Chapter

7 Thinking

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.

Contents
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
But whatever the process, the result is Strategies for Creative Thinking
wonderful, gradually from naming an Thought and Language
object we advance step-by-step until Development of Language and Language Use
we have traversed the vast difference Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
between our first stammered syllable
Key Terms
and the sweep of thought in a Summary
line of Shakespeare. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Helen Keller

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 Introduction
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.

Thinking is mostly organised and goal

NATURE OF THINKING
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
or processes and is unique to human beings. One desires to reach the goal by planning,
It involves manipulation and analysis of recalling the steps that one has already
information received from the environment. followed in the past if the task is familiar or
For example, while seeing a painting, you are inferring strategies if the task is new.
not simply focusing on the colour of the Thinking is an internal mental process,
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
are going beyond the given text in interpreting If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
its meaning and you are trying to relate the for several minutes before making a move, you
information to your existing knowledge. cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
Understanding of the painting involves simply infer what he was thinking or what
creation of new meaning that is added to your strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher next move.
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing Building Blocks of Thought
information. Such manipulation and analysis We already know that thinking relies on
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, knowledge we already possess. Such
imagining, problem solving, judging, and knowledge is represented either in the form
decision-making. of mental images or words. People usually

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think by means of mental images or words. experience in reading a map, remembering the
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a different places and subsequently locating
place, which you had visited long back. You them in a physical map in your examination.
would try to use the visual representation of In doing this, you were mostly forming and
the street and other places. On the other hand, using mental images. An image is a mental
when you want to buy a storybook your choice representation of a sensory experience; it
would depend upon your knowledge about can be used to think about things, places,
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which
thinking is based on words or concepts. We demonstrates how images are formed.
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought. Activity 7.1
Mental Image Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and marked places in a blank map. Then present a
curved. You would most likely try to form a map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications
visual image of the whole situation, of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
something similar to what the girl in the
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.

Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places

Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image

situation where you are asked to imagine Concepts

yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal Whenever we come across an object or event
and describe what you see. While doing this familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the
you are actually forming a visual image of object or event by extracting its characteristics,
the event. You are probably trying to see matching it with the already existing category
through your mind’s eye, just like the way of objects and events. For example, when we
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when
draw a map while giving directions to we see a table we categorise it as furniture,
someone? Try to remember your earlier when we see a dog we categorise it as an

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 would also conclude that it would bite
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental
representation of a category. It refers to a class
of objects, ideas or events that share common
properties.
Why do we need to form concepts?
Concept formation helps us in organising our
knowledge so that whenever we need to
access our knowledge, we can do it with less
time and effort. It is something similar to what
we do to organise our things at home.
Children who are very systematic and
organised, put their things such as books,
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories
in specific places in their cupboard, so that
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to
Fig.7.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down find a particular book or the geometry box.
animal, and so on. When we see a new object, In the library too you have seen books
we try to look for its characteristics, match organised as per subject areas and labelled
them with characteristics of an existing so that you would be able to find them quickly
category, and if matching is perfect we give it with less effort. Thus, for making our thought
the name of that category. For example, while process quick and efficient, we form concepts
walking on the road you come across an and categorise objects and events.
unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size, with
a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking THE PROCESSES OF THINKING
at strangers. You would no doubt identify it
as a dog and probably think that it is of a new So far we have been discussing what we mean
breed, which you have never seen before. You by thinking and what is the nature of thinking.

B o x 7.1 Culture and Thinking

Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
the way we think. In a study conducted on Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
American and Asian students, pictures like the about the relationship between objects and
following (underwater scene) were used. The backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each

