POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Unit-1: Sources of population data - Human races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid,

Negroid - World’s major religions - Culture and Identity

Unit-2: Factors affecting population distribution, density and growth - World

population distribution - Population Theories: Malthus and Demographic
Transition

Unit-3: Age and sex composition - Occupational structure - Literacy - Major world
languages

Unit-4: Measurements of fertility and mortality - Migration: Types, causes,

consequences

Unit-5: Problems of over and under population - optimum population - population

polices - India’s population polices
 UNIT-1

1.1 Introduction
A population is defined as a group of individuals of the same species living and interbreeding
within a given area. Members of a population often rely on the same resources, are subject to
similar environmental constraints, and depend on the availability of other members to persist
over time. A population is the collection of people or organisms of a particular species living in a
given geographic area. Population geography focuses on the impacts of population
on spatial structures and processes, geodemography analyzes the effects of space
on demographic structures and processes. Population Geography relates spatial variations in the
distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations to the terrain. Population
geography involves demography in a geographical perspective. It focuses on the characteristics
of population distributions that change in a spatial context. This often involves factors such as
where population is found and how the size and composition of these population is regulated by
the demographic processes of fertility, mortality, and migration. Contributions to population
geography is cross-disciplinary because geographical epistemologies related to environment,
place and space have been developed at various times. Related disciplines include geography,
demography, sociology, and economics. Since its inception, population geography has taken at
least three distinct but related forms, the most recent of which appears increasingly integrated
with human geography in general. The earliest and most enduring form of population geography
emerged in the 1950s, as part of spatial science. Pioneered by Glenn Trewartha, Wilbur Zelinsky,
William A. V. Clark, and others in the United States, as well as Jacqueline Beujeau-Garnier and
Pierre George in France, it focused on the systematic study of the distribution of population as a
whole and the spatial variation in population characteristics such as fertility and mortality.

1.1.1 Population Geography

Population geography is the study of ways in which spatial variations in the distribution,
composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to their environment or location.
Population geography defined itself as the systematic study of:
 the simple description of the location of population numbers and characteristics
 the explanation of the spatial configuration of these numbers and characteristics

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  the geographic analysis of population phenomena (the inter-relations among real
differences in population with those in all or certain other elements within the geographic
study area).
Accordingly, it categorized populations as groups synonymous with political jurisdictions
representing gender, religion, age, disability, generation, sexuality, and race, variables which go
beyond the vital statistics of births, deaths, and marriages. Given the rapidly growing global
population as well as the baby boom in affluent countries such as the United States, these
geographers studied the relation between demographic growth, displacement, and access to
resources at an international scale. Population geography is a division of human geography that
focuses on the study of people, their spatial distributions, their characteristics, and their density.
Population geography implies the investigation into human covering of the earth and its various
facets with reference to physical and cultural environment. The scientific study of population
characteristics is called demography.
According to Trewartha, population geography is concerned with the understanding of the
regional differences in the earth’s covering of people (Trewartha, 1969:87). John I. Clarke,
suggested that population geography is mainly concerned with demonstrating how spatial
variation in population and its various attributes like composition, migration and growth are
related to the spatial variation in the nature of places (Clarke, 1972:2). It focuses on the
characteristics of population distributions that change in a spatial context. Examples can be
shown through population density maps. A few types of maps that show the spatial layout
of population are choropleth, isoline, and dot maps.
Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that is associated and
deals with humans and their relationships with communities, cultures, economies, and
interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across locations. It
analyzes patterns of human social interaction, their interactions with the environment, and their
spatial interdependencies by application of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

1.1.2 Significance of Population Geography

Population geography is a division of human geography. It is the study of the ways in
which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth
of populations are related to the nature of places. It focuses on the characteristics

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of population distributions that change in a spatial context. Population Geography helps to
understand the various facets pertaining to the spatial variation in the distribution of the
human population across the Earth with reference to the physical, cultural and socio-economic
environment. The population is one of the important factors which helps to balance the
environment, the population should in a balance with the means and resources. If
the population will be balanced, then all the needs and demand of the people can be easily
fulfilled, which helps to preserve the environment of the country.
The scope of population studies is quite wide. The quantitative aspect is concerned with
quantitative study of the size, structure characteristics and territorial distribution of human
Populations and the changes occurring in them. Under the planned socialist economy, the
practical tasks of population geography include quantitative and qualitative assessment of labour
resources and a search for the forms of settlement most responsive to the requirements of
production and the cultural and domestic needs of the population. A study of the conditions of
habitation in different natural geographic regions reveals the connections between population
geography and medical geography. Research on ethnography and the economics of labour is
closely associated, and sometimes intertwined, with population geography.

1.1.3 Sources of population data

The important sources of vital statistics in India are (1) Population Census (2) Civil
Registration System (3) Demographic Sample Surveys such as those conducted by the National
Sample Surveys Organization(NSSO); (4)Sample Registration System (SRS) and (5) Health
Surveys, such as National Family Health Surveys, (NFHS) and District Level Household
Surveys (DLHS-RCH ) conducted for assessing progress under the Reproductive and Child
Health programme. Population data contains various influential details such as birth,
death, demographic information such as age, sex, annual income, occupation, language, etc. The
overall socio-economic, economic, political, cultural progress of a country is dependent
on population data to a large extent. The primary sources of the population data on
the population size, characteristics and demographic structure are the census, projections, the
registrations, migration reports and the surveys.

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1.1.4 Census
The decennial Census of India has been conducted 15 times, as of 2011. While it has
been undertaken every 10 years, beginning in 1872 under British Viceroy Lord Mayo, the first
complete census was taken in 1881. Post 1949, it has been conducted by the Registrar General
and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
All the censuses since 1951 were conducted under the 1948 Census of India Act. The
last census was held in 2011, whilst the next will be held in 2021. Historically, there has been a
long time between collection of data and dissemination of data
The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 330 BC during
the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Kautilya or Chanakya
and Ashoka. The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that
kept track of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential
to international comparisons of any kind of statistics, and censuses collect data on many
attributes of a population, not just how many people there are. Censuses typically began as the
only method of collecting national demographic data, and are now part of a larger system of
different surveys. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census,
including exactly the geographic distribution of the population or the agricultural population,
statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes e.g. education by age and sex in
different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration
with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing
estimates.
A census is the procedure of systematically calculating, acquiring and
recording information about the members of a given population. This term is used mostly in
connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include
the census of agriculture, and other censuses such as the traditional culture, business, supplies,
and traffic censuses. The United Nations defines the essential features of population and housing
censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and
defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years.
United Nations recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions,
classifications and other useful information to co-ordinate international practices.

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Uses of Census
1. It provides primary population data relating to age, sex, marital status, economic activities,
occupations, migration, literacy, etc.
2. Population data throw light on the socio-economic problems of the country such as the status
of women, male-female sex ratio, population density, literacy level, urbanisation, living
standards, etc.
3. These data help researchers, administrators, planners and social organisations to suggest and
adopt measures to solve the various problems.
4. They are highly useful for making population projections.
5. Census data are used for carrying out sample surveys.
6. They guide the city planners in planning measures for the future growth of cities regarding
their future needs relating to housing, transport, flyovers, sanitation, water, educational
institutions, etc.

1.1.5 Impact of COVID-19 on census

United Nations Population Fund predicts that the COVID-19 pandemic will threaten the
successful conduct of censuses of population and housing in many countries through delays,
interruptions that compromise quality, or complete cancellation of census projects. Domestic and
donor financing for census may be diverted to address COVID-19 leaving census without crucial
funds. Several countries have already taken decisions to postpone the census, with many others
yet to announce the way forward. In some countries this is already happening.
United Nations Population Fund has requested a global effort to assure that even where census is
delayed, census planning and preparations are not cancelled, but continue in order to assure that
implementation can proceed safely when the pandemic is under control. While new census
methods, including online, register-based, and hybrid approaches are being used across the
world, these demand extensive planning and preconditions that cannot be created at short notice.
The continuing low supply of personal protective equipment to protect against COVID-19 has
immediate implications for conducting census in communities at risk of transmission. United
Nations Population Fund Procurement Office is partnering with other agencies to explore new
supply chains and resources.

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Projections
Forecasting is the process of making predictions based on past and present data and most
commonly by analysis of trends. A commonplace example might be estimation of some variable
of interest at some specified future date. Prediction is a similar, but more general term. Both
might refer to formal statistical methods employing time series, cross-sectional or longitudinal
data, or alternatively to less formal judgmental methods.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth
Usage can differ between areas of application: for example, in hydrology the terms
"forecast" and "forecasting" are sometimes reserved for estimates of values at certain specific
future times, while the term "prediction" is used for more general estimates, such as the number
of times floods will occur over a long period. Population projections are attempts to show how
the human population living today will change in the future. These projections are an important
input to forecasts of the population's impact on this planet and humanity's future well-
being. Models of population growth take trends in human development, and apply projections
into the future. These models use trend-based-assumptions about how populations will respond

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to economic, social and technological forces to understand how they will affect fertility and
mortality, and thus population growth. The 2019 forecast from the United Nation's Population
Division (made before the COVID-19 pandemic) shows that world population growth peaked at
2.1% per year in 1968, has since dropped to 1.1%, and could drop even further to 0.1% by 2100,
a growth rate not seen since pre-industrial revolution days. Based on this, the UN Population
Division expects world population, currently (2020) at 7.8 billion, to level out at or soon after the
end of the 21st Century at 10.9 billion (the median line), assuming a continuing decrease in the
global average fertility rate from 2.5 births per woman during the 2015–2020 period to 1.9 in
2095–2100, according to the medium-variant projection. About two thirds of the predicted
growth in population between 2020 and 2050 will take place in Africa is shown in the figure 1.1.

Because of population momentum the global population could continue to grow, although
at a steadily slower rate, for the remainder of this century, but the main driver of long-term future
population growth will be the evolution of the global average fertility rate. However, estimates
outside of the United Nations have put forward alternative models based on additional downward
pressure on fertility (such as successful implementation of education and family planning goals
in the Sustainable Development Goals) which could result in peak population mid-21st century
rather than later.

1.1.6 Civil Registration System

The office of the Registrar General of India was created in 1951 and the vital statistics
department was transferred to this office from the Director of Health Services in 1960. On the
deliberations and recommendations of various committees, the Registration of Births and Deaths
Act (1969) was enacted by Parliament to enforce uniform civil registration throughout the
country. According to the United Nations, civil registration is defined as the continuous
permanent and compulsory recording of the occurrence of vital events, like, live births, deaths,
foetal deaths, marriages, divorces as well as annulments, judicial separation, adoptions,
legitimations and recognitions. Civil registration is performed under a law, decree or regulation
so as to provide a legal basis to the records and certificates made from the system, which has got
several civil uses in the personal life of individual citizens. Moreover, the information collected
through the registration process provides very useful and important vital statistics also on a

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continuous basis at the national level starting from the smallest administrative unit. In fact,
obtaining detailed vital statistics on a regular basis is one of the major functions of the Civil
Registration System (CRS) in several countries of the world. Vital records obtained under CRS
have got administrative uses in designing and implementing public health programmes and
carrying out social, demographic and historical research. For an individual, the birth registration
records provide legal proof of identity and civil status, age, nationality, dependency status etc.,
on which depend a wide variety of rights.

1.1.7 National Sample Survey

Data on fertility and mortality from the census are not very reliable and they are also
available only once in ten years. In the absence of reliable data from the civil registration system
(CRS), the need for reliable vital statistics at national and state levels is being met through
sample surveys launched from time to time. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the National Sample
Survey attempted to provide reliable estimates of birth and death rates through its regular rounds.
However, the release of 1961 census data indicated that the birth rates and death rates and
consequently, the growth rates were often not estimated correctly. Many analysts, at that point of
time, felt that the onetime retrospective recall surveys such as National Sample survey may not
be able to estimate the vital rates correctly. This resulted in a search for alternative mechanism
estimate vital rates. The sample registration system (SRS) was one such attempt.

1.1.8 Migration reports

There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization
and emigration/immigration. Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement (such
as a natural disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining
in the home country, internally-displaced persons. These channels have both positive and
negative static and dynamic effects. One negative static effect of migration is
that migration directly reduces the available supply of labour, particularly skilled labour, but
there are positive static effects such as through return migration and remittances.
Migration boosts the working-age population. Migrants arrive with skills and contribute to
human capital development of receiving countries. Migrants also contribute to technological

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progress. Understanding these impacts is important if our societies are to usefully debate the role
of migration.
Migration can have a significant effect on population change. Global South-South
migration accounts for 38% of total migration, and Global South-North for 34%. For example,
the United Nations reports that during the period 2010–2020, fourteen countries will have seen a
net inflow of more than one million migrants, while ten countries will have seen a net outflow of
similar proportions. The largest migratory outflows have been in response to demand for workers
in other countries (Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines) or to insecurity in the home country
(Myanmar, Syria and Venezuela). Belarus, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, the Russian
Federation, Serbia and Ukraine have experienced a net inflow of migrants over the decade,
helping to offset population losses caused by a negative natural increase (births minus deaths).
World Migration Report 2020 has been the result of a collaborative venture involving a
multitude of partners and contributors, under the direction of IOM and academic co-editors. The
WMR 2020 project commenced at the beginning of 2018 and culminated in its launch in
November 2019 by the Director General at the 110th session of IOM Council. Similarly to WMR
2018, the latest edition presents data and information on migration as well as thematic chapters
on migration issues, and is structured to focus on two key contributions for readers: (i) key
information on migration and migrants (including migration related statistics); and, (ii) balanced,
evidence-based analysis of complex and emerging migration issues.

The World Migration Report (WMR) is IOM’s publication that explores the migration
realities, developments, movements, and trends since 2000. Its purpose is to provide a reliable
and knowledgeable account of migratory topics worldwide aiming also to demystify the world of
international migration. Early reports have been thematic and framed around specific topics such
as labour mobility, migrant well-being, and communication on migration. The report has been
issued on average every two to three years, except in 2010 and 2011 when it was published
yearly. Migration is a main political and operational issue interconnected with human rights,
development, and geopolitics at global, regional and national levels. After formally joining the
United Nations system in 2016, IOM started assuming additional responsibilities, including
being the coordinator and secretariat to the UN Network on Migration and a supporter to
signatory States in implementing the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration

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(GCM). The Organization exponentially expanded in terms of operational expenditures and
workforce, reaching 173 Member States (MS) in 2019.

1.1.9 The surveys

In the past about a decade or so, a few important sources for demographic data have
emerged. These are the National Family Health Surveys (NFHS) and the District Level
Household Surveys (DLHS) conducted for the evaluation of reproductive and child Health
programmes. Three rounds of NFHS surveys have since been completed. These provide
estimates inter-alia of fertility, child mortality and a number of health parameters relating to
infants and children at state level. They also provide information on the availability of health and
family planning services to pregnant mothers and other women in reproductive ages. The DLHS
provide information at the district level on a number of indicators relating to child health,
reproductive health problems and the quality of services available to them. Three rounds of
DLHS surveys have been conducted so far. In each of the first two rounds, the survey was
conducted in two phases spread over two years, wherein, under each phase of the survey, half of
the districts in a state had been covered. However, in the third round of the DLHS survey all the
districts were covered in one phase.

1.2 Human races

Some scientists spoke of three races of mankind: The Caucasian race living in Europe,
North Africa and West Asia, the Mongoloid race living in East Asia, Australia, and the
Americas, and the Negroid race living in Africa south of the Sahara. Other scientists had
different ideas and spoke of four or five races. Modern scholarship views racial categories
as socially constructed, that is, race is not intrinsic to human beings but rather an identity created,
often by socially dominant groups, to establish meaning in a social context. Different cultures
define different racial groups, often focused on the largest groups of social relevance, and these
definitions can change over time. A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or
social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society. The term was first used to
refer to speakers of a common language and then to denote national affiliations. By the 17th
century the term began to refer to physical (phenotypical) traits.

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 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon
Fig 1.2

Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on
rules made by society. While partially based on physical similarities within groups, race does not
have an inherent physical or biological meaning. Social conceptions and groupings of races have
varied over time, often involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based
on perceived traits. Today, scientists consider such biological essentialism obsolete, and
generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and
behavioral traits. Social conceptions and groupings of races have varied over time, often
involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived
traits. Today, scientists consider such biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage
racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits.

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 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon
Fig 1.3
The three great races according to Meyers Konversations-Lexikon of 1885-90. The
subtypes of the Mongoloid race are shown in yellow and orange tones, those of the Caucasoid
race in light and medium grayish spring green-cyan tones and those of the Negroid race
in brown tones. Dravidians and Sinhalese are in olive green and their classification is described
as uncertain. The Mongoloid race sees the widest geographic distribution, including all of
the Americas, North Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia, the entire inhabited Arctic while they
form most of Central Asia and the Pacific Islands.

1.3 Caucasoid
The Caucasus or Caucasia, is a region spanning Europe and Asia. It is situated between
the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and mainly occupied by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and

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parts of Southern Russia. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus
mountain range, which has historically been considered a natural barrier between Eastern
Europe and Western Asia.
The term Caucasus is derived from Caucas the son of the Biblical Togarmah and
legendary forefather of Nakh peoples. According to Leonti Mroveli, the 11th-century Georgian
chronicler, the word Caucasian is derived from the Vainakh ancestor Kavkas. "The Vainakhs are
the ancient natives of the Caucasus. It is noteworthy, that according to the genealogical table
drawn up by Leonti Mroveli, the legendary forefather of the Vainakhs was "Kavkas", hence the
name Kavkasians, one of the ethnicons met in the ancient Georgian written sources, signifying
the ancestors of the Chechens and Ingush. As appears from the above, the Vainakhs, at least by
name, are presented as the most "Caucasian" people of all the Caucasians (Caucasus - Kavkas -
Kavkasians) in the Georgian historical tradition."

