UNIT-5 (PROTOZOA OF VETERINARY IMPORTANCE)

Topic JABALPUR

Morphology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis and

control measures of protozoan parasites belonging to the families: Babesiidae

Dr. Rupesh Verma

Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Veterinary Parasitology
College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry (NDVSU), Jabalpur MP
Phylum Apicomplexa
Class Sporozoa
Order Piroplasmida
Family Babesidae
Genus Babesia
 The genus Babesia was named after the Romanian bacteriologist Victor Babes, who in 1888
attributed “hemoglobinuric fever” of cattle to inclusions he detected within erythrocytes.
Believed to be a bacterium, the name was later changed to Babesia bovis
 Theobald Smith later identified the causative agent of bovine red water fever (Texas fever)
in 1893 as Babesia bigemina, accurately described the parasite's life cycle, and demonstrated
for the first time the arthropod-borne transmission of an infectious disease to a mammal.

Inside the vertebrate host cells

 Pear shaped appearance is ideal morphological feature of the organisms

 When stained with Romanowsky stain, cytoplasm takes blue colour and nucleus takes red

colour.

In the vector

 Round shape, ring like, spindle shape or cigar shaped organisms are found in vector
Two forms of Babesia

 large form with an average length of more than 3µm and small forms less than 2.5µm. The

paired large forms generally lie with their narrow ends at an acute angle while small forms

lie at obtuse angle. Generally the infection with large forms can be successful treated with

trypan blue.e.g. - B. bigemina, B.motasi, B. canis, B. Caballi, B. trautmanni (BMC2T)

 In general small babesia species are highly pathogenic eg. B. bovis, B. ovis and B. gibsoni.

(Moderately high pathogenic B. bigemina & B. canis)

 Maltese cross- B.equi, B. microti, B.felis, B. canis (16 organism some time)

 Signet Ring stage of RBC- B. gibsoni, B. bovis

 Babesia spp. which are closely related to Theileria - B. (Theileria) equi, B. (Theileria)
microti
 CNS symptom – B. bovis, B. canis (clumping of RBC) & B. caballi
 Chronic form - B.gibsoni and B. caballi.
 Immunology
 An Inverse age resistance - young animals being naturally resistant while older animals are
fully susceptible. The passive transfer of maternal antibodies via the colostrum is probably
responsible in part for this resistance.
 The natural resistance of the young calf to infection usually disappears at 9-12 month of
age.
 Babesia and Anoplasma persist infection. (Exception B. canis & B. divergen)
 Pre- immunity
 When infected animal develop long time immunity against Re-infection with same species
of infection.
Spleen
 The spleen play important role in maintaining the immune state of babesia infection, since
immunity may be broken down by removal of spleen.
Breed of Animal
 Bos indicus has been suggested to be more resistant than Bos Taurus (exotic and cross
breed)
 Bovine babesiosis (BB)
Disease: Cattle tick fever, Red water fever, Texas fever (North America), Splenic fever
Piroplasmosis,
Host: Cattle and Buffalo
Distribution: Tropics and Sub tropics.

The principal species of Babesia are: Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Babesia divergens.
Other Babesia that can infect cattle include B. major, B. ovata, B. occultans and B. jakimovi.

Tick vectors of Babesia bigemina (India)

B. bigemina transmitted by feeding of adult and nymphal stages of one-host Rhipicephalus spp.
ticks. Rhipicephalus microplus (formerly Boophilus microplus) and Rhipicephalus annulatus
(formerly Boophilus annulatus); Rhipicephalus decoloratus, and Rhipicephalus evertsi are also
competent vectors

Tick vectors of Babesia bovis:

B. bovis transmitted by feeding of larval stages of one-host Rhipicephalus spp. ticks
Rhipicephalus microplus and Rhipicephalus annulatus; Rhipicephalus geigyi is also a
competent vector.