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We also learnt that thinking uses mental friend who has just arrived at your place. In
images and concepts as the base. Now we will problem solving there is an initial state (i.e. the
discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular problem) and there is an end state (the goal).
area: problem solving. These two anchors are connected by means of
several steps or mental operations. Table 7.1
would clarify your understanding of various
PROBLEM SOLVING steps through which one solves a problem.
How do we proceed while repairing a broken You can try out the problems given in
Activity 7.2 with your friends and observe how
cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching
they are approaching the problem. You can ask
up a broken friendship? In some cases the
them the steps they follow while solving these
solution is reached quickly as in repair of a
problems.
bicycle based on immediately available cues
whereas others are more complex and require Obstacles to Solving Problems
time and effort. Problem solving is thinking that
is goal-directed. Almost all our day-to-day Two major obstacles to solving a problem are
activities are directed towards a goal. Here it is mental set and lack of motivation.
important to know that problems are not
always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that Mental Set
one faces. It could be any simple activity that Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve
you perform to reach a defined goal, for problems by following already tried mental
example, preparing a quick snack for your operations or steps. Prior success with a

Table 7.1 Mental Operations I nvolved in Solving a PProblem

roblem

Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following sequence.
Mental operation Nature of problem
1. Identify the problem A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given
the task of organising a play.
2. Represent the problem Organising a play would involve identification of
an appropriate theme, screening of actors,
actresses, arranging money, etc.
3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various available themes for
Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based on
such considerations as cost, duration, suitability
for the occasion, etc.
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the information/stage rehearsal.
5. Select one solution and execute it Compare and verify the various options to get the
best solution (the play).
6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about
the steps you have followed for future reference
for yourself as well as for your friends.
7. Rethink and redefine problems After this special occasion you can still think about
and solutions ways to plan a better play in future.

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 experienced this while solving mathematical
Activity 7.2 problems. After completing a couple of
questions, you form an idea of the steps that
Problem 1
Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a word. are required to solve these questions and
(You can also construct some similar words) subsequently you go on following the same
NAGMARA steps, until a point where you fail. At this point
BOLMPER you may experience difficulty in avoiding the
SLEVO already used steps. Those steps would
STGNIH
interfere in your thought for new strategies.
TOLUSONI
However, in day-to-day activities we often rely
Problem 2 on past experiences with similar or related
Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from the problems.
paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four Like mental set, functional fixedness in
straight lines. problem solving occurs when people fail to
solve a problem because they are fixed on a
thing’s usual function. If you have ever used a
hardbound book to hammer a nail, then you
have overcome functional fixedness.

Lack of Motivation
Problem 3 People might be great at solving problems, but
Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with
your friend.
all their skills and talents are of no use if they
There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A are not motivated. Sometimes people give up
can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can easily when they encounter a problem or failure
hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100 ml in implementing the first step. Therefore, there
of water with the help of these three bottles. There is a need to persist in their effort to find a
are six more problems like this. These seven
solution.
problems are given below.
Problems The required The capacity of the
quantity bottles in ml. REASONING
A B C
If you find a person desperately running on
1. 100 21 127 3 the railway platform, you could infer a number
2. 99 14 163 25 of things such as: he is running to catch the
3. 5 18 43 10
4. 21 9 42 6
train which is about to leave, he wants to see
5. 31 20 59 4 off his friend sitting in the train which is about
6. 20 23 49 3 to leave, he has left his bag in the train and
7. 25 28 76 3 wants to get in before the train leaves the
(Answers are given at the end of the chapter) station. To figure out why this person is
running, you could use different kinds of
reasoning, deductive or inductive.
particular strategy would sometimes help in
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
solving a new problem. However, this tendency
also creates a mental rigidity that obstructs the Since your previous experience indicates that
problem solver to think of any new rules or people run on the platform to catch a train,
strategies. Thus, while in some situations you would conclude that this person is getting
mental set can enhance the quality and speed late and is running to catch the train.
of problem solving, in other situations it The kind of reasoning that begins with an
hinders problem solving. You might have assumption is called deductive reasoning.