Mount Elbrus in Russia, which rises to 5,642 metres (18,510 ft), is Europe's highest
mountain, and is in the western part of the Greater Caucasus mountain range. On the southern
side, the Lesser Caucasus includes the Javakheti Plateau and grows into the Armenian highlands,
part of which is located in Turkey. The Caucasus region is divided into North
Caucasus and South Caucasus, although Western Caucasus also exists as a distinct geographic
space within North Caucasus. The Greater Caucasus mountain range in the north is mostly
shared by Russia and Georgia, as well as the northernmost parts of Azerbaijan. The Lesser
Caucasus mountain range in the south is occupied by several independent states, namely, mostly
by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, but also extending to parts of northeastern Turkey,
northern Iran and the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh. The region is known for its linguistic
diversity: aside from Indo-European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian,
and Northeast Caucasian language families are indigenous to the area.
1.4 Mongoloid
Mongoloid is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to large parts
of Asia, Polynesia, and the Americas. In the past, other terms such as "Mongolian race",
"yellow", "Asiatic" and "Oriental" have been used as synonyms. The concept of dividing
humankind into three races called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid was introduced in the
1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History and further developed by Western

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scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of
modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete.
In 2019, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as
natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such
beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the
past."
The term Mongoloid has had a second usage referencing people with Down syndrome,
now generally regarded as highly offensive. Those affected were often referred to as
"Mongoloids" or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility" Mongolian as a term
for race was first introduced in 1785 by Christoph Meiners, a scholar at the then
modern Göttingen University. Meiners divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-
Caucasians" and "Mongolians", believing the former to be beautiful, the latter to be "weak in
body and spirit, bad, and lacking in virtue".
His more influential Göttingen colleague Johann Friedrich Blumenbach borrowed the
term Mongolian for his division of mankind into five races in the revised 1795 edition of his De
generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind). Although Blumenbach's
concept of five races later gave rise to scientific racism, his arguments were basically anti-
racist, since he underlined that mankind as a whole forms one single species, and points out that
the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races
presented by him are "very arbitrary". In Blumenbach's concept, the Mongolian race comprises
the peoples living in Asia east of the Ob River, the Caspian Sea and the Ganges River, with the
exception of the Malays, who form a race of their own in his concept. Of peoples living outside
Asia, he includes the "Eskimos" in northern America and the European Finns, among whom he
includes the "Lapps".
1.5 Negroid
Negroid (less commonly called Congoid) is an outdated historical grouping of various
people indigenous to Africa south of the area which stretched from the southern Sahara desert in
the west to the African Great Lakes in the southeast, but also to isolated parts
of South and Southeast Asia (Negritos). The concept of dividing humankind into three races
called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid (originally named "Ethiopian") was introduced in the

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1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History and further developed by Western
scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism.
With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological
sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Physical
Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the
structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging
elements in the human experience both today and in the past. Negroid has
both Spanish and Ancient Greek etymological roots. It literally translates as "black resemblance"
from the Spanish word negro (black), and Greek, equivalent to "having the appearance of",
derivative of "appearance".

1.6 World’s major religions

The world's principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small
number of major groups, though this is not a uniform practice. This theory began in the 18th
century with the goal of recognizing the relative levels of civility in different societies, but this
practice has since fallen into disrepute in many contemporary cultures. The major religions of
the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Judaism) differ
in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system each upholds.
There are some 4,300 religions of the world. This is according to Adherents, an independent,
non-religiously affiliated organisation that monitors the number and size of the world's religions.
India is home to several religions, but the most common is Hinduism at 80% of the population.
Hinduism is the third-most widespread religion in the world after Islam and Christianity and it is
thought to be the oldest religion in the world dating back at least 5,000 years ago. Hinduism is an
ancient religion with the largest religious grouping in India, with around 966 million adherents as
of 2011, composing 79.8% of the population.

Religion in India is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. The

preamble of the Indian constitution states that India is a secular state, although there were pleas
going on Supreme court of India to remove the words secular and socialist from the Preamble to
the Constitution of India. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's major
religions: namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—collectively known as Indian

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religions that believe Moksha is the most supreme state of the Ātman (soul). According to the
2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practices Hinduism, 14.2% adheres to Islam, 2.3%
adheres to Christianity, 1.72% adheres to Sikhism, 0.7% adheres to Buddhism, and 0.37%
adheres to Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Yungdrung Bon, the Faith, Sanamahism, and Judaism also
have a history in India, and each has at least several thousand adherents in India.
Indian-origin religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, are all based on the
concepts of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, the philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of
native Indian faiths whose most well-known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil
disobedience to unite India during the Indian independence movement – this philosophy further
inspired Martin Luther King Jr. during the American civil rights movement. Foreign-origin
religion, including Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present
in India, as well as Zoroastrianism and Baháʼí Faith both escaping persecution by Islam have
also found shelter in India over the centuries. India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. They are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian
religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and
Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion
followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of Indian
religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

1.7 Culture and Identity

Indian culture is the heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief
systems, political systems, artifacts and technologies that originated in or are associated with
the Indian subcontinent. The term also applies beyond India to countries and cultures whose
histories are strongly connected to India by immigration, colonization, or influence, particularly
in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from
place to place within the country. Indian culture, often labelled as a combination of several
cultures, has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old, beginning with the Indus
Valley Civilization. Many elements of Indian culture, such as Indian
religions, mathematics, philosophy, cuisine, languages, dance, music and movies have had a
profound impact across the Indosphere, Greater India and the world.

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 India has 28 states and 8 union territories with different culture and it is the second most
populated country in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several
various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a
history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has
been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions. They have been credited with shaping much of
Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music. Greater India was the historical extent
of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread
of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other
parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travelers and maritime traders during the early
centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in
the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains. Over the centuries, there has been a significant fusion of
cultures between Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Sikhs and various tribal populations in
India.
India's diversity has inspired many writers to pen their perceptions of the country's
culture. These writings paint a complex and often conflicting picture of the culture of India. India
is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse countries in the world. The concept of
"Indian culture" is a very complex and complicated matter. Indian citizens are divided into
various ethnic, religious, castes, linguistic and regional groups, making the realities of
"Indianness" extremely complicated. This is why the conception of Indian identity poses certain
difficulties and presupposes a series of assumptions about what concisely the expression "Indian"
means. However, despite this vast and heterogeneous composition, the creation of some sort of
typical or shared Indian culture results from some inherent internal forces (such as a robust
Constitution, universal adult franchise, flexible federal structure, secular educational policy, etc.)
and from certain historical events (such as Indian Independence Movement, Partition, wars
against Pakistan, etc.)
Identity is the qualities, beliefs, personality, looks and/or expressions that make a person
or group . One can regard the awareness and the categorizing of identity as positive or as
destructive. A psychological identity relates to self-image (one's mental model of oneself), self-
esteem, and individuality. Consequently, Peter Weinreich gives the definition:

17
"A person's identity is defined as the totality of one's self-construal, in which how one construes
oneself in the present expresses the continuity between how one construes oneself as one was in
the past and how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future"; this allows for
definitions of aspects of identity, such as: "One's ethnic identity is defined as that part of the
totality of one's self-construal made up of those dimensions that express the continuity between
one's construal of past ancestry and one's future aspirations in relation to ethnicity".
Psychologists most commonly use the term "identity" to describepersonal identity, or the
idiosyncratic things that make a person unique. Sociologists, however, often use the term to
describe social identity, or the collection of group memberships that define the individual.
However, these uses are not proprietary, and each discipline may use either concept and each
discipline may combine both concepts when considering a person's identity. Social
psychologists may speak of "psycho-social identity". Neuroscientists draw upon these fields to
study the neurobiological basis of personal and social identity.

18
 UNIT-2
2.1 Factors affecting population distribution
Physical factors that affect population distribution include altitude and latitude, relief,
climate, soils, vegetation, water and location of mineral and energy resources. It is important to
note that most of the physical factors influence population distribution only indirectly through
climatic conditions. It is, however, not to suggest that population distribution on the earth surface
is determined by physical factors alone, for within the broad framework of physical attractions
and constraints, cultural factors strongly influence the way mankind is distributed over the earth
(Hornby and Jones, 1980:20). Thus, apart from physical factors, numerous social, demographic,
economic, political and historical factors affect population distribution.
These factors operate not in isolation but in combination with each other. One cannot,
therefore, isolate the influence of any one factor on population distribution. Further, the interplay
between these determinants is generally very complex. The primary task of a population
geographer, therefore, is to explain the irregularities in population distribution in terms of the
influences of all these factors as an integral part of a dynamic process (Clarke, 1972:14).
2. 1.1 Physical Factors
Physical factors that affect population distribution include altitude and latitude, relief,
climate, soils, vegetation, water and location of mineral and energy resources. It is important to
note that most of the physical factors influence population distribution only indirectly through
climatic conditions. The influences of latitude and altitude on population distribution cannot be
separated from one another. High altitude in general imposes an ultimate physiological limit
upon human existence due to reduced atmospheric pressure and low oxygen content. Therefore,
very few permanent settlements can be seen in the lofty mountains of the world at a height above
5,000 meters. Staszewski, in his exhaustive analysis of the vertical distribution of population, has
shown that both numbers and densities in different parts of the world decline with increasing
altitude.
According to him, a little more than 56 per cent of the world’s population lives within
200 metres from the sea level, and over 80 per cent within 500 metres. However, in low latitude
areas, which are otherwise hot and less favourable, high altitude provides suitable conditions for
human habitation. Mountains in Africa and Latin America are much healthier than plains, and
large cities have sprung up at high altitude. La Paz, the highest city in the world (3,640 m) and

19
the capital of Bolivia, owes its existence to this factor. As against this, in the high latitude areas,
it becomes extremely difficult to live beyond a few hundred metres from sea level. It is in this
context that a famous population geographer has referred to “mountains that attract and
mountains that repel”.
Relief features also play an important role in influencing population distribution. The
influence of altitude has already been noted. Among the other aspects of relief features which
affect human habitation are general topography, slope and aspect. The main concentrations of
human population are confined to the areas marked with flat topography. Rugged and undulating
topography restricts the condensation of human population in any area. Abrupt changes in the
density of population can be seen on the world map of population distribution where plains meet
mountain ranges. Rising Himalayas, thus, mark the northern limit of dense population in the
Ganga plain. Similarly, the Deccan plateaus with rugged and undulating topography appear
distinct from the plains in respect of population concentration. In the mountainous areas valleys
provide suitable locations for human settlements. Likewise, sun-facing slopes provide favourable
locations for the emergence and growth of settlements.
This is particularly true in the temperate and other high latitude areas where insolation is
very important. The river valleys may promote or restrict human settlements depending upon
other geographic conditions. In Egypt, nearly 98 per cent of the population is concentrated
forming a ribbon along the Nile River. As against this, in tropical swamps and dissected plateaus,
river valleys tend to repel population. Of all the geographic influences on population distribution,
climatic conditions are perhaps the most important. Climate affects population distribution both
directly as well as indirectly through its effects on soil, vegetation and agriculture that have
direct bearings on the pattern of population distribution. Moreover, other physical factors like
latitude and altitude also operate on population distribution through climatic conditions.
Although climatic optima are difficult to define, extremes of temperature, rainfall and
humidity certainly limit the concentration of population in any part of the earth. In the Northern
Hemisphere, extreme cold conditions in the high latitude areas have prevented human habitation.
Likewise, extremely high temperature and aridity in the hot deserts of the world restrict human
habitability. Some of the geographers in past have, therefore, gone to the extent of claiming a
deterministic relationship between climate and population distribution. It should, however, be
noted that man has ability to adapt himself to different climatic conditions. This explains a high

20
density in the tropics, which are otherwise marked with extremes of climatic conditions. Progress
in science and technology has greatly augmented man’s ability to adapt to different climatic
conditions. Though limited in magnitude, the peopling of the Alaska and Siberia during the last
century owes to the scientific and technological advancements.
The cases of Java and the Amazon basin also serve to refute deterministic stance of
relationship between climate and population distribution. Though, both of them experience
equatorial type of climate, they differ markedly from one another in terms of population density.
While Java is one of the most densely parts of the world, the Amazon basin is marked with a
very sparse population. Similarly, the quality of soils exerts an undeniable influence on the
distribution of world population. The fertile alluvial and deltaic soils can support dense
populations. Thus, most of the major concentrations of populations in the world are located in
the river valleys and deltas. Great civilizations of the world have almost invariably flourished on
good fertile alluvial soils. Similarly, the chernozems of steppe grasslands and rich volcanic soils
can support dense population.
On the other hand, the leached soils of temperate lands, the podsols, which are very poor
in terms of fertility, can support only a sparse population. In Canada, for instance, marked
difference can be noticed in population concentration between areas of clayey soils and podsol
soils. It is important to note that the influence of soils cannot be viewed in isolation, that is, soils
influence population distribution in association with other physical factors, mainly climate.
Moreover, progress in technology can alter the effectiveness of soil types on population
concentration to a greater extent. Application of modern technologies during the recent times has
greatly enhanced the profitability of cultivation in many areas of the world, which were hitherto
not suitable for cultivation.
Such areas have, thus, attracted population during the recent past. In association with
climatic conditions, varying soil types give rise to variety of vegetation cover on the earth
surface. These, in turn, provide contrasting environment for a variety of agricultural activities,
and hence, lead to different population density. Tropical forests, savanna, tundra and taiga
provide different media for human occupation and concentration. Location of mineral and energy
resources has led to dense population concentration in many parts of the world, which otherwise
do not provide suitable conditions for human habitation. Large towns have grown up in

21
inaccessible and extremely inhospitable areas such as deserts, Polar Regions or in the midst of
forests where precious minerals and metals have been found.
Kalgoorlie, a gold mining town in the Australian deserts, is a very good example in this
regard. Likewise, several other examples can be cited from elsewhere in the world including
Canada, the USA and Russia. Location of coal, the most important fuel in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries was the main factor behind industrial conurbation and dense population
concentration in Western Europe. However, the influence of mineral and energy resources on
population distribution depends upon a wide range of social and economic factors such as market
demand, capital for development, availability of labour supply and transportation network. It is,
therefore, important to note that the influences of all the physical factors outlined above operate
through a series of economic, social and political factors in the area concerned.

2.1.2 Economic, Political and Historical Factors

Population distribution and density in an area depends to a large extent on the type and
scale of economic activities. Same geographic conditions provide different opportunities for
people with different types and scale of economic activities. Technological and economic
advancement can bring about significant changes in population distribution of an area. For
instance, the Prairies of North America offered different opportunities for the Indians with their
hunting economy, the nineteenth century ranchers, the later settled agriculturist and finally the
modern industrialized and largely urbanized society. Each stage in economic development was
marked with profound changes in population density and distribution in the region.
Industrialization and discovery of new sources of minerals and energy resources have,
throughout human history, brought about redistribution of population through migration. In the
pre-industrial agricultural societies, population distribution often fairly evenly distributed
responds to the nature of crops grown and their relationship to physical conditions.

The industrial revolution has resulted in considerable change in population distribution in

many parts of the world. Dense population concentration has replaced long established pattern of
dispersal and generally even distribution. Initially, sources of energy and mineral resources
became the force of industrial growth and population concentration. Improved transport network,

22
growing spatial mobility of labour and increasing trade in the wake of economic and
technological advancements have led to decline in the importance of place bound industries.
Growing commercial activities, for instance, in the developing world, accompanied by
improvements in transport network, have resulted in considerable redistribution of population
and emergence of mega urban centers. It is aptly said that increasing complexity and
diversification of economic activities, the world over, have led to a new pattern of population
distribution
During the more recent times, government policies and political factors have emerged as
an important determinant of population patterns. With increasing state control over economic
activities, government policies have led to a significant change in the patterns of population
distribution in several parts of the world. In the erstwhile USSR, facilitated by advances in
science and technology, population was directed to parts of Siberian plains, which were hitherto
not suitable for human habitation. Likewise, in China, planned colonization of the interior,
encouraged by the communist government, has resulted in significant change in population
patterns. In the late 1960s and 1970s, some 10 to 15 million people in the country were forcibly
relocated to the rural communes in order to ease pressure on urban employment. Examples of
government inducements encouraging migration to new areas can be cited from several
developed countries of the West as well. In addition to government policies, political events have
also caused redistribution of population throughout human history.
Wars have forced a great number of people to migrate from one region to another all over
the world. Post-partition redistribution between India and Pakistan, or displacement of several
million Sudanese as a result of civil war, or expulsion of Asians from Uganda in the early 1970s
are some of the instances of how political events can cause changes in population patterns. Apart
from the factors discussed above, historical processes should also be taken into account while
explaining the patterns of population distribution. Duration of human settlements is an important
determinant of the magnitude of population concentration in any area. Most of the densely
populated areas of the world have a very long history of human habitation, while sparse
population in certain areas can in part be explained in terms of its recent habitation.
It should, however, not be concluded that the highest densities are always to be found in
areas with the longest history of habitation. There are several instances of formerly prosperous
and densely populated areas, which are now only sparsely populated. Parts of North Africa and

23
Mesopotamia, the Yucatan peninsula and eastern Sri Lanka are some such examples. Based on
this, some scholars have talked about cycle of occupation, whereby size and densities of
population first increase and then decline only to be followed by another cycle of increase.