Tick vectors of Babesia divergens:

principal vector is Ixodes ricinus is a three-host tick with only adult stages feeding on
vertebrates (eg. Cattle)
1. Transovarial or transovarian transmission
 Transmission of parasites from parent to offspring
via the ovaries.
 E.g. one host ticks (Babesia infection only)

2. Transstadial transmission
 Transmission of the parasites from one stage to
next stage (through the molt to the next stage(s)
or stadium)
 E.g. three host ticks (Babesia & Theileria
infection)
1. Sexual multiplication (Definitive Host)- invertebrate animals (Ticks)

2. Asexual multiplication (Intermediated Host) Vertebrates animals

 Life cycle
1. Merogony

Ticks during feeding inject sporozoites into blood stream of the host

Sporozoites bind to RBC and enter erythrocytes and multiply by series of binary
fission / budding- endodiogeny, endopolygony) / schizogony depend upon species
and host involved

Producing merozoites

Each merozoites invade new RBC and lysis huge number of RBC

Infected merozoites are lysed and only few number survive which develop into
gamonts/ gametocytes
2. Gamogony
Babesia infected RBC ingested by Ticks

In side the ticks RBC are lysed

 Gametes are set free by lysis of infected erythrocytes

developed into micro and macro gametes (uninucleate stralenkorper bodies/Ray

bodies)

Ray bodies unite to form zygote

The zygotes undergoes further development and multiplication and form pseudopod
like structure called as Vermicules/ookinetes/ Kinetes

Kinetes entry to the epithelium cell (enteric cells) of gut tick

Kinetes reinvade the enteric cells and produced new Kinetes, released by rupture of
vacuoles in cells (repeating asexual multiplication)
Transovarian transmission (one host tick)

Vermicule enter into hemolymph

Reach to ovary of tick

Infect to ova and then larvae

For further development the vermicule enter the epithelium cell of larvae

Where multiply by binary fission and lysed the enteric cells

Reinvade the enteric cells

Enter the hemolymph when the larvae is changed to Nymphal stage

Finally vermicule reach to the salivary gland and invade the acini cells and
multiply
Stage to stage transmission

Vermicule enter into hemolymph and reaches muscles

Tick macrophage engulf it

The pseudocyst of organism occurs by 7th days after Nymph drop off from infected host

Upto 11 to 15 days clubbed shaped organism are present

The clubbed shaped bodies are released when macrophages ruptures and reinvade muscle
cells

increase population and form ovoid shape

Then further development occurs in recently metamorphosed adult tick when feed on host

Vermicule/ parasite move to salivary gland and infect acini cells and replicate
3. Sporogony

Sporogony starts after vermicule invasion of tick salivary glands (acini cells),
which form the sporont, a polymorphous syncytium

The sporont later evolves into a multinucleated meshwork referred as a

sporoblast, which is dormant during tick ecdysis

Maturation of the parasite sporoblast starts after tick attachment to the host

Each cell may contain 1000s of minute parasites

These form vermiform sporozoites and break up the host cell Sporzoites transfer
to host during feeding of nymphal ticks (5-10x103)
Intra-erythorocytic piroplasms (replication) --> gametes --> fuse to form zygote -->
migrates to hemocoel (undergo meiosis) --> ookinete --> sporokinete --> sporozoite
 The common belief that sporozoites enter erythrocytes directly (no pre-erythrocytic phase)

has not been critically examined.

 The process by which extracellular merozoites invade erythrocytes (induced endocytosis) is

similar to that of the plasmodia.

 In the rat Babesia, B. rodhaini, complement facilitates invasion by modification of either

the erythrocyte surface or that of the merozoite; with B. divergens, sialic acid appears to be an

important ligand for erythrocyte invasion,

 Following entry into erythrocytes, pear-shaped trophozoites (piroplasms) replicate by

asynchronous budding rather than by schizogony as occurs in malarial parasites.

 During replication, double-membraned segments develop and pinch off from the parental

piroplasm, resulting in both asexually reproducing merozoites and nonreplicating sexual

parasites (gametocytes).
 Upon ingestion of infectious blood from a vertebrate host, babesia undergo syngamy and
replicate in the intestinal epithelium of the tick vector and develop further in the ovaries,
hemolymph, hemocytes, muscle fibers, malpighian tubules, peritracheal cells and other
tissues and produce secondary kinetes and they invades to salivary glands.
 Sporozoites in salivary glands are deposited in the skin of vertebrate hosts during the tick's
blood meal.
 Pathogenesis of Babesia infection

 The release of pharmacologically active substances and the destruction of erythrocytes

play a major in pathogenesis of Babesia infection.

 The disease caused by B. bigemina resemble a haemolytic anaemia while with B. bovis

infection, kinin production is more important.