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Thus deductive reasoning begins with making conclude that the person had left his bag in
a general assumption that you know or believe the train. One mistake you would probably
to be true and then drawing specific conclusion make here is jumping to a conclusion without
based on this assumption. In other words, it is knowing all possible facts.
reasoning from general to particular. Your From the above discussion we can conclude
general assumption is that people run on the that reasoning is the process of gathering and
railway platform only when they are getting late analysing information to arrive at conclusions.
for the train. The man is running on the In this sense, reasoning is also a form of
platform. Therefore, he is getting late for the problem solving. The goal is to determine what
train. One mistake that you are making (and conclusion can be drawn from certain given
generally people do commit such mistakes in information.
deductive reasoning) is that you (they) assume Most cases of scientific reasoning are
but do not always know if the basic statement inductive in nature. Scientists and even
or assumption is true. If the base information lay persons consider a number of instances
is not true, i.e. people also run on the platform and try to determine what general rule covers
for other reasons then your conclusion them all. Think of yourself using your
would be invalid or wrong. Look at the mouse knowledge of problem solving steps discussed
in Fig.7.3. earlier in planning for a play, or conducting a
project. Your inductive reasoning is being
applied here.
legs, Analogy is another form of reasoning
ve four ,
ats h
a legs which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to
All c ave four a cat D with the relation between the first two parts
Ih I am
efore
ther being the same as the relation between the
last two. For example, water is to fish as air is
to human; white is to snow as black is to
coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving
problems. They help us in identifying and
visualising the salient attributes of an
object or event, which would otherwise go
unnoticed.

D ECISION - MAKING
Fig.7.3 : Is the mouse making a True and
Valid Conclusion?
Inductive and deductive reasonings allow us
Another way to figure out why the man is to make judgments. In judgment we draw
running on the platform is to use inductive conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events,
reasoning. Sometimes you would analyse other objects, based on knowledge and available
possible reasons and observe what the man is evidences. Consider this example, the man is
actually doing and then draw a conclusion very talkative, likes to mix with people, can
about his behaviour. Reasoning, that is based convince others with ease — he would be most
on specific facts and observation, is called suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our judgment
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is of this person is based on the specific
drawing a general conclusion based on characteristics of an expert salesperson. Here
particular observation. In the earlier example, we will discuss how we make decisions and
you observed the other person’s subsequent judgments.
action or actions such as: entering into the Sometimes judgments are automatic and
train compartment and returning with a bag. require no conscious effort by the person and
Based on your observation you would occur as a matter of habit, for example,

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applying brakes on seeing the red light. differ. In real life situations we take quick
However, evaluating a novel or a literary text decisions and therefore, it is not possible always
requires reference to your past knowledge and to evaluate every situation thoroughly and
experience. Judging the beauty of a painting exhaustively.
would involve your personal preferences. Thus
our judgments are not independent of our
NATURE AND PROCESS OF CREATIVE
beliefs and attitudes. We also make changes
in our judgments based on newly acquired THINKING
information. Consider this example. A new You might have wondered at times how some
teacher joins the school, students make on- one for the first time, thought of acts like
the-spot judgment of the teacher as being very
planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or
strict. However, in subsequent classes, they
decorating the walls of caves with drawings,
closely interact with the teacher and make
etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old ways of
changes in their evaluation. Now they
carrying out day-to-day activities, such
judge the teacher to be extremely student-
persons thought of something original. There
friendly.
are countless others whose creativity has led
Many of the problems you solve each day
to the present day scientific and technological
require you to make decisions. What to wear
progress that we now enjoy. Music, painting,
for the party? What to eat for dinner? What to
poetry, and other forms of art that give us
say to your friend? The answer to all these lies
pleasure and joy, are all products of creative
in picking or choosing one of several choices.
thinking.
In decision-making, we sometimes choose
among options based on choices of personal You might have heard about A.D. Karve, a
significance. Judgment and decision-making botanist from our country, who got the UK’s
are interrelated processes. In decision-making top energy award for devising a smokeless
the problem before us is to choose among ‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless sugarcane
alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit leaves into clean fuel. You might have also
associated with each alternative. For example, heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar, who
when you have the option to choose between won a bronze medal for assembling a five feet
psychology and economics as subjects in tall robot at the First International Robotics
Class XI, your decision would be based upon Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are only a
your interest, future prospects, availability of few examples of creativity. Try to think of some
books, efficiency of teachers, etc. You could other examples of creativity in different fields.
evaluate them by talking to seniors and faculty It is important to remember that creative
members and attending a few classes, etc. thinking is not always expressed in
Decision-making differs from other types of extraordinary work. One does not have to be a
problem solving. In decision-making we scientist or an artist to be a creative thinker.
already know the various solutions or choices Everyone has the potential to be creative.
and one has to be selected. Suppose your Creative thinking can be applied in almost any
friend is a very good player of badminton. S/ area of human activity at different levels. It
he is getting an opportunity to play at the state could be reflected in activities like writing,
level. At the same time the final examination is teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling,
approaching and s/he needs to study hard for conversation, dialogues, asking questions,
it. S/he will have to choose between two options, playing games, trying to solve day-to-day
practising for badminton or studying for the problems, organising activities, helping others
final examination. In this situation her/his resolve conflicts, and so on. This concept of
decision will be based upon evaluation of all ‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected in one’s
possible outcomes. way of perceiving thinking and problem solving,
You would observe that people differ in is different from the ‘special talent creativity’
their priorities and therefore their decisions will seen in outstanding creative achievements.