2.1.3 Population density

Population density is a measurement of population per unit area, or exceptionally unit volume; it
is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, most of the time
to humans. It is a key geographical term. In simple terms, population density refers to the
number of people living in an area per square kilometre. The population density of an area can be
one of the most important determining factors for business and marketing planning. It is not
enough to know how many consumers live in a specific state or city. You have to know how
many people live in a particular radius. Population density is the average number of individuals
in a population per unit of area or volume. For example, a population of 100 insects that live in
an area of 100 square meters has a density of 1 insect per square meter. Population density is
population divided by total land area or water volume, as appropriate is shown in the figure 2.1.
Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is
called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes of reduced
fertility in low population densities. Population density is the number of people per unit of area,
usually quoted per square kilometer or square mile, and which may include or exclude for
example areas of water or glaciers. Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country,
another territory or the entire world.

24
 10 most densely populated countries (with population above 5
million)

Area Density
Rank Country Population
(km2) (pop/km2)

1 Singapore 5,704,000 710 8,033

2 Bangladesh 170,950,000 143,998 1,187

3 Lebanon 6,856,000 10,452 656

4 Taiwan 23,604,000 36,193 652

5 South Korea 51,781,000 99,538 520

6 Rwanda 12,374,000 26,338 470

7 Haiti 11,578,000 27,065 428

8 Netherlands 17,610,000 41,526 424

9 Israel 9,370,000 22,072 424

10 India 1,378,980,000 3,287,240 419

25
 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

The world's population is around 7,800,000,000 and Earth's total area (including land and
water) is 510,000,000 km2 (197,000,000 sq. mi.). Therefore, from this very crude type of
calculation, the worldwide human population density is approximately 7,500,000,000 ÷
510,000,000 = 14.7 per km2 (38 per sq. mi.). However, if only the Earth's land area of
150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq. mi.) is taken into account, then human population density is 50
per km2 (129 per sq. mi.). This includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica.
Furthermore, if Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 55 people per
km2 (over 142 per sq. mi.). However, over half] of the Earth's land mass consists of areas
inhospitable to human habitation, such as deserts and high mountains, and population tends to
cluster around seaports and fresh-water sources. Therefore, additional criteria are needed to make
simple population density values meaningful and useful.

Population density

26
 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Fig 2.1

2.1.4 Other methods of measurement

i) Arithmetic density:
Although arithmetic density is the most common way of measuring population density,
several other methods have been developed to provide a more accurate measure of population
density over a specific area. The first method used to measure population density is
the arithmetic density, which is the total number of people in any given area as compared to one
square unit of land. The total number of people is divided by, for example, one kilometer, to
determine the average density on that acre. The total number of people / area of land.

ii) Physiological density:

27
 The physiological density or real population density is the number of people per unit area
of arable land. A higher physiological density suggests that the available agricultural land is
being used by more and may reach its output limit sooner than a country that has a lower
physiological density. The total population / area of arable land

iii) Agricultural density:

Agricultural density is a statistical measure of population density. Population growth,
development, and stability of a population are indirectly determined with the help of agricultural
density. The quality of land largely affects agricultural density. The total rural population / area
of arable land. Agricultural density is usually calculated by dividing “population of farmers” by
“arable land”; however, due to available data for this activity, “number of farms” is used in place
of “population of farmers.” The ratio between the amount of arable land and the number of
farmers. For example, the US has a low agricultural density because there is 1 farmer per square
kilometer.

iv) Residential density:

Residential Density means the number of dwelling units per acre or hectare of
Net Residential Area. Net Residential Area means an area consisting of one or more surveyed
and registered lots, the. Principal use of which is for dwellings. The number of people living in
an urban area / area of residential land. A focus on residential density is useful since it is an
element of urban development over which municipal planners often have direct legislative
control, whether via zoning bylaws or development approvals. Low density, in real estate terms,
describes the number of housing units per given unit of land in a particular area. High density
areas are typically urban areas with buildings that have a large number of units. Low density
areas usually have more green space but do not have as much commercial space nearby.

v) Urban density:
Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of
people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures
of population density. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how
cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including

28
economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as sustainability.
Urban centre: must have a minimum of 50,000 inhabitants plus a population density of at least
1500 people per square kilometre (km 2) or density of build-up area greater than 50
percent. Urban cluster: must have a minimum of 5,000 inhabitants plus a population density of at
least 300 people per square kilometre (km 2). The number of people inhabiting an urban area /
total area of urban land.

vi) Economic Density:

While calculating the economic density of population, one has to keep in mind the
productivity of the area under consideration. The productivity of land depends on soil,
vegetation, mineral resources, climate and configuration. A piece of fertile land can support more
people than a hilly track. If the productive capacity is substituted for square mile, we get a better
estimate of density. This type of estimate is known as economic density. But, in reality, it is very
difficult to estimate the productive capacity of an area. Economic density (ED) may be expressed
by the following formula:
Economic Density (ED)= Po/PR X 100
Where, Po means the index of population and PR is the index of production.

vii) Critical Density (CD)

This density is proposed by Allan. He defines it as ‘‘the human carrying capacity of an
area in relation to a given land-use system, expressed in terms of population per square unit of
area. It is the maximum population density that a S3 2stem is capable of supporting permanently
in a given environment without danger to land.” It can be expressed by the following formula:
Critical Density (CD) = 100 (C/F) x A/L
Where C is the extent of cultivated area, F is the extent of fallow land, A is per capita acreage
planted, and L is the percentage of land cultivable by traditional methods.

All the above types of density are subject to criticism. Firstly, the ratios are simply the
averages, and may not express the real picture when a broad area is taken into account. Secondly,
sometimes, the required data are not available for different political and administrative units.
Thus, international comparison is almost impossible. Thirdly, the population data are available

29
for administrative units and not for areas having homogeneous population distribution. Because
of the above limitations, the different methods cannot be used scientifically for the purpose of
analysis. But still, the concept is very useful and revealing. In fact, density, like distribution, is a
function of many factors social, economic, political, cultural and so on. One cannot explain
properly these two important variables without considering the associated complicated factors.
2.1.5 Factors Affecting Population Density
There is a range of human and natural factors that affect population density. The tables below
illustrate this.
Physical Factors High Density Low Density

Relief Low land which is flat e.g. Ganges High land that is mountainous
(shape and height of land) Valley in India e.g. Himalayas

Areas rich in resources (e.g. coal,

Areas with few resources tend
oil, wood, fishing etc.) tend to
Resources to be sparsely populated e.g.
densely populated e.g. Western
The Sahel
Europe

Areas with temperate climates tend Areas with extreme climates of

to be densely populated as there is hot and cold tend to be
Climate
enough rain and heat to grow crops sparsely populated e.g. the
e.g. UK Sahara Desert

Human Factors High Density Low Density

Unstable countries tend to have

Countries with stable governments
lower population densities as
Political tend to have a high population
people migrate e.g.
density e.g. Singapore.
Afghanistan.

30
 Groups of people want to live Other groups of people prefer
Social close to each other for security e.g. to be isolated e.g.
USA. Scandinavians.

Good job opportunities encourage

Limited job opportunities
high population densities,
cause some areas to be sparsely
Economic particularly in large cities in
populated e.g. Amazon
MEDCs and LEDCs around the
Rainforest.
world.

2.2 World population Growth

Population growth is the increase in the number of people in a population. Global human
population growth amounts to around 83 million annually, or 1.1% per year. The global
population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7.9 billion in 2020. The UN projected population
to keep growing, and estimates have put the total population at 8.6 billion by mid-2030, 9.8
billion by mid-2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100 is shown in the figure 2.2.

Countries ranking highly in both total population (more than 20 million people) and
population density (more than 250 people per square kilometer):

Area Density Population

Rank Country Population
(km2) (pop/km2) trend

1 India 1,378,980,000 3,287,240 419 Growing

2 Pakistan 224,190,000 803,940 279 Growing

3 Bangladesh 170,950,000 143,998 1,187 Rapidly growing

31
 Countries ranking highly in both total population (more than 20 million people) and
population density (more than 250 people per square kilometer):

Area Density Population

Rank Country Population
(km2) (pop/km2) trend

4 Japan 126,010,000 377,873 333 Declining[98]

5 Philippines 110,440,000 300,000 368 Growing

6 Vietnam 96,209,000 331,689 290 Growing

United
7 66,436,000 243,610 273 Steady
Kingdom

8 South Korea 51,781,000 99,538 520 Steady

9 Taiwan 23,604,000 36,193 652 Steady

Growing
10 Sri Lanka 21,803,000 65,610 332

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

However, some academics outside the UN have increasingly developed human

population models that account for additional downward pressures on population growth; in such
a scenario population would peak before 2100. A popular estimate of sustainable population is 8
billion people. World human population has been growing since the end of the Black Death,

32
around the year 1350. A mix of technological advancement that improved agricultural
productivity and sanitation and medical advancement that reduced mortality have caused
exponential population growth. In some geographies, this has slowed through the process called
the demographic transition, where many nations with high standards of living have seen a
significant slowing of population growth. This is in direct contrast with less developed contexts,
where population growth is still happening. Population growth alongside overconsumption is a
key driver of environmental concerns, such as biodiversity loss and climate change, due to
resource-intensive human development that exceed planetary boundaries. International policy
focused on mitigating the impact of human population growth is concentrated in the Sustainable
Development Goals which seek to improve the standard of living globally while reducing the
impact of society on the environment. In 2017, the estimated annual growth rate was
1.1%. The CIA World Fact book gives the world annual birthrate, mortality rate, and growth rate
as 1.86%, 0.78%, and 1.08% respectively. The last 100 years have seen a massive fourfold
increase in the population, due to medical advances, lower mortality rates, and an increase in
agricultural productivity made possible by the Green Revolution.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Fig 2.2

33
 The annual increase in the number of living humans peaked at 88.0 million in 1989, then
slowly declined to 73.9 million in 2003, after which it rose again to 75.2 million in 2006 is
shown in the figure 2.3. In 2017, the human population increased by 83 million. Generally,
developed nations have seen a decline in their growth rates in recent decades, though annual
growth rates remain above 2% in poverty-stricken countries of the Middle East and Sub-Saharan
Africa, and also in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. In some countries
the population is declining, especially in Eastern Europe, mainly due to low fertility rates, high
death rates and emigration. In Southern Africa, growth is slowing due to the high number of
AIDS-related deaths. Some Western Europe countries might also experience population
decline. Japan's population began decreasing in 2005.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Fig 2.3

The United Nations Population Division projects world population to reach 11.2 billion
by the end of the 21st century. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation projects that the
global population will peak in 2064 at 9.73 billion and decline to 8.89 billion in 2100. A 2014

34
study in Science concludes that the global population will reach 11 billion by 2100, with a 70%
chance of continued growth into the 22nd century. The German Foundation for World
Population reported in December 2019 that the global human population grows by 2.6 people
every second, and could reach 8 billion by 2023.

2.3 World population distribution

Population distribution means the pattern of where people live. World population
distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. Places which
are densely populated contain many people. Sparsely populated places tend to be difficult places
to live. These are usually places with hostile environments e.g. Antarctica. The environment in
Antarctica makes it a very challenging location to live, with cold temperatures, lack of vegetation
and geographical isolation few people live here. Places which are densely populated are
habitable environments e.g. Western Europe and the East Coast of the USA. This can be the
result of flat relief, a favourable climate, availability of natural resources and fresh water.

Population by continent (2020 estimates)

Populatio Most
Density Most populous city
Continent n populous
(inhabitants/km2) (metropolitan area)
(millions) country

37,393,000/13,929,000
1,439,323,000–
Asia 104.1 4,641 – Greater Tokyo
China
Area/Tokyo Metropolis

206,139,000
Africa 44.4 1,340 20,900,000 – Cairo
– Nigeria

Europe 73.4 747 145,934,000 – 16,855,000/12,537,000 –

35
 Population by continent (2020 estimates)

Populatio Most
Density Most populous city
Continent n populous
(inhabitants/km2) (metropolitan area)
(millions) country

Russia;
Moscow metropolitan
approx. 110 million
area/Moscow
in Europe

22,043,000/12,176,000 –
212,559,000 –
Latin America 24.1 653 São Paulo Metro Area/São
Brazil
Paulo City

23,724,000/8,323,000 –
Northern 331,002,000 –
14.9 368 New York metropolitan
America[note 2] United States
area/New York City

25,499,000 –
Oceania 5 42 4,925,000 – Sydney
Australia

1,258 – McMurdo Station

Antarctica ~0 0.004 N/A

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World population

the world population is the total number of humans currently living, and was estimated to have
reached 7,800,000,000 people as of March 2020. It took over 2 million years of human
prehistory and history for the world's population to reach 1 billion, and only 200 years more to
reach 7 billion. The world population has experienced continuous growth following the Great

36
Famine of 1315–1317 and the end of the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million. The
highest global population growth rates, with increases of over 1.8% per year, occurred between
1955 and 1975 – peaking at 2.1% between 1965 and 1970. The growth rate declined to 1.2%
between 2010 and 2015 and is projected to decline further in the course of the 21st century. The
global population is still increasing, but there is significant uncertainty about its long-term
trajectory due to changing rates of fertility and mortality. The UN Department of Economics and
Social Affairs projects between 9–10 billion people by 2050, and gives an 80% confidence
interval of 10–12 billion by the end of the 21st century. Other demographers predict that world
population will begin to decline in the second half of the 21st century. A popular estimate for
the sustainable population of earth is 8 billion people. With the world population at 7.8 billion
people as of March 2020 and typical projections of population growth, Earth will be in a state
of human overpopulation by 2050 or sooner. This may require some form of human population
planning.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Fig 2.4

Birth rates were highest in the late 1980s at about 139 million, and as of 2011 were expected to
remain essentially constant at a level of 135 million, while the mortality rate numbered
56 million per year and were expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040. The median
age of the world's population was estimated to be 30.4 years in 2018.

37
 World population (millions, UN estimates)

# Top ten most populous 2000 2015 2030

countries

1 China[B] 1,270 1,376 1,416

2 India 1,053 1,311 1,528

3 United States 283 322 356

4 Indonesia 212 258 295

5 Pakistan 136 208 245

6 Brazil 176 206 228

7 Nigeria 123 182 263

8 Bangladesh 131 161 186

9 Russia 146 146 149

10 Mexico 103 127 148

World total 6,127 7,349 8,501

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

`Six of the Earth's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most
populous continent, with its 4.64 billion inhabitants accounting for 60% of the world population.
The world's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 36% of the
world's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1.34 billion

38
people, or 17% of the world's population. Europe's 747 million people make up 10% of the
world's population as of 2020, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to
around 653 million (8%). North America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada,
has a population of around 368 million (5%), and Oceania, the least populated region, has about
42 million inhabitants (0.5%). Antarctica only has a very small, fluctuating population of about
1200 people based mainly in polar science stations.

% of Source
Rank Country Population Date
world (official or UN)

4 Jul National population

1 China 1,408,680,320 17.9%
2021 clock

4 Jul National population

2 India 1,378,975,630 17.5%
2021 clock

United 4 Jul National population

3 331,955,582 4.21%
States 2021 clock

1 Jul National annual

4 Indonesia 269,603,400 3.42%
2020 projection

1 Jul
5 Pakistan 220,892,331 2.80% UN Projection
2020

4 Jul National population

6 Brazil 213,357,867 2.71%
2021 clock

39
 % of Source
Rank Country Population Date
world (official or UN)

1 Jul
7 Nigeria 206,139,587 2.62% UN Projection
2020

4 Jul National population

8 Bangladesh 170,948,628 2.17%
2021 clock

1 Jan National annual

9 Russia 146,748,590 1.86%
2020 estimate

National annual
1 Jul
10 Mexico 127,792,286 1.62% projection
2020

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was
another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three
billion in 1960. Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in
1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in
March 2012. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven
billion in October 2011. According to current projections, the global population will reach eight
billion by 2024, and is likely to reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050
range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion. Projected figures vary
depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations,
especially the fertility variable. Long-range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline
to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario", to "high scenarios" of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario

40
predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at
its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined
to 2.52.