 Kanin- Kallikrein system produces increased vascular permeability and vasodilatation

leading to circulatory stasis and sock- (B. bovis and B. caballi).

 The initial fall in packed cell volume in B. bovis infection is largely attributable to this

disturbances rather than erythrocyte destruction.

 Kallikrein also triggers intravascular coagulation and this is reflected in the changes of

coagulation parameters in B. bovis, B. caballi and B. canis infection.

 The Anemia is associated with the emerging parasites from erythrocytes, Mechanically

rupture of cell by parasites.

 Non infected erythrocytes by phagocytosis suggests that osmotic fragility (B. bovis and B.

caballi )of cells and other adsorption of circulating antigen-antibody complexes to surface

of RBC leading to RBC removal by phagocytosis

 Central nervous system damage is a feature of B. bovis and B. canis.

 Selective concentration of Parasitized cells occurs in brain capillaries leading to obstruction

of the blood flow.

 Infected cells stick to one another and the vessel endothelium, and the increased stickness

has been ascribed to a parasite enzyme or antigen which alters surface charge.
 Babesiosis may cause intravascular and extravascular hemolytic anemia via direct red blood

cell injury, and indirect through immune-mediated hemolytic anemia.

 Intravascular hemolysis due to rapid multiplication of parasites in the RBCs followed by

destruction of the cells

 Extra vascular hemolysis which mostly occurs in spleen, due to phagocytosis of infected and

non infected RBCs by activated macrophage system.

 This may cause hemoglobinemia, hemoglobinuria , bilirubinuria and anemia with further

consequence of tissue hypoxia, metabolic acidosis hyperkalemia, hypovolemic shock and

development of multiple organ dysfunction leading to death

 Destruction of RBC –Anemia-Lack of O2-Hypoxia-Cell death/ necrosis.

 Haemodilation- hypovolumic shock – death of animal.

 Osmotic pressure change - odema & Anemia –haemaglobinuria/ haemaglobinemia/

icterus.

 Hypoxia- heart rate / pulse rate/ breathing/ increase And rumination reduce – diarrhea

followed by constipation.
 Haematological changes

 PCV, RBC concentration, Haemoglobin- reduced by 5o%, osmolytic fragility of

RBC increased by B.bigemina infection.

 In acute phase, anaemia is normocytic later become macrocytic and increase MCV.

 WBC decrease first, increase to 2-3 folds after recovery.

 When Haemoglobinuria is seen , the temperature becomes subnormal.

 In serum, increased SGOT,SGPT, BUN, Alkaline phosphate, later stages calcium

levels decrease- Serum urea kinin for enzyme, kallikrenin activated several days
before parasite reach detectable levels in peripheral vessels leads to shock,
decreased PCV.

 Due to increased vascular permeability vasodilatation leading to circulatory stasis-

shock
 Intravascular coagulation occurs. These effects are seen before effects of RBC
destruction are seen.

 Destruction of RBC, decreased PCV, results in destruction to organ from

anaemic anoxia superimposed on that cause by shock.

 Release Hb overloads kidney- red cell stroma and tissue product accelerate
kinin release leading to intravascular coagulation.

 Final stage of disease, pathogenesis process that persistently originated from

biological active substance of parasites are reinforced by effects of Haemolytic
anaemia and produce tissue destruction.

 Apart from RBC destruction, evidence of direct removal of non-infected

erythrocytes by phagocytosis, increased osmotic fraility of non- infected cells
predisposes spontaneous lysis in small blood vessels.
Circulatory Antigens form circulatory complexes with antibody and
complement which lodges in kidney and cause glomerulo nephritis.

This reaction depletes body which disposes anaphylotoxin- augment

shock.

Symptoms

The symptoms are more marked in exotic breeds. The incubation

period is 1-2 weeks.

Fever-41-45.50 C marked dullness, listlessness, inappetance, severe

anaemia with destruction of RBC, haemoglobinuria, (Coffee coloured
urine) mucous membrane is pale to icteric ,spleen enlarged soft dark
red pulpy, diarhoea, constipation, faeces yellow except in peracute cases
affected animal lose condition, emaciated, die.
Appear subdued, rumination suspended, lachrymation, dripping
saliva, staggering gait, death in 4 days.