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Nature of Creative Thinking many answers. A few such questions are given
below:
Creative thinking is distinguished from other
• What are the various uses of cloth?
types of thinking by the fact that it involves
• What improvements will you suggest in a
the production of novel and original ideas or
chair so that it becomes more comfortable
solutions to problems. Sometimes, creative
and aesthetically pleasing?
thinking is understood just as a new way of
• What will happen if examinations are
thinking or thinking differently. However, it is
abolished in schools?
important to know that, besides novelty,
Answers to the above questions require
originality is also an important characteristic divergent thinking which is an open-ended
of creative thinking. Every year new models thinking where the individual can think of
of household appliances, tape-recorders, cars, different answers to the questions or problems
scooters, and television sets produced may not in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of
be original unless unique features are added thinking helps in producing novel and original
to these products. Creative thinking thus ideas.
refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas Divergent thinking abilities generally
or solutions that did not previously exist. include fluency, flexibility, originality, and
Creative thinking is also generally elaboration.
characterised by what Bruner calls “effective • Fluency is the ability to produce many
surprise”. If the product or idea is unusual, ideas for a given task or a problem. The
the response of most who experience it is one more ideas a person produces, the higher
of instant surprise or of being startled. his fluency ability. For example, more the
Another important criterion that number of uses of a paper cup, more would
characterises creative thinking is its be the fluency.
appropriateness in a particular context. • Flexibility indicates variety in thinking. It
Simply thinking of being different without any may be thinking of different uses of an
purpose, doing things in one’s own ways, being object, or different interpretation of a
non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without picture, story or different ways of solving a
any purpose or coming out with a bizarre idea, problem. In case of uses of a paper cup, for
is at times mistaken for creative thinking. example, one may give an idea to use it as
Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said a container or to draw a circle, etc.
to be creative when it is reality-oriented,
appropriate, constructive, and socially
desirable.
J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity
research, proposed two types of thinking:
convergent and divergent. Convergent
thinking refers to thinking that is required to
solve problems which have only one correct
answer. The mind converges to the correct
solution. To illustrate, look at the question
given below. It is based on a number series,
where you have to find the next number. Only
one right answer is expected.
Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next?
Ans. 12.
Now you try to think of certain questions
for which there is no one right answer but Fig.7.4 : Thinking Divergently

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 B o x 7.2 Lateral Thinking

Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate different
thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent modes of thinking. One can put on or take off these
thinking. He makes a distinction between vertical hats according to the type of thinking required to be
thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking used. White hat means gathering information, facts,
involves mental operations that move in a straight figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat covers
line back and forth between lower and higher expression of feelings, and emotions on the subject.
level concepts whereas lateral thinking involves Black hat represents judgment, caution and logic.
looking for alternative ways of defining and Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work and
interpreting problems. He states “vertical (logical) why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for creativity,
thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e. thinking alternatives and changes. Blue hat represents
deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is thinking about the process and not the ideas as such.
concerned with digging a hole in another place”. The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different perspectives
De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help from which an issue or problem is viewed. The
make mental leaps and is likely to create a technique can be used individually as well as in
number of ways of thinking. De Bono developed groups.