World population distribution

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Fig 2.5

World population milestones in billions (Worldometers estimates)

Population 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

180 196 198 201 203

Year 1927 1974 1999 2023 2057
4 0 7 1 7
41

Years elapsed — 123 33 14 13 12 12 12 14 20

 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World Population

There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed one or
two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but
the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and
April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5
Billion" on 11 July 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on 12 October 1999. The Population
Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion" to be 31 October 2011

Population Theories:

2.4 Malthus

Malthusianism is the idea that population growth is potentially exponential while the
growth of the food supply or other resources is linear, which eventually reduces living standards
to the point of triggering a population die off. This event, called a Malthusian catastrophe (also
known as a Malthusian trap, population trap, Malthusian check, Malthusian crisis, Malthusian
spectre, or Malthusian crunch) occurs when population growth outpaces agricultural production,
causing famine or war, resulting in poverty and depopulation. Such a catastrophe inevitably has
the effect of forcing the population (quite rapidly, due to the potential severity and unpredictable
results of the mitigating factors involved, as compared to the relatively slow time scales and
well-understood processes governing unchecked growth or growth affected by preventive
checks) to "correct" back to a lower, more easily sustainable level. Malthusianism has been
linked to a variety of political and social movements, but almost always refers to advocates
of population control.
These concepts derive from the political and economic thought of the Reverend Thomas
Robert Malthus, as laid out in his 1798 writings, An Essay on the Principle of Population.
Malthus suggested that while technological advances could increase a society's supply of
resources, such as food, and thereby improve the standard of living, the resource abundance
would enable population growth, which would eventually bring the per capita supply of
resources back to its original level. Some economists contend that since the industrial revolution,

42
mankind has broken out of the trap. Others argue that the continuation of extreme
poverty indicates that the Malthusian trap continues to operate. Others further argue that due to
lack of food availability coupled with excessive pollution, developing countries show more
evidence of the trap. A similar, more modern concept, is that of human overpopulation.
Neo-Malthusianism is the advocacy of human population planning to ensure resources
and environmental integrities for current and future human populations as well as for other
species. In Britain the term 'Malthusian' can also refer more specifically to arguments made in
favour of preventive birth control, hence organizations such as the Malthusian League. Neo-
Malthusians differ from Malthus's theories mainly in their support for the use of contraception.
Malthus, a devout Christian, believed that "self-control" (i.e., abstinence) was preferable to
artificial birth control. He also worried that the effect of contraceptive use would be too powerful
in curbing growth, conflicting with the common 18th century perspective (to which Malthus
himself adhered) that a steadily growing population remained a necessary factor in the
continuing "progress of society," generally. Modern neo-Malthusians are generally more
concerned than Malthus with environmental degradation and catastrophic famine than with
poverty.
Malthusianism has attracted criticism from diverse schools of thought,
including Marxists and socialists, libertarians and freemarket enthusiasts, feminists and human
rights advocates, characterising it as excessively pessimistic, misanthropic or inhuman. Many
critics believe Malthusianism has been discredited since the publication of Principle of
Population, often citing advances in agricultural techniques and modern reductions in human
fertility. Many modern proponents believe that the basic concept of population growth eventually
outstripping resources is still fundamentally valid, and that positive checks are still likely to
occur in humanity's future if no action is taken to intentionally curb population growth. In spite
of the variety of criticisms against it, the Malthusian argument remains a major discourse based
on which national and international environmental regulations are promoted.
The book An Essay on the Principle of Population was first published anonymously in
1798, but the author was soon identified as Thomas Robert Malthus. The book warned of future
difficulties, on an interpretation of the population increasing in geometric progression (so as to
double every 25 years) while food production increased in an arithmetic progression, which
would leave a difference resulting in the want of food and famine, unless birth rates decreased.

43
While it was not the first book on population, Malthus's book fuelled debate about the size of the
population in Britain and contributed to the passing of the Census Act 1800. This Act enabled
the holding of a national census in England, Wales and Scotland, starting in 1801 and continuing
every ten years to the present. The book's 6th edition (1826) was independently cited as a key
influence by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in developing the theory of natural
selection. Even then the land could not be made to increase faster than in an arithmetical ratio.
Taking the whole earth, the human species would increase as the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
128, 256, and subsistence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. In two centuries the population would be to
the means of subsistence as 256 to 9; in three centuries as 4,096 to 13, and in two thousand years
the difference would be almost incalculable. In this supposition, no limits whatever are placed to
the produce of the earth.

44
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=importance+of+malthusian+theory+of+population

A key portion of the book was dedicated to what is now known as the Malthusian Law of
Population. The theory claims that growing population rates contribute to a rising supply of
labour and inevitably lowers wages. In essence, Malthus feared that continued population growth
lends itself to poverty. In 1803, Malthus published, under the same title, a heavily revised second
edition of his work. His final version, the 6th edition, was published in 1826. In 1830, 32 years
after the first edition, Malthus published a condensed version entitled A Summary View on the
Principle of Population, which included responses to criticisms of the larger work.

45
The theory of population is resolvable into three propositions:

(1) Population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence.

(2) Population invariably increases where the means of subsistence increase, unless prevented by
some very powerful and obvious checks.

(3) These checks which keep population on a level with the means of subsistence are all
resolvable into moral restraint, vice, and misery.

Criticism of Malthusian Theory of Population

The Malthusian theory was criticised based on the following observations:

1. In Western Europe, the population was rising at a rapid rate. At the same time, the food
supply had also increased due to technological developments.
2. Many times, food production had increased more than the population. For eg., 2% of the
total population is working in the agricultural sector in the US. Still, the total GDP is more
than 14 trillion dollars.
3. Malthus theory stated that one of the reasons for limited food supply is non-availability of
land. However, the amount of food supply in various countries has increased due to
increased globalization.
4. The estimations for the geometric growth of population and arithmetic growth of
population were not provided by Malthus. It was stated that the rate of growth is not
consistent with Malthus’ theory.
5. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that Malthus failed to recognize a crucial
difference between humans and other species. In capitalist societies, as Engels put it,
scientific and technological "progress is as unlimited and at least as rapid as that of
population". Marx argued, even more broadly, that the growth of both a human
population in toto and the "relative surplus population" within it, occurred in direct
proportion to accumulation.
6. Henry George in Progress and Poverty (1879) criticized Malthus's view that population
growth was a cause of poverty, arguing that poverty was caused by the concentration of

46
 ownership of land and natural resources. George noted that humans are distinct from
other species, because unlike most species humans can use their minds to leverage the
reproductive forces of nature to their advantage. He wrote, "Both the jayhawk and the
man eat chickens; but the more jayhawks, the fewer chickens, while the more men, the
more chickens."
7. D. E. C. Eversley observed that Malthus appeared unaware of the extent of
industrialization, and either ignored or discredited the possibility that it could improve
living conditions of the poorer classes.
2.5 Demographic Transition
In demography, demographic transition is a phenomenon and theory which refers to the
historical shift from high birth rates and high infant death rates in societies with minimal
technology, education (especially of women) and economic development, to low birth rates and
low death rates in societies with advanced technology, education and economic development, as
well as the stages between these two scenarios. Although this shift has occurred in
many industrialized countries, the theory and model are frequently imprecise when applied to
individual countries due to specific social, political and economic factors affecting particular
populations. However, the existence of some kind of demographic transition is widely accepted
in the social sciences because of the well-established historical correlation linking
dropping fertility to social and economic development. Scholars debate
whether industrialization and higher incomes lead to lower population, or whether lower
populations lead to industrialization and higher incomes. Scholars also debate to what extent
various proposed and sometimes inter-related factors such as higher per capita income,
lower mortality, old-age security, and rise of demand for human capital are involved isshown in
the figure 2.6.

The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the

American demographer Warren Thompson (1887–1973). Adolphe Landry of France made
similar observations on demographic patterns and population growth potential around 1934. In
the 1940s and 1950s Frank W. Notestein developed a more formal theory of demographic
transition. By 2009, the existence of a negative correlation between fertility and industrial
development had become one of the most widely accepted findings in social science.

47
The transition involves four stages, or possibly five

Stage 1: Birth rate and death rate are high - low natural increase - low total population

Stage 2: Birth rate is high - death rate is falling - high natural increase (population growth)

Stage 3: Falling birth rate - low death rate - high natural increase (population growth)

Stage 4: Birth rate and death rate is low - low natural increase - high total population

Stage 5: Very low birth rate – low death rate

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_transition

Fig 2.6

48
  Stage 1: Pre-transition

 Characterized by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.

 Population growth was kept low by Malthusian "preventative" (late age at marriage) and
"positive" (famine, war, pestilence) checks.

 Stage 2: Early transition

 During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall.

 As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly.

 Stage 3: Late transition

 Birth rates start to decline.

 The rate of population growth decelerates.

 Stage 4: Post-transition

 Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death rates.

 Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline.

 In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly in
balance. All human populations are believed to have had this balance until the late 18th
century, when this balance ended in Western Europe. In fact, growth rates were less than
0.05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago. Population growth is
typically very slow in this stage, because the society is constrained by the available food
supply; therefore, unless the society develops new technologies to increase food production
(e.g. discovers new sources of food or achieves higher crop yields), any fluctuations in birth
rates are soon matched by death rates.
 In stage two, that of a developing country, the death rates drop quickly due to improvements
in food supply and sanitation, which increase life expectancies and reduce disease. The
improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding and crop rotation

49
 and farming techniques. Other improvements generally include baking and access to ovens.
Numerous improvements in public health reduce mortality, especially childhood
mortality. Prior to the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were primarily
in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene. One of the
variables often cited is the increase in female literacy combined with public health education
programs which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In Europe, the death rate
decline started in the late 18th century in northwestern Europe and spread to the south and
east over approximately the next 100 years. Without a corresponding fall in birth rates this
produces an imbalance, and the countries in this stage experience a large increase
in population.
 In stage three, birth rates fall due to various fertility factors such as access to contraception,
increases in wages, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in the
status and education of women, a reduction in the value of children's work, an increase in
parental investment in the education of children and other social changes. Population growth
begins to level off. The birth rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th
century in northern Europe. While improvements in contraception do play a role in birth rate
decline, contraceptives were not generally available nor widely used in the 19th century and
as a result likely did not play a significant role in the decline then. It is important to note that
birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values; not just because of the availability
of contraceptives.
 During stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth rates may drop to
well below replacement level as has happened in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan,
leading to a shrinking population, a threat to many industries that rely on population growth.
As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates an economic burden on the
shrinking working population. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly
due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging
population in developed countries. By the late 20th century, birth rates and death rates in
developed countries leveled off at lower rates.
 Some scholars break out, from stage four, a "stage five" of below-replacement fertility
levels. Others hypothesize a different "stage five" involving an increase in fertility.

50
 As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these countries. The
model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may not accurately
describe all individual cases. The extent to which it applies to less-developed societies today
remains to be seen. Many countries such as China, Brazil and Thailand have passed through the
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) very quickly due to fast social and economic change.
Some countries, particularly African countries, appear to be stalled in the second stage due to
stagnant development and the effects of under-invested and under-researched tropical diseases
such as malaria and AIDS to a limited extent.

Key Points

 Demographic transition theory suggests that populations grow along a predictable four -
stage model.
 In stage 1, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly in
balance, and population growth is typically very slow and constrained by the available
food supply.
 In stage 2, that of a developing country, the death rates drop rapidly due to improvements
in food supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce disease.
 In stage 3, birth rates fall due to access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization,
increase in the status and education of women, and increase in investment in education.
Population growth begins to level off.
 In stage 4, birth rates and death rates are both low. The large group born during stage two
ages and creates an economic burden on the shrinking working population.

The DTM describes how the population of a country changes over time. It shows changes in the
birth rate and death rate of a country. The original model showed that countries passed through 4
stages however more recent versions of the model use 5 stages.

Advantages

 It can be applied to all countries.

 It provides a starting point to demographic change over time.
 The timescales are flexible.

51
  It’s easy to understand.
 It enables comparisons between countries.

Disadvantages

 Birth rates in several MEDCs have fallen below death rates. This has caused the
population to decline which suggests that the model should have a fifth stage.
 The DTM is Eurocentric as the model assumes that all countries pass through the same
four stages. It now seems unlikely, however, that Africa and many other LEDCs will ever
be industrialised. There are also variables and exceptions such as war that may lead to
different results.
 The model assumes the fall in death rate in stage 2 was due to industrialisation. In the
UK, however, the death rate rose due to the poor conditions during the industrial
revolution. The delayed fall in death rate in many LEDCs is due to the inability for
people to afford healthcare. In many countries, the fall in birth rate has been slower in
stage 3 due to opposition by religious organisations. Alternatively, in China, the birth rate
has fallen sharply due to government intervention.
 The timescale of the model, especially in several South-East Asian countries such as
Hong Kong and Malaysia, is being squashed as they develop at a much faster rate than
earlier industrialised countries. The UK stayed in stage 2 for over 100 years as social,
economic and technological changes were introduced slowly and death rate fell slowly.
In many LEDCs, death rate has fallen more rapidly because changes (i.e. the introduction
of western medicine) have taken place much more quickly. The birth rate has stayed high
and so the population has increased rapidly.
 The model does not include the impacts of migration. Countries that grew as a
consequence of emigration from Europe (e.g, USA, Canada & Australia) did not pass
through the earlier stages of the model.

52
 UNIT-3

3.1 Age and Sex composition of population

Age distribution, also called Age Composition, in population studies, the proportionate
numbers of persons in successive agecategories in a given population. A population with
persistently high fertility, for instance, has a large proportion of children and a small proportion
ofaged persons (figure 3.1). Population composition is the description of a population according
to characteristics such as age and sex. These data are often compared over time using population
pyramids. It is common in demography to split the population into three broad age groups:

 children and young adolescents (under 15 years old)

 The working-age population (15-64 years) and.
 the elderly population (65 years and older)

Figure 3.1.

53
The above table (table 2) represent the age composition of the population of India( 1961-2026)

The population of an area includes persons of various ages. The age composition is
important for understanding the nasality, mortality and mobility of a community. Age differences
may create social and economic differences. The importance of age composition is discussed in
the next section.

3.1.1 Importance of Age Composition

The age composition of a population (sometimes called age structure or age distribution)
is one of the most basic characteristics of a population. One cannot proceed very far in the study
of population growth or migration without an examination of age composition. AH aspects of an
individual’s or community’s life — social attitudes, economic activities, political propensities
and so on, are affected by age.

Age influences the needs, thinking, attitude and behavior of people. The age structure
very much influences the socio-economic life of a nation. Age data are functional to those
54
responsible for planning different types of activities. The LIC depends very much on the age
data. Age data are also required for employment, marriage, retirement and a number of other
social and economic activities of life. The age structure enables us to determine the proportion of
the labor force in the total population. It is helpful in finding out the dependency load. It
indicates the approximate number of people who are attaining working age and retirement. Thus,
an estimate may be made of the net addition to the Working force for which new jobs are to be
created. The relative proportion of producers and consumers will determine the capacity of a
community to save and invest. Consumption and production also depend to a significant extent
on the age structure. When the dependency load is very high, there is a severe pressure on the
working population. This requires heavy demographic investment which is mainly unproductive
in nature.

For understanding the future growth of population, it is necessary to know the age
structure because it affects the marriage rate and reproductive performance of the population.
Thus, on the basis of age structure, it is possible to know whether a country has a progressive or
regressive type of population. The study of age structure also helps us in knowing the number of
old persons for whom old-age pensions may have to be provided by the state. However, age data
in a country are most likely to be inaccurate. Apart from ignorance and carelessness, there are
many reasons to hide the actual age of persons.

The parents of unmarried girls who have reached marriageable age will under- state the
age of the girls. Similarly, widowers and bachelors (who are becoming old), will give lower
ages, particularly if they are eager to marry. Another reason for giving a wrong age is the
superstitious belief that it is unwise to state one’s age correctly as it is liable to reduce one’s span
of life. For the population geographers it is very difficult to map the age statistics. Secondly, not
all countries conduct censuses to collect regularly the data for age. In LDCs, people are also
ignorant about their exact dates of birth. Mostly, in the case of female’s instances of
understatement regarding age seem to be very high. The population geographers, while making
use of age composition data, do take the help of different devices like age grouping, age
pyramids and age indices. These techniques can help to minimize the incidence of errors in age
statistics.

55
Determinants of Age Structure

The age structure of a population is determined basically by three factors

3.1.2 Fertility, Mortality and Migration

Fertility determines the population proportion in different age categories. The countries
which have high fertility rates have a large proportion of their population in the young age group
(0- 15). The life expectancy in these countries being low, there is a small proportion of
population in the old age group (60 and above). Thus, in these countries, the population is
heavily weighted in favour of the young age group. These countries are typically less-developed.
However, the countries which have low fertility and high life expectancy are characterised by
small proportion of people in the young age group and relatively large proportion of people in
the old age group. Most of the DCs fall in this category. If mortality is low among the young and
old it results in high and increasing proportion of persons in the higher age groups. On the other
hand, declining mortality in LDCs increases the proportion of people in the young age group.

Migration is very often age- and sex-selective. Generally, the people in the working age
group (15-45) are found to be extremely mobile as compared to the old and very young people.
Thus, the place wherefrom migration takes place has a smaller proportion of people in the
working age group, but the place of in-migration witnesses a larger proportion of such people. In
this way, the age structure of a country undergoes changes over time. The age structure is also
influenced by natural calamities like war, famine, pestilence, and the like. Age data are
conveniently analysed with reference to devices like age pyramids, age groups and age indices.
These devices are discussed in the following sections.

3.1.3 Age Pyramids

In 1950 there were 2.5 billion people on the planet. Now in 2019, there are 7.7 billion. By
the end of the century the UN expects a global population of 11.2 billion. This visualization of
the population pyramid makes it possible to understand this enormous global transformation.

Population pyramids visualize the demographic structure of a population (figure 3. 2.). The width
represents the size of the population of a given age; women on the right and men to the left. The

56
bottom layer represents the number of newborns and above it you find the numbers of older
cohorts. Represented in this way the population structure of societies with high mortality rates
resembled a pyramid – this is how this famous type of visualization got its name.

Figure 3. 2.

