f D - A r:$ Y - l (3;

11 oo '3>y-
SEMI-ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT

5th 6 Months (October, 2002 - April, 2003)

PROJECT NO.: PCE-G-OO-OO-00029-00

PROJECT TITLE: MULTINATIONAL APPROACHES TO ENHANCE GOAT

PRODUCTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST

I. Technical Progress

LA) Research Objectives

Overall project objectives are:

I) Characterize goat production systems of the Middle East region and distribute
improved goat genotypes

2) Increase knowledge of goat milk properties and develop new technologies for
production of goat milk products in the Middle East

3) Transfer appropriate available and developed technologies for goats to Middle

Eastern farms/households, in particular regarding proper milk hygiene and
processIng

Each of these overall project objectives have been addressed in the activities having taken
place in the last 6 months. Specific objectives achieved during this time period include:

1) Characterization of chemical quality and bacteriological status of goat milk in

Middle East production systems

2) Characterization of goat production systems in the Middle East with emphasis

on specific technology transfer needs

3) Transfer of enhanced technology packages to goat farmers in the Middle East

I
J.B) Research Accomplishments

Goat Milk Quality - Israel

Research

Research conducted in the last 6 months is in line with that perfonned in the preceding
6 months since the last semi-annual report of October 2002. After screening Israeli goat herds
for udder bacterial status with respect to subclinical mastitis, work has centered on individual
herds in order to learn in detail how udder bacterial infection in its subclinical fonn influences
milk yield and physicochemical and technological qualities.

Scientific Background

The cheese-making qualities of milk depend on many factors, the most important of
which are concentrations of intact casein and fat. Milk in which casein has been broken dov<11
by proteolytic enzymes is of less value to cheese manufacturers. Furthennore, in bovine milk,
prehydrolysis of milk protein adversely affects the flavor and texture of cheese (bitterness and
astringent off-flavor, longer clotting time, reduced curd finnness, high moisture content).
Plasmin (PI), a serine-proteinase, appears to be the predominant native proteinase in milk, and
it is mainly associated with casein micelles, which represent its substrate. Plasmin occurs in
milk together with its inactive zymogen, plasminogen (Plgn). The chain of reactions leading to
Plgn activation is regulated by a complex network of molecular interactions between
plasminogen activators (PA) (tissue-type and urokinase-type) and at least three types of
specific PA inhibitors. The plasminogen activation system seems to be involved in tissue
remodeling events that occur during the gradual involution of mammary gland. In fact, stage
of lactation affects PI and PA activities: late lactation is associated with higher acti'~t)' of PI
and PA. Plasmin in milk is responsible for the hydrolysis of Q- and p-caseins. This detrimental
effect could be more pronounced in dairy goats, since having a seasonal breeding they progress
through lactation in a synchronous manner. Therefore, all animals are at the same stage of
lactation at a given time. The health status of the mammary gland also affects PI and PA
activity, which increase during mastitis. Most of the existing studies on the Pign activation
system were carried out on bovine milk, and available infonnation is scarce for other species;
in particular, there is almost no infonnation regarding goat milk.

Methodology

The current parameter study included various measures, which were analyzed on the
herd level and demonstrated the influences of properties of the milk on processing and cheese
production. The large unevenness of Israeli goat herds led us to consider each goat as a model
by comparing its half-udders, thus eliminating the genetic variability, number oflactation, and
days in milking. This type of operation on the one hand required more preparation towards
selecting goats for the model, but on the other hand, eliminated a diverse set of genetic
differences that otherwise could not have been confounding factors. In addition to udder health
status, variables checked included somatic cell count (SCC) using two different approaches -
Coulter® Counter and Fossomatic 360, and NAGaseactivit),. These are measures of udder

2
health, which are more or less correlated with udder infection as studied in canle. Milk
composition (fat, protein, and lactose), whey proteins, total casein, proteose-peptone (P-p).
Plgn, PI, PA, and Ca activity (ae.) were also tested. Most of the laner variables are indicative
of the physiological status of the udder, thus indicating possible damage to milk producing
tissue, which alter their standard ratios to one another. Technological properties tested were
curding time (Tc) and percent precipitated curd. Milk yield was also recorded, allowing
calculation of curd yield.

Statistical analyses used two models. In the first, dependent variables were SCC and
Log SCC (Coulter® Counter), SCC and Log SCC (Fossomatic 360), NAGase, milk, fat, protein,
lactose, curd, Tc, and calculation of milk x curd. The independent variables - bacteriological
status (infected vs. uninfected), goat, and time (repeated sampling), were examined according
to the model:

Y = dependent variable; U = overall mean; G - Goat 1... 70; B - bacteriological status i in goalj
i = 1,2; T = time (repeated sampling) 2-6; e - error.

In the second model, dependent variables were casein, whey, p-p, Ca, PI, PA, and Plgn. The
independent variables - bacteriological status (infected vs. uninfected) and goat, were
examined according to the model:

Y = dependent variable; U = overall mean; G - goat 1... 70: B - bacteriological status i = 1,2.:
e - error.

No significant difference was found between analyses based on SCC and those based on Log
SCC; therefore, results presented are based on the arithmetic SCc.

Results

Bacteria and Bacterial Status

Various species of CNS: S epidermidis, (26), S simulans (19), S capra (IS), S

chromogenes (6), and S xylosus (5) were the pathogens found to cause udder infections.
Except for two goats, no visual clinical abnormalities were visible or felt, as both udder halves
seemed normal. Because of the small number of each CNS specie and the previous result that
found no significant difference in the elicitation of strong responses, with SCC increasing to
106 cells mr) among the various CNS strains, statistical analysis were done over species.

Measurements ofInfection Response

Table I summarizes the results ofthe different measurements and presents the statistical

3
relations among them. SCC and J.,rAGase activity were found higher in the infected halves than
in the uninfected ones; however, only the difference in SCC was significant (P < 0.005) for
NAGase (P = 0.08). The mean values of infected vs. uninfected halves were: 575 vs. 302 for
SCC counted with the Coulter® Counter and 1742 vs. 523 cells counted with the Fossomatic
360; and 23.7 vs. 8.9 for NAGase activity, respectively. The correlation coefficient between
SCC as measured with the Coulter® Counter and with the Fossomatic was 0.75 and in generaL
SCC according to the Fossomatic was higher than that counted with the Coulter® Counter,
mainly in the infected halves. The correlation coefficient with each SCC measurement and
lVAGase activity was low (r = 0.65). The goat effect on SCC for both measurements was
significant but not significant for NAGase activity.

It should be noted that the two measuring instruments for SCC had limited correlation.
This is probably due to the different measuring method for each instrument. Nevertheless, it is
of importance since the official instrument, the Fossomatic, resulted in higher measurements
and this instrument serves as the only one in the DHI program.

Table 1. Mean and SE of bacteriological status vs. the different independent variables and its
effects of 70 Israeli dairy goats, each with one half infected and the other uninfected, over
sampling (tested 2-6 times); 348 observations.

Parameter Bacteriological Status Effect

Uninfected Infected Infection Goat

Milk (kg/milking) 0.79±0.03 0.64±0.02 0.001 0.009

SCC ±SE (xIOOO) 302±43 575±63 0.005 0.0001
Coulter® Counter
SCC ±SE (xlOOO) 523±78 1742±173 0.0001 0.004
(Fossomatic)
NAGase 8.9±1.98 23.7±4.41 0.08 NS
Fat (gil) 33.2±1.23 34.2±1.82 NS NS
Protein (gil) 36.0±0.71 37.2±0.79 NS 0.0006
Lactose (gil) 47.4±0.08 46.5±0.16 0.002 NS

Milk Composition

Fat and protein were not significantly different between infected and uninfected halves
and for both, the amounts were higher in the infected ones: fat (34.2 ± 1.82 vs. 33.2 ± 1.23 gil)
and protein (37.2 ± 0.79 vs. 36.0 ± 0.71 gil), respectively. The mean lactose amount was
significantly lower (P < 0.001) in infected compared to uninfected halves (46.5 ± 0.16 vs. 47.4
± 0.08 gil). The percent of casein from the total portion for the 25 goats tested was
significantly lower (P< 0.05) and the percent of whey from the total portion was significantly
higher (P < 0.05) in the infected vs. the uninfected halves: casein/portion (77.1% vs. 78.5%)
and whey/protein (22.9 vs. 21.7). The goat effects of those parameters were found significant
(P< 0.001) (not presented in a table). These findings clearly show the effect of subclinical
infection on performance. Although the infected half-udder is invisible, the resulting

4
performance, when measured, is striking. It points to the problematic of this type of infection
that could hardly be noted by the growers.

Technological Parameters

Milk yield was significantly lower (P > 0.0001) in the infected halves compared to the
uninfected halves: 0.64 vs. 0.79 kg/milking, respectively. The mean percent of curd of the
infected halves was significantly lower (P = 0.01) from the uninfected ones (21.7 vs. 22.5,
respectively) with a significant goat effect (P = 0.0001). In calculating the amount of curd per
half (milk x curd), infected halves had 12.79 g curd/milking, whereas the uninfected ones had
16.64 g curd/milking. This difference was significant (P < 0.0001). Clotting time was
significantly longer (P < 0.02) in the infected halves than in the uninfected ones: 169 vs. 185
seconds, respectively, as presented in Figure I.

Table 2. Means ± SE of calcium activity, plasmin, plasmin activator, and proteose peptone
and its effects.

Status ac. (mmol) Plasmin PA (unitlml) p-p

(unitlml)

Uninfected 1.8S±O.l8 13.S±1.8 383±23.7 0.62±0.11

Infected 1.S6±O.l1 29.3±S.4 7SI±90.8 0.94±O.l7

Bacteriological NS 0.02 0.002 0.04

status effect
Goat effect NS NS 0.02 0.0003

As presented in Figure I, curd yield is lower in the infected halves compared to the
uninfected ones. This phenomenon is directly related to the finding of lower casein content in
the milk and higher p-p content (Table 2). The latter is a measure of casein breakdown. The
loss of curd to cheese production is better presented when it is normalized to milk yield per
udder half (Figure I). These findings elucidate the unseen immediate loss through liters of
milk and emphasize the severity of subclinical mastitis to cheese production. In addition to
direct loss of curd through volume, as presented above, cloning time is indirect evidence of
poor milk quality, as it is common to determine milk cloning activity by the rapidity with
which the enzyme clots milk under a set of specified conditions (Figure I).

5
 200

18o ~ rgzz] Infected

Y>0.
III c::=J Uninfected (X)<)<
"c: 160 \N'
8
Q)
(J)
,.
o ~ ~
::><
120
XXX
100 ~ ,
)-:
2'0: ;/

8 SXXX;
16
1
•2
III
E
~
10
8 ~ 2g&: (X,
C> 6~
.~
~ Q< XX
'0'

2 ~ ?$<$?$ )(. 00<;

0
)(. 00<,

Curd/milking Clotting time

Figure I, Effect of the presence of subclinical mastitis on curd yield and cloning time.

Moreover, the secondary, non-enzymatic phase of the aggregation of the casein

micelles after the first enzymatic one is particularly susceptible to variations in milk
composition and to the presence of added salts. The laner is probably influenced by the
compositional changes caused by the subclinical infection as it is demonstrated through Ca
activity and calcium concentration. This is one of the more important findings of the current
study, since usually this infonnation is neglected due to lack of knowledge and simple means
to measure it. However, a routine checking of udder health status of goat herds could easily
solve the problem by pointing to the infected animals. It is not yet obvious what type of
treatment should be practiced and this should be worked over with veterinarian services.
However, it points out to the importance of preventing udder infection through management, as
well as to type of bacteria, regarded today as minor pathogens, which nonnally cause
subclinical mastitis.

Plasmin-Plasminogen System

The indices of inflammation (SCC, NAGase. and CMn were correlated among
themselves and with a greater potential for proteolysis (activation of the PA-Plgn-Pl system)
and consequently, with increased proteolysis indexes (PI, PA, p-p and Ca activity) (Table 2).
The increase in the PI system activity (i.e., PA-Plgn-Pl activities) in glands infected with
subclinical mastitis agrees with finding in dairy cows. However, the increase in PI activity and
the reduction in PlgnIPl ratio in goats was much more acute than in cows, where similar
responses were recorded only in quarters with a more severe subclinical mastitis than in the
6
present work.

The correlations between PI activity and measures of proteolysis were clearly negative.
Thus, PI appears to be a major proteolytic enzyme in the milk of goats. The results suggest that
an acute immune response in goats is associated with a more acute activation of the PI system
in comparison to cows, which most likely is associated with more pronounced changes in curd
yield and composition.

Ca Activity as a Measure of Casein Degradation

Ca activity was negatively related to measures of proteolysis. The activity of ions in

solution is affected by the presence of chelator in that solution. A negative linear relationship
was shown between CN concentration in human, goat, cow, sheep, and mice milk and Ca
activity, which is consistent with the fact that CN's are powerful Ca chelators. The association
between CN degradation and reduction in Ca activity may be explained by exposure of
phosphoserine groups that are hidden within the CN micelle, because these molecules are
responsible for the Ca chelating properties of CN. Casein degradation occurs in the gland
during the interval between two milkings; thus, the differences in Ca activity between the
infected and uninfected glands represent the extra CN degradation in the infected glands. As
the measurement of Ca activity is rapid and cheap, it appears to be promising as a valuable tool
to track the extent of CN degradation under various conditions in the udder.

Milk Proteins

In order to assess the finding of the great damage caused to curd yield due to subclinical
mastitis in milking goats, it was decided to study the effect of the cause of infection, i.e., the
effect of the presence of bacteria on the protein's profile, due to the secretion/release of various
proteolytic enzymes. This will make it possible to understand the causes of low curd yield. A
SDS-Urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis system was used. The Discontinuous
electrophoresis system was preformed with vertical electrophoresis apparatus model Mini-
Protean II (Bio-Rid, Hercules, CA, USA). The slab gels consisted of 5% sacking gel and a
12% resolving gel. Both gels contained 0.1 % SDS. Raw milk samples were dissolved in SDS
sample buffer at a final concentration of 0.1 % SDS and 0.02% (3-mercaptoethanol. The mixture
was heated at 100°C for 5 min. After cooling, urea sample buffer was added to a final
concentration of 4.54 M Urea and 0.5 mM DTT. Electrophoresis was performed at 120 Volt
for 2 hours, in tris-glycine buffer containing 0.1 % SDS. After electrophoresis the gel was
stained with 0.5% Coomassie Brilliant blue in methanol-water-acetic acid. In the preliminary
study we have checked the milk of four goats, known to have an infection in ouly one half-
udder. The resulting gel is presented in Figure 2. In general, the half-udder model enables us
to show that in general, there are no differences in the protein profile of an infected vs.
uninfected udder half (goats 42 and 26). On the other hand, it is visible from Figure 2 that goat
29 had a serious infection in the left gland # 1, since there are major differences in the pattern of
the two teats. The right gland, 29-2, looks similar to those of26 and 42, while 29-1 has several
different protein bands. The same is true for goat 40, comparing glands 1 and 2. It should be
noted that this work is in progress at present and the identification of each protein band will let
us determine the real effect of the change as it is seen in the present gel.