If recovered, chronic symptoms like intermittent fever and

emaciation.

Chronic case: Organism in blood smear is seen for 3-8 weeks-

course extended several weeks with intermittent temperature rise
upto 40-420C, animal thin and emaciated, no marked
haemoglobinuria, finally animal recovers, loss of weight, icterus,
hard yellow faeces.
 Post mortem lesions

Sub cutaneous or Intra muscular oedema with icterus, fat yellow

gelatinous, blood thin watery.

Urine dark (coffee coloured dark brown or red), Spleen enlarged with
soft dark pulp, liver enlarged with yellow colour distension of gall
bladder with dark bile, Plasma reddened.

Kidney congested with high concentration of parasitized RBC.

Thrombosis of lung liver and Kidney.

Cerebral form: Onset is sudden- Temperature- 41.70C in few hours,

death in 12-36 hrs.

Parasites appear to accumulate and multiply in cerebral capillaries

since organisms are rarely seen in blood smears
 Diagnosis

History

Clinical signs - Coffee color urine, fever, Anemia

Blood examination - Hb / PCV and detection of parasites in blood,

thick and thin smear.

Cerebral forms - Examination of cerebral capillary smears.

Culture- MASP (Micro aerophilious stationary phage) first

developed by Levy & Ristic 1980 for B. bovis, Exoantigen

Immuno diagnosis- LAT, IHAT, IFAT, Dot- ELISA and RIA

Molecular diagnosis

RAP-1 (rhoptry associated protein-1) and AMA-1 have been

widely used for B. bovis and B. bigemina, respectively.

Multiplex nested PCR detection of B. bovis and B. bigemina

based on RAP-1 and SpeI-AvaI, respectively.

DNA probe showed that a 278-bp fragment could be detected

18sr DNA, ITS-1 and ITS-2 Gene also used

 B. bovis
Primary
BoF (5’–3’) CAC-GAG-GAA-GGA-ACT-ACC-GAT-GTT-GA
BoR CCA-AGG-AGC-TTC-AAC-GTA-CGA-GGT-CA

Nested
BoFN TCA-ACA-AGG-TAC-TCT-ATA-TGG-CTA-CC
BoRN CTA-CCG-AGC-AGA-ACC-TTC-TTC-ACC-AT

B. bigemina
Primary
BiIA CAT-CTA-ATT-TCT-CTC-CAT-ACC-CCT-CC
BiIB CCT-CGG-CTT-CAA-CTC-TGA-TGC-CAA-AG

Nested
BiIAN CGC-AAG-CCC-AGC-ACG-CCC-CGG-TGC
BiIBN CCG-ACC-TGG-ATA-GGC-TGT-GTG-ATG
 Treatment
Trypan blue (oldest ) @100ml of 1-2% solution in normal saline
given I/V only for large form of Babesia effective

Acridine derivatives (Acriflavin, Flavin, Eufalvin) @20 ml 5%

solution I/V

Pirevan (Acaprin, Babesan, Piroparv, Piroplasmin, Quinuronium

Sulphate) @1 ml 5% solution S/C for 50 kg Body wt.

Phenamidine @12 mg kg S/C in 40% aqueous solution.

Diminazine aceturate @ 2-3.5 mg kg Body wt deep I/M

Diampron @ 10 mg kg I/M or S/C.

Imidocarb dipropionate : Therapeutic and Prophylactic.@1-2mg/kg

S/C and for prophylactic @ 3mg/kg.
 Equine Babesiosis
Babesia caballi (large form)
 CNS form- common , persistent fever , anemia with icterus commonly occurs but
haemoglobinuria is rare. The rare cases of acute death from B. caballi
 Babesia spp. can be found in various organs of tick vectors and do transmit
transovarially from egg to larva
Theileria equi (formerly Babesia equi)
 More pathogenic, acute T. equi infection, clinical signs are usually related to
marked hemolysis and resulting anemia.
 Exoerythrocytic schizogony has been found.
 Theileria equi develop in salivary glands of tick vector and not found in other tick
organs; not transmitted transovarially from egg to larva
 Approximately 30 species of ticks in the genera Dermacentor, Hyalomma,
Haemaphysalis, Ixodes, Rhipicephalus and Amblyomma have been implicated as
natural or experimental vectors,
Horses with acute infection initially develop nonspecific signs
such as high fevers, sometimes in excess of 104°F, lethargy,
anorexia, weight loss, and peripheral edema.