Normally, the males are kept to the left and females to the right side of the vertical axis.
The shape of the pyramid will differ according to the relative proportion of the different age-
groups in the total population. Certain basic types of pyramids may be distinguished. First, if a

57
population has unchanging fertility and mortality it is a stationary population and each step in the
pyramid differs from the one below only by the number of deaths in that age group. Death,
emigration and reduced fertility will affect the shape of the pyramid in those groups which are
involved. If, however, the number of births increases from year to year, the population type will
become progressive and the pyramid will widen at the base; decline in the number of births
causes a regressive population with a pyramid which is narrow at the base and has the shape of a
bell.

A high growth of fertility (baby boom) will enlarge the base of the pyramid. But low
fertility and death will reduce the base of the pyramid. The LDCs have broad- based pyramids,
whereas the DCs have narrow-based pyramids. The representative LDCs have a broad base but a
narrow tip. This reflects a situation in which there is a large percentage of children and a small
percentage of elders in the population. In the industrialized countries, however, the pyramid has
a narrow base and tapers off much more gradually. The United Kingdom is a typical example,
although in the United States of America the recent rise in fertility has caused the base to widen.
In the case of India, the age pyramid has a very wide base because of the large child population;
but it tapers towards a point more sharply than in the case of any other country, indicating the
low longevity of the Indian population. There are relatively very few people in India who live
beyond the age of 50. However, the age pyramids do not permit cartographic representation.
Thus, they are not helpful for making regional comparison of age structure.

3.1.4 Sex Composition of Population

Communities differ in sex composition, i.e,, composition of male and female. Sex
composition is a subject of great interest to the population geographer. Sex ratio is an index of
the socio-economic conditions of an area. It is an important tool for regional analysis. It has a
profound effect on the demographic structure of a region. It is an important feature of any
landscape. It is a function of three basic factors: sex ratio at birth, sex ratio at death and sex-
selectivity among migrants.

Definition of Sex Ratio

58
 Sex ratio signifies the number of females per thousand males. An inverse enunciation of
the ratio ("i.e,, the number of males per 1000 females) is also given sometimes. Sex ratio may
vary among different regions. In the USA, the sex ratio is high (male’s arc larger in number).

Primary sex ratio is the sex ratio at the time of conception,

Secondary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of birth, and

Tertiary sex ratio is the ratio found at the time of enumeration.

Importance of Sex Ratio

Sex ratio generally influences the form and tempo of life in any country. The balance between
the sexes is an important aspect of population structure. It is important for the following

Reasons

(1) It affects the labor supply through marriage and fecundity. If the proportion of males is
higher than that of females, more workers will be available.

(2) The excess of males tends to lower the age of marriage for females. Early marriages lead to
considerable disparity in age between husbands and wives. This difference in age tends to
increase widowhood.

(3) Early marriage of females may also lead to increased fertility and population growth.

(4) Sex ratio which is affected by fertility, mortality and migration plays an important part in
determining birth and death rates in a community.

(5) It is found that a population which has a higher pro- portion of females also has a relatively
lower death rate as compared with a population where males preponderate,

(6) An adverse sex ratio (i.e., when the proportion of females is small) leads to the emergence of
many social and moral evils like prostitution and S.T.D., impairing the morale of the workers.

(7) Sex ratio is an important factor for determining the death rate of any population. Women
generally have lower death rates than men at most ages in most countries. If females constitute

59
more than half of the population, the total death rate is considerably affected. The scarcity of
either women or men of adult age will reduce the marriage rate; and this will affect the crude
birth rate.

(8) Sex ratios of a population are related to the extent of employment of women outside home,
status of women, and so on.

Determinants of Sex Ratio

Sex ratio is influenced by birth, death and migration. Apart from these factors, natural calamities
like war, famine, earth- quake and so on will have their effects on sex ratio. It also depends on
the status of women, nature of enumeration of sexes in a particular population of an area and the
like. Sex ratio can be understood with reference to

(i) Sex ratio at birth

(ii) Sex ratio at death, and

(iii) Sex selectivity among migrations.

Female sex is biologically stronger than male sex. Consequently, the females tend to outlive the
men. In almost all countries the male mortality rate is higher than female mortality rate at all
ages. As the male infants have higher mortality rates, the sex ratio becomes balanced at about 4
years of age. After this age, the imbalance begins to grow, so that at the age of 95 or so, there
may be two thousand females per 1,000 males. In LDCs, female mortality is higher than that of
males. The following may be the reasons for higher female mortality and lower sex ratio in
LDCs.

3.1.5 Reasons for Lower Sex Ratio (Less females per 1,000 males)

(i) Girls in LDCs are not as carefully looked after as boys. As a result, infant mortality among
girls is very high.

(ii) Early marriage, absence of birth control, children at early age, and frequency of birth, lead to
the death of many women in the reproductive ages. At the time of census, women are not

60
counted properly because of their illiteracy and social customs which keep them behind curtains,
resulting in under-reporting of female population.

(iii) Migration from LDCs has largely been male-dominated,

(iv) The proportion of female births is lower in LDCs than in the DCs.

(v) In the past, female infanticide was very common.

(vi) Early marriage leads to diseases of the uterus and vagina. Early intercourse is injurious to
health. Thousands of child wives march from the nuptial bed to the funeral pyre every year.

3.2 Occupational structure

The occupational structure of a country refers to the division of its work force engaged in
different economic activities. While studying the structural change in any economy, it is
important to be familiar with occupational structure of the economy. Primary activities: These
include agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying, etc. Secondary
activities: These include the manufacturing industry, building and construction ' work, etc.
Tertiary activities: These include transport, communication, commerce, administration and other
services. The percentage of population employed in various kinds of economic activities is called
occupational structure . The men and women between 15 to 59 years of age are economically
active population and are refer to as work force or working population.

3.2.1 Economic Activities:

The economic activities have been classified on the basis of
•Nature of work
• Skill level
• Economic function.

There are five categories of economic activities:

61
 Primary economic activities directly utilizes earth’s resources in the form of occupations
such as agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining, and quarrying to earn livelihood.
It is also known as Red color job due to its outdoor nature of work.

The secondary activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials
into valuable products and includes manufacturing industry, building and construction work etc.
It is often refer to as blue color job.

Tertiary activities include both production and exchange. The production involves the
‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’, and exchange, involves trade, transport and
communication facilities. The tertiary activities provide specialized skills and knowledge based
services and designated as pink color job.

Quaternary economic activities involve collection, production and dissemination of

information. It revolve around research and development and provides highly specialized
services. Quaternary economic activities are also known as white color job.

Quinary economic activities are sophisticated services and focus on the creation, re-
construction and interpretation of new and existing ideas. It includes highly skilled and heavily
paid business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal
consultants and is referred to as gold collar professionals.

3.2.2 Occupational Structure and Economic Development:

◆ Economic development and occupational structure are closely linked.
◆ The occupational structure is the index of economic development.
◆ Economic development is a cyclic process.
◆ Primary economic activities are the main occupation in underdeveloped economies.
◆ The developing economies are characterized by secondary and tertiary economic activities
. ◆ High proportion of population in quaternary and quinary economic activities is the indicator
of developed economy. developed stage.
3.2.3 Components of Occupational Structure:

62
◆ The structure of the economy
◆ Level of technological development
◆ Efficiency of bureaucratic functioning
◆ Labour Market
◆ Life-style
◆ Social values

3.2.4Occupational Structure in India:

◆ it’s 64 percent of population is either directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture i.e.
primary economic industries.
◆ India’s 13 percent workforce is dependent on secondary economic activities
◆ It’s 20 percent working population is engaged in tertiary economic activities.
◆ It’s 3 percent working population is engaged in quaternary and quinary sector of economy.

3.3 Literacy

Literacy is popularly understood as an ability to read and write in at least one method of
writing, an understanding reflected by mainstream dictionaries. In this view, illiteracy would be
considered to be the inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the term “literacy”
can be historically divided into two periods. Firstly is the period before 1950, when literacy was
understood solely as alphabetical literacy (word and letter recognition). Secondly is the period
after 1950, when literacy slowly began to be considered as a wider concept and process,
i.e. functional literacy. This widening of the traditional concept of literacy took place as
consensus emerged among researchers in composition studies, education research,
and anthropological linguistics that it makes little sense to speak of reading or writing outside of
some specific context a position James Paul Gee describes as "simply incoherent." Even
extremely early stages of acquiring mastery over symbol-shapes take place in particular social
contexts (even if that context is simply "school"), and after print acquisition, any instance of
reading and writing will always be enacted for a particular purpose and occasion and with
particular readers and writers in mind. Reading and writing, therefore, are never separable from
social and cultural elements.

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3.3.1 Definition of literacy

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has
drafted a definition of literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create,
communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts.
Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to
develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider
society."

The National Literacy Mission defines literacy as acquiring the skills of reading, writing
and arithmetic and the ability to apply them to one's day-to-day life. The achievement of
functional literacy implies (i) self-reliance in 3 R's, (ii) awareness of the causes of deprivation
and the ability to move towards amelioration of their condition by participating in the process of
development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve economic status and general well-being, and (iv)
imbibing values such as national integration, conservation of the environment, women's equality,
observance of small family norms.

The working definition of literacy in the Indian census since 1991 is as follows:

3.3.2 Literacy rate

Also called the "effective literacy rate"; the total percentage of the population of an area
at a particular time aged seven years or above who can read and write with understanding. Here
the denominator is the population aged seven years or more.
3.3.3 Crude literacy rate
The total percentage of the people of an area at a particular time who can read and write
with understanding, taking the total population of the area (including below seven years of age)
as the denominator.

Top Performing States in 2018

64
 Literacy Rate in
No State
Percentage

1 Kerala 98.2%

2 Delhi 88.7%

3 Uttarkhand 87.6%

Himachal
4 86.6%
Pradesh

5 Assam 85.9%

Source: The report on 'Household Social Consumption:

Education in India as part of 75th round of National Sample Survey - from July 2017 to June
2018

3.3.4 Comparative literacy statistics on country

The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India and some neighboring
countries in 2015. Adult literacy rate is based on the 15+ years age group, while the youth
literacy rate is for the 15–24 years age group (i.e. youth is a subset of adults).

3.3.5 Growth of literacy

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 Prior to the British era, education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru
in traditional schools called gurukuls. The gurukuls were supported by public donations and were
one of the earliest forms of public school offices.

According to the work of Dharampal based on British documents from the early 1800s, pre-
British education in India was fairly universal. Dharampal explains that the temple and the
mosque of each village had a school attached to it and the children of all castes and communities
attended these schools.

UNESCO list of countries by literacy rate (2015)

Youth literacy
Adult literacy
Country rate
rate
ages 15–24

China 96.4% 99.7%

Sri Lanka 92.6% 98.8%

Myanmar 93.7% 96.3%

World
86.3% 91.2%
average

India 81% 91.66%

Nepal 64.7% 86.9%

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 Bangladesh 61.5% 83.2%

Pakistan 58% 80.3%

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#

Comparative_literacy_statistics_on_country

3.3.6 The British period

In the colonial era, the community-funded gurukul system and temple-based charity
education, began to decline as the centrally funded institutions promoted by the British began to
gradually take over and the British budget for education of the entire country was less than half
of the budget for the city of New York at the time.

Between 1881–82 and 1946–47, the number of English primary schools grew from
82,916 to 134,866 and the number of students in English Schools grew from 2,061,541 to
10,525,943. Literacy rates in accordance to British in India rose from an estimated 3.2 per cent in
1872, to 16.1 per cent in 1941. In 1944, the Government of British India presented a plan, called
the Sargent Scheme for the educational reconstruction of India, with a goal of producing 100%
literacy in the country within 40 years, i.e. by 1984. Although the 40-year time-frame was
derided at the time by leaders of the Indian independence movement as being too long a period
to achieve universal literacy, India had only just crossed the 74% level by the 2011 census. The
British India censuses identify a significant difference in literacy rates, by: sex, religion, caste
and state of residence, e.g.:

1901 census – literacy rate Male % Female %

Madras 11.9 1.1

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 Bombay 11.6 0.9

Bengal 10.4 0.5

Berar 8.5 0.3

Assam 6.7 0.4

Punjab 6.4 0.3

United Provinces 5.7 0.2

Central Provinces 5.4 0.2

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#
Comparative_literacy_statistics_on_country
3.3.7 Post-Independence

The provision of universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of
6–14 was a cherished national ideal and had been given overriding priority by incorporation as
a Directive Policy in Article 45 of the Constitution, but it is still to be achieved more than half a
century since the Constitution was adopted in 1949. Parliament has passed the Constitution 86th
Amendment Act, 2002, to make elementary education a Fundamental Right for children in the
age group of 6–14 years. In order to provide more funds for education, an education cess of 2
percent has been imposed on all direct and indirect central taxes through the Finance (No. 2) Act,
2004. In 2000–01, there were 60,840 pre-primary and pre-basic schools, and 664,041 primary
and junior basic schools.[41] Total enrolment at the primary level has increased from 19,200,000
in 1950–51 to 109,800,000 in 2001–02. The number of high schools in 2000–01 was higher than
the number of primary schools at the time of independence. The literacy rate grew from 18.33
percent in 1951, to 74.04 percent in 2011. [35] During the same period, the population grew from
361 million to 1,210 million.

Census of India - literacy rates (age 7+)

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 Year Male % Female % Combined %

1872[34] ~3.25

1881 8.1 0.35 4.32

1891 8.44 0.42 4.62

1901 9.8 0.6 5.4

1911 10.6 1.0 5.9

1921 12.2 1.8 7.2

1931 15.6 2.9 9.5

1941 24.9 7.3 16.1

1951 27.16 8.86 18.33

1961 40.4 15.35 28.3

1971 45.96 21.97 34.45

1981 56.38 29.76 43.57

1991 64.13 39.29 52.21

2001 75.26 53.67 64.83

2011 82.14 65.46 74.04

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India#
Comparative_literacy_statistics_on_country

3.3.8 Literacy rate variations between states

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India's literacy rate is at 75%. Kerala has achieved a literacy rate of 93%. Bihar is the least
literate state in India, with a literacy of 63.82%. Several other social indicators of the two states
are correlated with these rates, such as life expectancy at birth (71.61 for males and 75 for
females in Kerala, 65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in Bihar), infant mortality per 1,000
live births (10 in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), birth rate per 1,000 people (16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar)
and death rate per 1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in Bihar).

Every census since 1881 had indicated rising literacy in the country, but the population
growth rate had been high enough that the absolute number of illiterate people rose with every
decade. The 2001–2011 decade is the second census period (after the 1991–2001 census period)
when the absolute number of Indian illiterate population declined (by 31,196,847 people),
indicating that the literacy growth rate is now outstripping the population growth rate. Six Indian
states account for about 60% of all illiterates in India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana). Slightly less than half of all
Indian illiterates (48.12%) are in the six states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.

3.3.9 Literacy promotion efforts

While informal learning within the home can play an important role in literacy
development, gains in childhood literacy often occur in primary school settings. Continuing the
global expansion of public education is thus a frequent focus of literacy advocates. These kinds
of broad improvements in education often require centralized efforts undertaken by national
governments; alternatively, local literacy projects implemented by NGOs can play an important
role, particularly in rural contexts. Funding for both youth and adult literacy programs often
comes from large international development organizations. USAID, for example, steered donors
like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Global Partnership for Education toward the
issue of childhood literacy by developing the Early Grade Reading Assessment. Advocacy
groups like the National Institute of Adult Continuing Education have frequently called upon
international organizations such as UNESCO, the International Labour Organization, the World
Health Organization, and the World Bank to prioritize support for adult women's literacy. Efforts
to increase adult literacy often encompass other development priorities as well; for example,
initiatives in Ethiopia, Morocco, and India have combined adult literacy programs with

70
vocational skills trainings in order to encourage enrollment and address the complex needs of
women and other marginalized groups who lack economic opportunity.

3.3.10 Literacy as a development indicator

The Human Development Index, produced by the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP), uses education as one of its three indicators; originally, adult literacy
represented two-thirds of this education index weight. In 2010, however, the UNDP replaced the
adult literacy measure with mean years of schooling. A 2011 UNDP research paper framed this
change as a way to "ensure current relevance", arguing that gains in global literacy already
achieved between 1970 and 2010 meant that literacy would be "unlikely to be as informative of
the future." Other scholars, however, have since warned against overlooking the importance of
literacy as an indicator and a goal for development, particularly for marginalized groups such as
women and rural populations.

The World Bank, along with the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, has developed the
Learning Poverty concept and associated measure, which measures the proportion of students
who are unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10. This research found that 53% of
children in low- and middle-income countries cannot read and understand a simple story by the
end of primary school. In poor countries, the level is as high as 80 percent. Thus, it may be too
soon to argue that literacy rates are less informative. In fact, these new measures indicate that
these startlingly high rates of illiteracy are an "early warning sign that SDG 4 for education and
all related global goals are in jeopardy." Current progress in improving literacy rates is much too
slow to meet the SDG goals. At the current rate, approximately 43% of children will still be
learning poor by 2030.

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) assesses children on

reading and math skills at age 15. PISA-D encourages and facilitates PISA testing in low- and
middle-income countries. In 2019, "PISA-D results reveal exceptionally low scores for
participating countries. Only 23 percent of students tested achieved the minimum level of
proficiency in reading, compared with 80 percent of OECD". Minimum proficiency requires
students to read "simple and familiar texts and understand them literally”, as well as

71
demonstrating some ability to connect pieces of information and draw inferences, which is a
relatively low bar for literacy.