7
 """2t1' .. '!if . _
·~·tC.·jii11

26-1 ,26-2 29-1 29-2 40-1 40-2 42-1 42-2

Figure 2. Gel electrophoresis of milk of udder halves of goats with and without infection

If our findings of casein degradation reported in Table 2 earlier (see above) are true, we
expect to find these degradation products in the protein profile. It \\~II definitely need some
more effort, but the work is in progress and we hope to report it in a later date.

Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis

An additional program taken by the Israeli team was related to the presence of the viral
goat disease of Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE), This disease is causing arthritis in
elderly animals, but also in young kids. In addition, there is an assumption that CAE infected
goats are prone to udder health problems as well as low health status in general. It was decided
that during the many visits paid to the different farms, a complimentary study of the interaction
between CAE infection, udder bacteriological status, and milk properties and yield couId be
beneficial to dairy goat herds in general. At present, we have collected blood samples from
150 does at their first kidding in herds under this study and all the variables \\~II be tested and
statistically correlated to assess the severity of the problem.

Technology Transfer

During the period of the present report, the Israeli investigators paid numerous \~sits to
dairy goat farms in order to present and explain the results collected in the initial stages of the
present MERC project. Every farmer received a full written report of the status of his herd as
was tested at the laboratory (for details, see Semi-Annual Progress Report, April 2002 -
September 2002). The veterinarian responsible for the herd participated at every session held
where the information was presented and explained. During this period several I-day seminars
were held in different regions of the country, where data were disseminated to the Extension
personnel, who are in daily contacts with the farmers. By doing so, it was possible to increase
8
the awareness of the goat breeders who did not participate in the present study. Moreover, a
couple of articles were published in Hebrew in the local small ruminant breeder's journal for
better dissemination ofthe knowledge.

Two scientific manuscripts were sent to international journals and are now under
revIew. If accepted for publication they will be added as appendices to the next semi-annual
report.

Goat Milk Quality - Jordan

Research

Goat Milk Quality

At the Jordanian location, the activities were continued to collect milk samples for milk
characterization and also for cheddar cheese production and characterization as shown in
Tables 1,2,3,4, and 5. In addition, data were generated to characterize milk obtained from
three goat breeds (Shami, Local, and Mixed).

Table!. Chemical composition of goat milk during three milking seasons

Moisture Protein % Fat % Lactose % Ash % Total solid Nonfat
% solids
First season
86.1 2.7 4.9 5.4 0.9 13.9 9.0
86.6 2.6 5.0 5.1 0.7 13.4 8.4
86.4 2.5 5.2 5.2 0.7 13.6 8.4
Second season
85.9 2.8 4.5 6.0 0.8 14.1 9.6
86.4 2.9 4.5 5.3 0.9 13.6 9.1
86.2 2.8 4.4 5.7 0.9 13.8 9.4
Third season
86.4 2.5 5.0 5.3 0.8 13.6 8.6
86.6 2.7 4.7 5.2 0.8 13.4 8.7
86.5 2.6 4.8 5.2 0.9 13.5 8.7

9
 Table 2. Chemical composition of cheddar cheese from goat milk

Moisture % Protein % Fat % Lactose % Ash % Total solid Non fat solids
First season
21.2 30.5 33.2 6.9 8.2 78.8 45.6
20.8 30.7 24.3 15.8 8.4 79.2 54.9
20.2 30.8 25.7 14.9 8.4 79.8 54.1
Second season
19.7 29.1 29.9 13.2 8.1 80.3 50.4
18.2 30.7 32.2 10.5 8.4 81.8 50.6
16.7 31.4 32.7 10.8 8.4 83.3 50.6
Third season
20.7 30.7 27.8 12.5 8.3 79.3 51.5
18.2 30.4 31.6 11.5 8.3 81.8 50.2
19.4 30.6 29.7 12.0 8.3 80.6 50.9

Table 3. Evaluation of cheddar cheese from goat milk

Color (20) Appearance( IS) Taste(30) Texture (15) Aroma(20) Total
(l00)
First season
16.0 12.5 27.7 11.7 15.3 83.3
18.0 10.0 23.0 11.0 15.5 77.5
19.5 9.0 19.5 9.5 12.0 69.5
Second season
18.7 17.0 25.0 10.3 15.0 86.0
19.0 8.5 16.5 5.0 12.5 61.5
18.0 10.5 25.0 9.5 17.5 80.5
Third season
16.0 9.5 26.5 10.0 15.5 77.5
10.5 4.5 13.0 7.0 12.5 47.5
16.5 11.0 24.5 11.0 16.5 79.5

Table4. Milk microbiological analysis of three goat breeds for three milking seasons

Ent<mba< Colifor S.lm

Goat breed s..ne.", TPC y""" Molds Staph A""", Slrepl
Teriacea
E.coli
Ooella
shigella
""
Shami
(red)
, I 172916.7
409263.2
33083.33
793423.2
0
1368.4
2013
1894.21
1697.6
47i6.8
68800
2766302
0
35;.9
; 270666.7 639586.7 3658.3 3460.8 lno.S 650 51:;
1.0<01
(Black)
, 1 186363.6
222388.9
126230.8
43606.4
516835.6
122646.2
9.1
4166.7
8661.5
2322.7
2195
2840.8
4360.9
5355.6
2816.9
73181.8
3&427.8
65..t5.~
0
IIS_:'
93_1
3
378363.6 3084.5 9.1 1649.1 + 1020.9 23909.1 0
Mixed 2 47000 140000 0 640 1200 0 0
.' 202600 157800 7500 2824 5248 noo 9,

10
Table 5. Milk chemistry of three goat breeds for three milking seasons (data on a dry basis)

Goat Breed Semester Protein % Fat % Lactose % Ash %

Shami (red) I 23.70a 44.34a 25.99c 5.218c

2 18.28cd 39.81a 35.56b 5.021c
~
.J 17.29a 35.l2a 34.91b 5.522bc
Local (black) 1 24.61d 44.55a 25.88c 4.953c
2 20.63bc 44.50a 34.35b S.536bc
~
.J 22.72ab 34.99bc 40.48a 6.049ab
Mixed color 1 25.55a 35.28bc 34.08b 5.230c
2 17.60cd 34.40bc 41.60a 6.400a
~

.J 18.93cd 29.78c 44.93a 6.3S6a

Other work to test different starters and coagulants to compare commercial goat milk
products with traditional products has just started.

Health
A copy of a book that is currently in the final stages of 'in press' and ,,>ill be available in a
few weeks is presented in Appendix B.
I. The veterinarian team of the project prepared brochures for goat diseases, vaccination, and
artificial insemination, which will be distributed to goat farmers during the workshops.
2. The veterinarian team is preparing a leaflet regarding the required characteristics of an
excellent buck.

Technology Transfer

Data collection continued since the last annual report. Collections at Irbid (Bani Kananh
Districit), Ajloun, and Jerash are now complete. The remaining locations which we are presently
collecting data from are in the North Jordan Valley and Mafraq areas. We hope that we will
finish data collection within 2-3 months. Statistical analyses are in progress for the collected
data from the previous locations. We will pool the whole data after finishing collecting data
from all locations. In addition, Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) was accomplished in the Bani
Kananh area (Irbid location). 23 goat farmers participated in this activity, including the seven
goat farmer leaders who have been identified and worked with previously. A summary of the
most important results of this RRA is given below.

11
 The identified needs according to priorities of goat fanners in the area:
1) The return of State Subsidation of goat feed (mainly barley), as it was few
years ago.
2) The need for a State Vaccination program for goat flocks
3) The need for milk processing skills and solving marketing problems.
4) Need for Extension and veterinary services for goat flocks in the whole
District (especially feeds and feeding); health care including drugs; new
breeds and high quality bucks).
5) The need for distinguished and specified range land areas for goat flocks.
6) Establishing cooperative associations that can facilitate goat production.
7) Goat fanners look forward for more interest and attention from the
government, especially the Ministry of Agriculture, for the goat
production sector as in case of sheep and cattle production sectors.

Plans are in progress to perform three workshops on milk pasteurization. milking

hygiene, and cheese production through the Extension team working in the project. Other
workshops will be held to teach goat fanners about feeding and kid and health care management.

Contacts are being established with the fanner leaders at other locations to conduct RRA
to identify and prioritize the needs of goat fanners at their locations. During this summer we are
planning to conduct workshops to fulfill some of the identified farmer needs.

Please see the attached photos taken for the flocks of some of the identified fanner
leaders. (Appendix A)

Egypt - Enhanced Goat Production Practices

Activities in Egypt were slowed in this last period because of problems in fund transfer,
which apparently led to an assumption that the project was going to terminate. Activities that
have taken place in the last 6-month reporting period are highlighted below.

12
1. Fattening demonstration trials

Eighteen fattening demonstration trials were completed in early 2003. Grov.-1h

performance of goat kids will be analyzed in the near future. Additional work is planned to
assess growth performance under the common feeding regimes practiced by the Bedouins. Such
data will help to demonstrate benefits of the fattening system.

2. Urea treatment
Two Bedouins were trained in treating roughages with a urea-molasses mixture. One
farm used wheat straw while the other used rice straw.

3. Silage treatment
Conservation of available by-products in the region by ensiling was demonstrated to four
Bedouin farms.

4. Concentrate feed blocks

The blocks were processed under the observation of Bedouin farmers to attract their
attention to this system and to train them on implementing it. Eight Bedouins received the
blocks. The upcoming stage of the project will include selling the blocks to develop and test the
acceptance and demand for this package.

5. Flocks follow-up studies

The delay in fund transfer negatively affected the ability to continue the regular visits to
the region. The previously mentioned 18 farms are still considered as a target for the continuous
flock performance recording.

Three rounds of visits have been completed, representing three consequent months. The
work will continue.

6. Milk sampling and analysis

Collection of milk samples for analysis started during in the last few months of the
project. Two sets of samples were collected; the first included 27 samples from 9 flocks while
the second included 49 samples from 12 flocks. Samples have been analyzed for fat, total
protein, lactose, total solids, ash, acidity, and pH. The bacteriological analysis of milk samples
will start soon.

13
1. C) Scientific Impact of Cooperation

The cooperation in this project is having great impact through the sharing of knowledge
in similar areas, which is aiding in the shaping of most appropriate activities at each location.
The communication of findings at one location to others is enhancing interpretations by
gathering of inputs from other researchers in the project.

I.D) Project Impact

Research in Israel conducted in this reporting period has shown how important the
prevention of subclinical mastitis is to goat milk production and quality of resultant products.
This should be of immense direct benefit to producers as well as to extension personnel through
focusing of future technology transfer activities on this important topic. Similarly, the
characterization of chemical and microbiological characteristics of milk and milk products at
each location is providing an important baseline of information necessary for future research and
extension efforts. Similarly, the goat health work in Jordan will lead to enhanced goat herd
health management. Knowledge of priorities of goat producers also will facilitate focused
extension activities.

I.E) Strengthening of Middle Eastern Institutions

Strengthening of Middle Eastern institutions can be evidenced by the research and

extension activities noted above. Knowledge being generated is probably the primary means in
which strengthening is occurring. This knowledge will have positive impact on current goat
production in the Middle East as well as facilitating strong future research/extension programs at
each location. The extension activities conducted thus far have increased direct contacts of the
participating locations with their clientele, which will facilitate future work ",;th goat producers
and product processors.

I.F) Future Work

In Israel, the next year will be devoted to a systematic study of the time at which a doe
is mostly prone to bacterial infection. This study will focus on young goats in their first
kidding. Every goat will be examined a few times from parturition to the next one. Bacterial
status, CAE infection, and milk yield and properties will be recorded and statistically analyzed.
Information will hopefully reveal the most acute time when the animal is susceptible to the
initiation of bacterial infection. In addition, the offspring's grov.'tI1 rate and viability will be
followed to acquire knowledge of the transfer of viral CAE infection to the kids. The effect of
each of the various CNS bacteria and its contribution to milk properties and cheese making
properties of the milk will be studied on the laboratory scale by analyzing the different casein
fractions and their degradation due to the presence of the contaminating bacteria. At the farm
level, curd yield will be measured with the same conditions and milk fermented products wiII
be evaluated for their physical properties, especially yogurt viscosity, since it is possible that
this phenomena could be related to casein wholesomeness.

14
 In Jordan, different starters and coagulants to compare commercial goat milk products
with traditional products, will be conducted, In Egypt, in the next 6-month reporting period
work in the following areas will continue and be expanded upon:
1. Urea treatments.
2. Making feed blocks and selling them.
3. Continuation of data follow-up studies.
4. Continuation of milk sampling and analysis.

Also, arrangements for starting training packages in the region will occur for either
extension staff or Bedouin men or women.

An agreement is being developed with AI-Quds University in East Jerusalem of the

Palestinian Authority (PA). A participant of Langston University will travel to Al-Quds
University in the next few months to discuss activity specifics. Efforts are currently underway to
achieve participation of the Agriculture Extension Department of the Ministry of Agriculture;
however, at present involvement of the Agriculture Extension Department is unknov.-n. It is
anticipated that by the time of the next 6-month progress report, there will be activities underway
in the PA to discuss.

At least one of the training functions in Egypt will be held in the next 6 months. There
was a delay in these activities for conditions to hopefully improve, so that all locations could
attend and participate.

II. Project Management and Cooperation

11.A) Managerial Issues

In two instances in the last 6 months, there were problems encountered in getting checks
deposited by two of the locations. Also, because of conditions in the region, activities at one
location were delayed. There are no other major managerial issues to be mentioned.

II.B) Special Concerns

No protocols addressing special concerns have changed.

11. C) Cooperation, Travel, Training, and Publications

Because of conditions in the region, training functions were delayed, so that hopefully
they would improve and personnel from all locations could attend and participate. There should
be at least one training function in Egypt held in the next 6 months. Two scientific manuscripts
at one location have been submitted for publication. There has been communication among
locations regarding the research and extension activities being conducted.

15
•

I1.D) Request for USAID Actions

There are no requests for USAID actions at this stage in the project, other than
that the project continue.