Petechiations caused by thrombocytopenia are often observed on

mucous membranes, including the nictitating membrane.

Signs of hemolytic anemia follow and include icteric or pale

mucous membranes, tachycardia, tachypnea, weakness, and
pigmenturia (because of either hemoglobinuria or bilirubinuria).

Other less common clinical presentations include secondary

development of pneumonia, pulmonary edema, cardiac arrhythmias,
catarrhal enteritis, laminitis, and central nervous system disease
characterized by ataxia, myalgia, and seizures
 Diagnosis
the competitive inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(cELISA), The cELISA for T. equi utilizes recombinant EMA-1 and
specific monoclonal antibodies

A recombinant form of RAP-1 was also developed for the B. caballi

cELISA.

In NRCE Hisar - Recombinant equine merozoite surface antigen-2

(rEMA-2), a 52 kDa recombinant protein based ELISA (r-ELISA)
was developed for detection of specific antibodies for diagnosis of T.
equi infection in equine serum.

A total 971 serum samples were found positive for T.

equi antibodies, indicating prevalence of specific antibodies in 37.76%
Indian equine population.
 Canine Piroplasmosis/ Biliary fever / Jaundice malignant

Canine Babesidae have historically been classified as “large Babesia” (Babesia canis) and
“small Babesia” (Babesia gibsoni) based on the size of their intraerythrocytic forms.

Advent of molecular phylogenetic analysis, in particular that of the 18S rRNA gene,
it was recognized that the subspecies are
1. Babesia canis canis transmitted by Dermacentor reticulatus (in Europe)(large
form , most pathogenic species)
2. Babesia canis rossi transmitted by Haemaphysalis elliptica (in South Africa).
3. Babesia canis vogelis transmitted by Rhipicephalus sanguineus (in tropical and
subtropical regions),
4. Babesia gibsoni (chronic form) transmitted by Haemaphysalis
bispinosa and Haemaphysalis longicornis (Asia, North America, northern and eastern
Africa, and Europe)
Intra-erythorocytic piroplasms (replication) --> gametes --> fuse to form zygote --> migrates
to hemocoel (undergo meiosis) --> ookinete --> sporokinete --> sporozoite
Clinical presentations in this study ranged from peracute to
subclinical and chronic forms.

The fatal cases had exhibited less commonly observed signs like
melena, local erythma of the skin and bleeding from venepuncture
site.

Bleeding tendencies were the result of intravascular and extra

vascular haemolyis and the cause of which could be
thrombocytopenia

Acute forms in this study were characterized by fever, lethargy,

hemolytic anemia, lymphadenopathy and spleenomegaly,

Neutrophils were found to be significantly increased (78%) and

lymphocytes were reduced (18%).
the history of weakness, anorexia and general malaise. On
clinical examination days, the animal had temperature of 104.5 F
and pallor of conjunctival and oral mucus membrane.

Dog infected with B.gibsoni from whole blood which revealed

haemoglobin value of 3 g%, PCV 20 % and total RBC count 1.1
millions/mm3, Anemia (PCV < 25%), thrombocytopenia (Platelet
count < 150000/mm3), leukopenia (WBC count < 5000/mm3).
Fever, Lack of energy, Lack of appetite
Enlarged abdomen
Weakness
Lethargy
Pale gums and tongue
Red or orange urine (Colored urine)
Jaundice (yellow tinge to skin, gums, whites of
eyes, etc)
Enlarged lymph nodes
Enlarged spleen
Weight loss
Discolored stool
 Diagnosis
● Microscopic examination (blood smear)

● Blood analysis ; CBC ◗ Thrombocytopenia is the most common

feature regardless of the Babesia spp.
◗ Macrocytic anemia and autoagglutination are variable (not all
animals are anemic).
◗ Leukogram is highly variable.

●Serum biochemistry profile: hyperglobulinemia,

hyperbilirubinemia, increased liver enzyme activities, azotemia (B
canis rossi, B gibsoni), and hypoalbuminemia.

● Urinalysis: bilirubinuria, hemoglobinuria, and proteinuria.