3.3.11 Measuring literacy

In 2019, UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimated the global literacy rate at 86.5
percent. It is important to understand how literacy rates have been measured in the past, as well
as how they are currently being measured. From 1975 until 1988, all countries that reported
literacy rates did so through self-reports from heads of households. This meant the head of a
household answered a simple simple yes/no question asking whether household members could
read and write. From 1988 to 2007, all countries that reported literacy data did so through self-
reports from either heads of household or the individual themselves. Self-reported data is
subjective and has several limitations. First, a simple yes/no question does not capture the
continuum of literacy. Second, self-reports are dependent on what each individual interprets
"reading" and "writing" to mean. In some cultures, drawing a picture may be understood as
"writing" one's name. Lastly, many of the surveys asked one individual to report literacy on
behalf of others, "introducing further noise, in particular when it comes to estimating literacy
among women and children, since these groups are less often considered heads of household".

In 2007, several countries began introducing literacy tests to determine a more accurate
measurement of literacy rates, including Liberia, South Korea, Guyana, Kenya, and Bangladesh.
However, in 2016, the majority of counties still reported literacy through either self-reported
measures or other indirect estimates. These indirect measurements are potentially problematic, as
many countries measure literacy based on years of schooling. In Greece, an individual is
considered literate if they have finished six years of primary education, while in Paraguay
individuals are considered literate if they have completed just two years of primary school.
However, emerging research reveals that educational attainment, or years of schooling, does not
correlate with literacy. Literacy tests show that in many low-income countries, a large proportion
of students who have attended two years of primary school cannot read a single word of a short
text. These rates are as high as 90% of second-grade students in Malawi, 85.4% in India, 83% in
Ghana, and 64% in Uganda. In India, over 50% of Grade 5 students have not mastered Grade 2
literacy. In Nigeria, only about 1 in 10 women who completed Grade 6 can read a single
sentence in their native language. This data reveals that literacy rates measured by years of

72
schooling as a proxy are potentially unreliable and do not reflect the true literacy rates of
populations.

3.3.12 Literacy as a human right

Unlike medieval times, when reading and writing skills were restricted to a few elites and
the clergy, these literacy skills are now expected from every member of a society. Literacy is
therefore considered human right essential for lifelong learning and social change. As supported
by the 1996 Report of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century,
and the 1997 Hamburg Declaration: ‘Literacy, broadly conceived as the basic knowledge and
skills needed by all in a rapidly changing world, is a fundamental human right. There are
millions, the majority of whom are women, who lack opportunities to learn or who have
insufficient skills to be able to assert this right. The challenge is to enable them to do so. This
will often imply the creation of preconditions for learning through awareness raising and
empowerment. Literacy is also a catalyst for participation in social, cultural, political and
economic activities, and for learning throughout life’.

In 2016, the European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) (an association of European
literacy professionals) published a document entitled European Declaration of the right to
literacy. It states that “Everyone in Europe has the right to acquire literacy. EU Member States
should ensure that people of all ages, regardless of social class, religion, ethnicity, origin and
gender, are provided with the necessary resources and opportunities to develop sufficient and
sustainable literacy skills in order to effectively understand and use written communication be in
handwritten, in print or digital form.”

3.3.13 Literacy in India

Literacy in India is a key for socio-economic progress. Despite government programmes,

India's literacy rate increased only "sluggishly". The 2011 census, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal
literacy growth of 9.2%, which is slower than the growth seen during the previous decade. An
old analytical 1990 study estimated that it would take until 2060 for India to achieve universal
literacy at then-current rate of progress. Census of India pegged average literacy rate to be 73%
in 2011 while National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy to be 77.7% in 2017–18.
Literacy rate in urban areas was higher 87.7% than rural areas with 73.5%. There is a

73
wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India and effective literacy rates (age 7 and above)
was 84.7% for men and 70.3% for women.[6] The low female literacy rate has a dramatically
negative impact on family planning and population stabilization efforts in India. Studies have
indicated that female literacy is a strong predictor of the use of contraception among married
Indian couples, even when women do not otherwise have economic independence. The census
provided a positive indication that growth in female literacy rates (11.8%) was substantially
faster than in male literacy rates (6.9%) in the 2001–2011 decadal period, which means the
gender gap appears to be narrowing.

3.4 Major world languages

In socio linguistics, a world language (sometimes global language, rarely international

language) is a language that is geographically widespread and makes it possible for members of
different language communities to communicate. The term may also be used to refer
to constructed international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto. English is the foremost and
by some accounts only world language. Beyond that, there is no academic consensus about
which languages qualify; Arabic, French, Russian, and Spanish are other possible world
languages. Some authors consider Latin to have formerly been a world language. One definition
proffered by Congolese linguist Salikoko Mufwene is "languages spoken as vernaculars or as
lingua francas outside their homelands and by populations other than those ethnically or
nationally associated with them". Linguist Mohamed Benrabah equates the term world
language with what Dutch sociologist Abram de Swaan refers to as "supercentral languages" in
his global language system. Spanish sociolinguist Clare Mar-Molinero proposes a series of tests
that a language needs to pass, relating to demographics, attitudes towards the language, and
political, legal, economic, scientific, technological, academic, educational, and cultural domains.

German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon [de] says that what determines whether something is a
world language is its "global function", which is to say its use for global communication, in
particular between people who do not share it as a native language and with use as a lingua
franca i.e. in communication where it is not the native language of any of the participants
carrying the most weight. Ammon formulates a series of indicators of globality, i.e. factors
useful for assessing the extent to which a given language can be considered a world language.
Chief among these indicators is the number of non-native speakers.

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 Languages with at least 10 million first-language speakers

Percentage
Speakers of world pop. Language
Rank Language Branch
(millions) (March family
2019)[8]

1 Mandarin Chinese 918 11.922% Sino-Tibetan Sinitic

2 Spanish 480 5.994% Indo-European Romance

3 English 379 4.922% Indo-European Germanic

Hindi
4 341 4.429% Indo-European Indo-Aryan
(sanskritised Hindustani)

5 Bengali 300 4.000% Indo-European Indo-Aryan

6 Portuguese 221 2.870% Indo-European Romance

7 Russian 154 2.000% Indo-European Balto-Slavic

8 Japanese 128 1.662% Japonic Japanese

9 Western Punjabi[10] 92.7 1.204% Indo-European Indo-Aryan

10 Marathi 83.1 1.079% Indo-European Indo-Aryan

South-
11 Telugu 82.0 1.065% Dravidian
Central

12 Wu Chinese 81.4 1.057% Sino-Tibetan Sinitic

13 Turkish 79.4 1.031% Turkic Oghuz

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 Languages with at least 10 million first-language speakers

Percentage
Speakers of world pop. Language
Rank Language Branch
(millions) (March family
2019)[8]

language
14 Korean 77.3 1.004% Koreanic
isolate

15 French 77.2 1.003% Indo-European Romance

German
16 76.1 0.988% Indo-European Germanic
(only Standard German)

17 Vietnamese 76.0 0.987% Austroasiatic Vietic

18 Tamil 75.0 0.974% Dravidian South

19 Yue Chinese 73.1 0.949% Sino-Tibetan Sinitic

Urdu
20 68.6 0.891% Indo-European Indo-Aryan
(persianised Hindustani)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers

Another indicator is the number of native speakers, which although it is not in itself a
criterion for globality, empirically correlates positively with it and may influence it indirectly by
making the language more attractive. Other potential indicators are economic strength (measured
as the native speakers' GDP), number of countries that use the language as an official
language as well as those countries' geographical distribution, international business use, and
prevalence in scientific publications.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers

However, all such rankings should be used with caution, because it is not possible to
devise a coherent set of linguistic criteria for distinguishing languages in a dialect
continuum. For example, a language is often defined as a set of varieties that are mutually
intelligible, but independent national standard languages may be considered to be separate
languages even though they are largely mutually intelligible, as in the case
of Danish and Norwegian. Conversely, many commonly accepted languages,
including German, Italian and even English, encompass varieties that are not mutually
intelligible. While Arabic is sometimes considered a single language centred on Modern
Standard Arabic, other authors describe its mutually unintelligible varieties as separate
languages. Similarly, Chinese is sometimes viewed as a single language because of a shared
culture and common literary language. It is also common to describe various Chinese dialect
groups, such as Mandarin, Wu and Yue, as languages, even though each of these groups contains
many mutually unintelligible varieties.

77
 There are also difficulties in obtaining reliable counts of speakers, which vary over time
because of population change and language shift. In some areas, there is no reliable census data,
the data is not current, or the census may not record languages spoken, or record them
ambiguously. Sometimes speaker populations are exaggerated for political reasons, or speakers
of minority languages may be under-reported in favour of a national language.

UNIT-4
4.1 Measurements of fertility and mortality

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 Fertility means the number of live births occurring in a population. The general fertility
rate is the number of live births per 1,000 women of childbearing age (usually ages 15 to 44) in a
given year. Women also have greater access to family planning services. Fertility indicates the
actual reproductive performance of a woman or a group of women. A woman is considered
fertile if she has ever borne a child. Fecundity, on the other hand, denotes the ability to bear a
child, and has no reference to whether or not a woman actually has borne a child. A common
measure of fertility, especially where adequate vital statistics and other types of direct
information are lacking is the ratio of children under 5 years of age to women in the child-
bearing ages as computed from census data on the total population. Thus, fertility rate is
determined by the number of children born every year to 1000 women of child-bearing ages (15-
45).

The crude birth rate of population in any area is obtained by dividing the number of births
recorded in that area during a year by its total population (preferably the mid-year population). If
we multiply this by 1009, we get the birth rate per 1000 of population. All births are not
generally recorded. Therefore, the crude birth rate underestimates the rate of growth of
population. The corrected birth rate takes into account both the recorded birth and the possible
unrecorded birth. In other words.

Possible birth
Corrected birth rate=Birth∈a year recorded+ ∗1000
Mid− year population

General fertility rate is calculated by dividing the number of children born by the number
of mothers in the reproductive age-group (15-45), and the sum is multiplied by 1000. In order to
calculate the completed fertility rate, we divided the total number of children born by the total
number of mothers in all the age-groups, and the sum multiplied by 1000.

Here, we take into account the children of any mother (unmarried, widow, married, etc.)
of any age-group. The birth rate can also be made age-specific. Age specific birth rates of an area
are obtained by dividing the number of births to mothers of each age by the number of women of
this age, and then multiplying by 1000; sometimes we are interested in knowing the total fertility
rate. In order to measure correctly the population growth, we calculate the number of children
born per thousand females in the child-bearing age divided into different age-groups. This leads

79
to the total fertility rate which is calculated by adding up the specific fertility rates belonging to
different age-groups. The total fertility rate is the mean number of children which a female aged
15 can except to bear if she lives until at least the age of 50, provided she is subject to the given
fertility conditions over the whole of her child-bearing period. The total fertility rate for a
particular area during a given period is a summary measure of fertility conditions operating in
that area during that period. It is an estimate of the number of children a cohort of 1000 women
would bear if they all went through their reproductive years exposed to the age-specific fertility
rates in effect at a particular time. This method is better than some other methods because it
concerns itself only with the women who are in the fertility age-group; and it is not influenced by
the general age groups. In order to make comparison, standardized birth rate may be calculated.
The Standardized birth rate shows what the birth rate for a group of women would be if these
women had the same age distribution as those in some standard population. It is computed by
taking age specific birth rate for women and multiplying each of these rates by the number of
women in the standard population in the corresponding age category of each one million persons
in the standard population. The sum of these products divided by One million persons is the
standard population. The sum of these products divided by one million and multiple by 1000 is
the standard birth rate. Another index of fertility is the reproduction or replacement rate. In order
to calculate the gross reproduction rate, we do not take into account the number of males, and the
women having no reproductive power and also the male children born. We take into account
only the number of mothers who have produced children, and the female children born. The
female children are the future mothers. The gross reproduction rate (G.R.R.) is calculated in the
following way:

G.R.R. = Number of female children born of mothers of an age-group X 1000

Total number of mothers of that age-group

What is of course more meaningful is not the gross reproduction rate but the net
reproduction rate (N.R.R.). Net reproduction rate indicates the average number of future mothers
born to a mother of today. It is an index of self-replacement potentiality of population with given
age-specific rate of fertility and mortality. The N.R.R. makes allowance for the fact that there
would be deaths in any group of females between the time they are born and the time at which

80
they complete their reproductive life. The N.R.R. is computed by applying the age-specific birth
rates to the number of years lived in each group by the survivors of the original cohort after
mortality has operated, summing the products, and then applying the ratio between the females
born and total births, and dividing the result by 1000. The net reproduction rate was first found
out by Kuezynsky.

N.R.R=∑ (Number of femalebirths X survival rate)

1000

If the N.R.R. is 1, the population is stationary i.e., the new mothers are just replacing the old
mothers. If N.R.R is greater than 1, population is increasing; and if it is less than 1, population is
decreasing.

4.1.1 Factors affecting the fertility

 Age. Female age is the most important factor affecting fertility. ...
 Previous Pregnancy. ...
 Duration of subfertility. ...
 Timing and Frequency of Sexual Intercourse. ...
 Lifestyle
 Weight. ...
 Smoking. ...
 Caffeine

The total fertility rate of India stands at 2.2 as of 2017(figure 4.1). Majority of Indian states
fertility rate has fallen well below the replacement level of 2.1. High focus districts are in 7 states
of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Assam is
shown in the figure 4.1.

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 Figure 4.1

https://www.India-Mission-ParivarVikas-Health-Ministry-Launches-Two-New-
Contraceptives.html

What is Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Replacement Rate TFR? TFR is number of children
who would be born per woman (or per 1,000 women) if she andthe children pass through the
childbearing years bearing children according to a currentschedule of age-specific fertility rates.
The TFR is calculated as: TFR = ∑ ASFR (for single year age groups) TFR of 2.1 children per
woman is called Replacement-level fertility - representing average number of children a woman
would need to have to reproduce herself by bearing a daughter who survives to childbearing age.
Replacement level fertility sustained over a sufficiently long period would ensure each
generation exactly replacing itself without any need for the country to balance the population.

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 Mortality Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general,
or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit
of time/Increase in population depends both on birth rate and death rate. Therefore, in
demography, the measurement of death rate is as important as the measurement of birth rate.

4.4.2 Different types of mortality rates

 Crude mortality rate. Counts all deaths.

 Age-specific mortality rate. Counts only deaths in specific age group.
 Infant mortality rate. Counts deaths in children less than 12 months of age, divides by
number of live births in same time period.
 Maternal mortality rate.
 Under-5 mortality rate.

 Crude death rate - The average annual number of deaths a year per 1000 of the
population.
 Age specific death rate - This shows death rates per 1000 population by sex for age
groups e.g. under 1, 1 - 4, 5 - 15 etc.
 Life Expectancy - The average number of years to be lived by a group of people born in
the same year, if mortality at each age remains constant in the future.
 Infant Mortality rate - The number of deaths of children under the age of 1 per 1000 live
births per year.

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4.1.3 Factors Effecting Mortality

 Age distribution - The higher the proportion of old people to young people, the higher the
death rate since older people are more likely to die.
 Gender - Women generally have a higher life expectancy than men, possibly due to the
lifestyle or biological differences preventing certain diseases.
 Occupation - In some countries people may be employed in dangerous occupations
increasing the death rate e.g. Timber cutters in America with 105 deaths in 2000.
 Income - Low income levels correlate to a low life expectancy whilst high income levels
correlate with a high life expectancy. This is because a high income allows people to
afford medical care, higher standards of living and healthier foods, prolonging their life.
 Literacy - Areas with high literacy levels have higher life expectancies whereas areas
with low literacy rates have low life expectancies. The reasoning behind this is that when
people can read & write, they can obtain higher paying jobs and therefore receive a
higher income improving their life expectancy. In addition, when people can read they
can read information on preventing the spread of disease and basic hygiene standards
improving life expectancy.
 Access to food - Countries with a lack of food have low life expectancies since the people
suffer from malnutrition and are more susceptible to diseases due to a weakened immune
system increasing the mortality rates.
 Medical Facilities - Access to vaccination programs helps to prolong life expectancy and
prevent the spread of diseases. Equipment such as mosquito nets also help prolong life
expectancy. Access to medical clinics and doctors will also help to substantially lower the
death rate. Access to and usage of these services is dependent on income and literacy
rates however.

While the birth rate increases population, the death rate decreases it. The basic index of
mortality is the crude death rate. Crude death rate measures the number of deaths per 1000 of the
population. In order to measure the crude death rate we require the total number of deaths and
the total number of the population. It is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths by the
total number of population, and then multiplying by 1000. However, the crude death rate is
inadequate for many purposes as a measure of mortality differences between different groups in

84
different regions. Variations in groups occur due to variation in age and sex. Some populations
change considerably in age and sex from time to time. Therefore, change in the crude death rate
is of little use as an index of basic changes in mortality.

The death rate can be made age-specific. Age-specific death rate means the number of deaths
of persons of a given age per thousand population of that age, generally by sex. This can be
calculated precisely if we know the size of different age groups by sex, and if deaths for the same
group are correctly known. This rate is the basis of refinement in mortality rates which are used
today. This rate gives an accurate picture of mortality for both males and females of each group.
For calculating the age-specific death rate, we should divide the population into different age-
groups, e.g., 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20 and so on. Then, we should calculate the number of deaths
occurring in each group. It is necessary to know the age of the people who have died.