16
APPENDIX A

/1
J-I
APPENDIXB
JORDAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIRST WORKSHOP IN GOAT HEALTH AND PRODUCTION

SEPTEMBER 8-SEPTEMBER 12, 2002

COORDINATOR: DR. KHALEDM. AL-QUDAH

IRBID, JORDAN,

- 1-
 WELCOME

We deeply appreciate your attendance at this workshop and goat field days of
the Jordan University of Science and Technology. The workshop is the most
important we do this year to discuss the goat diseases in the Middle East. The
primary purpose of the goat field days is for examining and treating the sick
animals possessed by farmers live in Ajloun area, also goat field days are for
education and extension in all areas of great interest to goat farmers and to
faculty members at school of Veterinary and Agriculture at Jordan University
of Science and Technology.
In addition to extension and education, the goat field days provide an excellent
opportunity for the stuff of the university to meet the people who work with
goats. Such interaction help make our project (International Approach to
Enhance Goat Products in the Middle East) most appropriate to help and serve
goat farmers.

This publication of the goat diseases workshop in the Middle East and the field
days is very useful tool, there are lectures presented in the workshop full of
information to highlight research extension, goat management and treating sick
goats.
We hope the reader will take the opportunity to look through this publication.

In the following year, we will hold more workshops and field days to discuss
variety of topics, which will be of great interest to goat farmers. We look
forward to have clientele to work with in Ajloun area to enhance goat products
in our region.

We at Jordan University of Science and Technology will do our best to provide

quality workshops and field days on requested topics by goat farmers. On
behalf of all participants in the workshop and field days we thank you for your
continuing support.

Goat project coordinator

Prof. Khalil Ereifej

- 1-
 PREFACE
In Jordan the national goat herd comprises a large number of small units
and it's size is consequently difficult to estimate. The Department of
General Statistics in Jordan estimates the number of goats to be around
one million head. The majority of dairy goats are kept on smallholdings
with an average of 10 heads per flock. More families are keeping few
goats to produce milk for home consumption and for sale as row milk or
milk products, like cheese and yoghurt.
The local and international funding for research and training in goat
production still at minimal when compared to other sectors. Goat
production and management in our region is facing many problems like
draughtness, lack of pastures, desertification besides the burden of
infectious and non-infectious diseases, which make this sector less
productive with a little significant impact on the national economy.
Several bacterial, viral, parasitic, mycotic, managmental and nutritional
diseases still without accurate diagnosis and treatment, which could be
resulted from the lack of research and scientific investigations in this
field.
This workshop was conducted to highlight the goat health problems in
the Middle East region and to raise the discussion about this issue to an
acceptable level, that will facilitate the initiation of appropriate plans, and
to conduct scientific studies, which will contribute to solve health
problems in goats. In addition, this workshop will increase our awareness
in regard to goat productivity and how to bring it to a higher level toward
enhance the social status of goat raisers. The workshop was possible
only because of the scholarly environment existing at Jordan University
of Science and Technology, especially the support of the president of the
university, Prof. Dr. Sa'ad Hijazi, we gratefully acknowledge his
persistent support. Our greatest thanks also are extended to Prof. Turki
Obaidat the Director of The Consultative Center for Science and
Technology and his team for their patience and cooperation.
We gratefully acknowledge the USAIDI Middle East Regional
Cooperation (MERC) Program, for funding the project (MI8-001)
"Multinational Approach To Enhance Goat Production in the Middle
East" in which this workshop is part of the training exchange plan of this
project, (Function No. 10)
Our sincere thanks to Dr. Mohamed EL-Tal, The Director of the
Veterinary and Agricultural products Manufacturing Company
(VAPCO) for his financial support in publishing this handbook.

-2-
Khaled AI-Qudah, BVMS, MSc, PhD.
Workshop Coordinator
Head, Dept. Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Faculty 0/ Veterinary Medicine
Jordan University o/Science and Technology

-3-
 WORKSHOP COMMITTEES

Organizing Committee:
Dr. Khaled AI-Qudah - Coordinator
Prof. Khalil Erafij
Dr. Laith AI-Rousan

Extension Committee:

Dr. Laith AI-Rousan

Ismail Zaiton
Nihaya Abbassi
Samar AI- Manasrah
Ashraf Qawasmeh

Milk Production Committee:

Prof. Khalil Erafij

Dr. Dema AI-Ajlouni
Rami Moamar

Editorial Committee:

Dr. Khaled AI-Qudah

Dr. Dema AI-Ajlouni
Dr. Mohammad Obeidat

-4-
 A Program for the First Workshop in Goat Health and Production
Coordinator: Dr. Khaled M. AI-Qudah
I -JUST-J or d an, S eptem b er 8 -S eptem b er 12 , 2002
I r b'd
Date Day Time J Title J Lecturer I
Sept. 7, 2002 Saturday Arrival

Sept. 8, 2002 Sunday 9:00- 9:45 am Opening ceremony Dr. AI-Qudah K.

Dr. Ereifej K.
Dr. £I-Shaer H.

9:45-10:00 Break

i
10:00 am-12 am Common Goat Diseases Dr. AI-Qlldoh K
in the region

, Panel Discussion
!

2.00 pm- 4.00 pm Pre and postnatal

I -
Dr. AI MOJO"
mortality in Kids Ahmad

Common surgical Dr. Zuhair

conditions in goats .Halko...;

Panel Discussion

: Sept. 9, 2002 Monday 10:00 am-12 am Mycotic abortion in Dr. Ahmad £1-
goats Naggar

Panel Discussion

2:00 pm- 4:00 pm Reproduction of Goats, Dr. Ababneh

Pregnancy Diagnosis, Muhammad
Artificial Insemination

Chlamydia infection in Dr. Yasser

goats Kamal

Panel Discussion

Field Day
I Sept. 10, 2002 Tuesday Moving from JUST at 8:30 to Ajloun

Sept. 11, 2002 Wednesday Field Day: Moving from JUST at 8:30 to Ajloun

Sept. 12, 2002 Thursday Field Day: Moving from JUST at 8:30 to Jerash

-5-
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Goat Diseases, Diagnosis and Therapy 6

Khaled M, AI-Qudah

Newborn Goat Diseases 24

Ahmad AI-MajaJi

Common Surgical Procedures in Goat Practice 36

Zuhair Malkawi

Reproductive Management of the Goat 55

Mohammed Ababneh

Mycotic Abortion in Goats 65

Ahmed L. EI-Naggar

Chlamydia Infection in Goats 70

Yasser Mahmoud Kamel

Mastitis in Dairy Goats 74

Dima A. AI-Ajlouni

Characterization of Goat Breeds in Jordan 82

Ismail Zaitoun

-6-

~I
 Goat Diseas~ Diagnosis and Therapy
Khaled M, AI-Qudah, BVMS; Ms; PhD
Department a/Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty a/Veterinary Medicine,
Jordan University a/SCience and Technology, P.o.Box 3030, Irbid 221 10, Jordan

I. Common infectious diseases of goats:

Contagious Ecthyma - Orj.

This disease affects primarily the lips, muzzle, and nostrils of young
animals. It may spread to teats or vulva. New evidence suggests that
some animals are chronic carriers. Live vaccine may be used on kids
on infected premises, under the tail or inside the ear. Recovered
animals are often solidly immune for several years but there is little
colostral protection. No treatment, or astringent lotions. Orf is
transmissible to humans.

Foot and Mouth Disease

Usually mild infection in goats. It just shows small lesions in the
mouth, but occasionally all 4 feet are severely affected and lame.
Goats can transmit the disease to cattle.

Goat Pox
Common disease in the Middle East the virus transmitted by small
droplets in the air and by contact with sick animals. Generalized
nodules develop all over the body, but are most visible in areas with
little or no hair, runny nose, red eye and fever are common signs. No
effective treatment is available. Vaccination program is recommended
in this region.

Peste des Petits Ruminants:

An acute highly contagious viral disease, characterized by sudden rise
in body temperature, up to 410C, goats appear dull and restless,
anorexia, necrotic lesions develop in the mouth and tongue, diarrhea
develops 3-4 days after the onset of the fever, respiratory signs
develop because of secondary bacterial complication. Death usually
occurs within a'week of the onset of the disease.

Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis (Pink eye)

It caused by Rickettsia or chlamydia and mycoplasma. Flies and long
grass spread the infection. Outbreaks occur when resistance is dm."TI.
Initial conjunctivitis is followed by acclimation and blepharospasm.

-7-
Some progress to corneal edema, pannus, and even ulceration. Treat
with tetracycline or chloramphenicol. Often both eyes are involved.

Listeriosis
Listeria monocytogenes causes meningoencephalitis; symptoms
include dullness, head press, poor prehension, and drools, may be
unilateral facial paralysis and may circle. Death is sudden or may
occur in 3 or 4 days with microabscesses in the brain. Cerebrospinal
fluid usually shows a relatively greater increase in cells than in
protein. Abortion with no other clinical signs is common. Control
measures include sanitation, feeding tetracycline at 5 mglhead during
out breaks of the disease.

Anthrax
Herbivores are very susceptible to bacillus anthracis, and often are
infected by grazing on contaminated land. Peracute or acute deaths are
accompanied by high fever and slow bleeding from the body orifices.
Animals with anthrax should be treated with penicillin or tetracycline
if seen alive. To prevent further spread of the disease, bum carcasses
or bury them deep. Vaccines are available.

Bluetongue
Goats are very resistant to the disease, generally showing no signs
though running with infected sheep. Goats may be an important
reservoir for the virus.

Papillomas
Warts in goats are similar to those of cattle, but the incidence is lower.
They are most common around the eyes and on the neck of young
goats. They are usually of no significance. If on the udder, they may
interfere with milking and persist for the life of the goat. Autogenes
vaccine can be prepared.

Pasteurellosis
Pasteurella hemolytica or p. multocida- infection in goats is usually
pneumonic but septicemia may occur. A mortality rate of 20% has
been reported in goats in confined quarters. Young kids are more
susceptible than adults. Outbreaks often commence with sudden
deaths: later, respiratory involvement may be evident, due to the acute
fibrinous bronchopneumonia with pleurisy.

-8-
Rabies
Rabies is prevalent in almost every country in the Middle East region.
Symptoms include confusion, depression, loss of milk production, and
loss of appetite. Many infected animals may chew on foreign objects.
They may not be able to swallow, and saliva or water will drool from
their mouth. Hydrophobia or "fear of water" is not a symptom of
rabies. Infected goats mayor may not bleat, also the eyes will "stare"
from dilated pupils.
In Jordan, the policy adopted for the control of rabies includes
vaccination of owned dogs and cats, destruction of stray animals and
post exposure treatment of bitten people.

Ring Worm
Usually caused by Trichophyton verrucosum in goats. Scaly and
alopecic eruptions are most frequent on the ears, head, and neck.
Possible treatments include topical application of Captan (orchard
fungicide) as spray or paste or selenite baths.

Salmonellosis
Little specific information relative to goats is available; salmonella
typhimurium has caused acute enteritis in kids and adult goats.
Salmonella abortus ovis is reported to cause abortions.

Tetanus
Clostridium tetani infection of wounds causes hyperesthesia, tetany,
and convulsions. The organism is common in feces and soil
contaminated by horse feces. Signs typically appear 3-10 days after
castration or dehorning. The herd health program should include 2
doses of toxoid to goats over one month of age, and then annual
boosters. Tetanus toxoid is available combined with enterotoxemia
vaccme.

Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium bovis. goats are quite susceptible. Usually
bronchopneumonia, with miliary lung abscesses and granulomas in
lymph nodes: show cough and terminal respiratory embarrassment. In
some goats, intestinal ulceration with diarrhea and enlargement of
mesenteric lymph nodes has been seen.

Brucellosis (Malta Fever)

Although Brucella melitensis is the organism commonly associated
with caprine brucellosis, Brucella is one of the major health problems

-9-

)1{
in Jordan. Clinical signs include mastitis and abortion in the last 4 to 6
weeks of pregnancy, microorganism excreted in milk, urine and feces.
Goat producers and public are very concerned about this disease.

Caseous lymphadenitis (Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis)

May be just visible because goats don't have wool. Vaccine is of little
value in control. Rather than lancing abscesses, it is better to
surgically excise. Control by separating kids from dams at birth and
rearing entirely separately from infected animals. Isolate new
additions to flock. And avoid injuries during shearing. Common
problem in Jordan.

Johns( Mycobacterium paratuberculosis)

For years has been recognized as being high incidence disease in
goats. No single study shows the size of the problem in Jordan,
however several clinical cases were reported in the country. Rather
than diarrhea, some animals become emaciated. Vaccine is effective in
controlling clinical signs but does not eliminate carriers. Diagnosis is
by fecal culture or histopathology.

Foot rot
Goats are somewhat resistant to Fusiformis nodosus infection, it cause
mild to severe lameness, with a foul smell associated with it. Animals
are reluctant to walk.

Viral caprine arthritis - encephalitis (CAE)

This is a severely debilitating and extremely widespread disease of
goats. It is caused by a slow virus with tropism for brain, lungs and
joints. Young kids may develop neurological signs whereas goats over
four months may develop signs of progressive arthritis. This begins as
swelling of carpus or hock joints, which may be misdiagnosed as
hygroma. This progresses to a severe contracting type of arthritis with
erosive joint changes and eventually severe debilitation. Control by
isolating young from older animals at birth and maintaining a separate
herd.

Leptospirosis
Goats are fairly resistant but more susceptible than sheep. Septicemia
and death are probably seen as often as abortions. Control by
vaccination.

- 10-
Vibriosis, Campylobacteriosis
Several reports of vibrionic abortion in goats are recorded,
Campylobacter fetus and Campylobacter jejuni. Goats are more
resistant than sheep. The fatal nature of the disease and the multiple
abscessation in various organs serve to differentiate it from caseous
lymphadenitis in sheep. Necrotic areas were observed throughout the
liver in one fetus. Oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol and sulfadiazine
are most likely to be valuable with oxytetracycline preferred. The
elimination of infected animals and the disinfection of premises
should be the basis of control procedures.

Toxoplasmosis
It is a very widespread cause of abortion in goats. May see abortion,
stillbirths and weak kids. Control by vaccination

Enzootic Abortion (Chlamydiasis):

One of the commonest causes of abortion in goats, about 11 % of
goats in Jordan is seropositive to Chlamydia Psittaci. Abortion occurs
in late pregnancy, weak or stillborn kids may be seen in the infected
flock. No systemic effects but retained placenta and metritis are
common sequel in does. Additional losses. Diagnosis in surviving
animals can be demonstrated serologically and by culture of the
organism. The possibility that humans could be infected by ingestion
the organism in dairy products manufactured from milk has been
discounted by failure to detect it in milk, but contamination of the
milk by vaginal discharge seems a serious risk. The use of tetracycline
drugs for 5 to 7 days has been reported to help in decreasing the
number of abortions, but the best way to keep the disease from
spreading is to bum or bury the dead kid and tissues from the birth
process and to isolate aborting does from the rest of the herd.