• Originality is the ability to produce ideas are important for creative thinking. Divergent
that are rare or unusual by seeing new thinking is essential in generating a wide range
relationships, combining old ideas with new of ideas. Convergent thinking is important to
ones, looking at things from different identify the most useful or appropriate idea.
perspectives etc. Research has shown that
fluency and flexibility are the necessary Activity 7.3
conditions for originality. The more and
varied ideas one produces, the greater the Frame five different kinds of questions requiring
divergent thinking on issues and problems related
likelihood of original ideas.
to traffic management/pollution/corruption/
• Elaboration is the ability that enables a illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the class.
person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities facilitate Process of Creative Thinking
generation of a variety of ideas which may not
seem to be related. For example, what are the In recent years, more and more attention has
common ideas for enhancing food production? been given to the way the human mind
The likely answers would be related to quality operates. Research has made it clear that
thinking of new and unusual ideas involve
of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on. If
more than a flash of insight. There are stages
someone thinks of cultivation in a desert for
before and after the new ideas come.
extracting protein from weeds, it would be a
The starting point in creative process is the
remote idea. The association here is between
need to think or bring out something new
‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or ‘weeds’. which initiates the effort. Not everyone
Ordinarily, we do not associate these together. experiences this need, as one can be happy and
But, if we let our mind free to seek new and contented, in carrying out routine work. The
remote associations, a number of combination need for search of new ideas and solutions
of ideas may arise out of which one or two may arises from sensing problems and gaps in
turn out to be original. You must remember information. The process of creative thinking
that both convergent and divergent thinking begins with the preparation stage that

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 solutions are tested and judged. Here,
convergent thinking plays its role in selecting
the appropriate idea or solution that works.

Strategies for Creative Thinking

Research on characteristics of creative people
has revealed that there are certain attitudes,
dispositions, and skills which facilitate creative
thinking. Here are some strategies to help you
enhance your creative thinking abilities and
skills:
• Become more aware and sensitive to be
able to notice and respond to feelings,
sights, sounds, textures around you. Spot
problems, missing information, anomalies,
gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to notice
Fig.7.5 : The Creative Process
contradictions and incompleteness in
requires one to understand the task or problem situations that others may not do. For this,
in hand, analyse the problem, and become cultivate the habit of wider reading,
aware of the background facts and related exposure to a variety of information, and
information. The process evokes curiosity and develop the art of asking questions,
excitement to think more and more in different pondering over the mysteries of situations
directions. The person tries to look at the task and objects.
or problem from different angles and • Generate as many ideas, responses,
viewpoints. Here, divergent thinking abilities solutions or suggestions on a given task or
discussed earlier play their role to help one situation to increase your flow of thoughts.
Try deliberately to look for multiple angles
extend in new directions.
of a task and situation to increase flexibility
Coming back to the process, when the
in your thinking. It could be, for example,
person is trying to generate alternative ideas
thinking of alternative arrangements of
and trying to view the problem or task from an
furniture in a room to generate more space,
unusual perspective, there may be a feeling of
different ways of conversing with people,
getting stuck. One may even get disgusted with
looking for costs and benefits of a course
failure and may leave the problem or the task
of study or career, looking for ways of
for sometime. This is the stage of incubation.
dealing with an angry friend, helping
Research shows that creative ideas may not
others, etc.
occur immediately during incubation when the
• Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be
individual is not consciously thinking about used to increase fluency and flexibility of
the problem but seeking relaxation from ideas to open-ended situations.
conscious effort. They may occur or strike Brainstorming is based on the principle
when a person is doing something else, for that producing ideas should be kept
example, going to sleep, waking up, taking a separate from the evaluation of their worth.
bath or just walking along. Followed by The basic assumption is to let the minds
incubation is the stage of illumination - the think freely and the tendency to put
‘Aha’! or ‘I have found it’ experience, the judgment on the worth of ideas may be
moment we normally associate with emergence postponed, i.e. imagination should be given
of creative ideas. There usually is, a feeling of priority over judgment till all the ideas are
excitement, even satisfaction, of having found exhausted. This helps in increasing the
a creative idea. Last is the stage of verification fluency of ideas and piling up alternatives.
when the worth or appropriateness of ideas or Brainstorming can be practised by playing

