (2012). Treatment and remediation of petroleum-contaminated
soils using selective ornamental plants. Environmental engineering science, 29(6), 494-501.
36. Liu, S., Lin, D., Tang, S., & Luo, J. (2004). Purification of eutrophic wastewater by Cyperus alternifolius,
Coleus blumei and Jasminum sambac planted in a floating phytoremediation system. Ying Yong Sheng tai
xue bao= The Journal of Applied Ecology, 15(7), 1261-1265.
37. Lorestani, B., Cheraghi, M., & Yousefi, N. (2011). Phytoremediation potential of native plants growing on a
heavy metals contaminated soil of copper mine in Iran. International Journal of Geological and
Environmental Engineering, 5(5), 299-304.
38. Mamirova, A., Pidlisnyuk, V., Amirbekov, A., Ševců, A., & Nurzhanova, A. (2021). Phytoremediation
potential of Miscanthus sinensis And. in organochlorine pesticides contaminated soil amended by Tween 20
and Activated carbon. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(13), 16092-16106.
39. Mandal, A., Purakayastha, T. J., Ramana, S., Neenu, S., Bhaduri, D., Chakraborty, K., ... & Rao, A. S.
(2014). Status on phytoremediation of heavy metals in India-a review. International Journal of Bio-resource
and Stress Management, 5(4), 553-560.
40. Megharaj, M., Ramakrishnan, B., Venkateswarlu, K., Sethunathan, N., & Naidu, R. (2011). Bioremediation
approaches for organic pollutants: a critical perspective. Environment international, 37(8), 1362-1375.
41. Mitton, F. M., Gonzalez, M., Peña, A., & Miglioranza, K. S. (2012). Effects of amendments on soil
availability and phytoremediation potential of aged p, p′-DDT, p, p′-DDE and p, p′-DDD residues by
willow plants (Salix sp.). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 203, 62-68.
42. Muryani, E., Mulyanto, D., & Hernanda, R. M. (2020, July). Phytoremediation of lead (Pb) polluted soil by
Cordyline fruticosa and Ipomea reptans Poir (case study: Used battery smelting industry at Cinangka
Village, Bogor). In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2245, No. 1, p. 090011). AIP Publishing LLC.
43. Nakbanpote, W., Meesungnoen, O., & Prasad, M. N. V. (2016). Potential of ornamental plants for
phytoremediation of heavy metals and income generation. In Bioremediation and bioeconomy (pp. 179-
217). Elsevier.
44. Peng, S., Jin, Y., Chen, Y., Wu, C., Wang, Y., Wang, X., ... & Xu, Y. (2022). Growth Response,
Enrichment Effect, and Physiological Response of Different Garden Plants under Combined Stress of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heavy Metals. Coatings, 12(8), 1054.
45. Peng, S., Zhou, Q., Cai, Z., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Phytoremediation of petroleum contaminated soils by
Mirabilis Jalapa L. in a greenhouse plot experiment. Journal of hazardous materials, 168(2-3), 1490-1496.
46. Prasertsup, P., & Ariyakanon, N. (2011). Removal of chlorpyrifos by water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) and
duckweed (Lemna minor L.). International journal of phytoremediation, 13(4), 383-395.
47. Rocha, C. S., Rocha, D. C., Kochi, L. Y., Carneiro, D. N. M., Dos Reis, M. V., & Gomes, M. P. (2021).
Phytoremediation by ornamental plants: a beautiful and ecological alternative. Environmental Science and
Pollution Research, 1-19.
48. Samudro, H., & Mangkoedihardjo, S. (2021). Indoor phytoremediation using decorative plants: An
overview of application principles. Journal of Phytology, 13(6), 28-32.
49. Sarkar S., S. Seenivasan, and R. P. S. Asir (2010). Biodegradation of propargite by Pseudomonas putida,
isolated from tea rhizosphere. Journal of Hazardous Materials 174 (2010) 295–298.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.050.
50. Shanying, H. E., Xiaoe, Y. A. N. G., Zhenli, H. E., & Baligar, V. C. (2017). Morphological and
physiological responses of plants to cadmium toxicity: a review. Pedosphere, 27(3), 421-438.
51. Shuwei, Z., Weibin, P., Caixiu, L., & Jian, W. (2015). Effects of exogenous organic acids on
phytoremediation of Cd-contaminated soil by Euphorbia thymifolia L. Chinese Journal of Environmental
Engineering, 9(10), 5096-5102.
52. Sophia, S., & Shetty Kodialbail, V. (2020). Phytoremediation of soil for metal and organic pollutant
removal. Bioprocess Engineering for Bioremediation, 45-66.
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53. Sprocati, A. R., Alisi, C., Pinto, V., Montereali, M. R., Marconi, P., Tasso, F., ... & Cremisini, C. (2014).
Assessment of the applicability of a “toolbox” designed for microbially assisted phytoremediation: the case
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54. Sreekanth, T. V. M., Nagajyothi, P. C., Lee, K. D., & Prasad, T. N. V. K. V. (2013). Occurrence,
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55. Sricoth, T., Meeinkuirt, W., Saengwilai, P., Pichtel, J., & Taeprayoon, P. (2018). Aquatic plants for
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Uptake of toluene and ethylbenzene by plants: removal of volatile indoor air contaminants. Ecotoxicology
and environmental safety, 102, 147-151.
57. Sun, Y., Zhou, Q., Xu, Y., Wang, L., & Liang, X. (2011). Phytoremediation for co-contaminated soils of
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found remediation species Mirabilis Jalapa L. Chemosphere, 86(10), 994-1000.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF CARAPACE EXTRACTS OF CRUSTACEANS FOUND IN COASTAL

REGIONS OF MUMBAI

Khadija Parkar1, Minakshi Gaurav2 and Vaishali Rajurkar1

1
Department of Chemistry, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai – 400016
2
Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai – 400016

ABSTRACT
The crab carapace is the shell covering the body of the crab. The carapace of crab consists of 25-30% Chitin,
25% Protein, and 40-50% Calcium carbonate. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide after
cellulose. More than 1011 tons of chitin is produced annually in the aquatic biosphere. The current work is
focused on the biological activity of some species of Crustaceans against gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus
and gram-negative Escherichia coli. We selected two species of crabs, Scylla serrata & Portunus pelagicus,
and two species of Indian prawn Fenneropenaeus indicus and Prawn sp. (tiger prawn). The carapace of all the
selected species is soluble in the proper solvent. The powdered carapace of all species was studied for
antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The disc diffusion method with
nutrient agar extract was used for antibacterial studies. The lowest concentration of 0.004% of the Scylla
serrata sample shows an inhibition zone up to 20mm against Escherichia coli and 9mm against Staphylococcus
aureus. As compared to the standard studied samples, it showed 100% activity against Escherichia coli and
70% against Staphylococcus aureus. The rest of the species also showed an inhibition zone against both
bacteria. According to the results, all four species act against both bacteria, so may be used as raw material in
medicines like the preparation of ointment, dusting powder for skin infections, etc.
Keywords: antibacterial agents, Crustaceans species, disc diffusion method, coastal region of Mumbai

1. INTRODUCTION
The carapace is the basic source of Chitin found in arthropods, jellyfish, shrimp, lobster, crabs, nematodes,
fungi, squids, green algae and exoskeletons of insects, etc. The crab shell contains 25-30% chitin, 25% protein
and 40-50% calcium carbonate [1]. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose. Every
year around 6-8 million tons of crab, shrimp, and lobster waste is produced globally. This shell waste can be
used as a raw material in medicine. Chitin has numerous biological applications. Recent research has focused on
the possibility of developing chitosan as a natural disinfectant [3]. The work focuses on studying the biological
activity of the carapaces of crabs and prawns. The selected sample species of crabs are Scylla serrata &
Portunus pelagicus and prawns are Fenneropenaeus indicus & Prawn sp. (tiger prawn). To study the
antibacterial activity the bacteria used are gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative Escherichia
coli. These two bacteria were used because they are most commonly found in the environment and also in the
nose & on the skin of humans. Escherichia coli is commonly found in the intestines of animals & in the
environment and is the most infectious bacteria among the genera.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
SAMPLE COLLECTION

Figure a: Scylla serrata Figure b: Portunus pelagicus

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Figure c: Fenneropenaeus indicus Figure d: Prawn sp. (tiger prawn)

The raw material of crabs and shrimp were collected from a fish market in the coastal region of Mumbai. Their
carapaces were parted from their body. The carapaces were washed several times and made sure that there were
no tissues or any other impurities left. The carapaces were cleaned and dried under the sun. After making sure
all of the carapaces are dried, fine powder was made of all of them in the grinder.
METHODOLOGY
● 0.4 g of the powdered carapace of all the sample species was weighed accurately. The Dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) solvent was used to dissolve all the sample species.
● The sample solutions were heated in the water bath for complete dissolution.
● The discs were made of Whatman filter paper no. 41 and were saturated in all 4 sample species.
● The activities were checked by the disc diffusion method [4-5].
DISC DIFFUSION METHOD
The Disc diffusion method for antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out to assess the presence of
antibacterial activities of all sample species.
● All the apparatus used for the culture were autoclaved.
● Nutrient agar solution was poured into the plates and was kept to settle.
● The plates were swabbed by Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The saturated discs of all
different samples were placed on agar plates.
● Each plate comprises three discs. One positive control, which is a standard commercial antibiotic disc, one
negative control, and one saturated sample disc. The standard antibiotic disc taken was ampicillin 250mg.
The negative control was DMSO (100%).
● All agar plates were incubated at 37°C for 48 h.
● Observed agar plates and measured inhibition zones from each disc in mm.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The inhibition zones observed in all the samples were subtracted from the inhibition zone of the negative
control taken (DMSO) and compared with the positive control Ampicillin. The results are given below in the
table.

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INHIBITION ZONES OF THE SAMPLES

Figure e: Inhibition zone of Scylla serrata (44mm) & Portunus pelagicus (34mm) and DMSO (24mm) in E.
coli.

Figure f: Inhibition zone of Prawn sp. (tiger prawn) (28mm) and Fenneropenaeus indicus (24mm) in E. coli.

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Figure g: Inhibition zones of Scylla serrata (33mm) & Portunus pelagicus (25mm) in S.aureus.

Figure h: Inhibition zone of Prawn sp. (tiger prawn) (19mm) and Fenneropenaeus indicus (30mm) in S.aureus.
Table: 1
Samples E.coli S.aureus
Scylla serrata ++++(20mm) +++(9mm)
Portunus pelagicus ++++(10mm) +(0.7 mm)
Tiger prawn ++(4mm) ++(5mm)
Indian prawn +(0.4mm) +(7mm)
Ampicillin shows ++++ activity 100% against both the bacteria.
In the above table,When compared with the standard taken, we can see that Scylla serrata shows 100%
antibacterial activity against E. coli and 75% against S. aureus; Portunus pelagicus shows 100% activity against
E. coli and 25% against S.aureus; Prawn sp. (Tiger prawn) shows 50% antibacterial activity against both the
bacteria; Fenneropenaeus indicus (Indian prawn) shows 25% activity against both the bacteria.
The inhibition zone was seen in all four samples taken either because the samples blocked the active binding
sites of the bacteria or the bacteria was killed [6-7].

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4. CONCLUSION
The antibacterial activity of the carapace from crab & prawn shells was tested against two strains. They were
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. All the selected species showed inhibition zones. The advantage is,
it is biodegradable, biocompatible, and has tremendous applications in the medicinal and pharmaceutical
industry. According to the observations, carapaces can be used in the treatment of skin infections as an
ointment, dusting powder, etc. It can be used as a calcium supplement in the treatment of rickets [8].
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful for the Department of Zoology, D.G. Ruparel College, Mumbai for providing facility of
biological activity.
6. REFERENCES
1. Pandharipande, S., & Bhagat, P. H. (2016). Synthesis of chitin from crab shells and its utilisation in
preparation of nanostructured film. Synthesis, 5(5), 1378-1383.
2. Vicente, F. A., Ventura, S. P., Passos, H., Dias, A. C., Torres-Acosta, M. A., Novak, U., & Likozar, B.
(2022). Crustacean waste biorefinery as a sustainable cost-effective business model. Chemical Engineering
Journal, 442, 135937.
3. Kim, C. H., Kim, S. Y., & Choi, K. S. (1997). Synthesis and Antibacterial Activity of Water‐soluble Chitin
Derivatives. Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 8(5), 319-325.b
4. Zaidan, M. R., Noor Rain, A., Badrul, A. R., Adlin, A., Norazah, A., & Zakiah, I. (2005). In vitro screening
of five local medicinal plants for antibacterial activity using disc diffusion method. Trop biomed, 22(2),
165-170.
5. Allan, R. (2010). Antibacterial activity of propolis and honey against Staphylococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 4(18), 1872-1878.
6. Vaishali H. Rajurkar, Preparation and antimicrobial studies of some metal complexes of 2-(imine-2/3-
hydroxybenzene)-3-hydroxyiminobutane, International Journal of Grid and Distributed Computing Vol. 13,
No. 2, (2020), pp. 126–134.
7. Varadharajan, D., & Soundarapandian, P. (2013). Antibacterial activity of crab shell extracts against human
pathogenic bacteria and usage of new drugs. Journal of Developing Drugs, 2(2), 1000110.
8. Ri, G., Ri, O. S., & Pang, M. R. (2020). The function of the crab shell powder as calcium supplementary in
the treatment of rickets.