Babesiosis
Goats usually show no outward clinical signs of Babesia infection.
There may be a slight anemia and slight decrease in milk production,
fertility, or growth rate. Most infected goats recover completely in a
short while. Babesia motasi and Babesia ovis, are though to cause
babesiosis in goats. Transmission is most likely by ticks belonging to
the genus Rhipicephalus. Acaprin or diminazine aceturate are used for
treatment, control and prevention are based on controlling ticks with
dips or sprays.

- II -
 ._._-_._._-----_._... _._------------_.

II. Common non-infectious diseases of goats:

1). Metabolic diseases

Hypocalcemia
Common problem following partuntlon in dairy goats, especially
where late gestation, ration consists solely or chiefly of alfalfa hay or
alfalfa haylage. Early signs include a stilty, proppy gait and tremor,
particularly of the shoulder muscles. Recumbency follows, sometimes
with tetany of the limbs. Ruminal movements are absent with
moderate tympany, the head is rested on the ground. Diagnosis is
based on observation of the clinical signs and blood analysis. Acute
cases should be treated by the administration of 25 ml of 40% Ca-
borogluconate intravenously, together with 75 ml of 20 % solution
subcutaneous. Goats are sensitive to subcutaneous injection with 40 %
solution of Ca-borogluconate, it can cause severe local reaction at the
site of administration.

Pregnancy toxemia
Occurs in late pregnancy, and is similar to ovine ketosis. Adequate
nutrition the last 3-4 weeks is essential: high quality forage and
increasing concentrates. The increased volume of multiple feti
decreases capacity while energy demands are even higher.
First symptoms of toxemia are twitching of the ears, muscular spasms,
and loss of appetite, rapid breathing, ataxia, frequent urination, coma,
and death follow. Moderate exercise, regular feeding schedules, no
abrupt dietary changes that might throw the goat off feed, and at least
200 grams grain per day are preventative. Silage should be avoided at
this time. Goats that are excessively fat will not have room in the
abdomen for adequate feed intake. Treatment must be early to be
effective and it is:
200 ml of 5% glucose IV (40% glucose will sometimes kill a goat).
40 IV insulin Sub Q and / or 60 cc 20% calcium gluconate Sub Q.
3 ml / kg glycerol orally. Propylene glycol (2 oz. 2 or 3 times a day)
may be used instead. This may be adequate for mild cases. The
average goat will dislike the propylene and object to being drenched.
25 mg dexamethaxone for endotoxic shock and stimulation of
parturition. Dexamethaxone is not effective alone; dehydration and
acidosis must also be corrected. Retained placentas do not seem to
follow this treatment. 3 liters of fluid, including 150 mEquiv
bicarbonate IV. A C-section may be necessary if the animal is down.

- 12 -
If the doe is within a few days of tenn but not yet critically ill,
parturition may be induced with 5-10 mg prostaglandin F2 alpha.

Polioencephalomalacia
Is a noninfectious disease of fast growing kids and young adult goats.
The actual cause of the disease is unknown, but may be due to molds
on the feed that break down vitamin BI (thiamine) in the animal
intestines. It is usually seen in animals on a high grain ration and
sometimes after a change in management practices.
Goat shows sudden loss of appetite, depression, no fever, and nonnal
or slightly reduced rumen contractility. Nervous signs includes head
pressing, grinding of teeth, aimless wandering, blindness, abnonnal
eye movements, muscle tremors, and overreaction or jumping when
touched. When the goat is unable to stand, the head usually will pull
back. Convulsions and death follow in a few hours.
Treatment requires thiamine injection of a total of 5 to 10 mglkg, one
half of the dosage given IV and one half given 1M. If the goat shows
little improvement after 2 or 3 days, slaughter should be considered.

Colostrums deprivation (hypogammaglohinemia)

If a kid does not obtain enough colostrum, it will not have adequate
disease protection. Such kids will probably be sick most of their lives.
If they live through the first month or 6 weeks, they will probably
survive because they can then build their own immunity. Many
hypogammaglobinemic kids are stunted, however, and do not mature
properly.

Bloat
This condition is nearly always an emergency in goat. The gas can be
free or mixed with the feed in the rumen. Frothy bloat can be caused
by feeding on legumes (especially alfalfa) and small grain pastures
(wheat, barley, and oats,). Almost any feed can cause bloat if the
animal cannot belch gas away, as can blockage of the esophagus.
The most important signs are pain, discomfort, difficulty in breathing,
and distention of the rumen, the goat has a full left flank, jutting up
and out.
To treat bloat pass a rubber tube down the throat into the rumen. If it
is frothy bloat, relief is limited. Pour or pump mineral oil into the
stomach by way of the tube. Some times 100 mglkg of Poloxalone
orally will help reduce frothy bloat. Trocar and cannula can punched
into the left side of the rumen. Best prevention is careful attention
when herd is grazing legumes.

- 13-
Acidosis
Occurs when goats overeat easily digested feed with high levels of
sugar, including grains, grain by-products, and vegetable parts. The
pH of the rumen will change to an acid state, usually below 5. The
animal may bloat, refuse to eat, develop a severe diarrhea, and become
dehydrated. Pain is exhibited by grinding of the teeth. Rumen
contractility will stop with rumen full in water. The animal is weak,
stagger, and unable to stand. Ifnot treated, the goat usually dies in 1 to
2 days. Treatment consists of using a stomach tube to administer oil
and a mixture of charcoal and sodium bicarbonate. Surgical clean out
of the rumen is required in many cases.

Indigestion
It is usually a mild form of acidosis. Symptoms include lack of rumen
motility, loss of appetite, and decreased milk production. Some
charcoal-bicarbonate mixture and a mild laxative, like milk of
magnesia (45 to 60 ml) or magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts, 15 to 30 g
mixed in 100-20022 of water), will usually correct the problem when
given by mouth or with a stomach tube.

Impaction
Occurs when poor quality roughage is consumed faster than the
digestive process in the rumen breaks it down and passed on through
the digestive tract. Sudden changes in the type of feed will slow
passage of the material through the rumen and can also cause
impaction or indigestion. Correction rumen impaction almost always
requires a surgical procedure (rumenotomy).

2). Mineral deficiencies:

Calcium - phosphorus
Natural roughages generally supply enough calcium to balance
phosphorus. If the diet is low in calcium, the goat eats and produces,
then suddenly becomes excitable and collapses. Restlessness, tetany
and anorexia are other signs. Heavy milkers are most vulnerable. IV
calcium is the treatment. This milk fever syndrome may appear soon
after kidding, but is less common than in cows because goats come up
on production more gradually.
A phosphorus deficiency is common unless the soil is fertilized or
grains are fed. Signs are dullness, apathy, pica, and reduced fertility.

- 14 -
Excessive calcium in the diet may reduce the availability of
phosphorus. A 2:1 Ca: P ratio is recommended. Excess calcium may
cause severe, irreversible lameness especially in bucks, possibly by
exacerbating a CAE infection. The buck does not need the minerals
fed for milk production and alfalfa hay or calcium supplements should
not be fed to mature bucks and wethers.

Vitamin D
Deficiencies may develop in the winter when sunshine is scarce. Kids
develop rickets, adults show osteomalacia. Great excess may lead to
lameness, as with excess dietary calcium. 2 kgm of good hay/day
should provide enough for any goat. Cod liver oil is not good for
goats; it causes indigestion, decreases milk yield, and can produce
vitamin E deficiency in goats.

Iodine
Availability is a function of soil content, being highest in soils that
hold moisture well, such as clays, and humus-rich soils. Iodine is
quickly washed out of sands, gravels and limestone and also becomes
deficient with intensive cash cropping. Lime blocks the uptake of
iodine from the soil. A deficiency may show as a goiter or as harsh dry
hair and parchment-like skin. Kids may be stillborn or weak and
hairless. Gestation may be prolonged. If twins are born, the female kid
may be dead but the male alive because the female needs more iodine.
A milliliter of tincture of iodine painted on the skin of the doe once a
week will prevent goiters in the kids, but would not be necessary with
an appropriate diet.

Copper
An inverse relationship with molybdenum exists, and excess Mo may
cause copper deficiency. Signs are anemia, scours, nervous disorders,
loss of pigment, and a washed-out appearance. Swayback, with paresis
or paralysis has been reported in kids. An oversupply of copper, or too
little molybdenum can (rarely) cause sudden deaths in goats.

Cobalt
This mineral IS necessary for B 12 production and for protein
synthesis.
If cobalt is deficient, there is a gradual loss of appetite, wasting and
increased sensitivity to cold. The goat requires 4 times more cobalt
than the sheep.

- 15 -
Zinc
Deficiency of this mineral has been produced experimentally, at great
expense, but rarely occurs naturally. Excess calcium may hinder zinc
absorption. Clinical signs include weakness and unthrifty, with
parakeratosis of the skin and testicular atrophy.

NaCl
Roughage alone can never supply enough salt for a milking goat. 7.1
gm. salt is secreted with each gallon of milk (almost 50% more than in
cow's milk) a good milker needs 7 to 10 kgm of salt per year in
addition to what is supplied by the regular diet. A salt deficiency will
show as impaired digestion and anorexia. A cobalt deficiency or high
parasite load will reduce the goat's ability to retain salt and produce
the same symptoms.

Vitamin A
Goats are efficient at converting carotene to vitamin A. it is stored in
the liver. After up to 2 years on a deficient diet. Signs are breeding
problems, night blindness, eye soreness, hair loss, emaciation,
susceptibility to cold and upper respiratory tract diseases, with
reduced resistance to disease. Problems are rare with good
management, but coccidia block the uptake of carotene, so vitamin A
therapy speeds the convalescence from coccidiosis.

B vitamins
Are independent of dietary supply in ruminants. However, as
mentioned above, a cobalt deficiency will decrease B 12 levels.
Parasitism and low fiber diet (predisposing to the proliferation of
certain bacteria) are possible indications for B vitamin therapy. B 1
deficiency causes polioencephalomalacia in goats; signs include
blindness, polypnea, circling, opisthotonus, and coma. Thiamine
should be given IV or 1M whenever polio is in the differential.

Vitamin C
No deficiency is known in goats

Vitamin E - Selenium
While white muscle disease and related problems are not well
documented in goats, reproductive difficulties, deaths of neonatal kids,
and muscular dystrophy occur in areas where the soil is deficient in
selenium or stored feeds low in vitamin E are fed. Thus many herds

- 16 -
will need injections of selenium and alphatocopherol at 4 or 6 weeks
and again at 2 weeks before kidding.

III. Common Parasitic diseases in Goats:

1). External Parasites (Lice, Keds, Ticks and Mites)

Linognathus stenopsis (sucking blue louse).

Damalina caprae (biting red louse).
Damalina crassipes (hairv goat louse).
Signs include anemia (sucking lice), pruritus, and alopecia. Louse
populations are highest in winter, especially under crowded, poorly
managed conditions. Affected animals should be treated several times
at 2-week intervals with pyrethrin powder.

Melophagus ovinus (sheep ked)

May infest goats; irritation and blood loss result.

Dermacentor andersoni (tick)

Cause tick paralysis if present in large numbers. Early cases often
recover if the ticks are removed.

Psoroptes communis caprae

It is very host specific. It likes cool damp conditions, starts in the ears,
and may rarely generalize. Some goats may exhibit head shaking
because of the presence of the mites in the ears. Rotenone in oil or
some similar product should be adequate for mild ear infestations,
ivermectin or lime-sulphur dips are recommended if the mites are
generalized.

Chorioptes caprae
This mite is easily seen with a dissecting scope, moving around on the
surface of debris on the skin.

Sarcoptes scabiei
Cause severe pruritic dermatitis, lesions begin on the face, severe
cases are accompanied by emaciation and enlargement of lymph
nodes. Ivermectin is effective as a single injection, and it should be
noted that only lime-sulphur dips are allowed in milking animals.

- 17 -
Demodex caprae
Mites invade hair follicles and sebaceous glands, causing loss of hair
and secondary abscesses. Gross symptoms are rarely present before
one year of age but they persist once they appear. The disease is
suspected to pass from mother to young during the nursing period.
Treatments are rarely satisfactory, but repeated Coumaphos or
Toxaphene dips may be effective. If there is a serious herd problem,
consider hand-rearing the kids. Insure good nutrition.

Approved pesticides for use on external parasites of goats are listed in

the following table:

Pesticides Ticks Mites Lice Remarks

Ciorin 10% +vapona * * For use on
lactating dairy
animals
Coumaphos * * * Not for lactating
dairy animals
Dioxathion * * Not for lactating
dairy animals
Fenvalerate * * * For use on
lactating dairy
animals
Flucythrinate * Sheep only
Lindane * For ear ticks,
wound treatment;
not for lactating
dairy animals
Malathion * * Not for lactating
dairy animals
Methoxychlor * * Not for lactating
dairy animals
Permethrin * * * Not for lactating
dairy animals

2). Internal Parasites

Moniezia expansa and Monieza benedini

Live in the small intestine. Usually there is no trouble unless they
form a mass large enough to block the gut, though they may cause
some predisposition to enterotoxaemia.

- 18 -
Taenia ovis
Cysticercus ovis- the adult is a dog tapewonn, while the cysticercus is
found in various muscles, and rarely in the lungs of sheep and goats.

Taenia hydatigena
Cysticercus tenuicollis - the cysticerci of this dog tapewonn may be
an incidental finding on the mesentery or omentum of goats.

Multiceps multiceps
The adult is in dogs; the coenurus may be found in the brain and
spinal cord of sheep and goats. It may cause circling, blindness,
paralysis, etc.

Echinococcus granulosus
The eggs of this dog tapewonn are passed in feces; the onchosphere
penetrates the small intestine and fonns hydatid cysts, especially in
lungs or liver. Usually there are no symptoms, but sheep and goats are
an important reservoir for infection of man.

Strongyloides papillosus
Parasitic adults are females and live in the small intestine.
Embryonated eggs are passed in the feces, infective larvae may be
ingested or penetrate the skin, it cause enteritis, diarrhea, and
pulmonary hemorrhages. Treat with thiabendazole or related
compounds.

Oesophagostomum columbianum and oesophagostomum venulosum

Cause nodular disease in sheep and goats. Numerous nodules in the
intestine are surrounded by eosinophils; sometimes they may be
palpated per rectum. Signs are persistent or intennittent diarrhea with
excess mucus and perhaps blood. Adults develop in the large intestine
when the host's immunity is lowered.