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 brainstorming games with family members (linguistic determinism). Experimental
and friends keeping its principles in mind. evidence, however, maintains that it is possible
Use of checklists and questions often to have the same level or quality of thoughts
provide a new twist for ideas like, What in all languages depending upon the
other changes? What else? In how many availability of linguistic categories and
ways could it be done? What could be the structures. Some thoughts may be easier in
other uses of this object? and so on. one language compared to another.

Thought as Determinant of Language

THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE
The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget
Till now, we have discussed the nature and believed that thought not only determines
meaning of thinking and how thinking is based language, but also precedes it. Piaget argued
on images and concepts. We have also that children form an internal representation
discussed the various processes of thought. of the world through thinking. For example,
Throughout the discussion did you feel that when children see something and later copy
words or language are essential to express what it (a process called imitation), thinking does
we think? This section examines the take place, which does not involve language.
relationship between language and thought: A child’s observation of other’s behaviour and
that language determines thought, that thought imitation of the same behaviour, no doubt
determines language, and that thought and involves thinking but not language. Language
language have different origins. Let us examine is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As actions
these three viewpoints in some detail. become internalised, language may affect
children’s range of symbolic thinking but is not
Language as Determinant of Thought necessary for the origins of thought. Piaget
In Hindi and other Indian languages we use a believed that though language can be taught
number of different words for various kinship to children, understanding of the words require
relationships. We have different terms for knowledge of the underlying concepts (i.e.
mother’s brother, father’s elder brother, father’s thinking). Thus, thought is basic, and
younger brother, mother’s sister’s husband, necessary if language is to be understood.
father’s sister’s husband, and so on. An English
person uses just one word uncle to describe Different Origins of Language and
all these kinship relationships. In the English Thought
language there are dozens of words for colours The Russian psychologist, Lev Vyogotsky,
whereas some tribal languages have only two argued that thoughts and language develop
to four colour terms. Do such differences in a child separately until about two years of
matter for how we think? Does an Indian child age, when they merge. Before two years thought
find it easier to think about and differentiate is preverbal and is experienced more in action
between various kinship relationships (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). The child’s
compared to her English-speaking utterances are more automatic reflexes - crying
counterpart? Does our thinking process when uncomfortable - than thought-based.
depend on how we describe it in our language? Around two years of age, the child expresses
Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that thought verbally and her/his speech reflects
language determines the contents of thought. rationality. Now children are able to
This view is known as linguistic relativity manipulate thoughts using soundless speech.
hypothesis. In its strong version, this He believed that during this period the
hypothesis holds what and how individuals development of language and thinking become
can possibly think is determined by the interdependent; the development of conceptual
language and linguistic categories they use thinking depends upon the quality of inner