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GREEN ROUTE FOR BENZIMIDAZOLE SYNTHESIS USING SYZYGIUM CUMINI WATER

EXTRACT

Hrushikesh P. Deokar, Suhas P. Janwadkar and Bhavesh Shinde

S. Dandekar Arts, V.S. Apte Commerce and M.H. Mehta Science College, Palghar, Maharashtra

ABSTRACT
In recent years environmental pollution is major concern arising globally. To full fill human needs we are
running factories, industries and all other possible ways, which leads to pollution. Pharma Industry is one of
the major industry, which is continuously trying to develop new product for human health. Benzimidazole is one
organic compound widely used in all fields of chemical and pharma industry. In current research project we
are trying to synthesize benzimidazole molecules using biocatalyst. Biocatalysts are the one which are obtaining
from natural resources and they show same effect as other chemical compounds. Biocatalyst proposed here are
WESC - water extract of Syzygium Cumini (White jamun).
Keywords: Green Route, bio-catalyst, benzimidazole, Syzygium Cumini

INTRODUCTION
In recent years environmental pollution is major concern arising globally. In COVID pandemic situation of
2020 we peoples lock down into homes, most of the activities were stop and this was the time when lowest
pollution in all fields were observed. Air quality, Water quality, river water quality was surprisingly developed
to excellent level. To full fill human need we are running factories and all other possible ways, which leads to
pollution. Chemicals used are one of those factors which affect the environment. Pharma Industry is one the
major sector of industry, which is continuously trying to develop new product for human health. Benzimidazole
is one organic compound widely used in all fields of chemical and pharma industry. Benzimidazole has versatile
application in pharmaceutical industry. Benzimidazole used in antihypertensive 1, anti-inflammatory2,
anticancer3, antifungals4 and many other applications. There are many researchers who employed various
methods and catalyst for synthesis of benzimidazole. Most of the catalyst are again a chemical like Acetic
Acid5, K4[Fe(CN)6]6 and polyphosphoric acid7 and many more.
In current research paper we are trying to synthesize benzimidazole molecules using biocatalyst. Biocatalyst is
the one which are obtaining from natural resources and they show same effect as other chemical compounds.
Over regular chemical advantage of biocatalyst is that they are biodegradable, cheap, easily available and safer
to use. Some of the research used some fruit juices for benzimidazole synthesis like coconut juice, orange juice,
citrus limetta juice8. Biocatalyst proposed here are WESC - water extract of Syzygium Cumini (White jamun).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Preparation of Water Extract of Syzygium Cumini: Syzygium Cumini (White jamun) fruits were washed
with deionised water and cut into pieces, about 50 gm of white jamun fruit pieces were squeezed into beaker
and stirred for half an hour. Obtain liquid slurry was filtered with filter paper and separated into beaker.
Benzimidazole Synthesis:
Benzaldehyde (0.01mol), O-phenyl diamine (0.01 mol) and catalytical amount of WESC - water extract of
Syzygium cummini were mixed together in water as a solvent, reaction refluxed and monitored for completion
using TLC. After completion of reaction product was separated, recrystallized and dried.
H
NH2 N
Biocatalyst
+ O
Water NH
NH2

OPD Aldehyde derivatives Benzimidazole

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RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Derivative preparation list with different solvents with their reaction time, yield
Sr. No. Aldehyde Derivatives Solvents Biocatalyst Time (min) Yield (%)
1 Benzaldehyde Water WESC 45 83%
2 Benzaldehyde Ethanol WESC 50 81%
3 Benzaldehyde Methanol WESC 48 84%
4 Salicylaldehyde Water Lemon 65 80%
5 Salicylaldehyde Ethanol Lemon 60 80%
6 Salicylaldehyde Methanol Lemon 61 83%
Benzimidazole characterized on the basis of spectral technique
IR values: 1600, 1636, 2900, 3436 cm-1.
NMR Values: 7.20-7.23 (m, 2H), 7.49-7.62(m, 5H), 8.20-8.21 (m, 2H), 12.96 (s, 1H, D2O exchangeable).
CONCLUSION
Here we have reported new catalyst for benzimidazole synthesis, from its purity and yield we can conclude its
possible to use such Syzygium cummini as biocatalyst. Biocatalyst for organic synthesis will reduce the
hazardous chemical catalyst use. Biocatalyst will also helpful in cost cutting for reaction setup.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are grateful to Dr. Kiran Save, Principal, S. Dandekar College, Palghar and Dr. Mrs. Minakshi Gurav,
Assistant Professor, Ruparel College, Mumbai.
REFERENCES
1. Radhika H. Datani, Suvarna G. Kini, Journal of Computational Methods in Molecular Design, 2012, 2 (4),
149-157.
2. Anna Nikalje, Mangesh Ghodke, World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2013, 3(2),
1311-1322.
3. Kapuriya Kaushik, Ganure Ashok, Universal Journal of Pharmacy, 2013, 02 (03), 57- 62.
4. Hament Panwar, Ranjana Dubey, Nidhi Chaudhary and Tilak Ram, Der Pharma Chemica, 2013, 5(6), 192-
200.
5. Davood Azarifar, Mojgan Pirhayati et al., J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 2010, 75 (9) 1181–1189.
6. Kabeer A. Shaikh et al., Org. Communication, 2012, 5(1), 12-17.
7. B.N.B. Vaidehi, Int, J. Pharma Bio Sci, 2012, July, 3(3), 26-31.
8. S. Gulathi et.al., Chudhari Chran singh agriculture university, Haryana.

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

DETECTION OF MICROPLASTICS ALONG COASTAL REGIONS OF MUMBAI

Roshan Mahadik, Aditi Jaiswal and Vaishali Rajurkar

Department of Chemistry, D. G. Ruparel College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Mahim, Mumbai- 400016

ABSTRACT
Plastic, being a versatile material, has penetrated everyday life from clothing to coatings, and from transport to
cleaning products. The plastic revolution creates innovative ways of usage but indirectly contributes to
pollution and becomes a serious issue. Between 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic enter the ocean every year.
This impacts our planet’s precious biodiversity and damages the fragile ecosystems upon which we all depend.
Cleaning our oceans still leaves small particles, known as microplastics (MPs), that degrade from large plastic
pieces. MPs enter the bodies of marine life and make their way to humans through the consumption of seafood.
Consuming MPs may severely ill human health and marine diversity.
This study aims to detect microplastics in seawater from coastal regions of Mumbai. Microplastics were
observed in 1 litre of seawater and sediment which flowed with the water that was collected from each sampling
site. The presence of plastic in our seawater and our diet highlights the overuse and improper handling of
plastic waste. Single-use plastics, improper disposal of materials, and disposal of waste in aquatic systems are
some of the leading causes of plastic pollution. Closing the plastic tap requires recycling plastics into other
items of use, reducing the use of single-use plastics, increasing the use of alternative materials, better designing
and manufacturing processes, etc. Changes in our lifestyle and reducing plastic usage is the only way to reduce
microplastic content.
Keywords: Microplastics, Coastal regions, Pollution, Marine biodiversity

INTRODUCTION
Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles with sizes less than 5 mm in length [1]. They are emerging aquatic
contaminants since they are persistent, can reach high densities and interact with abiotic and biotic
environments. While potential negative impacts are less obvious, their release into the oceans may also have
far-reaching consequences. Human health concerns are suspected through the accumulation of microplastics in
the food chain and/or the sorption of toxicants to plastic while travelling through the environment. Microplastics
are classified into two types based on their sources; “primary” and “secondary” [1]. Primary microplastics are
plastics directly released into the environment in the form of small particulates. They can be a voluntary
addition to products such as scrubbing agents in toiletries and cosmetics (e.g., shower gels). They can also
originate from the abrasion of large plastic objects during manufacturing, use or maintenance such as the
erosion of tyres when driving or the abrasion of synthetic textiles during washing. Secondary microplastics are
microplastics originating from the degradation of larger plastic items into smaller plastic fragments once
exposed to the marine environment. This happens through photodegradation and other weathering processes of
mismanaged waste such as discarded plastic bags or unintentional losses such as fishing nets.
The small size of microplastics leads to their ingestion by a wide range of marine organisms. These MPs then
make their way higher up the food chain and can enter the human digestive system.

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Microplastics In Environment
MPs can cause tissue damage, oxidative stress, and changes in fish' immune-related gene expression and
antioxidant status. After being exposed to MPs, fish suffer from neurotoxicity, growth retardation, and
behavioural abnormalities. The consequences of MPs on human health are poorly understood. Due to the
abundance of MPs in the environment, exposure may occur via consumption, inhalation, and skin contact.
Humans may experience oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immune system disruption, and transfer of
MPs to other tissues after being exposed to them [2].
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Selecting Sampling Sites

This project aims to detect the number of microplastics present along some popular beaches of Mumbai city on
the western coast of India. These beaches are some of the most polluted beaches in Maharashtra (Hindustan
Times, 20 Sept 2017). The beaches selected for the project, in decreasing order of pollution are Juhu beach,
Versova Beach, and Girgaon Beach. These beaches are popular amongst both tourists and locals. They also
appear frequently in newspaper articles highlighting the levels of pollution along the shores.
Sample Collection
The samples from all sampling sites were collected on the same day i.e., 28 th August 2022. The samples were
collected during the monsoon but the skies were clear. Versova sample was collected at 08:45 am during low
tide with minimal people present at the site. The Juhu sample was collected at 9:45 am between low and high
tide with a small crowd present. The Girgaon sample was collected at 11:45 am which was 1 hour before high
tide with minimal people present.
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Samples of seawater were collected in plastic bottles of 1-litre capacity. Any sediment which flowed with the
seawater was also collected. The water was collected at a depth of approximately 10 cm. These bottles were
washed with distilled water before collecting the samples. Plastic bottles were preferred over glass bottles for
price and fragility. The collected samples from each collection site were capped and stored until processing. The
area around the sampling site was also photographed.
Sample Processing
 Saturated KCl solution
 Concentrated HCl
The collected samples from the sites were filtered using vacuum filtration and the solid matter was separated.
This solid matter consisted of sediment, microplastics, and other organic matter like leaves, driftwood, and
pieces of shells. This solid matter was then added to a saturated solution of KCl with a density of 1.3g/mL and
the mixture was kept undisturbed for 24 hours to ensure density separation of MPs. After 24 hours, the MPs
which were visible to the naked eye were collected with the help of tweezers and glass droppers. These particles
were treated with concentrated HCl to remove any organic matter present. They were then washed with distilled
water and placed on a watch glass. The remaining sediment was then visually inspected for any microplastic
particles and transferred to the watch glass. This process was repeated for each sample and the final
microplastics which were removed were then photographed with a mobile phone camera. The microplastics
were counted and characterised. The results are reported in a tabular form and their possible origins were
discussed.
Special care
The use of plastic equipment was avoided during processing. Plastic bottles were only used during sample
collection and cello tape was used for sealing. Bottles used for packaging drinking water were preferred to
ensure minimal microplastic contamination in samples. Natural clothing was worn during sample collections
and the samples were collected against the wind to prevent any sample contamination. The samples were always
kept covered
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of this project are tabulated and described below. Microplastics were found in each sample
collected. They varied in colour, size and materials. They were mostly secondary microplastics. The table
indicates the number of MPs found per litre of each sample.
Table 1
Sample site Versova Juhu Girgaon
No. of MPs present per litre of seawater collected 5+4 9+4 2+1
The number of microplastics in each sample correlates to the pollution level as per the article in Hindustan
Times [3].
Each MP in the sample is labelled with an alpha-numeric code in which the first character is the first letter of
the sample collection site and the second character is a number.
Sample-Versova

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The site of the collection was littered with plastic waste. The sample collected contained pieces of plastic of
various sizes along with some fibrous substance.
1. V1: This is a white-coloured, low-density MP which was floating in the sample before treatment. It may be
a Low-Density Polyethylene particle (LDPE).
2. V2, V3: These are blue-coloured particles which were denser than seawater. A possible source could be a
plastic barrel made from High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE).
3. V4: This is a black-coloured MP floating on the surface. It might be a degraded black polythene bag,
usually used by fisherfolks to sell fish.
4. V5: These fibrous substances resembled cotton. However, upon treating with concentrated HCl, there was
no reaction, indicating that these are manmade fibres.
Sample-Juhu
There was a small amount of plastic waste on the beach and some plastic waste was also present in the water.
1. J1, J2, J3, J4: These are blue-coloured MPs which were floating on the surface. These are most likely
degraded from blue polyethene bags.
2. J5, J6: These are translucent plastic pieces which may have turned reddish brown due to atmospheric and
saline degradation.
3. J7, J8: These are clear plastic particles present in the sample. These may be parts of clear wrap used in
packaging.

Along with these MPs, some coloured fibres were also noticed.
Sample-Girgaon
The collection site was the cleanest with no visible waste in the vicinity. The water collected was also clear
apart from some particles.

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1. G1: This was a greenish-yellow coloured rope-like particle. This would be a part of a fishing net made of
nylon or other synthetic material.
2. G2: This was an MP with pink colour, possibly originating from decorative articles.
Prevalence of Microplastics
Microplastics have been found in the air we breathe [4], in the food we consume [5,6a], or in the soil where our
crops grow [7]. They were discovered at peak of Everest [8] and the depths of the deep ocean [6b,9]. In humans, the
existence of microplastics in the human stool [10] and for the first time, MP fragments in the human placenta [11]
were confirmed. According to an article in The Times of India, microplastics have been found in fish caught off
Mumbai’s coast.