Chabertia ovina
Adult live in the large intestine, eggs are passed in the morula stage.
Larvae may cause diarrhea containing blood and mucus for one or two
months, then death or self-cure of the host occurs.

Bunostomum trigonocephalus
Hookwonn- heavy infestations cause anemia, poor weight gain and
edema. Larvae can penetrate the skin. Adults live in the small
intestine.

- 19 -
Trichostrongylus colubriformis, axeL vitrinus, and capricola
Cause blackish- green diarrhea after weaning. Signs are uncommon in
adults. Kids may show depression, abdominal pain, emaciation,
dehydration and death.

Haemonchus contortus
Barber pole worm. Cause anemia and hypoproteinemia in summer
months. Fat animals die suddenly; others show general unthriftiness
with hard, dry feces and high egg counts. Phenothiazine salt blocks
control the parasite, ifthe goat's milk is not for human consumption.

Cooperia curticei
Live in the small intestine and rarely in the abomasum. Weight gains
are poor.

Marshallagia marshaIIi
Live in the abomasum or upper small intestine, forming 1-2 mm
nodules. Signs include emaciation, moderate anemia, intermittent
diarrhea and persistence of appetite.

Nematodirus fiIicoIlis, spathiger, and abnormalis

Live in the small intestine and overwinter easily on pasture. Eggs are
large but few.

Dictyocaulus filaria
Large lungworm. Live in the bronchi and cause a persistent cough,
dyspnea, loss of condition, and secondary pneumonia, the animal may
die of anoxia.

Protostrongylus rufescens
Red hair lungworm. Rarely a problem, but tetramisole is effective, as
are fenbendazole and ivermectin.

Coccidiosis
Even more of a problem than with sheep. Eimeria Spp. Identified
frome local goats in Jordan were (Eimeria arioingi, Eimeria
ninakohlvakimovae Eimeria hirci, Eimeria aJijevi Eimeria apsheronica
Eimeria caprovina and Eimeria parva). Disease occurs under
conditions of crowding, stress or poor sanitation. Signs are thinness,
anorexia, and diarrhea. Nitrofurans, sulfamethazine, or amprolium will
prevent or treat cases.

- 20-
Oestrus ovis
Nasal bots are seen less commonly in goats than in sheep. One dose of
ivermectin kills all larval stages.

Therapeutic management of internal parasites in goats

Thiabendazole. The dose 40-60mglkg PO. Used for the treatment of:
Trichostrongylus
Haemonchus
Ostertagia
Cooperia
Nematodirus
Bunostomum
Strongyloides
Chabertia
Oesophogostomum

Fenbendazole. The dose is 5-10 mglkg. It is also safe and has broader
spectrum of activity (lungworms, tapeworms).

Phenothiazine. The dose is approximately 25 grams for an adult goat

and 10-15 grams for kids less than 60 heads. Used to treat:
Haemonchus
Ostertagia
Trichostrongylus
Bunostomum
Chabertia

Ivermectin. Is not effective against tapes, flukes, coccidian and biting

lice. But it is effective against:
Strongyles
Lungworms
Nose bots
Mange mites

Amprolium. While not approved for goats, is given as a coccidiostate.

The dose is 25-mgl kgld for 5 days. Continuous treatment at this level
may be necessary for kids in herds with a history of severe
coccidiosis. An overdose of Amprolium may cause cerebro-cortical
necrosis due to thiamin deficiency with fatal nervous disease.

- 21 -
References

1. The Veterinary Clinics of North America W. B. Saunders Co., Vol. 2,

July 1986

2. Church, D.C. et al. 1972. Digestive Physiology and Nutrition of

Ruminants Vol. 3, Practical Nutrition. Dept. An. Sci., Oregon St. Univ.,
Corvallis

3. Mackenzie, David. 1975. Goat Husbandry. Ist.Amer. Ed. Transatlantic

Arts, Inc. Levittown, NY

4. National Research Council. 1981. Nutrient Requirements of Goats, 210 I

Constitution Ave NW, Wash. DC 20418

5. Baker, Norman F. Control of Parasitic Gastroenteritis in Goats. JAVMA

167(12): 1069-1075, 1975.

6. Georgi, J.R. Parasitology for Veterinarians. W. B. Saunders, latest

edition.

7. Curch, D.C. et al. 1972. Digestive Physiology and Nutrition of

Ruminants Vol. 3, Practical Nutrition. Dept. An. Sci., Oregon St. Univ.,
Corvallis

8. Mackenzie, David. 1975. Goat Husbandry. 1st. amer. Ed. Transatlantic

Arts, Inc. Levittown, NY

9. National Research Council. 1981. Nutrient requirements of Goats

10. Dunlop, R. H. (I972) Pathogenesis of ruminant lactic acidosis. Adv.

Vet. Sci. compo Med., 16,259

I I. Marteniul,J. W. & Herdt, T. H. (1988) Pregnancy toxemia and ketosis of

ewes and does. Vet. Clin. North Am.: Food Anim. Pract., 4 (2), 307-
315.

12.0etzel, G. R. (1988) Parturient paresis and hypocalcemia in ruminant

livestock. Vet. Clin. North Am.: Food Anim. Pract., 4,351-364.

13.Brown, C. C. & Olander, H. J. (1987) Caseous lymphadenitis of goats

and sheep: a review. Vet. Bull. , 57, I.

14. Gitter, M. (1989) Veterinary Aspects in Listeriosis. P.H.L.S. Microbial

Digest, 6(2), 38-42.

- 22-
15. Pelzer, K.D. (1989) Salmonellsois. J. Am. Vet. Assoc., 195,456-463.

16. Proceedings of the international conference on the Haemophilus,

Actinobacillus and Pasteurellosis (HAP) Group of organisms- June
1989. Can. J. Vet. Res., 54, sI-s82.1990.

17. Verger, J .M. & Plomment, M. (1985) Brucella melitensis, Current

Topics in Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, p. 270. Drdrect:
Martinus NijhofJ.

I8.Lepper. A. W. D. & Comer, L. A. (1983) Naturally Occurring

Mycobacteriosis of animals. In: the Biology of Mycobacteria, vol. 2.
London: Academic Press.

I9.Chiodini, R.1. Van keuiningen, H.1. & Merkal, R.S. (1984) Ruminant
Paratuberculosis (Johne's disease): The current status and future
prospects. Cornell vet. , 74, 218-262.

20. Egerton, l.R. Yong, W.K. & Riftkin, G.G. (1989) Footrot and foot
abscess in ruminants, CRC press. Boca Raton, Florida.

21. Garcia, M. M, Eaglesome, M.D. & Rigby, C. (1983) Campylobacters

important in veterinary medicine. Vet. Bull. , 793-818.

22. Songer, J.G. & Thiermann, A.B. (1988). Leptospirosis. J. Am. Vet. Med.
Assoc., 193, 1250.

23. Taylor, W.P. (1984) The distribution and epidemiology of Peste des
petits ruminants. Prevo Vet. Med., 2, 157-166.

24. Taylor, D. et al. (1976) Rabies; Epizootic aspects, diagnosis, vaccines.

Vet. Rec., 99, 157.

25.Dawson, M. (1989) The caprine arthriris encephalitis syndrome. Vet.

Ann., 29, 98-102.

26. Hunt, E. (1984) Fibropapillomatosis and papillomatosis. Vet. Clin.

North Am.: large Anim. Pract. , 6 (1). 163-167.

27.Zamri-Saad, M. & Kelly, D.F. (1987) Chlamydial infections in Animals.

Kajian Vet. J., 19, 103-11.

28.Hosie, B.O. (1989) Infectious keratoconjunctivitis in sheep and goats.

Vet. ann., 29, 93-97.

- 23 -
29. Ristic, M. (1988) Babesiosis of domestic animals and man. Boca Raton.
FL: eRe Press.

30.Dubey, lP.& Beattie, c.P. (1988) Toxoplasmosis in animals and man.

Pp. 220. Boca Raton, FL: eRe press.

- 24 -

'11
 Newborn Goat Diseases
Ahmad AI-Majali, BVM; Ms; PhD; Mohammad Obaidat, BVM
Department a/Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty a/Veterinary Medicine,
Jordan University a/Science and Technology, P. G.Box 3030, lrbid 22110, Jordan

DIARRHEA IN NEWBORN GOATS

Diarrheal diseases are common in newborn kids, as they are in calves,

lambs and· piglets. It is the authors impression that these diseases are
continuously present (endemic) in fewer goat herds in the Middle East
region and the morbidity, severity and mortality are lower in goats than in
newborn calves, piglets and probably lambs. The most severe diarrheal
diseases in kids are colibacillosis and salmonellosis. Non-specific causes
of diarrhea may predominate in kids. The discussion, which follows, will
pertain mostly to colibacillosis and salmonellosis; some of what is said
will be the result of extrapolation from calves and sheep and some will be
from the very few reports and experience on goats.

Transmission:
The primary source of infection is the microflora of adult and the feces of
infected animals and transmission is by ingestion. The inclination of
young kids to nurse objects especially just after being bottle fed and their
innate curiosity, often satisfied by mouth, make them easy prey for
infection. All objects, which can be contaminated by feces, are potential
transmitting agents. This include bedding, nipples, clothing, tools, feed,
water and the skin of the udder and perineum region of the mother. The
organisms are often ingested within minutes after birth. The more intense
the management system and dense the population the more heavily
contaminated the environment becomes. Salmonellosis may have the
additional source of infection; that is, the mother herself may be a latent
(inapparent) carrier. In the latter case shedding the organism is
exaggerated by the stress of kidding.

1. Salmonellosis:

Probably most species of the genus Salmonella (S.) are capable of

producing enteric disease in farm animals. S. typhimurium is the most
common of the genus in goats and cattle in the most parts of the world.
Other strains of Salmonella also have been implicated as major causes of
kids salmonellosis. S. dublin is much more likely than S. typhimurium to
form a latent carrier state by quietly residing in the lymph nodes and

- 25 -

So
tonsils of cattle, only to emerge, produce disease and transmit infection
during time of stress. S. typhimurim is more likely to subside after initial
exposure and to recur only when the source of infection reappears.
Reports of the disease in goats are scanty, therefore the following
generalizations may not be valid. However, S. typhimurium seems to
affect any age goat with a short, fatal course and is highly contagious. S.
dublin may be less contagious and infected goats seem more likely to
recover.

Acute cases will have mild to moderate inflammation (reddening) of the

inner lining (mucosa), and less frequently hemorrhagic enteritis. The
outer surface of the intestine and linings of the body cavities (serosa) will
likely have petechial hemorrhage. The messenteric lymph nodes are
usually enlarged, wet and when cut have a soft consistency. In animals
that live longer, the liver will appear enlarged, have rounded edges and
often the gall bladder is full.

The reports of Salmonellosis in goats have been very depressing

regarding prevention and treatment. However, the strict management
practices employed in well-run cow dairies should always be followed
and should help keep Salmonellosis at a low level. A management
practice that prevents or reduces the amount of exposure to Salmonella
sp. is the only real hope of control for an endemic herd.

2. Coli bacillosis

The bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) has several serotypes, most of
which are normal nonpathogenic inhabitants of the gastro-intestinal tract
(GIT). There are pathogenic serotypes, however; some of these are
capable of gaining entrance to the body (septicemic form) through the
intestinal wall, others remain in the intestinal tract and liberate a toxin
which is absorbed by the body and causes generalized disease and
diarrhea (enterotoxogenic form). A milder enteric form, without signs of
toxemia but causing diarrhea, is a third and intermediate form.
Colibacillosis is a disease of very young animals usually 1-4 days old.

The septicemic form usually occurs in the first 4 days of life and when
there has been no absorption of colostral antibodies. The animal is
depressed, weak, anorectic, the temperature is elevated early but drops
below normal when the animal becomes weak and goes down. Diarrhea is
not common. Death usually occurs in 2 days. Animals surviving for a
week may show signs of the organism localizing in the joints, brain, eyes

- 26-

51
or lungs. The septicemic form is the most common form in lambs and is
usually peracute (most of the times animals found dead).

The most important factor in determining an animal's ability to survive

colibacillosis is the serum immunoglobulin level before the animal
develops the disease. Antibiotic therapy may help animals with marginal
to adequate serum antibody levels but are probably of no value in helping
the agammaglobulinemic kids.

Newborn ruminants are born with antibodies against various disease-

producing microorganisms. These antibodies are proteins called
immunoglobins. A newborn kid receives all of its protection
(immunoglobulins) as a result of drinking the colostrum milk produced
by its mother. Milk of the very first milking contains many times more
antibodies than does that of the second and later milkings. Further the
intestinal tracts of the newborn can absorb the antibodies at maximum
rate only during the first 12 hours of life; absorption decreases rapidly
from 12 to 36 hours after which time no more are taken into the blood
stream. In addition to these circulating antibodies there is another type
(local antibodies) that attach to the surface of the intestinal tract, are
never taken into the blood stream and do a certain amount of bacterial
neutralization from this position. Thus, colostrum is the first essential
nutrient of the newborn. Without it, death of the newborn can be
assumed. Removing the kid from the mother immediately after kidding
has two advantages. First the udder can be cleaned prior to milking (this
should be done even if one insists on letting the kid nurse) and the kid is
removed from the relatively early heavy exposure to pathogens. Second,
by feeding with a bottle, one will know how much colostrum is taken by
the kid and can force feed the amount not voluntarily consumed. During
the kidding season, extra first milking colostrum can be frozen in ice cube
trays, transferred to plastic bags for storage and dispensed, thawed and
fed as needed. Housing is probably the next most important consideration
in the prevention of enteric diseases of the newborn. Much of what will
be suggested may be impractical or at least not cost effective under
ordinary circumstances when there is no problem. However, if an enteric
problem becomes endemic in a herd, some or all of these measures may
need to be taken regardless of inconvenience.

Kids should be removed from their mothers to a well cleaned, dry pen,
free from drafts. Newborn kids should have access to the warmth of a
heat lamp in cold weather (however, if the bam is closed and heated,
respiratory problems will likely develop). Crowding should be avoided;

- 27-
ideally with no direct contact with others. The kid pens should be
separate from the adult herd. Ideally different personnel would be in
charge of kid care than those attending older and adult animals. An
alternative would be to care for the unweaned kids, then the weaned kids,
then milk and care for the adults.

3. Enterotoxemia:

Enterotoxemia is one of the important diseases and in some areas it is the

most prevalent disease of goats. Despite the fact that it is also called
"Overeating Disease" this disease is not caused by overeating. Actually,
the cause of the disease are the toxins produced by the bacterium
Clostridium perfringens type C or type D.