A.S .D .R= Death occurring in a particular group x 1000

Total population of that group

However, we require a single figure which takes into account age and sex differences, if we are
to compare the mortality rates of two populations. Such a rate is commonly called Standardized
or adjusted death rate.

Another index of mortality used by population geographers and demographers is infant

mortality. The infant mortality rate shows the number of deaths of children, generally under one
year of age per thousand live births occurring in the same year. Infant mortality rates serve as
one of the best indices to the general “healthiness” of a society and the level of living of any
population. The lower the infant mortality rate, the better is the level of living. The infant
mortality rate can also be age- specific. For calculating infant mortality, we take into account
babies in the age-group 0-9. The infant mortality rate (I.M.R.) is calculated thus,

L.M.R. = Number of children who died x 1000

Total number of children in that age group

To be meaningful, vital rates should be standardized. Standardized death rate is based on

age-specific death rate. Generally, the death rate is standardized for age and sex only. When the

85
death rates of two or more populations are standardized on the same population base, their rates
can be compared and, in such a case, the differences found will not be merely due to their age
and sex differences. In calculating the standardized death rate of standard populations, we
require the number of standard population in every age-group and the death rate per 1000 in
every age group. Then the death rate per 1000 is multiplied by the amount of population in each
age-group and the sum is divided by the total amount of standard population. The risk of dying
from causes associated with child-birth is measured by the maternal mortality rate. For this
purpose, the deaths used in the numerator are those arising from puerperal causes i.e , deliveries
and complications of pregnancy, child-birth and puerperium.

The numbers exposed to the risk of dying from puerperal causes are women who have
been pregnant during the period. Their number being unknown, the number of live births is used
as the conventional base for computing comparable maternal mortality rates. The formula is

No. of deaths from puerperal causes which have occurred

Among the female population of a given geographic area

Annual maternal during a given year x 1000

Mortality rate =

No. of live births which occurred among the population of a

Given geographical area during the same year

The classification and coding of deaths as puerperal deaths vary from one country to another or
even within the same country, and hence we must be cautious in comparing maternal mortality
rates for different places.

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Migration: Types, causes, consequences

4.2 Migration

Migration is a consequence of the uneven – distribution of opportunities over space.

People : tends to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher
opportunity and ; better safety. Results can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political
and, demographic terms. Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another
with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region).
The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another, but internal
migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. People may migrate as
individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion,
conquest, colonization and immigration. A person who moves from their home due to forced
displacement (such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as a displaced
person or, if remaining in the home country, an internally displaced person. A person who is
seeking refuge in another country can, if the reason for leaving the home country is political,
religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge
is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this
person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

Migration is shifting of the home, and not the house. In the context of migration, we
come across two processes: ‘emigration’ and ‘immigration’. Emigration refers to going out of a
country, while immigration refers to coming into a country. Thus, emigration reduces the
population of a country, and immigration increases it. Migration implies the movement of people
from one place to another. It is a highly selective process. It may be age-selective, occupation-
selective or sex- selective. Generally, migration is male dominated, particularly in developing
countries. Migration is not merely a process of shifting people from one place to another; it is a
fundamental process to change the structure of population and it contributes a lot for the under-
standing of the space-content and space-relations of a particular geographical area. Migration
involves three types of changes change in the area of out-migration, change in the area of in-
migration and change in the migrants themselves. Migration is an instrument for the defusion of

87
culture. It also serves as an instrument for the redistribution of population from one place to
another. Migration reflects the changing pattern of opportunities in the affected places. For all
these reasons, migration becomes an important topic of analysis for the population geographers.

Migration in geography usually refers to the movement of humans from one place to
another. It occurs when the perceived interaction of Push and Pull factors overcome the friction
of moving. Push factors: elements of the origin that are perceived negatively leading to a desire
to leave. Pull factors: elements of the destination that are perceived positively leading to place-
attraction. Friction of Moving: costs in time, finance and emotions in leaving one location and
moving to another. The strength of the Pull and/or Push factors need to overcome these costs to
cause potential migrants to turn that into an actual relocation. Perception: how a geographical
feature may be received be each individual. A quiet coastal resort may be seen as ‘boring’ by a
teenager (and the ‘quietness’ a Push factor), but attractive to a retired couple (so a Pull factor).
This may result in coastal resorts seeing a net out-migration of young people and net in-
migration of the recently retired. Net Migration: the sum change in migrant numbers between
those coming into an area (inmigrants) and those leaving (out-migrants). If migration crosses
international borders a person is an Emigrant from the country they leave and an Immigrant to
the country they are going to.

4.3 Types of Migration

There are two types of migration: (i) International migration, and (ii) Internal migration.

International migration Is migration from one political boundary to another political boundary. It
depends on the laws regarding migration of the two countries. Internal migration Is migration
from one place to another within the same country.

Internal migration may be divided into the following four types

(a) Migration from the village to the city: Eg. From Kalangal to Coimbatore

(b) Migration from one village to another village: Eg. Kalangal to Vadasithur

(c) Migration from one city to another city: Eg. Trichy to Coimbatore

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(d) Migration from the city to the village: Eg. Trichy to Vadugapatt.

according to Kingsley Davis, Internal migration is more important than international

migration from the point of view of demography. In the case of internal migration, there are less
restrictions on individuals, resources and capital. Therefore, internal migration is more frequent
than international migration. The distance involved in internal migration may sometimes be
greater than that involved in international migration. During the Sino-Japanese War (1939-45),
lakhs of Chinese left the eastern sea-side and went towards the interior of the country. During the
period of this great internal migration, there was large, scale social change in China. Similar
important internal migration took place in America when people in large numbers migrated
towards the western side of the country. International migration is based on some legal control
and regulation, but in the case of internal migration, there is no such control on the movement of
population.

Therefore, internal migration is practically more important. Internal migration may be

divided into the following two types on the basis of the advantage of the migration:

(i) Inter-regional migration. This involves migration from one region to another.

(ii) Migration from village to city. Village people come to city areas for education, for white-
collar jobs, and so on.

Migration Classification Migration types can be classified according to a range of criteria:

i). Migration Based on Distance Intra-building:

Movement within a building (e.g. user-movements in an airport terminal or hospital)

Inter-building: Pedestrian patterns between a complex of buildings (e.g. students moving over a
University campus) Local scale: Moving house to another within a town or city Regional scale:
Migrating within a country from one county/state to another International scale: Migrating from
one country to another (emigration/immigration) Global scale: Migrating between distant
continents

ii). Migration Based on Duration Daily

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 Commuting to and from work each day often resulting in ‘rush hours’ Seasonal: Winter
snow-sport enthusiasts to the Alps; Summer sun-seekers to the Mediterranean; nomadic herders
to fresh grazing pastures. Medium-term temporary: Working in an overseas TNC branch office
for a few years; taking up a university course; working in a developing city to pay off rural debts.
Permanent: Emigrating to another country with no intention of returning.

iii). Migration Based on Motive Forced (Environment)

Fleeing a region of drought / flood / desertification / eruption Forced (Political): Threats

to freedom, safety and liberty due to religious, ethnic, racial or political persecution, conflict or
war. (Leads to Refugees and Asylum-Seekers) Collective Behaviour: Moving as part of an
identified group to maintain group cohesion (Traveller communities, nomadic groups, ethnic
groups) Personal Aspiration: Desiring an improved standard of living for yourself or your family
through gaining economic and social benefits; Economic migrants. Personal Well-Being:
Migration for health reasons (retirees to Florida), or perceived quality of life (relocating to rural
areas for a less frenetic pace of life). Some key migrations affecting the geography of
contemporary regions: Rural-Urban migration in developing economies resulting in rapid
urbanization. Suburbanization and Counter-urbanization from the cities of mature economies
leading to urban sprawl or diffusion of urban characteristics into the rural-urban fringe. Refugee
migrations from areas of conflict in the Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan). Economic
migrations between areas of highly contrasting economic situations (from north Africa to
Europe, from Mexico to the USA) . Tourism migrations as more people have disposable income
to spend on travel and leisure.

4.4 Causes of Migration

People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic,
social, political or environmental:

• economic migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path

• social migration - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family
or friends

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 • political migration - moving to escape political persecution or war

• Environmental causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding some

people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country to enhance their career
opportunities. S

ome people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to war or famine. A
refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to. Often
refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of where they
may finally settle.

Push factor Pull factor

1. Unemployment and under- employment. Better economic prospects

2. Economic underdevelopment Higher salary and income

3. Low wage and salary Better level of living and way of life.

4. Political instability . Better research facilities

5. Overproduction and under-utilization of Modern educational system and better.

talented people opportunity for higher qualification

6. Lack of research and other Prestige of foreign training and education.

facilities.

7. Lack of freedom. Intellectual freedom.

8. Discrimination in appointment Better working conditions and better

and promotion. employment opportunities

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 9. Discrimination based on religion and No discrimination.
politics.

10. Poor working facilities. Relative political stability.

1 1 . Lack of scientific tradition and culture. Presence of a rich,scientific and cultural

tradition

12. Unsuitable institution. Attraction of urban centers

13. Desire for a better urban Availability of experienced supporting staff.

Life.

14. Desire for higher qualification and Frequent chances of a lucky break in life.
recognition.

15. Better career expectation Technological gap.

16. Lack of satisfactory working conditions. Allocation of substantial funds for research.

17. High man-land ratio. Low-density of population and better housing

and medical facilities.

18. Existence of surplus labour. Increasing demand for labour and skill.

4.5 Consequences of Migration

Migration is a consequence of the uneven – distribution of opportunities over space.

People: tends to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher

92
opportunity and; better safety. Results can be observed in i economic, social, cultural, political
and, demographic terms.

4.5.1 Economic Consequences

These consequences are positive as well as negative: Positive Remittances are important
for economy of a country. As migrants sent remittances to their family members for food,
repayment of loans/debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs,
construction of houses, etc. Green Revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western
Uttar Pradesh was a success because of the migrants from rural areas of ‘Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. Negative: Overcrowding due to unregulated migration.
Development of unhygienic slums in industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.

4.5.2 Demographic consequences

These consequences can be both positive and negative: Positive Redistributing of population
within a country. The process of urbanization is dependent on rural-urban migration. Negative
Imbalance in demographic structure. Age and skill selective out migration created an imbalance
in demographic structure of rural areas. Age and sex-composition is seriously affected in states
of Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra due to migration. The
same situation happens in the recipient states.

4.5.3 Social consequences

These consequences are both positive as well as negative: Positive Migrants work as an agent of
social change. They diffuse new ideas of science and technology, family planning, girls
education, etc from one place to another place. People also bring different cultures with them
which help to break the narrow considerations and broaden up the mental horizon of the people.
Negative Anonymity increases and creates social vacuum and feeling of ejection. This feeling
ultimately results in anti-social activities such as crime, drug abuse, theft, etc.

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4.5.4 Environmental consequences

Environmental consequences Negative Large scale rural-urban migration leads to overcrowding

in the cities and puts tremendous pressure on the infrastructure. It also results in unplanned and
haphazard growth of cities in which slums and shanty colonies are very common. Overcrowding
is also related to over-exploitation of natural resources and cities are facing serious problems of
water shortage, air and water pollution, problem of sewage disposal and management of solid
wastes.

4.5.5 Other consequences

When male migrants leave their wives in rural areas, this puts extra physical and mental pressure
on women. Migration of women for education and employment gives them more freedom, on the
other hand it also adds to their vulnerability.

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 UNIT-5

5.1 Problems of over population

If the population still goes on increasing and the optimum is exceeded then there will be
over-population stage. There will be too many people in the country. The country’s resources
will not be sufficient to provide gainful employment to all. The average productivity will
diminish, per capita income will diminish; standard of living will fall. These are the symptoms of
over-population. Food shortage, diseases and death, overstraining resources, increase in
dependents, open and disguised unemployment are the economic effects of over population. Both
under –population and over-population have disadvantages. It is the optimum population, with
the highest per capita output, that is the best for a country to aim at. The concept of optimum
population, under-population and over-population comprises the modern theory of population.

5.1.1 Problems of under population

If the population of a country is below the optimum, i.e. below what it ought to be, then
the country is said to be under-populated. The number of the people is not sufficient to utilize the
resources of the country. The resources are vast, much can be produced, but men are not
sufficient. The community will not be able to reap the economies of large-scale production.
Under such conditions, an increase in population will be followed by an increase in the per capita
income. When the shortage has been made up, the per capita income will reach the maximum
and the optimum is reached.

5.2 Optimum Theory of Population

Economists like Prof. Sidgwick, Edwin Cannan, Robbins, Dalton and Carr-Saunders have
rejected the Malthusian theory of population. They proposed the modern theory called “The
optimum theory of population”.

5.2.1Definitions of Optimum Theory of Population

The concept of optimum population has been defined differently by Robbins, Carr-Saunders and
Dalton. Robbins defines it as “the population which just makes the maximum returns possible is

95
the optimum population. Carr-Saunders defines it as “that population which produces maximum
economic welfare. “According to Dalton, “Optimum population is that which gives the
maximum income per head. “If we were to examine these views, we find that Dalton’s view is
more scientific and realistic which we follow.

Figure 5.1

The above image (figure 5.1) shows the graphical representation of optimum population, under
population and over population.

Optimum Population–By optimum population we mean the ideal number of populations that a
country should have considering its resources. The optimum size of population is which along
with the existing natural resources and a given state of technology, yields the highest income per
capita in a country. The optimum population means the best and the most desirable size of a
country’s population.

The optimum theory of population is based on some few assumptions.

1. It is assumed that the proportion of working population to total population remains

constant as the population of the country increases.

96
 2. It is assumed that as the population of a country increases, the natural resources, the
capital stock and the state of technology remains unchanged.
3. The natural resources of a country are given at a point of time but they change every
time.
4. The stock of capital remains constant.
5. The habits and tastes of the people do not change.
6. Working hours of labour do not change.
7. Modes of business organisation are constant.

As the population of a country increases, the number of workers also increases. At the
same time, the average product per man increases, but beyond that point it starts diminishing.
Edwin Cannan says,” at any given time, increase of labour up to a certain point is attended by
increasing proportionate returns and beyond that point further increase of labour is attended by
diminishing proportionate returns. At that very point where the average productivity of labour
begins to decline, the income per capita is the highest. This is the point of maximum returns or
optimum population.”

The optimum population is liable to change in accordance with the quantitative and
qualitative changes taking place in the means of production. The optimum point, therefore, keep
shifting upwards or downwards. We cannot fix the optimum population of a country on a
permanent basis, because its productive factors, techniques keep changing from time to time.

5.2.2 Explanation of Optimum Theory of Population

Given these assumptions, the optimum population is that ideal size of population which
provides the maximum income per head. Any rise or diminution in the size of the population
above or below the optimum level will diminish income per head. Given the stock of natural
resources, the technique of production and the stock of capital in a country, there is a definite
size of population corresponding to the highest per capita; income. Other things being equal, any
deviation from this optimum-sized population will lead to a reduction in the per capita income.If
the increase in population is followed by the increase in per capita Population income, the
country is under-populated and it can afford to increase its population till it reaches the optimum
level. On the contrary, if the increase in population leads to diminution in per capita income, the
97
country is over-populated and needs a decline in population till the per capita income is
maximised. This is illustrated in Fig.5.2.

Fig.5.2. Fig.5.3. Fig.5.4.

In the figure population is measured along the horizontal axis and per capita income on
the vertical axis. In the beginning there is under-population and per capita income increases with
population growth, the per capita income of OB population is BA; which is less than the
maximum per capita income level NM. The ON size of population represents the optimum level
where per capita income NM is the maximum.

If there is a continuous increase in population from ON to OD then the law of

diminishing returns applies to production. As a result, the per capita production is lowered, and
the per capita income also declines to DC due to increase in population. Thus, ND represents
over-population. This is the static version of the theory.But the optimum level is not a fixed
point. It changes with a change in any of the factors assumed to be given. For instance, if there
are improvements in the methods and techniques of production, the output per head will rise and
the optimum point will shift upward.

What the optimum point for the country is today, may not be tomorrow, if the stock of natural
resources increases and the optimum point will be higher than before. Thus, the optimum is not a
fixed but a movable point. This is explained in terms of Cannan’s theory. According to Cannan,
“At any given time, increase of labour up to a certain point is attended by increasing
proportionate returns and beyond that point further increase of labour is attended by diminishing
proportionate returns.” The per capita income is the highest at the point where the average

98
product of labour starts falling. This point of maximum returns is the point of optimum
population. This is illustrated in Figure 5.3.

The size of population is measured on the horizontal axis and the average product of
labour on the vertical-axis. AP is the average product of labour or income per head curve. Upto
ON, increase in population leads to a rise in the average product of labour and per capita income.
Beyond ON, the average product of labour and per capita income fall. Hence when population is
ON, the per capita income is the highest at point M. Thus, ON is the optimum level of
population. To the left of ON, the country is under-populated and beyond ON, it is over-
populated.

However, ON is not a fixed point. If due to inventions there are improvements in the
techniques of production, the average product of labour might increase and push the level of per
capita income upward so that the optimum point rises. This is shown in Figure 5.4 where the
AP1 curve represents the higher average product of labour and point M 1 shows the maximum per
capita income at the new optimum level of population ON1.

5.2.3 Dalton’s Formula:

Dalton has deduced over-population and under- population which result in the deviation
from the optimum level of population in the form of a formula. The deviation from the optimum,
he calls maladjustment. Maladjustment is a function of two variables, the optimum level of
population O and the actual level of population A. Then the maladjustment is

M=

When M is positive, the country is over-populated, and if it is negative, the country is under-
populated. When M is zero, the country possesses optimum population. Since it is not possible to
measure O, this formula is only of academic interests.