Since fish forms an important part of the diet, microplastics are consumed by many people. Daily average
exposures of 382 ± 205, 594 ± 269, and 1036 ± 493 particles per person were observed through drinking water,
air, and food, respectively for a person living in Mumbai [12]. The plastic intake was calculated to be 122.25 ±
177.38 to 202.80 ± 294.25 mg per person per day with food ingestion being the dominant pathway [12].
Effects of Microplastics
Due to their small size, microplastics are easily ingested by marine animals. In fishes, the ingestion and
subsequent accumulation in their systems cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms. In fishes, microplastics
cause blockages, toxicity, bioaccumulation and low efficiency in functioning. They also hinder the growth of
aquatic plants by obstructing their root systems [15].
MPs contain certain additives and their consumption can lead to certain health complications in humans. The
additives, their uses, and their health effects are mentioned in table 2.
Table 2: Additives present in microplastics [14]
ADDITIVES PROPERTIES EFFECTS
UV Stabilizers/Absorbers Prevents photodegradation Mutagenic, toxic, bioaccumulated
and show estrogenic activity
Antioxidants Delay oxidation, prevents ageing Estrogenic effect

Plasticizers Renders the material pliable Renal, reproductive, cardio, and

neuro-toxicity
Flame Retardants Diminish flammability Endocrine disruptors
Pigments Colour Duplication of food resulting in
gut blockage
Surfactants Modification of surface properties Destroy mucus layer, damage
gills

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Preventive Measures
Certain lifestyle changes are required to reduce the microplastic contents in our ecosystems. This includes
stopping the use of single-use plastics wherever possible, recycling plastic wastes, and disposing of waste
appropriately. Dumping our waste in the oceans is not an option as the oceans return the waste to the coasts.
Also, the marine ecosystem is damaged due to this waste. Reducing the usage of plastic is the only way to repair
the damage created by plastic waste.
CONCLUSION
The plastic revolution has greatly improved human life. We find new ways to use plastic every day. This
increased use, however, has created many problems of its own. Plastics are found everywhere on earth. These
may enter the systems of marine organisms and humans in the form of microplastics and have adverse effects
on health.
We need to find eco-friendly and sustainable ways to reduce plastic waste. This includes the use of enzymes,
green solvents and other chemical and physical techniques. Changing our lifestyle is the best way to reduce the
issues of microplastic and plastic waste in general.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Dr Dilip Maske, Principal of D.G. Ruparel College, for providing the resources and facilities
required for the completion of this project.
REFERENCES
1. Boucher, J. and Friot D. (2017). Primary Microplastics in the Oceans: A Global Evaluation of Sources.
Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 43pp. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2017.01.en
2. Effects of Microplastics on Fish and in Human Health. Simul, Bhuyan Md. s.l.: Frontiers in Environmental
Science, 2022, Vol. 10. 2296-665X https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.827289
3. Chatterjee, Badri. Heading to the beach? These are the 10 most polluted beaches in Maharashtra. Hindustan
Times. September 20, 2017. https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/heading-to-the-beach-these-
are- the-10-most-polluted-beaches-in-maharashtra/story-RPlRqhQSSb5JhlfNIsHKVK.html
4. Enyoh CE, Verla AW, Verla EN et al (2019) Airborne microplastics: a review study on a method for
analysis, occurrence, movement and risks. Environ Monit Assess 191:668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-
019-7842-0
5. Eerkes-Medrano D, Leslie HA, Quinn B (2019) Microplastics in drinking water: a review and assessment.
Curr Opin Environ Sci Heal 7:69– 75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.12.001
6. Zhang D, Liu X, Huang W et al (2020a) Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments and organisms of the
Western Pacific Ocean. Environ Pollut 259:113948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113948
7. Zhang Q, Xu EG, Li J et al (2020b) A review of microplastics in table salt, drinking water, and air: direct
human exposure. Environ Sci Technol 54:3740–3751. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b04535
8. Zhang Q, Zhao Y, Li J, Shi H (2020c) Microplastics in food: health risks. pp 343–356 https:// doi.org/
10.1007/698_2020_453
9. Corradini F, Meza P, Eguiluz R et al (2019) Evidence of microplastic accumulation in agricultural soils
from sewage sludge disposal. Sci Total Environ 671:411–420. https:// doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.scitotenv.
2019.03.368
10. Napper IE, Davies BFR, Clifford H et al (2020) Reaching new heights in plastic pollution—preliminary
findings of microplastics on Mount Everest. One Earth 3:621–630. https:// doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.oneear.
2020.10.020
11. Courtene-Jones W, Quinn B, Ewins C et al (2020) Microplastic accumulation in deep-sea sediments from
the Rockall Trough. Mar Pollut Bull 154:111092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111092
12. Schwabl P, Köppel S, Königshofer P et al (2019) Detection of various microplastics in human stool. Ann
Intern Med 171:453. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-0618
13. Ragusa A, Svelato A, Santacroce C et al (2021) Plasticenta: first evidence of microplastics in human
placenta. Environ Int 146:106274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274

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14. Yadav H, Sethulekshmi S, Shriwastaw A (2022), Estimation of microplastic exposure via the composite
sampling of drinking water, respirable air, and cooked food from Mumbai, India. https:// doi.org/
10.1016/j.envres.2022.113735
15. Tembekar, Chittranjan, Fish found off Mumbai coasts contain microplastics: Study, The Times of India, and
March 7, 2022. https:// timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ city/ mumbai/ fish-off-mum-coast-contains-
microplastics/ articleshow/90039078.cms
16. Issac, M.N., Kandasubramanian, B. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. Environ Sci Pollut
Res 28, 19544–19562 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2
17. Kalčíková G, Skalar T, Marolt G, Jemec Kokalj A. An environmental concentration of aged microplastics
with adsorbed silver significantly affects aquatic organisms. Water Res. 2020 May 15;175:115644.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115644 Epub 2020 Feb 27. PMID: 32169692.
PHOTO CREDITS
1. Sample collection sites: Mapcustomizer.com
2. Microplastics in the environment Ref-14
3. Samples imaging by Redmi Note 10 Pro Max
a. Juhu: f/1.9 1/33 6.04mm ISO145
b. Versova: f/1.9 1/25 6.04mm ISO775
c. Girgaon: f/1.9 1/20 6.04mm ISO822

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PRODUCTION OF CITRIC ACID USING SOME FUNGI

Kajal Kamble and Neha N. Sawant

D.G. Ruparel College, Mahim, Mumbai

ABSTRACT
Citric acid is a weak organic acid that can be obtained from citrus plants, but with of science and technology,
it can be produced from other plant sources or microbial fermentation . The culture filtrate were examined
using paper chromatography analysis for the production of citric acid . In present work, effect of different
concentrations of sugar was studied on citric acid production by two fungi Aspergillus niger and Fusarium
oxysporum using star fruit as substrate. From the study of effect of different concentrations of sugars, it can be
said that the final yield of citric acid in fermentation by Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum is strongly
dependent on the type and concentration of carbon source. It can be said that Aspergillus niger yields high
amount of citric acid as compared to Fusarium oxysporum
Keywords: Citric acid, Aspergillus Niger, Fusarium oxysporum

INTRODUCTION
Citric acid is a weak organic acid that can be obtained from citrus plants, but with of science and technology, it
can be produced from other plant sources or microbial fermentation.
Citric acid has high economic potential owing to its numerous applications. It is mostly produced by microbial
fermentation. In view of surges in demand and growing markets, there is always a need for the discovery and
development of better production techniques and solutions to improve production yields and the efficiency of
product recovery. To support the enormous scale of production, it is necessary and important for the production
process to be environment friendly by using readily available and inexpensive agro-industrial products, while
maintaining high production yields .Fungi are group of organism having a great biodiversity.They are the
second largest group after insect and key component of the tropical ecosystem throughout the world. Fungi are
not only beautiful but play a significant role in the daily life of human beings besides their utilization in
industry, agriculture, medicine, food industry, textiles, bioremediation, natural cycling, as bio fertilizers and
many other ways. Fungal biotechnology has become an integral part of the human welfare
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Plant used: Star fruit (Averrhoa carambola), Family Oxalidaceae.
Fungi used: Aspergillus Niger, Fusarium oxysporum
Fermentation media were selected: PD broth, two different carbon source glucose and sucrose

Aspergillus Niger Fusarium oxysporium

1. Isolation and Identification of Organism
Different fungal isolates were obtained from cultivated soil sample. PDA supplied with rose bengal as
bacteriostatic agents was used for isolation of fungi. For the isolation, plates were incubated at 28 ± 2℃ for 7
days, and developing fungi were purified and identified by macro- and microscopic characteristics. Isolated
fungi were maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants and incubated at 30℃ for 7 days. The slants were
stored at 4℃ and subcultured every month.

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2. Fermentation Technique
Citric acid fermentation was carried out by submerged fermentation in 250 ml cotton wool plugged Erlenmeyer
flasks with 50 ml of fermentation media: fermentation media were selected: PD broth ,two different carbon
source glucose and sucrose
3. Dry Biomass Estimation
The growth of three fungi Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum was compared. The content of each flask was
filtered and the mycelial residues were washed with distilled water. These mycelial residues were dried in an
oven for 24 h at 90℃ till their weight are to be constant and the dry biomass was calculated in g/l of
fermentation medium. The filtrate were used for biochemical analysis.
4. Biochemical Analysis
A) Assay of Total Acidity
The total acidity of the culture filtrates was determined by titration against standard alkaline solution , using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
B) Detection of Citric Acid
The citric acid produced was determined qualitatively and quantitatively by chromatographic analysis.
The growth of fungal species and its production of citric acid in different fermentation media for 7 days.
Weight of biomass (g) Amount of citric acid in 1000 ml
Control 0 0.406 g
5% Glucose 1.79 1.043 g
10% Glucose 3.94 1.197 g
Aspergillus niger 15% Glucose 5.85 1.176 g
5% Sucrose 1.58 1.239 g
10%Sucrose 3.12 1.533 g
15%Sucrose 5.85 1.421 g

Weight of biomass (g) Amount of citric acid in 1000 ml

Control 0 0.406 g
5% Glucose 1.74 0.273 g
Fusarium Oxysporum 10% Glucose 2.04 0.413 g
15% Glucose 4.18 0.266 g
5% Sucrose 1.06 0.469 g
10% Sucrose 1.86 0.273 g
15% Sucrose 3.70 0.231 g
DISCUSSION
In the present work, effect of different concentrations of sugar was studied on citric acid production by two
fungi Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum using star fruit as substrate. Biomass is a fundamental
parameter in the characterization of microbial growth. It was observed that the biomass increased with increase
in sugar concentrations of both Sucrose and Glucose in both the fungi.
From the study of effect of different concentrations of sugars, it can be said that the final yield of citric acid in
fermentation by Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum is strongly dependent on the type and concentration
of carbon source. It can be said that Aspergillus niger yields high amount of citric acid in 10% sucrose than
glucose and it produced more citric acid compared to Fusarium oxysporum.
CONCLUSION
The project under study illustrated that the acids can be produced using fungi. This valuable potential of fungi,
if exploited at commercial level, the pressure on the plant source will be reduced and the fungi can become best
substitute to fruits for extraction of organic acids. Besides, there will be utilization of these fungi for good
purpose. Besides, star fruit which is not consumed on a large scale is used for beneficial use.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Adel Hamidi (2013) Citric acid production from Sugarcane Bagasse through SSF method using Aspergillus
Niger mould and optimization of citric acid production.

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 Ana Maria Torrado, Sandra Cortes, Jose Manuel Salgado, Belen Max, Noelia Rodriguez, Belinda P
Bibbins, Attilio Converti, Jose Manuel Dominguez (2011) Citric acid production from orange peel wastes
by solid-state fermentation. Industrial Microbiology. Braz. J. Microbiol. 42 (1). Mar 2011.
 B. T. Kavita, Y. L. Ramchandra, G. Narayanmurthy (2008) Comparartive studies on submerged liquid
surface and solid state fermentation for citric acid production by Aspergillus Niger. Department of
Biotechnology, National college of Pharmacy, Shimoga. 361-364.
 Hamdy, H. S. (2013) Citric acid production by Aspergillus Niger grown on an orange peel.
 Nagmani R. (2004) Handbook of soil fungi, I. K. International publisher. P 477.
 Omkar Sawant, Sagar Mahale, Vanitha Ramchandran, Geetha Nagaraj, Ashok Bankar (2018) Fungal citric
acid production using waste materials : a mini-review. Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Food
Sciences: 821-828.
 Pau Loke Show, Kehinde Opeyemi Oladele, Qi Yan Siew, Fitri Abdul Aziz Zakry, John Chi-Wei Lan and
Tau Chuan Ling (2015) Overview of citric acid production from Aspergillus niger, Frontiers in Life
Science, 8:3, 271-283.

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EDUCATION FOR OF SOCIAL CHANGE, THE CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL REFORMERS:

PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Mr. Shramik Sopan Kharat

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s M.M. College of Arts, N.M. Institute of Science and H.R.J. College of Commerce,
Munshi Nagar, Andheri (W), Mumbai- 400058