The bacteria are normally present in the soil and the intestinal tract in
relatively small numbers. Under certain conditions the organisms
proliferate in the intestine and produce toxin in lethal quantities. These
conditions are those, which provide an ideal environment and food for
bacterial proliferation and slow down the normal movement of material
through the intestinal tract. The disease is often associated with lush fast
growing pasture or cereal crops, heavy grain feeding or access to a lot of
milk. Illnesses that slow down the GIT, may predispose to the
accumulation of dangerous quantities of the toxin.

The predominant predisposing factors in goats have to do with sudden

exposure to grain or large increases in quantity of milk consumed without
gradually increasing the amount over several days. This leads to
indigestion with slowing of the intestinal tract. This probably plays a
large role in the disease in goats by allowing more time for toxin to
accumulate within the intestinal tract.

In the Peracute disease course, a baby kid may be found dead with no
signs or lesions. It may occur after consuming excess feed or after sudden
access to highly palatable feed or after prolonged hunger and a normal
quantity offeed. The Acute course of disease lasts 4-26 hours and usually
ends in death. Profuse slimy or water diarrhea will occur. Depression,
wobbly gait, recumbancy (lying down on side often with head down)
occurs early. Convulsions often occur intermittently and may be
accompanied by continuous or intermittent opisthotonos. The animal may
slip into a coma before death or die groaning or even crying. These signs
occur in kids but can occur in adult milking goats from either Type C or
D bacteria. The Subacute disease is more likely to occur in older kids and

- 28-

53
adults. They may be ill for several days or weeks and show anorexia and
intermittent severe diarrhea occasionally with epithelial shreds in the
feces. They will occasionally eat and with time and appropriate treatment,
they will usually recover. The Chronic form is characterized by
intermittent illness lasting several weeks. The goat (usually an adult) will
have a dull, stary look, loose feces, an irregular appetite and, if a milker,
drop in production.

Type D causes mild to moderate (occasionally severe) inflammation and

even hemorrhage of the small intestinal mucosa. Petechial hemorrhages
may be present anywhere in the body but especially on the epicardium
and endocardium. The pericardial sac may contain slight excess of yellow
fluid. Microscopic examination of the brain may reveal degeneration of
the vascular endothelium with perivascular and intercellular edema with
foci of necrosis in several subcortical areas.

The diagnosis of "enterotoxemia" in goats is probably overdone and is

sometimes used to lump any sudden death or acute intestinal disease. The
peracute and acute signs are helpful but can also occur with acute
salmonellosis or intestinal torsion. Individual or first cases of
salmonellosis would probably be diagnosed by post mortem
bacteriological examination but if a herd problem exists the history, signs
and lesions would justifY a presumptive diagnosis. Intestinal torsion is an
individual and uncommon event and would rarely be diagnosed ante
mortem.

The petechial hemorrhages, especially on the epicardium should make

one think of enterotoxemia. However, one should look for at least two
other signs that together give good presumptive evidence of
enterotoxemia. Ante mortem diagnosis is made early if one can
demonstrate a distinct, though transient, improvement of signs after the
intravenous injection of 40-100 ml of Type C and D Cl. perfringens
antitoxin. Definitive diagnosis, however, can only be made in the
laboratory. Intestinal contents should be preserved by adding 1 ml of
chloroform to 10 ml of contents that have been collected in glass within
12 hours of death.

Vaccination, with Cl perfringens type C and D toxoid by the following

schedule along with the good feeding practices of making changes and
increases in feed and milk gradually, has provided excellent prevention of
the disease. Vaccinate unvaccinated adults twice at 4 to 6 weeks intervals.
Vaccinate again during the last month of each pregnancy in order to

- 29-
"booster" her immunity and provide colostral antibodies for the
immediate protection of the newborn kids. Vaccinate kids at 2-3 weeks of
age and 4-6 weeks later.

4. Viral Diarrhea:

Rotaviruses and corona viruses are the most common causes of viral
diarrhea in kids. Rotavirus infections occur earlier in life and produce
milder lesions than do corona viral infections. Mixed infection with
enterotoxigenic E.coli or cryptosporidia may occur.

A. Rotavirus infection
Rapid onset of diarrhea in kids from 1 day of age up to about 4 weeks of
age; most cases occur in the first week of life. The clinical signs mimic
enteric colibacillosis: yellow profuse watery diarrhea, mild depression
(worsens as fluid, acid-base and electrolyte disturbances worsen),
inappetence, and reluctance to stand. Uncomplicated cases are self-
limiting and symptomatic for only 1-2 days. However, secondary
infections with ETEC and cryptosporidiosis occur commonly, and will
influence the ultimate clinical course of the illness.
Kids are mainly infected through an orofecalroute. The organism is very
hardy in the environment, and is resistant to inactivation by most
disinfectants. The presence of colostral antibodies in the bowel lumen is
protective initially, but once the antibody level in the milk declines in a
few days, the kid is susceptible to infection
Rotaviruses invade the tall columnar cells at the tips of the small
intestinal villi. The infected cells are desquamated, and the villar tip
atrophies. The absorptive and digestive functions (lactase secretion, etc.)
of the villar tips are impaired, yet secretion by the crypt cells continues in
an uninterrupted fashion.
Antemortem tests: demonstration of caprine group A rotavirus in feces or
gut contents can be performed using commercially available latex
agglutination test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and gel
electrophoresis. For best results, collect samples within the first 24 to 48
hours of the onset of the disease. Perform electron microscopy on feces to
visualize organisms.
Postmortem: note lesions on histopathology exam; do specific fluorescent
antibody staining of frozen sections.
Treatment. In viral disorders the treatment is palliative. Try to use Fluid
therapy. In addition to that Commercial lactase supplementation
(LactaidTM) in milk is beneficial with rotavirallcoronaviral infections
because it aids in digestion oflactose. 2. Antibiotic therapy is reserved for

- 30 -
 cases of diarrhea where a bacterial component is suspected. And Use
kaolin pectin or some form of antidiarrhetic

B.Coronavirus infection
Coronavrius infections occur most commonly in kids that are 7-10 days
old, but can occur up to 3 weeks of age. Clinical sign are similar to but
more severe than a pure rotavirus infection because both small and large
bowel is affected.
The virus (Coronaviridae family) gains entrance through an orofecal
route of exposure. Both colonic and small intestinal columnar epithelium
cells on the villi are infected. As a result, more severe fluid and
electrolyte losses occur and recovery from a pure coronavirus infection
takes longer than recovery from a pure rotavirus infection. The
mechanism for the diarrhea is similar for corona viral and rotavirus
infections: loss of the villar digestive and absorptive function leads to an
osmotic diarrhea. As in the case of rotavirus infections, pure corona viral
infections result in acidic feces .
. The distinct halo (corona) that surrounds the organism is visualized by
electron microscopy using a negative staining procedure. Histopathology
of the intestine allows visualization of the villar damage. Fluorescent
antibody staining of frozen sections of intestine will demonstrate
presence of the virus.
Control and Treatment: Same as for rotavirus infections.

5.Cryptosporidiosis

The causative organism, Cryptosporidium parvum, causes diarrhea in 1-4

week old kid, with the peak number of cases occurring in animals
between 5 and 10 days of age .. They become fairly resistant by 4 weeks
of age. The diarrhea is diffuse, foul smelling, watery and yellowish in
color. The feces can contain undigested milk, blood, fibrin, and mucus.
Moderate dehydration, mild-to-moderate depression, Tenesmus, and low-
grade fever are common signs. Chronically affected animals become
emaciated. The disease typically causes high morbidity and low
mortality. Most of these mortalities occur because of dehydration. Most
uncomplicated cases will recover in 6 to 10 days Relapses are fairly
common, and can occur from auto-reexposure.
Note: This organism is a potent zoonotic agent: it readily affects people
(especially fourth year veterinary students) and produces painful diarrhea
and influenza-like symptoms. It causes a persistent and often fatal
diarrhea in immunosuppressed animals and people.

- 31 -
 The protozoan organism infects the brush border (microvilli) of the
intestinal cells; it does not invade into the cytoplasm. A membrane
developed by the host surrounds the organism, thereby protecting it from
antimicrobial agents. Unlike coccidial oocysts, C. parvum oocysts are
already sporulated as soon as they pass in the feces, and therefore are
immediately infectious. These infective oocysts are highly resistant and
will persist in paddocks or in pens for over a year.
Transmission occurs when an animal ingests the sporulated oocysts. The
infection leads to villus atrophy and to crypt cell hyperplasia. Diarrhea
results from malabsorption and mal digestion, and increased secretory
activity.
Fecal flotation in Sheather's solution (a sucrose solution with a specific
gravity of 1.27) is a sensitive and practical diagnostic procedure that can
be performed at most veterinary clinics. The oocysts are transparent and
much smaller than coccidia and helminthes eggs.
Samples submitted to a diagnostic lab: request specific tests for
cryptosporidia; special stains are needed so that the protozoa can be
distinguished from yeasts.
Control and Treatment: Currently there are no effective drugs labeled for
elimination of the parasite. The application of the following measures can
prevent mortality in the flock and even reduce the morbidity-associated
\ losses to tolerable levels.
1. In first place, it is essential to isolate the diarrheic animals in a concrete
area, or where possible in a separate building which may be referred to as
a "nursing ward", since as has already been commented above these
animals are the principal source of infection for other healthy newborn
animals.
2. The oocysts are resistant to most disinfectants. They are most
effectively destroyed by fumigation of contaminated areas and utensils
with 5% ammonia solution, or 10% formalin solution.
3. The first measure to be applied to the diarrheic animals should bethe
total restriction of milk (maternal or artificial), replacing it with oral
solutions containing electrolytes (mainly sodium) together with glucose
and amino acids, though from the practical perspective these measures
are difficult to apply in most cases. The rationale of milk restriction is
that the suckling animal with a damaged intestine does no correctly digest
milk, thereby causing the latter to clot and favor the growth of other
enteropathogens, thereby worsening the diarrheic process. Another
important consideration is the administration of a formulation based on
Lactobacillus to help restore the normal intestinal flora.

- 32-

>'1
4. Intestinal motility inhibitors should not be used, for although they
suppress the diarrhea, their use is counterproductive in that bowel
movements exert a protective function by facilitating pathogen
elimination in feces. The use of such products causes both the pathogens
and their toxins to be retained within the intestine, thus facilitating their
fixation and absorption.
5. Finally, the use of antibiotics should be supported by laboratory tests
confirming the presence of enteropathogens other than "cryptosporidia".
The corresponding antibiogram will in tum define the antibiotic of choice
in each case.

6. Dietary Causes

Dietary diarrhea results from feeding the kids poor quality milk replacer
because non-milk carbohydrate and non-milk protein are unsuitable for
kids under three weeks. It results also from consumption of skim milk
powder. It may occur when feeding the kids large volumes of raw goat
milk or cow milk. These products can cause diarrhea secondary to
maldigestion.
The clinical manifestations include foul smelling diarrhea, pot bellied due
to distension of the gut and abomasums, ill thrift or emaciation, rough
hair and the kids may rattle when picked up due to watery unclootted
abomasal content.
Frequent feedings are more physiologic than 2 large feedings per day
because engorgement of the abomasum with milk reduces the normal
acidification of the proximal duodenum. This acidification process
inhibits coliform proliferation, thereby protecting the neonate against
coliform-mediated GI diseases.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACTS:

Clinical pneumonia in goats is almost invariably proceeded by some

event or set of circumstances commonly referred to as stress. This very
broad term, stress includes such factors as weaning, long distance
hauling, weather factors including sudden temperature changes or low
nightime with high daytime temperatures, poorly ventilated bams
especially those heated in extremely cold weather, overcrowding,
malnutrition, feed changes, parasitism and worming. The microorganisms
that produce the actual disease process are often normal inhabitants of the
respiratory tract. These microorganisms are prevented from causing

- 33 -
disease by the nonnal animal's body defense mechanisms. The
relationship between the body and the microorganism is sometimes a very
delicate balance especially in the very young animal. Stressing factors
can tip the balance in favor of the microorgansim and against the young
animal. Barn ventilation in extremely cold weather deserves special
comment because it is often overlooked. Wanning a barn increases the
relative humidity, thus producing a stressful situation. Moisture should
never be allowed to accumulate on the walls, ceilings and floors.

1. Acute Pasteurella Pneumonia:

In the most parts of the worlds the most common cause of pneumonia in
goats is Pasteurella multocida and Manhyma hemplytica. It is an acute
disease causing extreme debilitation and often death. It occasionally has a
systemic fonn in which the GIT is the other primarily involved system. In
sheep and presumably in goats,

While herd outbreaks do occur, individual cases also occur in goats.

Morbidity and mortality figures are not available for goats. Depression,
lack of appetite, mucopurulent ("pussy") discharges from the nose and
occasionally the eyes, occasional coughing (but not as consistent as in
cattle and sheep), fever are usually present.

The most consistent and striking change is seen immediately upon

opening the chest and completely reflecting the ribs, especially of the
right side. First there are marked adhesions of the visceral and parietal
pleura (chest cavity lining) and pericardium. The heart and lung may be
covered with yellow-gray gelatinous or clotted fluid, fibrin and fibrous
connective tissue. This may completely or partially hide the underlying
apical and cardiac lung lobe exposure of which reveals a red or purple
appearance. The lobes are necrotic, friable and often contain purulent
exudate or even abscesses. The fluid may be dirty-yellow and have a fetid
odor.

Diagnosis is based upon the history, signs and necropsy lesions and is
confinned by isolation and identification of P. multocida or M.
hemolytica. Because of the presence of the organism in nonnal animals,
diagnosis cannot be made by culturing the organism without the signs and
lesions. Differentiation from mycoplasma pneumonia (Mycoplasma
mycoides subspecies mycoides) can be tentatively assumed at necropsy
by the severe appearance with marked necrosis which is characteristic of

- 34 -
caprine pasteurellosis. Differentiation is important because treatment of
pasteurellosis and mycoplasmosis is different.

2. Acute Mycoplasmal Pneumonia:

This disease is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides ss mycoides and is the

most common cause of pneumonia in certain parts of the world. The
organism with the same name, but with very slight differences in growth
characteristics (colony size), is the one that causes the dreaded
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia.

The disease occurs primarily in 2 to 10 week old kids. The acute stage of
severe disease and death loss lasted about one week. Sick animals which
survived were ill about 3 weeks.

The most prominent signs were swollen joints, especially the carpi and
stifles (front and rear knees) with or without lameness, fever and dyspnea.
Coughing is not consistent unless elicited by forced exercise or laryngeal
pressure. Swelling of the face or head is infrequently seen and results
from mandibular.