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speech and vice versa. Thought is used without be discussing the salient features of language
language when the vehicle of thinking is non- acquisition.
verbal such as visual or movement-related. You have been using language all your life.
Language is used without thought when Now try to define accurately what it is that you
expressing feelings or exchanging pleasantries, have been using. Language consists of a system
for example “Good morning! How are you?” of symbols organised by means of certain rules
“Very well, I am fine”. When the two functions that we use to communicate with each other.
overlap, they can be used together to produce You will notice that language has three basic
verbal thought and rational speech. characteristics: (a) the presence of symbols, (b)
a set of rules to organise these symbols, and
(c) communication. Here we shall be discussing
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE AND
these three characteristics of language.
LANGUAGE USE The first characteristic of language is that
it involves symbols. Symbols represent
Meaning and Nature of Language
something or someone else, for example, the
In the previous section we discussed the place where you live is called ‘home’, the place
relationship between language and thought. where you study is called ‘school’, the thing
In this section, we will examine how human that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like home,
beings acquire and use language in different school, food, and numerous other words do
age groups. Think for a moment: what would not in themselves carry any meaning. When
have happened if you did not have a language these words are associated with some objects/
to express whatever you wanted to say? In the events they attain meaning and we begin
absence of language you will not be able to recognising those objects/events, etc. with
communicate your ideas and feelings, nor will particular words (symbols). We use symbols
you have the opportunity to know or have while thinking.
access to what others think and feel. As a child The second characteristic of language is
when you first started saying “ma..ma..ma.”, that it involves rules. While combining two or
it not only gave you tremendous boost to more words we usually follow a definite and
continue repeating this activity but also was a accepted order of presenting these words. For
great moment of joy for your parents and other example, one would most likely say “I am going
care-givers. Slowly you learnt to say ‘ma’ and to school” and not “school am going I”.
‘papa’ and sometime later combined two or The third characteristic of language is that
more words to communicate your needs, it is used for communicating one’s thought,
feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. On
appropriate for situations and also learnt the many occasions we communicate through the
rules of putting these words in sentences. use of our body parts, called gestures or
Initially you learnt to communicate in the postures. This type of communication is called
language being used at home (usually the non-verbal communication. Some people who
mother-tongue), went to school and learnt the cannot use oral speech, like the ones with
formal language of instruction (in many cases severe hearing and speech problems,
this language is different from the mother- communicate through signs. Sign language is
tongue), and were promoted to higher grades also a form of language.
and learnt other languages. If you look back,
you will realise that your journey from crying Development of Language
and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the attainment of
Language is a complex system and unique to
mastery in not one but many languages, has
human beings. Psychologists have tried to
been a fascinating one. In this section we shall teach sign language, use of symbols to

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chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But it is and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa—,
observed that, human language is more ba—). By about nine months of age these
complex, creative, and spontaneous than the sounds get elaborated to strings of some sound
system of communication other animals can combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ into
learn. There is also a great deal of regularity repetitive patterns called echolalia. While the
with which children all over the world seem to early babblings are random or accidental in
be learning the language or languages to nature, the later babblings seem to be imitative
which they are exposed. When you compare of adult voices. Children show some
individual children, you find that they differ a understanding of a few words by the time they
great deal in the rate of their language are six months old. Around the first birthday
development as well as in how they go about (the exact age varies from child to child) most
it. But when you take a general view of children enter the one-word-stage. Their first
children’s acquisition of language all over the word usually contains one syllable – ma or da,
world you find some predictable pattern in for instance. Gradually they move to one or more
words which are combined to form whole
which children proceed from almost no use of
sentences or phrases. So they are called
language to the point of becoming competent
holophrases. When they are 18 to 20 months
language users. Language develops through
of age, children enter a two-word stage and
some of the stages discussed below.
begin to use two words together. The two-word
Newborn babies and young infants make stage exemplifies telegraphic speech. Like
a variety of sounds, which gradually get telegrams (got admission, send money) it
modified to resemble words. The first sound contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close to their
produced by babies is crying. Initial crying is third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-a-half
undifferentiated and similar across various years, children’s language development gets
situations. Gradually, the pattern of crying focused on rules of the language they hear.
varies in its pitch and intensity to signify How is language acquired? You must be
different states such as hunger, pain, and wondering: “How do we learn to speak?” As
sleepiness, etc. These differentiated crying with many other topics in psychology, the
sounds gradually become more meaningful question of whether a behaviour develops as a
cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) usually result of inherited characteristics (nature) or
to express happiness. from the effects of learning (nurture) has been
At around six months of age children enter raised with regard to language. Most
the babbling stage. Babbling involves psychologists accept that both nature and
prolonged repetition of a variety of consonants nurture are important in language acquisition.

B o x 7.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in emotional level. It is possible for individuals to have
communicating through any two languages. multiple mother tongues. The Indian social context is
Learning of more than two languages is referred characterised by grass root multilingualism which
to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue has makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the levels
been variously defined as one’s native language, of individual as well as society. Most Indians use more
the language spoken by the individual from the than one language to communicate in various domains
cradle; language ordinarily used at home; of their daily life activities. Thus, multilingualism is a
language spoken by the mother; etc. However, way of life in India. Studies reveal that bilingualism/
generally the mother tongue is viewed as a multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic, and
language with which one identifies at the academic competence of children.