The Social Reformers of Maharashtra had created the various impacts in regarding to the adjustments adopted
for development of education in the various regions of Maharashtra. Especially Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Gopal
Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, Savitribai Phule, Balshastri Jambekar,
Vitthal Ramji Shinde, Vishushastri Chiplunkar, R.G. Bhandarkar, B.M. Malbari, K.T. Telang, Pandita Ramabai,
Dadabai Naoroji, Jagannath Shankarshet, Bhau Daji Lad, Dadoba Pandurang, Bhaskar Pandurang, Atmaram
Pandurang, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand, Ramkrishna Paramhans, Vishnu Shastri Pandit,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Dhondo Keshv Karve, Vinoba Bhave etc.
The Indian society had various challenges for developing education within the Indian society. Some social
reformers often worked for the expansion of education in Maharashtra. Education turned into beneath the
welfare hood of the king Rajarshi Shahu Chhatrapati of Kolhapur, in the end it flourished and nourished in
Kolhapur state and Kolhapur come forward as one of the best centre of education in India.
The contemporary educationist, thinkers and philosophers, supported the kings for the sake of education inside
the Kolhapur kingdom, among them the notable are Rakhamabai Kelkar, Vasudev Topkhane, Dikshit Guruji,
Kramaveer Dr. Bhaurao Patil, Dr. Appasaheb Pawar, Bapuji Solunkhe, Dr. D. T. Patil Dr. J. P. Naik etc. were
the pioneers of education.
HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS: LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION
POLICY
Initially, the East India Company did now not evince any precise hobby in matters of schooling. Although the
British had captured Bengal in 1757. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit
nevertheless endured. In 1781, Warren Hastings mounted a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage observe of
Muslim laws in conjunction with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 because of the sincere efforts of the British resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit
College became hooked up to sell the study of Hindu legal guidelines and philosophy in Banaras. Different
educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab additionally show comparable statistics. There turned into
at the least one faculty in every village of India at that time. The Charter Act of 1813 followed a provision to
spend one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
In 1828, after assuming the workplace of the Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized at
the medium of English language in Indian schooling. In the beginning of 1835, the ten contributors of the
General Committee of Public Instruction have been sincerely divided into equal companies. In 1854, Sir Charles
Wood despatched a complete dispatch as a grand plan on schooling. Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on
the established order of schools for technical education, teacher and ladies schooling. Over and above those
forms of, the dispatch endorsed the repute quo of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, at the
version of the London University. Consequently, inside the next few years, the Indian schooling became all at
once westernized.
SOCIAL POLICIES AND LEGISLATION
Some of the British administrators like Lord William Bentinck had evinced personal hobby in the reply. There
had been usually two areas wherein laws have been enacted, laws bearing on women emancipation and the caste
machine. These viewpoints of British administrators on Indian progressive education brought the new
framework of social change in Indian territories.
RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY
He believed that radical reforms have been necessary within the Hindu faith and its social practices, and
therefore, founded the Brahmo Samaj. He believed schooling to be the most essential agent of social reform. He
turned into a lifelong educator and helped observed many educational establishments inclusive of the Hindu
College, Anglo-Hindu School, Vedanta College and Scottish Church College.
ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR
Quite like Roy, school textbooks celebrate Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar as the Indian reformer behind the
Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. What many don’t recognize is that Vidyasagar become a social reformer who
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understood that a mere act of rules can not exchange the fate of women inside the use of a, nor would it assist
girls combat centuries of social oppression. Educating ladies was, therefore, the larger, lifelong goal he tireless
worked towards. As one of the main educators of the time, Vidyasagar held electricity to foyer for colleges for
the Indian female toddler, and the truth that he exercised this electricity to the hilt is a reality that cannot be
denied.
Vidyasagar prepared a fund called the Nari Shiksha Bhandar, and led door-to-door campaigns asking
households to allow their daughters to be enrolled in schools. He often campaigned for ladies’ s schooling
through contemporary English and Bengali courses just like the Hindu Patriot, Tattwabodhini Patrika and
Somprakash. He no longer only opened 35 ladies schools throughout Bengal, enrolling 1,three hundred women
efficiently, but also helped JE Drinkwater Bethune establish the first everlasting ladies’ college in India, the
Bethune School, in 1849
Mahatma Jyotirao Phule: The reality that Jyotirao Phule, and his spouse, Savitribai Phule, were the pioneers
of women’s training in India is widely known. Phule’s lifelong force for ladies’ s training stemmed from his
personal studies as a Dalit guy dwelling in nineteenth century India. He realized that so long as the shudras, ati-
shudras and ladies all marginalized categories—were disadvantaged of education, they would no longer be
capable of get a voice in their very own, not to mention broaden as groups with self-respect and fundamental
human rights. So, in August 1848, Phule opened the primary women’ school in the house of Shri Bhide in Pune.
It’s stated that on the very first day, 9 ladies from exceptional social backgrounds enrolled at the school.
Between 1848 and 1852, Phule and Savitribai opened 18 schools in and round Pune, all of them for girls in
addition to for children from Dalit households. What’s extra, staring at that many had been unable to wait
faculty due to the fact they laboured during the day, Phule additionally opened many night faculties by way of
1855.
PERIYAR EV RAMASWAMY
“Only education, self-admire and rational characteristics will uplift the down-trodden,” the Dravidian social
reformer EV Ramaswamy, popularly known as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar, is thought to have quipped as soon
as upon a time—and in no way have words been more true, particularly for ladies. A pupil of historic Tamil
literature, Periyar used instances from these texts to show that training is a primary ladies’s proper. Not only did
he actively campaign for women’s education, but also desired it to be holistic with an inclusion of physical
pastime in order that girls increase bodily strength as well as mental acuity.
DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR
Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is popularly celebrated because the leader architect of the Indian constitution, and
also as an icon for the Dalit rights actions inside the country. But Ambedkar believed that ladies have a key role
to play in the emancipation of oppressed communities, and this may be finished via making sure their personal
rights to assets and schooling. “I degree the progress of network by way of the degree of progress which women
have done,” he stated at the Second All-India Depressed Classes Women’s Conference held on 20 July, 1942. “I
shall let you know a few things which I suppose you ought to undergo in thoughts. Learn to be clean; preserve
free from all vices. Give schooling on your kids. Instil ambition in them. Inculcate on their minds that they're
destined to be first rate. Remove from all of them inferiority complexes.”
To attain these dreams, Ambedkar advocated for women’s right to be knowledgeable along with men within the
same schools and faculties, due to the fact that it would make sure that each get the equal first-rate of schooling.
He believed that girl’s training may want to assist them obtain purposes: their personal empowerment, and the
empowerment of others via them. However, Ambedkar argued against professional or vocational schooling as
per the British education machine, because it ambitions at growing a clerical nature of people. His emphasis,
instead, turned into on secular education for social emancipation and freedom in order that depressed training
can decorate their social, economic and political popularity. Social scenario to involve all deprived, women and
downtrodden in education led to rational movement. People’s education society was established by Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar on 8th July 1945. The Siddharth Arts and Science College, turned into set up in 1946,
Milind College became mounted in Aurangabad in 1950, Siddharth Commerce and Economics College turned
into established in 1953, Siddharth Law College was set up in 1956.
DHONDO KESHAV KARVE
While an instructor in arithmetic (1891–1914) at Fergusson College, Poona, Karve have become worried with
breaking down orthodox Hindu competition to widow remarriage, and he hooked up the Widow Marriage
Association in 1893. Karve have become increasingly worried with illiteracy amongst girls, and on his
retirement from Fergusson College he commenced Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women’s

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University in 1916. He later widened his social reform efforts to consist of the status quo of societies for village
number one education and the abolition of caste. Karve’s autobiography became entitled Atmavritta (1915). On
his 100th birthday he became presented India’s maximum honour, the Bharat Ratna (“Gem of India”).
KARMAVEER BHAURAO PATIL
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil (22 September 1887 – 9 May 1959), born in Kumbhoj, Kolhapur, turned into a social
activist and educator in Maharashtra, India. A strong advice of mass education, he based the Rayat Education
Society. Bhaurao performed an essential role in teaching backward castes and low profits humans through
coining the philosophy earn and examine.
He became an outstanding member of Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth seeker's society), founded by using Mahatma
Jyotirao Phule. The people of Maharashtra honoured him with the sobriquet Karmaveer (King of movements)
and the Government of India offered him with Padma Bhushan in 1959 in India. various educational schools,
colleges were later on established under Rayat Education Society.
DR. PUNJABRAO DESHMUKH
Dr. Bhausaheb Deshmukh turned into born within the yr 1898. He changed into born in a farmer’s family at
Papal in Amravati district. The higher education was obtained at Edinburg and Oxford universities. He had
carried out his regulation doctorate in Briton. The situation of his studies was” The sunrise of faith and its
boom”. He again again in Amravati and started out regulation exercise. He became elected as a member of
provincial law board in 1930 and went on to grow to be Minister of Education, Agriculture and Co-operative
Departments. He was the member of the committee for the development of Indian Constitution after
independence. He became elected Member of Parliament in 1952, 1957 and 1962.
He was Union Minister of Agriculture from 1952 to 1962. His other critical contributions were beginning wells
to the so-called Untouchables and establishing of Shri Ambadevi Temple to this equal communities in 1928. He
also started Shraddhanand hostel for poor college students. He was the founder of famous Shri Shivaji
Education Society. Today this society runs numerous instructional institutes, which encompass Medical
College, Engineering college and other academic institutes and hostels. In order to enhance the situation of
farmers he fashioned “Bharat Krushak Samaj” and to advise it’s regulations he commenced a newspaper
particularly “Maharashtra Kesari”, he passed away in 1965.
RAJARSHI SHAHU CHHATRAPATI
Chhatrapati Shahu liberally helped meritorious students from the dominion that went in a foreign country for
take a look at. During 1910-eleven, 15 outstanding college students were despatched out for higher research at
kingdom fee. Shahu helped liberally even outsiders like Babasaheb Ambedkar, for observe remote places.
Shahu changed into, truly, a champion, a friend of the needy college college students in which they're; this
became one of the seen steps for the national improvement. Today, if lots of such stake holders take such duties
that will be an outstanding step closer to ‘Education for actual National hobby’.
SOCIAL REVOLUTION IN EDUCATION
In 1894 the amount of students turned into 10844, which rose to 27830 in 1921-22. The variety of students from
the commonplace majority groups multiplied to 21027 from the not unusual majority groups multiplied to
21027 from the meagre 8088 in 1892. Even the range of college students from the untouchable companies rose
from 234 to 2162. Expenditure on Education mounted to Rs. 300000 from mere 70000.
This top notch fulfilment in schooling became feasible due to the truth Shahu in my view regarded into its
implementation. It changed into properly planned for sure preferred effects. It changed into now not unplanned
and aimless as gift schooling system appears to be more advanced due to the efforts made through Chhatrapati
Shahu. The works of Rajarshi Shahu Chhatrapati in regards to spread of education becomes towering because of
his ceaseless efforts through his policies, plans, boarding hostel movement, women education, all castes schools
etc. even though he made spontaneous changes in social reforms and educational reforms he got actual life of 48
year, which was very less in comparison to other social reformers and educationists. He was rightly called as a
pillar of social democracy by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. Chhatrapati Shahu was convinced of the fact that
industrialization was the sine qua non for rapid growth of economy. As soon he ascended the throne in 1894, he
ordered a comprehensive industrial survey of his principality, covering rural as well as urban areas and
education, agriculture, means of transport, small-scale and cottage industries, agro industries etc. he personally
visited the industrial places. In order to better the lot of the poor artisans, business men and entrepreneurs to
promote employment and at the same time obviate the pitfalls of monopoly, capitalism and statist in the fields
of industry, finance and commerce, he laid emphasis on co-operative and joint sector organizations. Henceforth
the works of social reformers such as Shahu Chhatrapati was extremely important.
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The social reformers has made the first-rate contribution towards uplifting the downtrodden, untouchables, and
girls, tribes who were provided the education and improvised the situations of education. Social reformers had
been notable philanthropists, facilitators who made top notch benchmarks to establish colleges and various
educational institutes. But todays conditions which might be favouring globalization, privatization, advertising
and advertising and marketing, monitory benefits of wealthy businessmen, creates hustles before governments
encouragement to aids to sustain schools, faculties etc. Academic institutes. Bringing social reforms is the need
of time, in place of political reforms, today’s conservative sections favours disparity in place of equality of
education. It have to be recruitments of diverse aided institutes with certified instructors to fulfil needs of fine
training, the authorities ought to pay a proper attention towards giving teachers ample possibilities to get
educated underneath diverse schemes. They ought to get research involvements each durations of academic
years. Students should get instructional and studies surroundings. Social reformers made this feasible in history,
we should allow and try to at least encourage social reformers among us to revive the academic gadget.
REFERENCES/FOOT NOTES
 Source retrieved from- https://objectiveias.in/educational-and-social-reforms/
 Source Retrieved from: https://hercircle.in/engage/get-inspired/achievers/5-Indian-Leaders-Who-Worked-
For-Womenrsquos-Education-Before-Independence-746.html
 Source Retrieved from: https:// mr.wikipedia.org/ wiki/%E0% A4%AA%E0% A5%80% E0%A4%
AA%E0% A4%B2% E0%A5%8D %E0%A4%B 8_%E0%A4% 8F%E0%A4% 9C%E0%A5% 8D%
E0%A4 %AF%E0%A 5%81%E0%A 4%95%E0%A 5%87%E0%A 4%B6%E0% A4%A8_%E 0%A4%
B8% E0% A5%8B %E0%A4%B8 %E0%A4%BE %E0% A4% AF% E0%A4 %9F%E0 %A5%80
 Source Retrieved from - https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dhondo-Keshav-Karve
 Source Retrived from - D.T.Bhosale , Karmveer Bhaurao Patil, Diamond Publications, 2016 , ISBN 978-
81-8483-682-0
 Source Retrived from - https://amravati.gov.in/national-saint/panjabrao/
 Kanbarkar .R.K. “Glimpses of Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj’, Dr. D.V. Muley, Registrar, Shivaji University,
Kolhapur, 2010, pp. 28-36
 Source Retrieved from - http://swapsushias.blogspot.in/2013/06/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-ideal-ruler.html #.
VsKvXLSLRkg
 Salunkhe. P.B., Mali. M.G., ed., ‘Chhatrapati Shahu: The Pillar of Social Democracy’, The Educational
Department, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, 1994, pp. 230-246

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Volume 9, Issue 3 (VII): July - September 2022

ECO- SUSTAINABILITY OF THE DIVERSITY OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES IN CAMPUS OF THE

DR. HOMI BHABHA STATE UNIVERSITY, INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, FORT, MAHARASHTRA,
INDIA

Manisha Kulkarni and Aparna Ghadi

Department of Zoology, The Institute of Science, Dr. Homi Bhabha State University, Madame Cama Road,
Fort, Mumbai, Maharashtra- 400032, MS, India

ABSTRACT
Dr. Homi Bhabha State University’s, the Institute of Science is of the oldest and most prestigious Institution,
located at Mumbai, Maharashtra owes its prime conservation value in India. The species composition
and abundance of butterflies were documented in this study in order to manage and conserve them in the
future on the Institute of Science's lush campus because they are crucial to the health of the ecosystem. A
record of 39 species and 30 genera under five butterfly families was made from the campus of the Institute
of Science and surrounding areas are surveyed during January, 2022 to August, 2022. Nymphalidae with 15
species over 38.46% of the total individuals was the most dominant taxonomic group of butterflies. According
to the availability of their nectar and feeding plants, the overall species richness and diversity of
butterflies changed with the seasons, with summer and autumn showing the highest similarity in butterfly
composition. Based on the findings, it is necessary to manage and conserve the mosaic of plants in the area
around the college campus in order to maintain the ecological health and integrity of the area and its
rich butterfly diversity. The outcomes also showed that human activities in the research area have an
adverse impact on the diversity of butterflies, thus it was preserved by establishing a butterfly garden.
Keywords: Butterfly, Garden, Institute of Science, Species Composition, Species Richness, Sustainable
Development.