● Coombs test (direct): Can be positive in 85% of cases

◗ Direct Coombs test is used to test for autoimmune hemolytic anaemia
 Babesia gibsoni

Babesia gibsoni

Babesia canis
 ●Coagulation testing: ◗ Thrombocytopenia. ◗ Disseminated
intravascular coagulation has also been reported.

● Animal inoculation

● Serology
(IFAT, ELISA, Complement assay, immunoblot)
◗ Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) testing: Cannot differentiate
among Babesia spp.

● Molecular tools
(PCR, LAMP…)
◗Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing: High specificity and
sensitivity. Can determine species or subspecies with specific PCR
assay or DNA sequencing
Recently a rapid simple and more sensitive technique called Loop
mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) has been developed and by
the use of additional loop primers to increase efficiency and rapidity.

LAMP technique associated with fluorescent dyes like Syber Green

allows visual detection of amplified products and measurement of
turbidity.

Unlike PCR, this technique doesn’t need extraction of DNA as well as

use of a thermocycler as it can be carried out at a temperature range of
60-65˚C.

LAMP (Loop mediated isothermal amplification) assay targeting hyper

variable region of the 18S rRNA gene and indirect-ELISA, dot-ELISA
and sandwich-ELISA using rBgSA-1 protein were developed for
diagnosing Babesia gibsoni infection in dogs.
 Treatment
Most dogs show response to treatment in 24–72 hours; however, it
can take up to 7 days before results are apparent

Imidocarb dipropionate (6.6 mg/kg IM once, repeat in 7–14 days)

reduces morbidity and mortality in most cases of Babesia spp
infection.
◗ Treatment of choice for B. canis vogeli but is ineffective for
clearance of B. gibsoni and B. conradae.
◗ Pretreatment with atropine (0.02 mg/kg SC 30 minutes before
Imidocarb) reduces cholinergic side effects (ie, salivation,
lacrimation, vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, dyspnea).

Diminazene aceturate (3.5–7 mg/kg SC or IM q1–2wk) is effective

against B. canis but is unavailable in the United States.
◗ Not capable of clearing B. gibsoni or B. conradae infection.
● Atovaquone (13.3 mg/kg PO q8h) and azithromycin (10 mg/kg PO
q24h) combination therapy has effectively cleared B. gibsoni and B.
conradae infections.
◗ Atovaquone should be given as liquid suspension with a fatty meal
to ensure adequate absorption.

● Clindamycin (25 mg/kg PO q12h), Metronidazole (15 mg/kg PO

q12h), and doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) have been associated with
clearance of B. gibsoni after administration for ~3 months, but true
treatment efficacy is unknown.
◗ Clindamycin combination protocol in this study showed a rapid
recovery rate than that of Diaminazine aceturate and such cases made
uneventful recovery.

● Oxytetracycline @ 20 mg/kg body weight intravenously daily for

three days followed by Doxycycline @ 5 mg/Kg orally for seven
Dimenazine aceturate @ 5 mg/Kg I/M
 Precautions
◗ The authors do not recommend immunosuppressive drugs for
treatment of babesiosis.

Patient Monitoring
◗ In hospital settings, hematocrit concentration and platelet count
can be monitored daily until improvement is seen.

◗ Continue monitoring q1-2wk until hematocrit and platelet numbers

have normalized.

◗ PCR testing at 60 and 90 days after treatment is recommended to

rule out treatment failure.

Complications
◗ At high doses, imidocarb dipropionate and diminazene aceturate
have been associated with liver and kidney failure.
 Pirodog and Nobivac Piro

 Pirodog@ (ND) is a novel vaccine against canine babesiosis. It is commercially distributed

and has been used in France since May 1988
 Pirodog@ (ND) is a first generation vaccine prepared from culture supematants of B. canis
with a saponln adjuvant (MOREAU & LAURENT, 1984).
 Pirodog (ND) is injected subcutaneously.
 Primary vaccination is done by giving 2 injections of Pirodog at 21-28 d intervals, in winter
or in summer during periods when epidemiological peaks do not occur.
 A booster injection is necessary every year after primary immunization.
Nobivac Piro
 The active substance of Nobivac Piro is soluble parasite antigen (SPA) from Babesia canis
and Babesia rossi cultures.
 Onset of immunity: 3 weeks after the basic vaccination course.
 Duration of immunity: 6 months after the last (re-)vaccination.