As with acute pasteurellosis, diagnosis is based on history, signs,

necropsy lesions and isolation of the causative organism. However, the
knowledge of which disease usually occurs in a particular area is of
practical importance while awaiting laboratory confirmation. As
previously stated, pasteurellosis usually produces a much more severe
appearance than mycoplasmosis. The organism will grow on ordinary
blood agar but many inexperienced technicians may not keep the plate
long enough to notice the tiny areas of hemolysis in which a colony can
only be seen under magnification. Ideally a special mycoplasma medium
should be used.

Tylosin is the drug of choice for mycoplasmosis. Prevention is as difficult

as preventing the change in the weather. If outbreaks recur, the use of
tylosin before an outbreak occurs may possibly prevent it. In the face of
severe outbreaks, massive does of tylosin seem to be necessary to
appreciably affect the disease process.

- 35 •
References:

1. Blackwell TE, Butler DG: Clinical sings, treatment, and postmortem lesions
in dairy goats with enterotoxemia: 13 cases (1979-1982). J Am Vet Med
Assoc 200:214-217, 1992.

2. Foreyt WJ: Coocidiosis and cryptosporidiosis in sheep and goats. Vet Clin
North Am Food Anim Prate 6:655-670,1990.

3. Munoz M, Lanza I, Alvarez M, et al: rotavirus excretion by kids in a

naturally infected goat herd. Small Rum Res 14:83-89, 1994.

4. Niilo L: Clostridium perfringens type C enterotoxemia. Can Vet J 29:658-

664, 1988.

5. Peeters JE: Escherichia Coli infection in rabbits, cats, dogs, goats, and
horses. In Gyle CL (ed): Escherichia Coli in animals and humans.
Wallingford, UK, CAB International, 1994, pp 261-283.

6. Sanford SE, Gaylan KA, Josephson AJ, et al: Cryptosporidiosis, rotaviral,

and combined cryptosporidial, and rotaviral infection in goat kids. Can Vet
J. 32:626, 1991.

7. Smith MC, Sherman DM: Goat Medicine. Philadelphia, Lea and Febiger,
1994.

8. Uzal FA, Kelly WR: Enterotoxemia III goats. Vet Res Comm 20:481-
492,1996.

9. Gyles CL. Escherichia Coli in domestic animals and humans. CAB into 666
pages 1994.

10. Gyles CL: E. Coli Cytotoxins and Enterotoxins. Can J Microbiol., 38, 734-
746. 1992.

11. Bolske G: Respiratory Mycoplasmoses in Goats. Uppsala, Sweden,

Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences, 1995, pp 1-26.

12. DaMassa AJ, Brooks DL, Alder HE: Caprine mycoplasmosis: Acute
pulmonary disease in newborn kids. Aust Vet J 60:125-126,1985.

13.Matthews JG: Outline of clinical diagnosis in the goat. Wright. Oxford.

1991.

- 36-

~ I
 Common Surgical Pro«dures in Goat Practice
Zuhair Malkawi, BVM; Diplomate ABVP (Food Animal Surgery)
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty ofVelerinary Medicine,
Jordan University ofScience and Technology, P.OBox 3030, Jrbid 221 10, Jordan

Field Anesthesia in Goats

Special considerations:
A. Aspiration of ruminal contents: A serious problem when dealing
with ruminant general anesthesia. To prevent this from occurring
position head so that ruminal contents will flow from the mouth
rather than be aspirated during recumbency. Fasting for 24 hours
and withholding water for 12 hours before planned general
anesthesia is helpful to decrease rumen fill and hence the pressure
on the diaphragm. Tracheal intubation is highly recommended
during injectable general anesthesia. Extubate when the animal is
in sternal recumbency and with the tube inflated.
B. Premedication: Premedicate goats with 0.11-0.22 mglkg Atropine
1M 15 minutes before induction.
c. Induction:
a. Barbiturate is not indicated any more for induction or
maintenance in small ruminants. Short sleep times attained
by barbiturates makes it necessary fro repeated supplemental
doses which may increase the risks of toxicity.
b. Apnea is a common incidence during goats anesthesia.
Respiratory support is indicated should apnea occurs.
c. Alternative methods to achieve general anesthesia in goats:
• One liter 5% Guafenesin (glyceryl guaracolate, GG) in 5%
dextrose plus 500mg Telazol (Tiletamine zolazepam)
reconstituted with 5% GG. Premed with .05 mglkg Xylazine
1M (Do not exceed IOmg total dose), wait 20-30 minutes
then drip GG/Teiazol solution to effect.
• Telazol alone also can be used in goats. Give 4-5 mglkg 1M.
It will have a longer recovery time than with Ketamine.
• One liter 5% Guafenesin (GG) in 5% dextrose plus 1000mg
Ketamine plus 250mg Xylazine. No premed. Open drip to
induce anesthesia, then drip to effect.
• 0.22mglkg Xylazine 1M, then wait 10-15 minutes and
administer I1mglkg Ketamine 1M or IV. This regimen should
provide 30-40 minutes of good surgical anesthesia.

- 37-
 Ketamine can be supplemented in incremental IV doses to
prolong anesthesia.
d. Local anesthetics: Lidocaine is toxic in goats. It is
recommended to dilute lidocaine to 0.5% or less with
distilled water. Overdoses cause convulsions.
Anticonvulsant drugs should be available in case of
overdosage. Local block can be used for castration,
dehorning, or C-sections.

Minor Surgical Problems of Goats

Castration
Indications:
a. To prevent indiscriminate breeding, thus exercising genetic control,
and to regulate the lambing season.
b. To prevent the breeding of young females
c. To prevent the development of aggressive behavior in maturing
males and the resulting injuries that frequently accompany this
behavior.
Methods applied:
a. The best time to castrate kids is at about 2 weeks of age.
b. Aseptic preparation of the scrotum must be undertaken to prevent
postoperative infections.
c. Local anesthesia may be used for older animals; but in young kids
it is not necessary. However, good restraint is important. Kids are
normally placed on a table or held in a sitting position in the lap of
an assistant.
d. The bottom ofthe scrotum is cut off to expose the two testicles. In
young animals, the testicles can be pulled out until the cords
break. In older kids, an emasculator needs to be used to avoid
excessive bleeding. The crushing jaws are placed toward the kid's
body and the cutting edge away from it. The cords should be cut
short enough and not be exposed out of the incision to prevent its
infection postoperatively.
e. The incision is then left open to drain after application of an
antiseptic preparation. Kids must be placed in a dry and clean
housing until healing of the incision is completed.
f. Bloodless castration of kids can also be used by the application of
the Burdizzo emasculatome. The instrument is held closed position
for about 15 seconds on each cord in two places about 1-2 cm
apart. The scrotum will remain intact for the life of the kid while
the testicles will degenerate.

- 38 -
 g. A third technique involves heavy elastrator rubber bands. They are
placed with an appropriate applicator above the scrotum and will
cut off blood supply to the testes and scrotum. After about 2
weeks, the scrotum with the testes will drop off. The animal feels
prolonged pain for at least the first day and may be off feed
several days. Tetanus prophylaxis is advised, although this
procedure is bloodless. Disinfection and fly control during the
first week is advised.

Dehorning:
General considerations:
a. Disbudding of kids should be performed ideally when they are
2-4 weeks old.
b. Surgical removal of horns of an adult animal should be done
under general anesthesia or sedation and local anesthesia.
c. If local anesthesia is used, Two nerves are required to be
blocked; the infratrochlear nerve (at the dorsal medial margin of
the bony orbit) and the cornual nerve (at the caudal ridge of the
root of the xygomatic process). Lidocaine diluted to 0.5%
(1/2-1 ml) is injected at each of these sites. Xylazine at a dose
of 0.1-0.2 mg/kg bodyweight given intramuscularly or
intravenously is sufficient to cause short term (15-30 minutes)
general anesthesia.
d. In young kids, disbudding can be performed surgically or
electrically. About 1 cm of tissue should be removed around
the hom to prevent regrowth and hom scurs.

Procedure:
a. When using the electric dehorner, it should be used very hot (to the
point of being red hot). It should be applied to each hom bud for
only about 10 seconds. Long term application may lead to thermal
meningitis. Turning the tissues brown is an indication of good
application of the dehorner.
b. In older goats the surgery is much more extensive and requires
opening the frontal sinus. It is not indicated to perform this surgery
during fly season. General anesthesia as stated above is
recommended in older animals.
c. After anesthetizing the goat and preparation of the surgical field for
aseptic operation, the goat is placed in sternal recumbency with
head extended forward. An incision is made about I cm around the
base of the hom and an obstetrical wire is used to cut the hom. The
procedure is performed to remove the other hom.

- 39-
 d. Care is taken to remove any lose pieces of bone from the sinuses
and a dressing bandage is applied to cover the sinuses and around
the head. This bandage can be removed in 2 days.
e. The goat is then given a course of antibiotic therapy and a tetanus
toxoid.

Cesarean Section:
Indications and preoperative care:Cesarean section is the surgical delivery
of the fetus. In goats, the procedure is indicated in cases of dystocia due
large fetuses, mUltiple fetuses with malpresentations, or in cases of
ringwomb. Healthy animals requiring C-section usually do not need
supportive care. Preoperative antimicrobial therapy is indicated if the
clinical examination of the doe suggest a dead or autolyzed fetus. In field
conditions where aseptic technique is hard to stick with and to achieve,
preoperative antimicrobilas are also indicated; Antimicrobilas such as
penicillin, oxytetracycline, or sulfa-drugs can be used and should be
given prior to the start of the procedure to attained high tissue
concentrations. Intravenous antimicrobial drug forms are indicated in
emergency situations. Flunixine meglumine is indicated in sick or toxic
animals. Intravenous fluid therapy also is indicated if dehydration and
toxemia is a problem. After surgery is completed, it is recommended to
administer oxytocin several times per day to stimulate the passage of the
fetal membrane and to enhance milk letdown.

Surgical Approaches:
Left or right flank approaches can be used if one is preferred by the
surgeon. However, ventral midline approach is preferred with the animal
positioned at a 45 degree angle. Exteriorization of the uterus is superior
and chances of uterine fluid spills into the abdominal cavity is reduced by
this approach. When using a left flank approach the surgeon must deal
with the rumen, while when using a right flank approach, keeping the
small and large intestine inside the abdomen can be a problem. Isolating
the uterus and preventing uterine fluid spills into the abdomen are also
problems when using flank approaches specially when dealing with a
dead and autolyzed fetuses.

Anesthesia for C-section:

Selection of the appropriate anesthetic agent is important in cases of
C-section. The selected drug must not pass the blood-placental barrier
and if it does it must have a minimal depressant effect on the fetus.
Paravertebral nerve block or epidural analgesia with local infiltration of
lidocaine can be adequate in most cases. General anesthesia can be

- 40-
induced by mask and maintained with minimal depression of the kid
using halothane or isoflurane. Xylazine can be used with caution because
of its cardiovascular depressant effect on the fetus. It must not be used
unless reversal agents like tolazoline or yohambine are available for
administration to the fetus after delivery.

Surgery:
Surgical approach is selected according to the criteria discussed above.
After opening the abdominal cavity, the uterus is identified and
exteriorized through the incision. Packing of the uterus using sterile
towels is indicated to prevent spilling of uterine fluid into the abdomen.
The uterus is opened a long its greater curvature of the gravid horn
avoiding any placentomes to avoid excessive hemorrhage. The length of
the incision should be long enough to avoid tearing the edges of the
incised uterus. The fetus is removed by gentle traction and the umbilical
cord is clamped and cut distal to the clamp leaving a long stalk to allow
proper healing. The placenta should be removed if it appears loose,
otherwise no excessive traction should be placed to remove it. Additional
fetuses in the same horn or in the opposite horn must be seeked and
removed from the same incision. A second incision is some times
necessary in the opposite horn to remove fetuses.
The uterus should be closed with two inverted layers using size # 1
absorbable suture material. The first layer is an apposing simple
continuous layer and a second is an inverting pattern such as Lembert or
Cushing. Once the incision has been closed, the uterus is thoroughly
rinsed and cleaned from any blood clots with sterile saline. The incision
in the abdominal wall is closed in a routine fashion.

Teat and Udder Lacerations:

Etiology:
Teat and udder lacerations and injuries are common in goats with poor
suspensory ligaments and long pendulous udders.l In the field situations,
lacerations are caused by wires, wood sticks, or long horns ofherdmates.
Lacerations can be superficial involving the skin and subcutaneous tissue
or deep reaching the mucosa of the teat canal or the secretory tissues and
collecting ducts of the udder.

Management:
Surgical debridement and primary closure of the subcutaneous tissue
is ideal. Careful and meticulous debridement is needed because there is
little tissue separating the subcutaneous tissues and the milk secreting
tissues and collecting ducts. All necrotic and contaminated tissues should

- 41 -
be removed without extending the injury into the deeper tissues. 2
Penetrating wounds into the milk secreting tissues have a much poorer
prognosis for primary healing. These injuries are usually associated with
the formation of fistulas and chronic mastitis. 2

Analgesia for teat laceration repair:

Analgesia for teat laceration repair can be achieved sedation and local
infusion of 2% lidocaine. Lumbosacral epidural, and general anesthesia
also can be used if the practical settings will allow safe induction and
recovery. Sedation in goats can be achieved by using alfa-2 antagonist
like xylazine. Profound sedation and analgesia for 20-30 minutes can be
obtained by using 0.02-0.05 mglkg xylazine intravenously. Local
analgesia of the teat can be obtained by using ring block around the base
of the teat or V-shaped analgesia.

Repair of simple lacerations:

After thorough and meticulous debridement, the subcutaneous tissue is
sutured using simple interrupted pattern of size 3-0 to 4-0 absorbable
suture material. The skin is sutured using vertical mattress pattern of size
2-0 to 3-0 non absorbable suture material. If the wound is severely
contaminated or is of several hours to days old, then inflammation and
edema will hinder the likelihood of primary closure and second intension
healing or delayed primary healing is preferred.

Repair of penetrating wounds into the gland cistern, teat cistern, or

streak canal:
As mentioned above these lacerations or injuries have a poorer
prognosis for primary healing. Dehiscence, fistula formation, and chronic
mastitis are commonly result when dealing with those kind of wounds.
Three layer closure is recommended. The mucosa should be closed with
size 4-0 to 5-0 absorbable suture in a simple continuous pattern. An
adequate seal should be achieved by placing the suture as close to each
other as possible. A sterile plastic teat cannula can be inserted through the
teat sphincter to help identify the lumen and insure a tight seal. The
submucosa and subcutaneous tissue then is sutured in a second layer
using simple continuous sutures of the same size and type like mucosa.
The skin sutured in a vertical mattress sutures of non absorbable type.