INTRODUCTION
An insect fauna represents more than 70% of the ecosystem and also plays a vital role in the food chain and
acts as bio-indicators (Clark et al., 2007). Butterflies are beautifully colored insects with scaled wings and
belong to the order Lepidoptera under the class Insecta. Butterflies are vital part of any natural ecosystem
and their adults act as a bio- pollinators and larvae feeds on crops and called as primary herbivores. They are
the bio indicators species in urbanized area and are very sensitive to changes in the environment and the
availability of host plants for egg laying and larval development (Nimbalkar et al., 2011; Fordyce et al., 2003).
The construction of roads, buildings and green lawns are increased which ultimately affects the butterfly
species diversity, abundance, and richness (Blair et al., 1997; Clark et al., 2007). Seasonal variations is
fundamental process in butterfly population and the seasonal fluctuations including the temperature, light,
rainfall, pH, variation in the availability of larval food resources and greeneries such as herb and shrubs
can also affects the butterfly diversity (Rajagopal et al., 2011). The butterfly fauna is very rich and diverse
in the surrounding areas of Panchavati garden and Aarey colony due to the accessibility of diversified
habitats associated with microclimate regimes. The detailed study funded by MMR -EIS in two phases
from 2009 to 2012, clearly expresses the ecological importance of the highly biodiverse Aarey Milk Colony
(Anand Pendharkar et al., 2021; Anne Magurran, 1988). The awareness regarding butterfly conservation,
sustainable development and its importance is lacking among the public in cities. There are several
surveys done on butterfly diversity by many researchers in isolated pockets of Mumbai City related to
diversity and population abundance. This is the first attempt was made to fulfil the lacuna in the area of
butterfly diversity in the campus of the Institute of Science.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The butterflies were observed in the campus of The Institute of Science located in the Fort, Mumbai
(Figure 1) from various ecosystems viz., Butterfly Garden and bushy areas etc. Survey for butterflies was
made in a 8 months from January, 2022 to August, 2022. The study areas were surveyed every 6 days of
a week and the data were documented. The data on butterfly diversity and its relative abundance were
recorded based on observation of the individual butterfly species and also by photographic documentation.
The survey was made from morning
7.30 to 11.30 hr. Line transect count method according to Kunte (2000) were followed to find the butterfly
abundance. The transects were fixed in the routes of the Butterfly Garden thrice in a week covering an area
of 5 meter around a radius of 5 meter front from the observer and 2.5m on either sides. All zoological names
and identification used in the present study are in accordance with Varshney (1983), Kehimkar (2008) and
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common English names were used from Wynter- Blyth (1957). The observed butterflies were categorized
into five groups on the basis of relative abundance in the study area as VC-very common (08-15 sightings),
C-common (19-25 sightings), LC-less common (06-10 sightings), R-rare (05-10 sightings), VR-very rare (1-5
sightings). The diversity indices and evenness were worked out by following Shannon Wienner diversity
index.
Table 1: Butterflies of Family: Hesperiidae (Skippers) recorded in the Campus of the Institute of Science, Fort,
Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Sr. No. Common Name Scientific Name Relative
Abundance
Subfamily: Hesperiinae (Darters, Darts, Dartlets, Swifts, Aces, Bobs, Redeyes, Demons.)
01 Rice Swift Borbo cinnara (Wallace, 1866) R
Table 2: Butterflies of Family: Papilionidae (Swallowtails) recorded in the Campus of the Institute of Science,
Fort, Mumbai, and Maharashtra.
Sr. No. Common Name Scientific Name Relative
Abundance
Subfamily: Papilioninae
01 Common Jay Graphium doson (C. & R. Felder, 1864) C
02 Tailed Jay Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus, 1758) VC
03 Common Mormon Male Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 VC
04 Common Mormon Female (Form Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 LC
romulus)
05 Common Mormon Female (Form Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 LC
stichius)
06 Blue Mormon Papilio polymnestor polymnestor R
07 Lime Butterfly Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 C
08 Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius, 1775) C

Table 3: Butterflies of Family: Pieridae (Whites and Yellows) recorded in the Campus of the Institute of
Science, Fort, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Sr. No. Common Name Scientific Name Relative
Abundance
Subfamily: Coliadinae (Yellows)
01 One Spot Grass Yellow Eurema andersonii (Moore, 1886) VC
02 Small Grass Yellow Eurema brigitta (Stoll, [1780]) C
03 Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus, 1758) VC
04 Common Emigrant Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius, 1775) R
Subfamily: Pierinae (Whites)
05 Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus, 1764) LC
06 Common/Indian Wanderer Male Pareronia hippia (Fabricius, 1787) C
07 Common Wanderer Female Pareronia hippia (Fabricius, 1787) VR
08 Common Gull Cepora nerissa (Fabricius, 1775) C
09 Common Jezebel Delias eucharis (Drury, 1773) LC
10 Psyche Leptosia nina (Fabricius, 1793) VC

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Table 4: Butterflies of Family: Lycaenidae (Blues) recorded in the Campus of the Institute of Science, Fort,
Mumbai, and Maharashtra.
Sr. No. Common Name Scientific Name Relative
Abundance
Subfamily: Miletinae (Brownies, Mottles, Forest Pierrot and Apefly)
Subfamily: Polymmatinae (Weak Blues)
01 Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon (Fabricius, 1775) C
02 Common Cerulean Jamides celeno (Cramer, [1775]) C
03 Red Pierrot Talicada nyseus (Guérin-Méneville, 1843) C
04 Gram Blue Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius, 1798) R
05 Plains Cupid Chilades pandava (Horsfield, [1829]) C
Table 5: Butterflies of Family: Nymphalidae (Brush Footed Butterflies) recorded in the Campus of the Institute
of Science, Fort, Mumbai, and Maharashtra.
Sr. No. Common Name Scientific Name Relative
Abundance
Subfamily: Danainae (Milkweed Butterflies)
01 Blue Tiger Tirumala limniace (Cramer,[1775]) C
02 Striped Tiger Danaus genutia (Cramer, [1779]) VC
03 Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758) C
04 Common Crow Euploea core (Cramer, [1780]) C
Subfamily: Satyrinae (Browns)
05 Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda (Linnaeus, 1758) C
06 Common Palmfly Elymnias hypermnestra (Linnaeus, 1763) C
Subfamily: Heliconinae (Costers)
07 Tawny Coster Acraea terpsicore (Linnaeus, 1758) R
08 Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha (Drury, [1773]) C
Subfamily: Limenitinae (Barons, Sailers and Others)
09 Common Sailer Neptis hylas (Linnaeus, 1758) VC
10 Common Baron Euthalia aconthea (Cramer, [1777]) VC
Subfamily: Biblidinae
11 Common Castor Ariadne merione (Cramer, [1777]) LC
Subfamily: Nymphalinae (Painted Lady, Pansies, Eggflies, Oakleafs and Others)
12 Grey Pansy Junonia atlites (Linnaeus, 1763) C
13 Great eggfly Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus, 1758) C
14 Danaid Eggfly Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus, 1764) C
15 Painted Lady Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758) R
Table 6: Relative abundance of butterflies observed in the Campus of the Institute of Science, Fort, Mumbai,
and Maharashtra.
Sr.No. Family VR R LC C VC Total
01 Hesperidae 00 01 00 00 00 01
02 Papilionidae 00 01 02 03 02 08
03 Pieridae 01 01 02 03 03 10
04 Lycaenidae 00 01 00 04 00 05
05 Nymphalidae 00 02 01 09 03 15
Total 01 05 06 19 08 39
VR=Very Rare, R= Rare, LC= Less Common, C=Common, VC=Very Common

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Figure 1. Map of the study area

Figure 2: Relative abundance of butterflies observed in the Campus of the Institute of Science, Fort, Mumbai,
and Maharashtra.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The butterfly diversity and abundance were observed in the campus of the Institute of Science, Fort,Mumbai
from January, 2022 to August, 2022 is given in Table 1 to Table 5. There were 39 species of butterflies
identified and segregated under five different families according to the Kehimkar I. classification
(Kehimkar, 2011). The families namely, Hesperidae Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae, and Lycaenidae.
Among the butterflies recorded in the surrounding areas of the campus of the Institute of Science, 08 of
them were very common (Common Crow, Common Jay, etc.) and they were recognized under Papilionidae
and Nymphalidae, 19 species were common (Common Wanderer, Small Grass Yellow etc.) and they were
recognized under Pieridae, Nymphalidae and Hesperiidae while 06 number of butterflies were categorized
under rare and very rare (Crimson Tip, Yellow Orange Tip, etc.). 06 numbers of butterfly species belong
to Lycaenidae, Blues (Apefly) one each was found rare in the investigation areas based on their relative
abundance. Regarding the abundance of the butterflies in the survey area, Psyche and Common Grass
Yellow was found all over the 8 months from January, 2022 to August, 2022 (Pendharkar et al., 1986-
2021).
A Butterfly garden constructed in the Institute of Science in Mumbai's Fort Campus, the city with the
highest density of people, examined the significance of butterfly gardens in the conservation and management
of Butterfly Diversity (Maharashtra, India). As a result of the introduction of host plants and nectar plants
with habitat management, there was a tremendous increase in the butterfly population, with 39 sightings of
butterflies belonging to 30 species during January, 2022 to August, 2022. Butterfly gardens can provide
suitable habitats that protect butterflies and their caterpillars and provides healthy ecosystem for the sustainable
development.
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Host plants are critical for all butterflies to maintain their populations (Dennis et al. 2004, Minno and Emmel
1993, Vickery 1995; adult butterflies are less abundant in areas lacking such plants (Mathew and Anto 2007).
The establishment of a butterfly garden in college grounds can aid in the rehabilitation of endangered
butterfly species both in rural and urban areas of southern Mumbai (Louv 2008, Miller 2005, Pyle 1978).
Butterflies can be used as flagship species to educate and raise public awareness of many important
environmental issues because they are charismatic and provide attractive models for conservation (Guiney
and Oberhauser 2009, Leader-Williams and Dublin 2000, Walpole and Leader-Williams 2002. The
establishment of butterfly gardens, such as those created for the Schaus and Coastal Hardwood Hammock
curriculum unit, can provide habitat for other vulnerable species and generate an "umbrella" that can protect
multiple species against negative human impacts (Guiney and Oberhauser 2009, Malone et al. 2015,
Mathew and Anto 2007, Vickery 1995). The Shannon-Wiener diversity index of the butterfly families
collected in the study area indicated that the Nymphalidae was rich in species diversity with 1.31 than
other families. The evenness was also found more with Nymphalidae matched with the results of (Mirza,
et al., 2010).
REFERENCES
 Ackery P.R., Host plants and classification: A Review of Nymphalidae butterflies. Biological Journal of
Linnaean Society. 1988; 33:95-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095- 8312.1988.tb00446.x
 Aiswarya V., Nair Pradarsika Mitra, Soma Aditya. Studies on the diversity and abundance of butterfly
(Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) fauna in and around Sarojini Naidu college, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 2014; 2(4):129-134.
 Anand Pendharkar et al., Wildlife Biodiversity & Landscape features of Aarey Milk Colony, Mumbai, (A
Long –term Study from 1986-2021), Sprout Environmental Trust.
 Anne Magurran. Ecological diversity and its measurement. Fundy National Park, Alam, 1988. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-7358-0
 Bastin L. The distribution of plant species in urban vegetation fragments. Landscape Ecology. 1997;
14:493- 507.
 Bharos A.M.K., Large scale emergence and migration of the common emigrant butterfly, Catopsilia
Pomona (Family: Pieridae). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 2000; 97:301.
 Blair R.B., Laune A.E., Butterfly diversity and human land use: species assemblages along an urban
gradient. Biological Conservation. 1997; 80:113-125.
 Borges R.M., Gonda V., Zacharias M. Butterfly pollination and high contrast visual signals in a lowdensity
Distylous plant. Oecologia. 2003; 136:571-573. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0248
 Chakaravarthy A.K., Rajagopal D., Jagannathan R., Insects as bio indicators of conservation in the tropics.
Zoo’s Print Journal. 1997; 12:21-25.
 Clark P.J., Michael Reed J., Chew FS. Effect of Urbanization on butterfly species richness, guild structure
and rarity. Urban Ecosystem. 2007; 10:321-337. Evans W.H., Identification of Indian Butterflies. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay, 1932, 523.
 Feltwall J. The natural history of butterflies. Groom helem Ltd., Provident house, Burier row, Buckingham
Kent BR3 IAT, 1986, 133.
 Fergusson H.S., A list of butterflies of Travancore, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 1891, 464
Fordyce J.A., Nice C.C., Variation in butterfly egg adhesion: Adaptation level to host plant senescence
characteristics. Ecology Letter. 2003; 6:23-27.
 Gaonkar H. Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India including Sri Lanka: Biodiversity assessment of a
threatened mountain system, Centre for Ecological Sciences. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the
Natural History Museum, London, 1996, 18.
 Hussain N.K., Ramesh T, Satpathy K.K., Selvanayagam M. Seasonal dynamics of butterfly population in
DAE campus, Kalpakkam, Tamilnadu, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa. 2011; 3(1):1401- 1414.
 Kehimkar I. The book of Indian butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society, Newyork, 2011,
 497. 17. Kristensen NP, Scoble MJ, Karsholt O. Lepidoptera phylogeny and systematic: the state of
inventorying moth and butterfly diversity. Zootaxa. 2007; 1668:699-747.

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 Kunte K. Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities press. Hyderabad, 2000, 254. Kunte K. Butterfly
diversity of Pune city along the human impact gradient. Journal of Ecological Society. 2001; 13 & 14:40-
45.
 Kunte K. Species compostion, sex ratio and movement patterns in Danaine butterfly migration in sourthern
Inida. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 2005; 102(3):280-286.
 Kulkarni M., Ghadi A., Rangnekar S., Eco-contributory species composition of butterflies in Panchavati
garden area, Aarey colony, Goregaon, Maharashtra, India. Asian Journal of Conservation Biology, July
2022. Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 99–105.
 Malagrino G.G., Laguans M.M., Rubio AO. Environment impact reduction through ecological planning at
Bahia Magdalena, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Biology. 2008; 29:79-82.
 Mathew G., Binoy C.F., Migration of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in the New Amarambalam
Reserve Forest of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Zoos’ Print Journal, 2000; 17(8):844- 847.
 Mirza, Z. & Sanap, R. (2010). Biodiversity of Aarey Milk Colony and Film City. Report submitted to
Government of Maharashtra and the Forest Department of Maharashtra. Pp 12,14,51.https://
www.researchgate.net/ publication/ 235698986_ Biodiversity_ of_ Aarey_ Milk_Colony_and_Film_City
 Nimbarlkar R.K., Chandekar S.K., Khunte SP. Butterfly in relation to nectar food plants from Bhor Tahsil,
Pune District, Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa. 2011; 3(3):1601- 1609.
 Rajagopal T., Sekar M., Manimozhi A., Baskar N., Archunan G., Diversity and community structure of
butterfly of Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai, Tamilnadu. Journal of Environmental Biology. 2011;
32:201-207.
Figure 3: Some of the Photographs documented of butterflies observed in the Campus and Butterfly Garden of
the Institute of Science, Fort, Mumbai, and Maharashtra.