5.2.4 Criticisms of Optimum Theory of Population:

Despite the superiority of the Optimum theory over the Malthusian theory of population,
it has serious weaknesses.

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(1) No Evidence of Optimum Level:

The first weakness of the optimum theory is that it is difficult to say whether there is
anything like an optimum population. There is no evidence about the optimum population level
in any country.

(2) Impossible to Measure Optimum Level:

The optimum level of population is impossible to measure quantitatively. As pointed out

by Prof. Bye, it is “impossible to calculate it with any semblance of exactness for any country at
any time.”

(3) Optimum Level Vague:

Optimum population implies a qualitative as well as a quantitative ideal population for

the country. The qualitative level implies not only physique, knowledge and intelligence, but also
the best age composition of population. These variables are subject to change and are related to
an environment. Thus the optimum level of population is vague.

(4) Correct Measurement of Per Capita Income not Possible:

Another difficulty pertains to the measurement of per capita income in the country. It is
not an easy task to measure changes in per capita income. The data on per capita income are
often inaccurate, misleading and unreliable which make the concept of optimum as one of
doubtful validity.

(5) Neglects the Distributional Aspect of increase in Per Capita Income:

Even if it is assumed that per capita income can be measured, it is not certain that the
increase in population accompanied by the increase in per capita income would bring prosperity
to the country. Rather, the increase in per capita income and population might prove harmful to
the economy if the increase in per capita income has been the result of concentration of income
in the hands of a few rich. Thus the optimum theory of population neglects the distributional
aspect of increase in the per capita income.

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(6) Optimum Level not fixed but Oscillating:

The concept of the optimum population assumes that the techniques of production, the
stock of capital and natural resources, the habits and tastes of the people, the ratio of working
population to total population, and the modes of business organisation are constant. But all these
factors are constantly changing. As a result, what may be the optimum at a point of time might
become less or more than the optimum over a period of time. This is illustrated in Figure 5.4.

AP1 is the average product of labour or per capita income curve. Suppose there is an
innovation which brings a change in the techniques of production. It shifts the per capita income
curve to AP2. As a result, the optimum level of population rises from ON 1 to ON2with the
increase in per capita income from to N 1M1 to N2M2. If the per capita income rises further due to
a change in any of the above assumed factors, the AP 2 curve will shift upward. The AP2 or
AP2 curve can also shift downward if, for instance, the per capita income falls due to an adverse
change in the given factors.

If the locus of all such points like M 1, M2 etc., is joined by a line, we have the PI curve
which represents the path of the movement of the optimum population as a result of changes in
the economic factors. If, however, the actual level of population is assumed to be ON 0 and the
optimum level ON1, then the country is overpopulated. If ON2 is the optimum level, the country
is under-populated. Thus the optimum is not a fixed level but an oscillating one.

(7) Neglects Social and Institutional Conditions:

The optimum theory considers only the economic factors which determine the level of
population. Thus it fails to take into consideration the social and institutional conditions which
greatly influence the level of population in a country. A lower level of optimum population may
be justified from the economic viewpoint, but such a level may be harmful keeping in view the
defense considerations of the country. For instance, economic consideration may prevent us from
having a large population but the danger from foreign aggression may necessitate a very large
population to safeguard our territorial integrity. Thus the optimum theory is imperfect and one-
sided.

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(8) No Place in State Policies:

The concept of optimum population has no place in the policies of modern states. While
fiscal policy aims at increasing or stabilishing the level of employment, output and income in a
country, no reference is made to the optimum level of population.

(9) Does not explain Determinants of Population Growth:

It does not explain the reasons for rise or fall in birth and death rates, the influence of
urbanization and migration on population growth, etc.

(10) The theory fails to explain about the nature of an optimum path of population growth.

(11) It does not explain how the optimum level once reached can be maintained.

5.3 Population polices

The National Population Policy 2000 released on Feb. 15 aims to bring the total fertility
rate (TFR) to replacement level by 2010 and to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level
consistent with sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.
Although these objectives are higher and the time frame to achieve them is shorter than with past
programs, the 2000 policy may be more appealing to the public. It envisages achieving
replacement-level TFR (about two children per woman) through “promotional and motivational
measures” that emphasize quality of life, rather than through numerical targets for the use of
specific contraceptive methods, which plagued previous programs. The proposed policy talks of
better management of public health, education, and sanitation, and focuses on women’s
employment.

Addressing unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies, and
infrastructure is foremost among the policy’s goals. Other goals are keeping girls in school
longer, raising the age at which girls marry to 18 or 20, reducing infant and maternal mortality,
and achieving universal immunization of children against vaccine-preventable diseases. One
well-publicized aspect of the National Population Policy 2000 concerns the allocation of seats in
the Indian parliament. The policy recommends freezing the current number of seats for another

102
25 years to avoid penalizing states that have complied with previous population policies. The last
allocation of seats to states and union territories was undertaken on the basis of the 1971 census
and was due to be revised following the 2001 census. But if it were revised then, according to
one estimate, the number of seats allocated to the state of Tamil Nadu, which has reduced
fertility, would have gone down from 39 to 33. Meanwhile, the number of seats allocated to the
state of Uttar Pradesh, which has failed to curb its growth rate, would have risen from 85 to 120.

Another vital recommendation of the policy is the formation of a National Commission

on Population to guide and review implementation. The policy also recommends formation of
similar commissions by each state and union territory. This decentralized approach would extend
to the village level, where local self-help groups would be counted on to implement program
measures. Although it has not taken effect both houses of the Indian parliament first must ratify
the legislation many wonder whether this policy can be implemented. An additional budget of 64
billion rupees ($1.4 billion) is needed to implement major portions of the policy.

In addition, some of the measures may be open to misuse. For example, an incentive of
500 rupees at the time of birth of a girl child and awards of 500 rupees to mothers who have their
first child after they turn 19 appear to be unworkable given that registration of births and deaths
in the country suffers from incompleteness. And offers of health insurance for couples below the
poverty line who undergo sterilization could cast doubt on the government’s explanation that
stabilizing population is needed for sustainable development “with more equitable distribution.”
The success of the population policy, if it is implemented, will depend on a judicious mixing of
the roles of males and females. It is well known that women in India generally do not decide
their reproductive behavior. Although most contraceptive methods are for women, many women
have no say in limiting their family size or in adopting a particular preventive method. The
proposed policy would focus information and education campaigns on men to promote small
families and to raise awareness of the benefits of birth spacing, better health and nutrition, and
better education.

5.4 India’s population polices

A positive population policy which aims at reducing the birth rate and ultimately
stabilising the growth rate of population. In India, where the majority of people are illiterate,

103
fatalist, and custom-ridden, and do not believe in family planning, only the government’s
initiative can help in controlling population growth. High growth rate of population has been
one of the major problems facing India. India with only 2.4 per cent of the global surface area
sustains 102.7 crore population which is 16.7 per cent of the world population, as on March 1,
2001. With the process of development since 1951, the death rate has declined below 8 per
thousand whereas the birth rate continues to be around 25 per thousand.

Consequently, the population growth rate remains at a very high level of about 2 per cent.
The addition of 18.1 crore persons to India’s population between 1991-2001 was more than the
population of Brazil, the fifth most populous country of the world. This frightening growth rate
of population has aggravated the problems of poverty, unemployment and inequalities. There has
been a gross neglect of social sectors like primary education, basic health and social security.
India’s resources are fast depleting due to rising demand. There has been degradation of
environment.

5.4.1 National Population Policy

India’s population reached 100 crore on May 11, 2000 and it is estimated that if current
trends of population increase continue she will become the most populous country in the world
by 2045 when it would overtake China. During the 20th century, India’s population increased
nearly five times from 23 crore to 100 crore, while during the same period world’s population
increased nearly three times from 200 crore to 600 crore. With 1.55 crore current annual increase
in population, it seems difficult to maintain a balance to conserve the resource endowment and
environment in the country. For promoting sustainable development with more equitable
distribution, there is an urgent need to stabilize population.

To meet the reproductive and child health needs of the people of India and to achieve
TFR by 2010, the provision of policy framework for advancing goals and priorities to various
strategies is available in the National Population Policy announced on 15 February, 2000. The
basic aim of this policy is to cover various issues of maternal health, child survival and
contraception and to make reproductive health care accessible and affordable for all.

104
5.4.2 Objectives:
There are three types of objectives of National Population Policy (NPP) 2000:
1. The Immediate Objective:
The immediate objective is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care
infrastructure and health personnel and to provide integrated service delivery for basic
reproductive and child health care.

2. The Medium Term Objective:

The medium term objective is to bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement level by
2010 through vigorous implementation in inter-sectorial operational strategies.

3. The Long Term Objective:

The long term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045 at a level consistent with the
requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environment protection.

5.4.3 Targets:
The following are the targets of National Population Policy:
1. Achieve zero growth rate of population by 2045.

2. Reduce infant mortality rate of below 30 per thousand live births.

3. Reduce maternal mortality ratio of below 100 per 1, 00,000 live births.

4. Reduce birth rate to 21 per 1000 by 2010.

5. Reduce total fertility rate (TFR) to 2.1 by 2010.

5.4.4 Organisation:
To implement and achieve the various objectives, targets and socio-demographic goals, the
following organisational structure has been proposed by the National Population Policy:
1. The appointment of a National Commission on Population to be presided over by the Prime
Minister. The chief ministers of all States and related ministers will be its members.

2. There will be a State Commission on Population in every State headed by its chief minister.

105
3. The new policy will be implemented by the Panchayats and municipalities at the grassroots
levels.

Motivational and Promotional Measures for Adoption of the Norms of Small Family:
The motivational and promotional measures for adoption of small family norms are:
1. Strict enforcement of Child Marriage Act, 1976.

2. Facilities for safe abortion to be expanded and strengthened.

3. Strict enforcement of the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994.

4. Increased vocational training schemes for girls leading to self- employment to be encouraged.

5. Panchayats and Zila Parishads to be rewarded and honoured for exemplary performance in
universalising the small family norm, achieving reductions in infant mortality and birth rates and
promoting literacy with completion of primary schooling.

6. A revolving fund to be set up for income-generating activities by village level self-help groups
who provide community level health care services.

7. The Balika Samridhi Yojna run by the Department of Women and Child Development to
promote survival and care of the girl child to be continued. A cash incentive of Rs. 500 is
awarded at the birth of the girl child up to two children.

8. A Family Welfare-Linked Health Insurance Plan to be introduced. Couples below the poverty
line who undergo sterilisation with not more than two living children would become eligible
(along with children) for health insurance (for hospitalisation) not exceeding Rs. 5,000 and a
personal accident insurance cover for the spouse undergoing sterilisation.

9. Maternity Benefits Scheme run by the Department of Rural Development to continue. A cash
incentive of Rs. 500 is awarded to mothers who have their first child after 19 years of age, for
birth of the first or second child only. Disbursement of cash award will in future be linked to
compliance with antenatal checkup, institutional delivery by trained birth attendant, registration
of birth and BCG immunisation.

106
10. Couples below the poverty line who marry after the legal age of marriage, register the
marriage, have their first child after the mother reaches the age of 21, accept the small family
norm and adopt a terminal method after the birth of the second child to be rewarded.

11.A wider affordable choice of contraceptives to be made accessible at diverse delivery points
with counselling services to enable acceptors to exercise voluntary and informed consent.

12. Products and services to be made affordable through innovative social marketing schemes.

13. Creches and child care centers to be set up for income generating activities by village level
self-help groups who provide community level health care services.

14. Local entrepreneurs at village levels to be provided soft loans and to be encouraged to run
ambulance to supplement the existing arrangements for referred transportation.

15. The 42nd Constitutional Amendment has frozen the number of representatives in the Lok
Sabha (on the basis of population) at 1971 Census levels. The freeze is currently valid until 2001,
and has served as an incentive for State Governments to fearlessly pursue the agenda for
population stabilisation. This freeze needs to be extended until 2026.

5.4.5 Implementation of NPP, 2000: National Commission on Population:

In pursuance of NPP, 2000, the Central Government has set up a National Commission
on Population (NCP) on 11 May, 2000. It is presided over by the Prime Minister, with the Chief
Ministers of all States and UTs and the Central Minister-in-charge of concerned Central
Ministries and Departments, reputed demographers, public health professionals and non-
government organisations as members. State Level Commissions on Population presided over by
the Chief Minister have been set up with the objective of ensuring implementation of the NPP.

5.4.6 The functions of the Commission are:

(i) To review, monitor and give direction for the implementation of the NPP with a view to
achieve the goals set by it;

107
(ii) To promote synergy between health, educational, environmental and developmental
programmes so as to hasten population stabilization;

(iii) To promote inter-sectoral co-ordination in planning and implementation of the programmes

through different agencies at the Centre and in the States; and

(iv) To develop a vigorous people’s programme to support this national effort.

5.4.7 The first meeting of NCP was held on 22 July, 2000, where the Prime Minister
announced two major steps:

1. The formation of an Empowered Action Group within the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare to focus on those States which are deficient in national socio-demographic indices.

2. Establishment of National Population Stabilisation Fund (NPSF) with a seed money of Rs. 100
crore to provide a window for channelising funds from national voluntary sources. The Prime
Minister appealed to the corporate sector, industry, trade organisations and individuals to
generously contribute to this fund and thus help in the national effort to stabilise population. A
Strategic Support Group consisting of secretaries of concerned sectoral ministries has been
constituted as a Standing Advisory Group to the Commission. Nine working groups have been
constituted to look into specific aspects of implementation of the programmes aimed at achieving
the targets set in NPP NCP has allocated funds for action plans drawn up by district magistrates
in poorly performing districts to implement programmes to accelerate the decline in fertility.

Evaluation:

This is a broad-based policy which relies more on persuasive and positive measures
rather than on coercive methods. It demonstrates the Government’s concern for the rapid growth
of population and its stabilisation from the long-term perspective. At the same time, it lays
emphasis on both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of population.

However, this policy has been criticised on the following grounds:

1. The Swaminathan Committee (1993) had recommended the year 2015 as the target for
population stabilisation which the NPP has pushed to the year 2045.
108
2. The Swaminathan Committee was against providing cash incentives to couples undergoing
sterilisation because these are misused. But the NPP has proposed the same.

3. Critics point out that the NPP is soft towards the male participants. The various motivational
and promotional measures for adoption of small family norms appear to convey that the women
will bear the burden of population control rather than men. This is borne out by the fact that there
has been a steady decline in vasectomies over the last two decades and presently over 97 per cent
of sterilizations are tubectomies of women.

4. The NPP commits the same mistake which had been made by the earlier population policies. It
depends upon its implementation on the bureaucracy rather than on NGOs (non-governmental
organisations).

5. The proposal that the National Commission on Population (NCP) should be chaired by the
Prime Minister has been criticised because being a very busy person, the Prime Minister would
not be able to attend it. This would delay the taking of important decisions on population control.

5.4.8 Progress in the Milestones of the Population Policy of India:

1. Bhor Committee Report in 1946.

2. Implementation of Family Planning Programme in 1952.

3. National Population Policy Statement in 1976.

4. Policy Statement of Family Welfare Programme in 1977.

The National Population Policy Statement of 1976 and Policy Statement on Family Welfare
Programme of 1977 were laid on the Table of the House of Parliament. But they have never been
discussed or adopted by the Parliament.

5. National Health Policy was adopted in 1983, which emphasized the need for “securing the
small family norm through efforts and moving towards the goal of population stabilization.” At

109
the time of adoption of National Health Policy, the need for a separate National Population
Policy had been emphasized by the Parliament.

6. A Committee on Population under the Chairmanship of Shri Karunakaran was appointed by

the National Development Council in 1991. To take “a long term holistic view of development,
population growth and environmental protection” and to “suggest policies and guidelines for
formulation of programmes” and “a monitoring mechanism with short, medium and long term
perspectives and goals.” The Karunakaran Report had been endorsed by National Development
Council in 1993.

7. A group was asked to prepare a draft of a National Population Policy in 1993 which was
headed by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. This was supposed to be discussed by the Cabinet and then by
the Parliament. This report was circulated among the Members of Parliament in 1994 and the
comments thereof had been invited from Central and State agencies.

It was expected that Parliament would help to produce a broad political consensus for National
Population Policy which was approved by the National Development Council. But no action was
taken to implement it.

8. The then Prime Minister I.K. Gujral promised to announce a National Population Policy in
1997 at the time of the 50th anniversary of India’s Independence. The Cabinet approved the
National Population Policy Draft during November 1997 with the recommendation to place the
same before the Parliament. But due to the dissolution of the Lok Sabha, this draft could not be
placed before the Parliament.

9. Another Draft of National Population Policy was finalised after one more round of
consultations during 1998 which was placed before the Cabinet in March 1999. To examine the
draft policy, the Cabinet appointed a group of Ministers headed by the Deputy Chairman of
Planning Commission. After several meetings, the group of Ministers invited a cross-section of
experts from public health, professionals, demographers, academia, social scientists and women
representatives.

110
 The final draft of population policy prepared by the group of Ministers was placed before
the Cabinet which was discussed on 19th November, 1999. On the basis of the suggestions made
in the Cabinet meeting a fresh draft was prepared, placed before the Cabinet and approved as
National Population Policy, 2000.

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