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 Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we learn built-in readiness to learn grammar helps
language the same way as animals learn to explain why children acquire language so
pick keys or press bars (refer to Chapter 6 on readily without direct teaching.
Learning). Language development, for the
behaviourists follow the learning principles,
Language Use
such as association (the sight of bottle with the
word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use of word As we have discussed earlier, language use
“bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and hugs involves knowing socially appropriate ways of
when the child says something right). There is communication. Knowledge of vocabulary and
also evidence that children produce sounds syntax of a language does not ensure proper
that are appropriate to a language of the parent use of language to achieve the purpose of
or care-giver and are reinforced for having done communication in a variety of social situations.
so. The principle of shaping leads to successive When we use language we have various
approximation of the desired responses so that pragmatic intentions such as requesting,
the child eventually speaks as well as the adult. asking, thanking, demanding, etc. In order
Regional differences in pronunciation and to effectively serve these social goals, language
phrasing illustrate how different patterns are use must be pragmatically correct or
reinforced in different areas. contextually appropriate besides being
Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the grammatical and meaningful. Children often
innate proposition of development of language. have difficulty with choice of appropriate
For him the rate at which children acquire utterances for politeness or for requests and
words and grammar without being taught can
their use of language conveys a demand or a
not be explained only by learning principles.
command instead of a polite request. When
Children also create all sorts of sentences they
children are engaged in conversations, they
have never heard and, therefore, could not be
also have difficulty in taking turns in speaking
imitating. Children throughout the world seem
and listening like adults.
to have a critical period — a period when
lear ning must occur if it is to occur
successfully — for learning language. Children
across the world also go through the same Key Terms
stages of language development. Chomsky
Bilingualism, Brainstor ming, Concepts,
believes language development is just like
Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decision-
physical maturation- given adequate care, it making, Deductive reasoning, Divergent
“just happens to the child”. Children are born thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination,
with “universal grammar”. They readily learn Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning,
the grammar of whatever language they hear. Judgment, Language, Mental representation,
Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving,
Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax,
why infants acquire the language they hear
Thinking
and how they add new words to their
vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our

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 Summary
• Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either
acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking
involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts.
• Complex thought processes are problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment,
and creative thinking.
• Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem.
• Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the
hindrances for effective problem solving.
• Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal directed, involves inference and can be either
deductive or inductive.
• In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, make evaluations about objects
or events.
• In decision-making one must choose among several available alternatives.
• Judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes.
• Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original — it may be an
idea, object or solution to a problem.
• Developing creative thinking requires overcoming blocks to creative expression and using
strategies to enhance creative thinking skills and abilities.
• Language is distinctly human. It consists of symbols, organised on the basis of certain
rules to communicate intentions, feelings, motives, and desires among human beings.
• Major development in language occurs during the first two to three years of age.
• Language and thought are intricately related.

Review Questions
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
7. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
8. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss.
9. How is language acquired in human beings?

Project Idea
Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years old over a period of one week. Record the
speech and note how the child is learning words and how many words the child has
learnt over this period.

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Answers to problems in Activity 7.2

Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION.

Problem 2 :

Problem 3 :
The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127 ml) completely and then pour out water in bottle A (21 ml)
to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out of B to fill up C
(3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of water in B and
C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water in B.

In case of the first 5 problems, the desired amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–2C. However, the 6th
and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml and the capacity of
the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how the participant
is solving this problem. Most likely he would successfully solve the problem by following the already tried
sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even thinking or trying a simpler and quick method of pouring water from
A to C. If your friend is following this procedure then you can conclude that solving the 5 problems has
formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th problem requires a direct solution of pouring water from A to
C. But the mental set is so powerful that many would fail to think of any other steps, other than the already
tried one.

The standard method A simpler method A case where only the simple method works
Problems 1-5 Problem 6 Problem 7

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