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ASSESSMENT OF ANTICIPATED PERFORMANCE INDEX (API) OF SELECTED DOMINANT

SPECIES OF GOREGAON CHECK NAKA

Shivani More, Rakshita Gowda and Sagar Gavas*

Department of Zoology, D. G. Ruparel College, Senapati Bapat Marg, Mahim, Mumbai- 40016

ABSTRACT
Enhanced intensity of pollution in modern society has become a serious and aggravating global issue; thus air
pollution is ranked in the top 10 causes of death in the world. Besides others technical solutions to abate air
pollution, vegetation is increasingly recognized as an alternative ameliorative method by removing pollutants
mainly through deposition, absorption, adsorption, and accumulation process, moreover they can clean air
naturally by releasing oxygen to the atmosphere. Air pollution tolerance index can be used as an indicator of
rate of air pollution. By combining biochemical and aggregate factors the anticipated performance index (API)
is prepared which can be used as development of green belt. In this study, six common dominant trees species
along Goregaon Check Naka were selected for evaluating air pollution tolerance index (APTI) by analysing
four important biochemical parameters, which are ascorbic acid content, total chlorophyll content, leaf extract
pH, and leaf relative water content. The anticipated performance index (API) of these trees species are
calculated as well by considering their APTI value together with other socioeconomic and morphological
characteristics. The results of the API index revealed an order of tolerance to be Spathodea campanulata.
(7.31%) as the best performer, Ficus benghalensis (6.82%), and Mangifera indica( 6.13%) were proved to be
excellent performers, whereas Alstonia( 4.737%), Bauhinia purpurea (3.47%), were recognized as good, and
lastly, Monoon longifolium(2.94%) was suggested as poor species for urban plantation.
Keywords: Pollution, Anticipated Performance Index (API), Green belt, Goregaon

INTRODUCTION
Global warming also known as climate change is caused by a blanket of pollution that traps heat around the
Earth. Rapid industrialization, automobile exhaust, construction, and heavy traffics has led to the deterioration
of air quality by adding toxic gases to the atmosphere. Due to this air pollution has become the root cause of
global warming. Although various efforts have been done for environmental restoration in India, it still seems to
be a formidable task (Thambavi and Maheshwari, 2012). It is well documented that plants remove air pollutants
such as hydrogen fluoride, SO2, and some chemicals of photochemical reaction and collect heavy metals such
as mercury and lead from the air. (Hill, 1971; Lin,1976; NEERI, 1993; Sharma and Roy, 1997; Brack, 2002;
Shannigrahi et al., 2003). Plants have a great potential for absorption, adsorption, and accumulation of
pollutants on their leaf surface (Kaur and Nagpal, 2017). They are very important for determining and
maintaining ecological balance. Air pollution can directly affect plants via leaves or indirectly by soil
acidification. (Steubing et al., Agbaire, 2009; Kumar and Nandini, 2013). Trees act as air pollution sinks but
better performance comes from the pollution tolerant species (Miria and Khan, 2013). Monitoring air pollution
by using a biological monitoring indicator is considered one of the best and most convenient methods with
minimum expenditure (Rai et al., 2013). Parameters used in defining the sensitivity or resistance of plants
towards different air pollutant concentrations are ascorbic acid content (Keller and Schwager, 1977), relative
water content (RWC) (Sen and Bhandari, 1978), chlorophyll content (Bell and Mudd, 1976), and leaf extract pH
(Chaudhary and Rao, 1977). Air Pollution Tolerance Index which was proposed by Singh and Rao in 1983 is
based on four parameters and is used for identifying the tolerance levels of plant species. To determine the
susceptibility of a plant, the combination of parameters like ascorbic acid, relative water content, total
chlorophyll, and leaf extract pH were computed together in a formula to obtain empirical value signifying the
Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of species on the basis of the earlier study. (Singh and Rao, 1983;
Chaudhary and Banerjee, 2009). In the present study the, tolerance capacity of different trees growing along the
Check Naka road of Goregaon East were evaluated.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Site Description: The research was conducted in the year 2022 on the Check Naka road of Goregaon east in the
month of August during the monsoon. The study site experiences heavy traffic due to the metro station near the
road. It also experiences automobile exhaust at a high level. The presence of small-scale industries that induce
air pollutants in the atmosphere and also the presence of Arey Colony near the site has led to the contamination
of the air environment.

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Plants under study: Six dominant plant species of Check Naka road comprising evergreen trees namely
Spathodea campanulata, Ficus benghalensis, Mangifera indica, Alstonia scholaris, Bauhinia purpurea,
Monoon longifolium were collected in the month of August.
Methods for biochemical analysis: Ascorbic acid (Roe and Kuether, 1943; Sadasivum and Manickam, 1996),
Total chlorophyll (Arnon, 1949), Leaf extract pH (Singh and Rao, 1983) and relative water content
(Sivakumaran and Hall, 1950) test for same were carried out of the collected leaf samples.
Air Pollution Tolerance Index estimation: The air pollution tolerance index (APTI) is estimated by
considering four biochemical parameters namely, ascorbic acid, relative water content, total chlorophyll, and
leaf extract pH, and was computed using the following equation given by Singh and Rao (1983).

Where,
A= Ascorbic acid (mg g-1FW)
T= Total chlorophyll (mg g-1FW)
P=Leaf extract pH
R= Relative water content (%) of the leaves
Calculation of Anticipated Performance Index (API)
To evaluate API, the socio-economic importance of plants growing along the roadside was studied. Biological
and socio-economic characteristics like plant habit, canopy structure, type of plant, laminar structure, and
economic value were combined with the resultant APTI values to calculate the API for different species. Based
on these characters, different grades (+ or -) are allocated to the plants. The criteria used for calculating the API
of different plant species are given in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table1- Gradation of plant species on the basis of the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and other
biological and socio-economic characteristics
Grading characters Pattern of Assessment Grade allotted
Tolerance Air Pollution 1.0-2.0 +
Tolerance Index 2.1-4.0 ++
(APTI) 4.1-6.0 +++
6.1-8.0 ++++
8.1-9.0 +++++
9.1-10.0 ++++++
Biological and Plant habitat Small -
socio-economic Medium +
Large ++
Canopy structure Sparse/irregular/globular -
Spreading crown/open/Semi-dense +
Spreading dense ++
Type of plant Deciduous -
Evergreen +
Laminar structure Size Small -
Medium +
Large ++
Texture Smooth -
Coriaceous +
Hardness Delicate -
Hardy +
Economic value Less than three uses -
Three of four uses +
Five or more uses ++
Maximum grades that can be scored by plant =17

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Table 2- Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species

Grade Score (%) Assessment Category
0 Up to 30 Not recommended
1 31-40 Very poor
2 41-50 poor
3 51-60 Moderate
4 61-70 Good
5 71-80 Very good
6 81-90 Excellent
7 91-100 Best
Table 3- Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of selected plant species growing alongside Goregaon Check
Naka road
Name of the Plant AA (mg g-1 TC (mg g-1 RWC
Sr. No pH APTI
Species FW) FW) (%)
1 Spathodea campanulata 6.66 35.49 6.5 6.25 7.31
2 Ficus benghalensis 4 15.42 7 34.2 6.82
3 Mangifera indica 4.66 40.98 6.5 12 6.13
4 Alstonia scholaris 4.66 25.95 7 3.1 4.737
5 Bauhinia purpurea 3.33 12.52 7 7.27 3.47
6 Monoon longifolium 2.66 34.78 6.5 14.2 2.943
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The Anticipated Performance Index is an innovative ecological approach to selecting plant species for reducing
air pollution, using Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and socio-economic parameters. It maintains
ecological homeostasis by actively contributing to the cycling of nutrients and various gases. It also provides
enormous leaf area for absorption, adsorption, and accumulation of air pollutants to reduce the air pollution
level in the atmosphere (Escobedo et al., 2008).
Levels of tolerance vary for different plant species, depending on the capacity of plants to withstand the effect
of pollutants without showing external damage. The APTI has been determined for six plant species.
The chlorophyll content is an index of the productivity of plants (Raza & Murthy, 1988). According to the
studies the relative water content in a plant body helps in maintaining its physiological balance under stress
conditions of air pollution (Dedio, 1975). Thus, the higher relative water content in the sample may be
responsible for the normal functioning of biological processes in plants.
As shown in the table 3, the highest amount of ascorbic acid (mg g-1 FW) was found in Spathodea campanulata
(6.66) followed by Ficus benghalensis (4), Mangifera indica (4.66), Alstonia scholaris (4.66), Bauhinia
purpurea (3.33), and Monoon longifolium (2.66) respectively. High ascorbic acid content observed in leaf
samples of the plant species; indicates more air pollution tolerance in plants. Since, ascorbic acid can prevent
plant tissues from the harmful effects of air pollutants thereby playing an important role in air pollution
tolerance (Tripathi and Gautam, 2007). Ascorbic acid is regarded as an antioxidant. It is found in large amounts
in all growing plant parts and influences resistance to adverse environmental conditions, including air pollution
(Keller and Schwager, 1977).
Chlorophyll content of plants signifies its photosynthetic activity as well as the growth and development of
biomass. It is well evident that chlorophyll content of plants varies from species to species; age of leaf and also
with the pollution level as well as with other biotic and abiotic conditions (Katiyar and Dubey, 2001). In this
study the highest total chlorophyll (mg g-1 FW) was recorded in Mangifera indica (40.98) followed by
Spathodea campanulata (35.49), Monoon longifolium (34.78), Alstonia scholaris (25.95), Ficus benghalensis
(15.42), and Bauhinia purpurea (12.52) respectively. Higher chlorophyll content might favour tolerance to
pollutants (Joshi et al., 1993). Air pollutants make their entrance into the tissues through the stomata and cause
partial denaturation of the chloroplast and decrease pigment contents in the cells of polluted leaves (Rao and
Leblanc, 1966).
The values for leaf extract pH were recorded as 6.5, 7, 6.5, 7, 7, and 6.5 for Spathodea campanulata, Ficus
benghalensis, Mangifera indica, Alstonia scholaris, Bauhinia purpurea and Monoon longifolium respectively.
The range of pH recorded was 6.5 and 7 which indicates that the pH was slightly acidic to neutral in nature. The
slightly acidic nature demonstrates that the air pollutants are gaseous types, namely SO2, NOx, and their own
acid radical formations in the leaf matrix by reacting with cellular water (Turk and Wirth, 1975). A pH on the
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higher side improves tolerance against air pollution (Agarwal, 1986). The changes in leaf-extract pH might
influence the stomata sensitivity due to air pollutants. The plants with high sensitivity to SO2 and NO2 closed
the stomata faster when the exposed to the pollutants (Larcher, 1995). Consequently, sensitive plants had higher
leaf-extract pH than tolerant plants. Similar result was obtained in the present investigation. High pH may
increase the efficiency of conversion from hexose sugar to Ascorbic acid, while low leaf extract pH showed
good correlation with sensitivity to air pollution (Escobedo et al., 2008; Pasqualini et al., 2001)
Higher Relative Water Content was seen in Ficus benghalensis (34..20%) followed by Monoon longifolium
(14.2%), Mangifera indica (12%), Bahaunia purpurea(7.27%), Spathodea Campanulata (6.25%), and Alstonia
scholaris (3.1%) respectively. Higher relative water content is advantageous for drought resistance as it plays a
key role in maintaining the physiological balance of plants under stress conditions of air pollution (Singh et al.,
1991). The plants with high relative water content under polluted conditions may be tolerant to pollutants.
(Jyothi and Jaya, 2010).
As shown in the table 3, the highest APTI value was recorded in Spathodea campanulata (7.31) and the lowest
was seen in Monoon longifolium (2.943). APTI plays a significant role to determine resistivity and susceptibility
of plant species against pollution level. Plant which have higher index value are tolerant to air pollution, while
plants with low index value showed less tolerance and can be used to indicate levels of air pollution. ( Nayak A
et al, 2018). The tree having a high having APTI score showed a low pH in their leaves with a high chlorophyll
content.
Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species
Based on above parameters, air pollution tolerance index was calculated to estimate tolerance level of plant to
existing environmental condition. Grading patterns of six plant species evaluated in Table 4 and which fit into
the grading pattern with respect to their anticipated performance index (API) were recommended (Table 2) for
plantation in Industrial or urban area.
Table 4- Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species
Grade allotted API value
Sr. No Plants name Assessment
Total %
1 Spathodea campanulata 10 58 3 moderate
2 Ficus benghalensis 11 64 4 good
3 Mangifera indica 14 82 6 excellent
4 Alstonia scholaris 9 53 3 moderate
5 Bauhinia purpurea 11 64 4 good
6 Monoon longifolium 7 41 2 poor
Table 4 shows that out of six dominant plant species, Mangifera indica was the most tolerant plant as its API
was the highest i.e 82% and the grading was 6 which was excellent. It is the most tolerable plant to grow in the
urban area and can be expected to perform well. The economic and aesthetic values are well known and it may
be recommended for extensive planting.
Ficus benghalensis and Bauhinia purpurea were good performers and can help to control pollution along with
Mangifera indica.
CONCLUSION
The advantage of the tolerant species are wide adaptability to eco physiological condition, rapid grow and help
in harmonizing and amalgamating the physical structures (Sahu C , 2020). Based on APTI and API values of
trees in the present, it is concluded that species like Mangifera indica can be used as defense against the local
air pollutant of urban area. Mangifera indica was the most tolerant species and was an excellent performer in an
industrial area and can be expected to perform well in the development of a green environment. Plants with
high APTI and API values are recommended for the development of green belts in the area. Plants with lesser
API values can act as bio-indicators for identifying regions having bad air quality
This work will be highly helpful in formulating the greenery management strategies against rising air pollution
issues of are areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All authors highly acknowledge the Principal, Head of Department of Zoology of D.G.Ruparel College for
providing facility for experimental work. The authors also thankful to Dr. Shyam Palkar and Dr. Rachana Birje
for constant support and guidance.
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IMPACT OF E-LEARNING FROM STUDENTS AND TEACHERS PERSPECTIVE AMID COVID-19

PANDEMIC IN INDIA

Sharma V. J and Bhagat S. A

Bajaj College of Science, Wardha, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT
The Covid-19 lockdown has severely affected the Indian education system. Nearly 290 million students in India
have been out of School since March 2020 and worldwide nearly 94% student population (UN Report 2020) got
impacted due to school closure. Ensuring learning continuity the government of India introduced several online
free learning modules for students.
Educational Institutions conducted online teaching and examinations session amid Covid-19 pandemic. ASER
(Annual Status of Education Report) an annual survey body in India reported that 38.2% children did not had
access to smart phones while 11% children got smart phones post lockdown to help their studies. Both ASER
and IMF (International Monetary Fund) report highlight inadequacy of smart phones and internet connectivity
as major hindrance for online education in India.
We conducted a survey amid Covid-19 to examine the impact of e-learning from students and teachers point of
view. Survey questionnaire were designed to study the advantages, disadvantages, challenges, and
opportunities of e-Learning. The Survey infers that online teaching provides opportunities to students to have
educators and study materials of their choice, provides safe environment at home amid Covid-19 crisis.
Survey also revealed that 73.2% students disagreed to e-Learning process, 61.4% students faced difficulties
related to eye irritation, headache, network issues, lack of practical knowledge against theory syllabus. 62.3%
students agreed that offline mode is more effective.
Amid many loopholes and challenges of this e-learning technology, e-learning came as an antidote in these
exigencies of shutdown.
Keywords: Survey, Student, Teacher, Education, Covid-19

I. INTRODUCTION
The outbreak of SARS COV2 virus in early 2020 causes a huge impact on each and every sector of human life.
It was originated in Wuhan, China which dramatically changes everything. The WHO on 11 March 2020,
declared it as a pandemic of Covid19. It spreads from human to human and therefore to reduce the crowd of
people and in order to reduce the spread of this deadly disease governments around the world imposed a
nationwide lockdown. Covid19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the growth of countries where the cases of
novel corona virus are reported. According to World Bank and International Monetary fund report, the world
has never seen the level of contraction of the economy in last 80 years as happened in the current year. More
than 100 million peoples may have entered to extreme poverty. (Chaturvedi BK,(2020) National Herald)
India is also suffering from the pandemic. In order to control the spread of disease government has taken
various measures such as on 22 March 2020, first Janta Cerfew was announced, followed by the complete
lockdown of 21 days by Prime Minister of India. And later on this lockdown extended further. The immediate
impact of the pandemic is lack of entry of students to their schools and colleges. The educational institutions
were closed. As a result about 290 million students alone in India has been out of school from 22 March 2020
until now. According to ASER (Annual Status of Education Report), which is an annual survey that aims to
provide reliable estimates of children’s schooling status and basic learning levels for each state and rural district
in India, has in a recent study said that many young children have not joined schools and there is a sharp jump
in out-of-school children in the 6-10 age group. This has gone up from 1.8% (2018) to 5.3% (2020) and among
all children up to 16 years from 4% to 5.5%. One of the main reasons of that is may be because of the inability
to afford education. Even in developed countries the situation is same.
In order to continue the education of students, alternative methods of teaching and learning evolved quickly by
many schools and colleges which led to serious problems for students, especially for the lower income families
student. Both ASER and IMF report highlight that availability of smart phones for learning is inadequate along
with the internet connectivity issues. Indian Government has started educating students via different modes. For
example, TV, radio sending study material through some application etc. Online learning had very limited
impact in India. The ASER survey states that 38.2% children did not have access to smart phones; the 11%
children got their smart phone post the lockdown to help their studies. Students from poor families and rural
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areas suffered the most. The most of the students are out of schools. Work must start on bringing them all into
schools. We must aim 10 years of education for all children. Focus should be on girl child as they are likely to
be out of school in disproportionately larger numbers. The distance learning method was used in a hurry and not
with full preparation. We can use the experience of distance learning to improve the knowledge and learning of
children. This is very crucial. The National Education Policy may start getting implemented from the next
session or after that. This means focus on early education. The government must plan for it quickly and start
work.
II. THE OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY
The main objective of the survey was to examine and understand the impact of online learning on students and
teachers. Students and teachers never used this form of education. The study did not want to confirm or deny
any hypothesis. The study is based on the analysis of the feedback the participated students and teachers.
The specific derived objectives of the study were;
 To understand the Status of Education during Covid19 Pandemic.
 To examine the impact of e-learning or online learning from students and teachers perspective.
 To study the advantages, disadvantages, challenges and opportunities of e-learning.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW ON E-LEARNING IN COVID-19 PANDEMIC
E-learning, also referred to as online learning or electronic learning, is acquisition of knowledge which takes
place through electronic technologies and media. In other word, ”learning that is enabled electronically”.
Typically, e-learning is conducted on the Internet, where students can access their learning materials online at
any place and time. E-learning most often takes place in the form of online courses, online degree, or online
programs. (Tamm S. 2019) The COVID-19 pandemic has created the largest disruption of education system in
history, affecting nearly 1.6 Billion learners in more than 190 countries and all continents. Closures of schools
and other learning spaces have impacted 94% of world’s student population, up to 99.5% in low and lower
middle countries (Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond – United Nation,2020)It also states
that, this crisis has stimulated innovation within the education sector. We have seen the innovative approaches
to support education in this crisis of pandemic: from radio and televisions to take-home packages. Distance
learning solution were developed thank to quick responses by governments and other private partners all over
the world supporting education continuity, including the Global Education Coalition covered by UNESCO. This
pandemic causes disruption in education sector widely throughout the world this is from school closures and
education disruption due to pandemic all levels of education and training affected this leads to an exacerbation
of disparities in learning opportunities, increase dropout anticipated. As Donna J Abernathy said, “Online
Learning is not the next big thing, it is now big thing”.
Ensuring learning continuity during this Covid-19 pandemic crisis became the priority for governments. Many
countries are using edtech to support access to remote learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. The World Bank
is working with ministries of education in several countries in support to their efforts to utilize educational
technologies of all sorts to provide remote learning opportunities. In India, in the press release on dated March
21, 2020, the Union Minister of Education(formerly known as Ministry of Human Resource and Development)
and former education minister Mr. Ramesh Pokriyal Nishank shared various e-learning platforms which is free
for students across the country with the robust motto- “ One Nation, One Digital Platform”. He introduced
DIKSHA Portal, e-Pathshala app, Swayam, Swayam Prabha platforms for free with various learning contents.
It is an hour of need for educational institutions and universities to strengthen their knowledge and IT
infrastructure to be ready for facing such crisis. School closures carry high social, educational and economic
costs, and disruptions they cause touch people across communities, but their impact is particular severe for
disadvantaged persons and their families. (UNESCO,2020b). The Annual Status of Education Report for Rural
India was recently released by Pratham Education Foundation in this report they carried out survey in 26 states
and 4 UT’s according to this report Only 1/3 of the surveyed student had access to online learning. Only 11%
students had access to live online classes 24.3% of student did not receive any material from their respective
schools/colleges. About 3% of children were not enrolled in school in 2020. Overall, as per report one of the
three children were not involved in any learning activity.It is the matter of concern in India. According to
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, only about 54% of India’s population has access to Internet and
National Statistical survey shows that only about 20% of the population has the ability to use internet. The
Remote Learning Reachability report released by UNICEF state that just 24% of Indian household have internet
connections to access e-education, and there is a large urban-rural and gender divide that is likely to widen the

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learning gap across low, middle and high income families. This report further states that specially girls from
most marginalized communities or the low income family do not have easy access to Smartphone for e-
education. The UNICEF India Representative Yasmin Ali Haque said that, “ Access to digital education is
limited and by itself cannot solve the learning gap. Blended approaches are needed involving communities,
parents, volunteers to reach children and support their learning in this time”. The Purpose of education is to
mold a person to be perfect. Education provides the pathways to reach their destiny. Education helps in
inculcating social responsibilities as well. The main core of education is to Learn.(Radha R, Mahalakshmi K ,
Kumar V S, Saravanakumar A R, 2020).
A lot of issue attached to online education but we cannot ignore the perk of it in times of such crisis. (Dhawan
S, 2020)Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, excellence and equity, cornerstones of goods education systems, are
being challenged in every part of the world. Our greatest concern is that differences in parental involvement and
access to technology exacerbate inequality. At the same time, as in every major challenge, this is an opportunity
to improve. (Spotlight: Quality education for all during Covid-19 crisis, 2020)
IV. PLAN OF WORK

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V. DESIGNING OF SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES:-

Two separate Google Forms with questionnaire was made for students and teachers. Considering responses of
students and teachers the impact of e-learning is discussed in discussion part.
Questionnaire Set For Students:-
1. What you think about the entire e-learning process?
a. It is helpful
b. Not that much helpful
c. May be helpful d. Other
2. Did you have your own device or have used devices of your parents for online classes?
a. Yes, I have my own device
b. I am using my parents device
c. No, I am using my relatives device
d. I m using my neighbor’s device e. Others
3. Which of the online platforms you have used to attend your classes?
a. Zoom
b. Moodle
c. Google Meet
d. Other
4. Did you face any problem while using this online platform?
a. Yes
b. No
c. May be
5. How much duration you were forced to remain for attending your online classes?
a. 1-3 hours
b. 3-5 hours
c. More than 5 hours
6. Due to increased screen time, have you suffered from irritation in your eyes?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Sometimes
7. Due to increased duration of online classes, did you suffered from headache or earache?
a. I am suffering from headache
b. I am suffering from earache
c. Yes, I am experiencing both d. No
8. Did you faced any internet network issue in your area while attending the classes?
a. No, there is a proper network connection at my place b. Most frequently
b. Once in a day
c. Twice in a week

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9. Did you attend a continuous series of online lectures?

a. Yes
b. No
c. Sometimes
10. Did you have anxious from a continuous online class?
a. Yes b. No
b. May be
c. Other
11. Was there any comfortable environment in your home for studies during online classes sessions?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Sometimes
d. Other
12. Give your sincere opinion, comparing online mode of learning to offline classroom learning?
a. Excellent
b. Good
c. Bad
d. Neither good nor bad
13. Is virtual learning is providing you an adequate amount of theoretical and practical portion of
syllabus?
a. It provides theoretical portion
b. It only provides practical portion
c. It provides both
d. None of above
14. How frequently you have attended doubt sessions in online learning classes with your mentor?
a. Regularly
b. Sometimes, but not always
c. Never
d. Other
15. How much helpful your teachers/mentors have been for you in learning online classes/lectures?
a. They are very helpful
b. I managed it myself
c. Other
16. Did you agree, online learning leads to improving your overall performance?
a. Yes, it improves my performance
b. May be
c. Other

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17. Is online learning is stressful, if yes, how much stress you feel while e-learning?
a. Yes, it is stressful
b. No, it is interesting
c. Other
18. “Your social interaction is getting reduced and get only limited to assignments” Do you agree?
a. True
b. False
c. May be
19. Tell us about the most interesting activity while learning online?
20. What you think about the effectiveness of online learning classes how is it effective for you?
a. It is more effective than traditional learning
b. Traditional learning is more effective
c. Both are equally effective
d. Other
21. “E-learning is the only panacea in times of covid-19 shutdown foe education”, do you agree?
a. True
b. False
c. May be
22. Give your opinion about the future of e-learning education system, is it going to replace the
traditional way of education?
a. Yes, very soon
b. No
c. May be
d. Other
23. On the scale of 1-10, rate your satisfaction level about e-learning process?
Questionnaire set for teachers:-
1. How covid19 pandemic impacted the Education Sector?
2. Describe your experience of teaching online?
3. Did you have previous experience of teaching online?
4. Is that anything in particular which surprise you about e-learning or teaching online?
5. What you think, what are the loopholes of teaching online?
6. Which platform you used to teach students online?
7. What challenges you faced while shifting from normal traditional face-to-face teaching to new online
learning?
8. Due to the current scenario of Covid19 pandemic, did you think the e-learning system dominates traditional
learning in future for ever?
9. How students are responding to the e-learning or online classes?
10. Which methodology do you use for making your lectures more focused and interesting?
11. Did you find any difficulty while teaching online or while interacting with students?
12. How you deal with technology gap (digital divide) among the students of your class?
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13. What are the opportunities of e-learning?

14. Which one you prefer traditional classroom teaching or online teaching?
15. On the scale of 1-10, rate your satisfaction level about e-learning process?
From the responses we received from the online survey through Google Form, the discussion and conclusion are
as follows:
VI. DISCUSSION
The result of the survey, “Impact of Covid19 Pandemic on education” includes the different parameters of
impact of online learning-teaching through student’s and teacher’s perspective respectively.
Impact of Online Learning
Student’s Perspective
The targeted population of students was 221. They studied in different class and colleges they belongs to
primary, secondary, higher secondary and senior colleges (undergraduates and postgraduates). The respondent
students were of different age groups and 67% of them are female while the remaining 33% are male students.

The findings of different parameters of student life are as follows.

1. Academic life of Students:-
The virus SARS COV2 causes Covid19. WHO declared this as a Pandemic of Covid-19 due to which school
and colleges were closed and hence universities shifted their pedagogical process to online learning. For many
universities across the world this online learning system is not new for students but for some schools and
universities in less developed area and rural area this e-learning is a totally new concept to understand as well as
to implement.
From the results of survey we concluded that the academic life of students is good for those students who were
digitally literate with appropriate requirements and those students show positive response. But on the other
hand, students from the remote area or less developed are faced lot of difficulties due to many reasons and
responded in a negative manner to the e-learning.
Student’s Responses related to their academic life

S.N Parameters Inference

Helpful Not Helpful May be helpful Other
Entire e-learning
1 38.2% 48.2% 11.8% 1.8%
process
84 students 106 students 26 students 4 Students
Used Parent's Used Relative's
Device for Have Own Device Other
Device Device
2 attending online 84.1% 1.8%
13.6% 30 0.5%
classes 185 Student's 4 Students
Student's 1 Student
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Other
Zoom Google Meet Moodle
Online Platforms 8.2%
3 60.5% 30.5% 0.9%
Used 18
133 Student's 67 Student's 2 Student's
Student's
Did Students Yes No May Be
4 Faced 61.4% 25.9% 12.7% __
Difficulties? 135 Student's 57 Student's 28 Student's
1-3 Hours 3-5 Hours More than 5
Duration of
5 62.7% 30% Hours 7.3% __
Online Classes
138 Student's 66 Student's 16 Student's
Other
Yes No Most Frequently
Network Issue in 9.6%
6 36.8% 16.8% 36.8%
Area 21
81 Student's 37 Student's 81 Student's
Student's
None
Theory Vs Provides Theory Provides Practical Provides Both
12.7%
7 Practical Portion Portion 57.3% Portion 5.9% 24.1%
28
of Syllabus 126 Students 13 Student's 53 Student's
Student's
Regularly Never Other
Doubt Sessions Sometimes 54.5%
8 33.2% 10.5% 1.8%
with Mentor's 120 Student.
73 Student's 23 Student's 4 Student's
E-learning
Yes No May Be Other
improves your
9 22.3% 0.9% 73.2% 3.6%
overall
49 Student's 2 Student's 161 Student's 8 Student's
performance?
Effective than Offline learning is Both are equally
Other
Effectiveness of offline learning more effective effective
10 4.1%
E-learning 8.2% 62.3% 25.5% 56
9 Student's
18 Student's 137 Student's Student's
2. Social Life of Students:-
The social life of students got affected very badly due to covid19 pandemic (Fig 1) which results in lack of self
confidence, motivation and leads to anxiety and anger. To make social life of student’s more productive in such
situation. One can learn new language or sign language, they can organize their notes, read something which is
completely unrelated to their subject, students can do regular exercise or yoga, learn about something they
really interested in or student can take a virtual museum tour, learn how to code, learn craft, watch
documentaries etc. There are many ways a student can do to avoid stress of social isolation. (Fig 2) Also to get
the comfortable environment is the big issue during pandemic.

3. Emotional Life of Students:-

The Covid19 pandemic and closure of institutions and universities has heavily influenced the emotional well
being and thus many students suffered from mental health issues. The continuous series of online classes leads
to students suffered from anxiousness. (Fig 3) Negative emotions were also noticed among those students who
unable to pay their costs of study during pandemic (Fig 4). The centre government, state government, health
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professionals, institutions, some NGOs should all collaborate on the process of designing timely and efficient
psychological and financial support services for students

4. Physical Health of student’s:-

Due to online classes most of the students were feeling strain in their eyes (Fig 5) that is increased screen time
due to online classes is a major issue with the online learning which leads to many different physical health
conditions like headache and Earaches (Fig 6). In order to avoid the risk of physical health problems students
should use laptops instead of smart phones and attend online classes by sitting little far away from the screen or
they can use blue light eye glasses or lenses. They must take sleep for appropriate time to avoid other physical
problems and also one can use external sound speakers instead of earplugs. Figure 7 depicts the satisfaction
level responses from students to e-learning.

Fig 7: Satisfaction Level of Students to E-learning

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Impact of Online Teaching

Teacher’s Perspective
The result of the survey “Impact of online teaching: teacher’s perspective’ consists of different aspects which
teachers or professors had to faced during and after the transition from normal traditional classroom teaching to
teaching online through various online or electronic platforms. The targeted teachers were 53, they were from
different cities, different schools colleges and universities (Fig 8), who teach students from pre-primary
primary, secondary and junior college streams (Fig 9) . They share their opinions regarding the online teaching.
Out of 53 teachers 25 of them were female’s while 28 were male’s. 24(45.3%) teacher/professor were from
Autonomous college, 11(20.8%) teachers were belongs to semi government schools and 9(17%), 8(15.1%) and
1(1.9%) belongs to government, private and ZP schools respectively (Fig 8).

Undoubtedly, this covid19 pandemic drastically affected the education system. All the institutions and
universities around the world were closed in order to reduce the spread of covid19. The covid19 pandemic
badly or gravely affected the education system. As it impacted education sector worse, uncertainty and
problems in timely completion of course as well as examinations and hence badly affected the examination
results. It closed the doors of education. On the other hand, students were barred from physical teaching.
Although online education played a very impactful role but somewhere missed the actual classroom impact
where students were not getting environment to study. So, physical classes are much required in education. The
major impact of pandemic was on rural area and poor students who were not continuing their education due to
less knowledge of exploring in education field rather than exploring other platforms. In addition to that reaching
to the deprived classes were difficult for teachers which impacted poor students as they cannot afford the mobile
phones for learning online and if students attended online lectures they didn’t understood the topics very well as
they understood in classrooms. This covid19 pandemic has broken the classic mode of teaching, learning and
assessment methods. In fact, covid19 pandemic was like ‘heat shock’ stress. At the same time, it is one of the
best ever challenge faced by teacher who loved teaching profession. The traditional classroom based teaching
and learning in colleges restricted but it enhanced digital based education. When we asked them to share their
experience of teaching online they responded that the online teaching was boon in hard time especially for
distant and remotely located students, but unfortunately lack of self responsibility in students and poor internet
connectivity made it worse. Most of the students were not able to attend online classes because of limited
resources. Those who connected online, more than half of them were not attentive and also they did not receive
any response from students. Some stated that they tried their level best but unavailability of devices, interrupted
network, problems of continuous watching of little screen, eye souring with radiations, sitting at one place and
interacting with students could not give them the normal classroom experience so in short it can be called as
semi satisfactory experience.
Online teaching is not a very new concept many institutions and edutech companies were using this online
teaching from past few years and students also responded in positive manner because the population of students
who studied from this edutech or well established online platforms were generally self disciplined and self
motivated but in case of schools and universities many teachers didn’t used this technology before so when we
asked about it only 15.1% teachers had previous experience while for most of the teachers i.e. 83% this was
totally new experience (Fig 10). In case of online teaching there were many things which was good and bad at
the same time and when we asked to share opinion about that was there any particular thing which surprised
them about teaching online. They responded in positive way that screen sharing and writing on mobile screen to
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explain some things like drawing web diagrams, tables, changing grammar sentences, underlining the important
words and information etc. Through power point presentations various concepts were cleared as visual impact
was greater than audio which resulted into increased understanding level of certain concepts.

Online teaching process has various advantages and loopholes. We asked the respondents about the loopholes of
teaching online. The respondents responded that the online teaching seems to be one sided affair. Missing
students’ participation, missing interactive teaching, could not read faces, teachers could not read the immediate
reactions on faces. Students miss joyful learning with friends, they missed their classroom learning atmosphere,
screen radiation, eye souring problems, interruption of network, expensive for lower middle class and poor
families to manage 2-3 children’s online education at the same time and also one room families could not
afford. So, these are some of the loopholes of online teaching process. The online platforms or application has
becomes the integral part of the e-learning-teaching process. There were various platforms which teachers were
used to teach student’s online when asked about, they responded direct teaching on zoom application by using
tripod, mobile, white board and colorful marker pens. Sometimes by sharing(material) screen and writing on
mobile screens for explanation, drawing web charts and table charts etc. most of the teachers used Zoom app
along with Google Meet, recorded lectures, Microsoft team, etc this platforms teachers were used for teaching
online. While shifting from traditional offline learning to online learning many teachers faced challenges (Fig
11).

Fig 11: Satisfaction level of teachers to e-learning process

When we asked about this they stated that many of them were not technocrat so they had to faced a lot of
problems for example, presenting the matter of blackboard on PowerPoint presentations especially teaching
mathematical derivations and numerical, availability of resources were less, more data consumption,
interruption of network, sound clarity, waiting for reply, time bound teaching, electricity power supply
interruption, learning new technologies for online teaching. So, overall technical knowledge and glitches were
the main challenges faced by teachers. In true international world, traditional teaching became outdated long
back. But when we asked teacher’s that due to the current covid19 scenario, did they think the e-learning system
dominates traditional learning forever. Half of them responded positively while half of them reacted negatively.
Also with this new normal e-learning system students reacted in a mixed way that respondents said that students
seemed never to be happy and interesting for e-learning or online learning. Their responses were very poor.
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They want traditional classroom learning. Some of them stated that only small groups remain attentive while
others were just audience and unfortunately face reading factor was missing in this learning process. Generating
curiosity about topics, adding animations, asking questions in between and giving reward, discussion, story
narration, effective presentations etc teachers did for making their lectures more interesting and focused.
There were many students who did not have any device or many of them have it but didn’t have enough
knowledge or internet connection when we asked teachers through this web based survey that how they deal
with the digital divide or technology gap among their students. They responded, there were many ways through
which teachers reached out those students. For example, through whatsapp groups, they provide them training,
they help those students through telephonic conversations, by providing them information, notes, attending
them personally, asking them to attend lectures with a friend or relative having Smartphone or digital device or
asking them to contact the nearest source of knowledge etc. even though this technology has many pros and
cons but it also has some opportunities. We asked respondents about the opportunities of e-learning they said e-
learning provides the opportunity to teach and record and make it available to masses through various platforms,
anyone can take education from the distant education institutions, learning new features of AI, it has wide
opportunities, anyone can even learn from IIT professors without taking direct- admission, content of lecture
available all-time. Some responded that having a lot of money to buy costly e-learning devices, being rich to
spend some money on medical problems. E-learning should be optional and not the mandatory. It is good to
show your progress in science and technology but it affects the physical health progress. E-learning helps to got
world knowledge at click, you seem to be smarter.

E-learning has lot of problems with use of it, it has advantages, disadvantages, various opportunities and off
course many challenges. By comparing of e-learning with normal face to face traditional classroom learning
more than half of the respondent stated that they would prefer traditional classroom teaching while the
remaining stated that they don’t have any problem with the online teaching and they would prefer blended
teaching.
Advantages, Challenges and Opportunities of e-learning
For everything under the sun have advantages and disadvantages and so as e-learning. The online teaching and
learning in such scenario is the best alternate of traditional face to face learning. There are some advantages,
disadvantages, challenges and opportunities of e-learning. They are as follows;
Advantages
 Convenience; Flexibility; Class Availability; Learning From Own Place Structuring Own
Scheduled; Creative Learning; Offers Personalification; Cost Effective; Synchronous Learning
(Real time learning); Improves Self-Motivation One Can Learn From Any Educator; Learning the material
of choice
Challenges
 Poor Families Cannot Afford learning Online; Equipment May Cause Distractions
Mid-day Meal Scheme Hampered; Digital Divide; Technology Illiteracy; Unavailability of Devices; No
Electricity; No Internet; Lack Of Personal Attention; One Device for Sibling; Network Connectivity Issue
Problem; Less Interaction Between Students & Teachers; No Practical Knowledge

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Opportunities / Way Forward

 Opportunity to improve; Building Human Capital; Advanced Education; Learning New & Innovative
Things; Betterment of Education System; Quality Education
VII. CONCLUSION
 Due to Covid19 pandemic the world has been in lockdown from last couple of months. And hence it badly
impacted the status of education.
 In this pandemic situation, to cease educating students is not an option and therefore the institutions come
up with the alternative to restart educating students.
 The international organizations, the government and some private authorities collaborate and started
educating students through different online modes.
 At the same time, the students and teachers had to face a lot many problems while shifting from offline
traditional way of learning to online learning which negatively impacted the mental health of students.
 Students from rural area and lower income families had suffered the most due to digital illiteracy,
unavailability of devices, no internet etc.
 Teachers also faced many challenges while teaching online. They discovered many ways to make their class
more effective.
 Though it has many loopholes and challenges while using this technology but we cannot deny the fact that
e-learning is the antidote in times of shutdown.
 There will be many opportunities associated with this e-learning system which will play key role in building
human capital as well as human development in near future.
 So, we can say that e-learning is the Panacea for education in pandemic.
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62)https://www.livemint.com/education/news/why-india-needs-to-invest-for-safeguarding-education-from-
covid-like-crisis-in-future-11602689281773.html
63)https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/66-of-private-schools-using-whatsapp-survey/article 32165818.
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64)https://www.businessstandard.com/article/education/the-education-goalpost-is-in-sight-the-trouble-is-with-
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65)https://digitallearning.eletsonline.com/2020/04/impact-of-covid-19-on-education/
66)https://www.qs.com/how-students-with-disabilities-are-impacted-by-the-coronavirus-crisis/
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72)https://ssir.org/articles/entry/a_better_education_for_all_during_and_after_the_covid_19_pandemic
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75) http://opiniojuris.org/2020/06/26/india-a-backbencher-in-the-education-sector-during-covid-19/
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5. The abstract should summarize the context, content and conclusions of the paper in less
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table. The authors should ensure that tables and figures are referred to from the main text.

EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES
All references must be arranged first alphabetically and then it may be further sorted
chronologically also.
 Single author journal article:
Fox, S. (1984). Empowerment as a catalyst for change: an example for the food industry.
Supply Chain Management, 2(3), 29–33.
Bateson, C. D.,(2006), ‘Doing Business after the Fall: The Virtue of Moral Hypocrisy’,
Journal of Business Ethics, 66: 321 – 335
 Multiple author journal article:
Khan, M. R., Islam, A. F. M. M., & Das, D. (1886). A Factor Analytic Study on the Validity
of a Union Commitment Scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 12(1), 129-136.
Liu, W.B, Wongcha A, & Peng, K.C. (2012), “Adopting Super-Efficiency And Tobit Model
On Analyzing the Efficiency of Teacher’s Colleges In Thailand”, International Journal on
New Trends In Education and Their Implications, Vol.3.3, 108 – 114.
 Text Book:
Simchi-Levi, D., Kaminsky, P., & Simchi-Levi, E. (2007). Designing and Managing the
Supply Chain: Concepts, Strategies and Case Studies (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
S. Neelamegham," Marketing in India, Cases and Reading, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd,
III Edition, 2000.
 Edited book having one editor:
Raine, A. (Ed.). (2006). Crime and schizophrenia: Causes and cures. New York: Nova
Science.
 Edited book having more than one editor:
Greenspan, E. L., & Rosenberg, M. (Eds.). (2009). Martin’s annual criminal code:Student
edition 2010. Aurora, ON: Canada Law Book.

 Chapter in edited book having one editor:

Bessley, M., & Wilson, P. (1984). Public policy and small firms in Britain. In Levicki, C.
(Ed.), Small Business Theory and Policy (pp. 111–126). London: Croom Helm.

 Chapter in edited book having more than one editor:

Young, M. E., & Wasserman, E. A. (2005). Theories of learning. In K. Lamberts, & R. L.
Goldstone (Eds.), Handbook of cognition (pp. 161-182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

 Electronic sources should include the URL of the website at which they may be found,
as shown:
Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between
perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38-
48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap

 Unpublished dissertation/ paper:

Uddin, K. (2000). A Study of Corporate Governance in a Developing Country: A Case of
Bangladesh (Unpublished Dissertation). Lingnan University, Hong Kong.

 Article in newspaper:
Yunus, M. (2005, March 23). Micro Credit and Poverty Alleviation in Bangladesh. The
Bangladesh Observer, p. 9.

 Article in magazine:
Holloway, M. (2005, August 6). When extinct isn't. Scientific American, 293, 22-23.

 Website of any institution:

Central Bank of India (2005). Income Recognition Norms Definition of NPA. Retrieved
August 10, 2005, from http://www.centralbankofindia.co.in/ home/index1.htm, viewed on

7. The submission implies that the work has not been published earlier elsewhere and is not
under consideration to be published anywhere else if selected for publication in the journal
of Indian Academicians and Researchers Association.

8. Decision of the Editorial Board regarding selection/rejection of the articles will be final.
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