After Care:
Systemic antimicrobial therapy is indicated before and continued for 5
fays after the repair. Penicillin (22 000 U/kg intramuscularly, 2 times per
day) combined with intramammary infusion of antimicrobial preparations

- 42-
will suffice for protection of the udder in most cases. Animals should be
milked out as usual to reduce tension on the suture lines. Milking
machines are preferred if available because it is less traumatic than hand
milking.

Repair of teat fistula:

Traumatic teat fistulas or fistulas resulted from failure of primary
healing of teat lacerations must be allowed to heal completely before
attempting repair. The area should be free of inflammation, infection and
edema for successful repair. Daily cleansing and intramammary infusion
of antimicrobilas is recommended to treat any mastitis. After appropriate
analgesia of the teat, the fistula is removed by making an elliptical
incision around the fistula. The incision should penetrate into the milk
secreting tissue of the udder. The tissues then are closed in 3 layers as
described for repair of penetrating lacerations. The after care is similar to
that of any laceration.

Obstructive Urolithiasis in Goats

Etiology and Predisposing Factors:
In small ruminants, obstructive urolithiasis is fre~l!ently seen in
castrated males between 5 and 18 months of age. I, " Magnesium
ammonium phosphate (struvite) is the most common calculi found in pet
goats. I ,2 The primary predisposing factor for development of urolithiasis
is the feeding of excessive grain in the diee which leads to imbalances of
calcium and phosphorus. There is no sex predisposition for calculi
formation. However, clinical urolithiasis occurs in the male because of
anatomical and hormonal differences. I ,2,3 Immature animals that have
undergone castration before 5 months of age are at highest risky,3
Maturation of the urethra and urethral process is testosterone-
dependent. I ,2,3 Castration of male ruminants before 5 months of age
results in penile hypoplasia, reduced urethral size, and failure of the
maturing urethral process to separate from its distal attachment to the
preputial mucosa..2.3 Urolithiasis develops in the kidney or urinary
bladder as a result of mineral precipitation, binding onto an organic
matrix, and organization of the crystallized matrix into uroliths. I,2.3
Proteinaceous matrix consists of desquamated epithelial cells or other
urinary tract cellular and organic debris serve as a nidus for mineral
crystalization. Urinary tract infection, inflammation, vitamin A
deficiency, vitamin D excess and administration or ingestion of
estrogenic substances are additional predisposing factors leading to
calculi formation by promoting organic debris formation in the urine. I ,2,3
Higher levels of mucoproteins in the urine associated with rations high in

- 43 -
concentrates and low in roughage may act as a cementing factor and
enhance calculi formation. I ,2,3 Water deprivation from frozen pumps or
tanks can increase the concentration of urinary mineral solutes and lead to
solute precipitation. I ,2,3
Urine pH is a major factor determining calculus composition. 3 The
normal range of urine pH in ruminants is 7.0 to 9.5. 3 Calcium,
magnesium phosphates and carbonates, triple phosphates (calcium,
ammonium, and magnesium phosphate calculi), and iron carbonates are
formed in alkaline urine. 3 Acid urine promotes oxalate and xanthine
calculi formation. Animals on high concentrate diets with poorly
balanced mineral composition (high phosphorus, low calcium-to-
phosphorus ratio) tend to form phosphate calculi. 1,2,3 Pelleted feed
promotes phosphate calculi formation. 4 Ruminants fed pelleted feed
produce low volumes of saliva. Phosphate excretion through the saliva
and into the gastrointestinal tract decreases leading to increased urinary
concentration of phosphate and increases the likelihood of phosphate
calculi formation. Silicate calculi are common in ruminants grazing on
ranges containing high amounts of silica in soil. l ,2.3,4 Grasses and cereal
hays grown in these areas may contain as much as 8% silica.4 Alkaline
urine, and high dietary calcium-to-phosphorus ratio (2.8:1) may promote
calculi formation in ruminants consuming high silica diets. 4 Animals
grazing subterranean clover high in calcium and low in phosphorus and
magnesium can form calcium carbonate calculi. 1,4 The pathogenesis of
calcium carbonate formation involves high dietary calcium-to-phosphorus
ratio, high dietary oxalate content, and alkaline urine pH.4 The gross
appearance of calculi defers, and depends on their chemical composition. 3
Calculi consisting of phosphates tend to be very small and numerous. 3
Carbonate calculi are smooth and have a soft consistency.3 Siliceous
calculi are usually single, rough, hard white stones. 3

Clinical Signs:
Clinical signs of obstructive urolithiasis depend on the stage of the
disease. Calculi can form in the kidney, or urinary bladder. 3 The urethral
process and sigmoid flexure of the penis are the most common sites for
calculi to lodge leading to partial or complete urethral obstruction. I ,2,3
Complete urethral obstruction can lead to urethral rupture or urinary
bladder rupture. In wethers with partial urethral obstruction, small
amounts of urine can leak from the prepuce and following evaporation,
leave crystal deposits on the preputial hairs. I ,2,3 Following complete
urethral obstruction, the first clinical sign noted is dysuria or stranguria
manifested by abdominal pain. I ,2,3 Rectal prolapse may occur secondary
to tenesmus which may be the presenting complaint in some instances. I

- 44-
Later in the disease, affected animals isolate themselves, and become
anorectic because of severe uremia. I.2.3 Death usually occurs in 2 to 5
days because of uremia, dehydration and electrolyte imbalance if
appropriate diagnosis and treatment were delayed.3 If the bladder
ruptures, signs of abdominal pain resolve and progressive abdominal
distension develops.I.2,3 Uremia develops quickly and results in
depression and dehydration. If the urethra ruptures, urine leaks into the
subcutaneous tissues surrounding the scrotum and prepuce and venral
abdominal swelling and edema develop
(water belly appearance). 1.2.3 In longstanding cases the skin and
subcutaneous tissues thicken and undergo necrosis and slough.I.2.3

Diagnosis:
Obstructive urolithiasis can be diagnosed based on clinical signs
and physical examination findings. Acute urethral obstruction is
characterized by restlessness, abdominal pain manifested by kicking the
abdomen or stamping of the hind feet, anuria (complete urethral
obstruction) or pollakiuria (partial urethral obstruction), and stranguria
are the most common signs of urolithiasis. I.2.3 Digital rectal palpation
reveals pelvic urethral distension and urethral pulsation. I.2.3 External
abdominal palpation can reveal an enlarged urinary bladder. Abnormal
ultrasonographic findings include bladder distension, and occasionally the
distended urethra can be traced distally until the urolith is (are)
encountered. I.2,3 Positive contrast cysto-urethrographl·5 or intravenous
pyelogram\ if the economic value of the animal allows, can be helpful in
determining the site of obstruction and appropriate surgical approach.
Prolonged complete urethral obstruction may result in pressure necrosis
and rupture ofthe urethra at the site of obstruction. I.2,3 In cases of urethral
rupture, preputial and ventral abdominal swelling is evident and the skin
may be hyperthermic early in the disease or hypothermic as ischemic
necrosis occurs. I.2.3 Following bladder rupture, urine accumulates in the
abdominal cavity resulting in progressive abdominal distension. An
abdominal fluid wave can be balloted. Ultrasonographic examination of
the abdomen reveals excessive free abdominal fluid. I.3 The urinary
bladder may not be visualized by ultrasonography. Definitive diagnosis of
ruptured bladder and uroperitoneum can be achieved by
67
abdominocentesis and chemical analysis of peritoneal fluid. .
Abdominocentesis reveals excessive straw-colored or blood-tinged
(inflammation and irritation of the mucosa of the urinary bladder)
abdominal fluid. Urine contains high concentrations of creatinine, urea
nitrogen and potassium. 6•7 In animals with urinary bladder rupture the
peritoneal fluid creatinine, and urea nitrogen concentrations are two times

- 45-
 or more the serum creatinine concentrations 6,7 and peritoneal potassium
concentration is three times the serum potassium concentration. 6
Serum creatinine levels are elevated above reference ranges before an
increase in blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in the obstructed animal because
ofthe unique ability of ruminants to recycle urea in the rumen. 7 However
early in the disease when the animal is not completely obstructed serum
creatinine and BUN may be normal. Urea enters the rumen directly from
the blood by diffusion or indirectly through salivary gland secretion. 7 In
cases of ruptured urethra or urinary bladder, elevations in serum
creatinine and BUN are severe. Serum electrolyte abnormalities in these
animals are characterized by normo- or hypokalemia, hyponatremia, and
hypochloremia. 7 Urine contains low concentrations of sodium and
chloride and high concentrations of potassium in ruminants. 7 The
peritoneum is permeable to these electrolytes which diffuse down their
concentration gradient. 7 Sodium and chloride diffuse from the
intravascular space into the peritoneal fluid where their concentration is
usually low. Potassium diffuses from the peritoneal fluid to the
intravascular space. Unlike other species with uroperitoneum, ruminants
usually have normo- or hypokalemia, which may suggest an alternative
route for excretion of potassium. 7 Hyponatremia stimulates aldosterone
release from the adrenal glands, which increases secretion of excess
potassium in the saliva. 8 This may account for the normal serum
potassium in some ruminants with uroperitoneum. In addition, serum
potassium levels in ruminants depend on dietary intake and since most
ruminants with urolithiasis are anorexic, hypokalemia may develop.
Dehydration and hypovolemia in small ruminants may lead to
hyperkalemia because of lactic acidosis and resultant movement of
potassium to the extracellular space. 8 Azotemic ruminants with urinary
bladder rupture frequently develop metabolic alkalosis early in the coarse
of the disease, which may be caused by abomasal atony (functional
obstruction) with sequestration of hydrochloric acid in the abomasum and
forestomachs. 7 Metabolic acidosis, however can develop terminally
because of hypovolemia, anaerobic metabolism, and renal failure. 8
Complete blood count may be normal early, but leukocytosis with a left
shift can develop if chemical peritonitis develops in cases of ruptured
.bladder or due to subcutaneous tissue ischemia and inflammation in cases
of ruptured urethra.
Necropsy of an animal with urinary bladder rupture reveals mUltiple
pinpoint perforations, tears, or necrosis of large area of the bladder wall.!
The dorsal surface of the bladder is the most common site for rupture but
rupture can occur in other regions. Peritoneal effusion containing urine
will by found in the abdominal cavity. Hydronephrosis and hydroureters

- 46-

-1(
may be evident which may be secondary to obstructed urine outflow from
the urinary bladder. In cases of ruptured urethra, the subcutaneous tissues
are infiltrated with urine. Dissection of the bladder and urethra frequently
reveals one or more calculi.l
Differential diagnoses in cases of acute urethral obstruction include
gastrointestinal-related abdominal pain, enteritis, and coccidiosis. 3
Gastrointestinal obstructions usually have an acute onset and rapid
progression, and signs of severe dehydration and shock may be evident
on physical examination. Enteritis and coccidiosis are eliminated by the
absence of diarrhea and absence of oocysts in fecal samples. In cases of
urinary bladder rupture, abdominal distention due to uroperitoneum must
be differentiated from rumen tympany, peritonitis, and gastrointestinal
obstructions. 3 Rumen tympany is associated with left dorsal abdominal
distension. Abdominal distention due to peritonitis can be diagnosed by
abdominocentesis and cytology of the abdominal fluid that consists of
neutrophilic exudate in case of peritonitis. If urethral rupture is present
with subcutaneous accumulation of urine, preputial trauma, preputial
abscess, umbilical abscess, umbilical or ventral hernia, and in intact
males penile hematoma are the major differentials. 3 These conditions can
be diagnosed by careful physical examination, and Ultrasonography.
Needle aspiration of fluid from the subcutaneous tissue can be identified
as urine by laboratory chemical analysis.

Medical Treatment:
The approach to treatment depends on the stage of the disease, the
location of calculi, the intended use of the animal, and financial
limitations. l.2.3. 4.8 Prior to rupture of the urinary bladder or urethra,
conservative management can be attempted with limited succesS. l.3.4.6,8
Acepromazine (O.lmg/kg, IV once or twice), or diazepam (O.1-0.Smg/kg,
IV once or twice) can aid passage of calculi in cases of partial urinary
obstruction. l,4,8 One or two injections, 6 hours apart is recommended. 9
Conservative therapy is considered unsuccessful if normal urination is not
established in 12-18 hours following the first treatment. 9 Proposed modes
of action include reduction of urethral smooth muscle spasm and
relaxation of the retractor penis muscle. l,4,8 Relaxation of the retractor
penis muscles allows for straightening of the sigmoid flexure of the penis
and eases calculi expulsion. 6 Treatment with acepromazine can be
effective in cases of an acute partial obstruction with some urine
dribbling. Urinary obstruction in these cases is induced by a smooth stone
and results in minimal damage to either the urethra or urinary bladder. In
small ruminants, medical treatment has generally been unsuccessful in
relieving urethral obstruction. l,3,4,6,8 In our experience surgical treatment

-47 -
is the best approach in dealing with obstructed small ruminants and
results in higher success rates and less patient morbidity.
Retrograde urethral catheterization and flushing with saline has
been used to restore urethral patency with limited success. 1O Retrograde
catheterization of the ruminant bladder is difficult because catheters lodge
in the urethral recess at the level of the ischium. 10 Because of this fact and
the risk of creating more damage to the urethra leading to urethritis or
urethral rupture this technique is not recommended. 10

Surgical Management:
Surgical treatment of obstructive urolithiasis in small ruminants provides
the best means of restoring urinary tract outflow. Before surgical
treatment is performed a biochemical profile should be performed.
Metabolic acidosis and hyperkalemia if present can lead to anesthetic
complications such as bradycardia, cardiac arrhythmias and respiratory
muscle paralysis. 8 Administration of isotonic intravenous fluid (0.9%
saline) can be used to correct hypovolemia, hyponatremia, and
hypochloremia. Ifhyperkalemia is present, potassium can be translocated
from the extracellular space to the intracellular space by increasing blood
pH following administration of sodium bicarbonate (1-2 mEq/kg)
intravenously.8 Administration of 5% dextrose with or without insulin
promotes the transfer of potassium into cells. 8 Insulin is recommended if
hyperkalemia is associated with cardiac arrhythmia. Direct effects of
hyperkalemia on the cardiac muscle can be reversed by the administration
of calcium solutions. 8 Ifuroperitoneum is present, draining urine from the
abdomen prior to induction of anesthesia with a trocar or an indwelling
catheter can be helpful in reducing pressure on the diaphragm and
slowing the progression of azotemia and electrolyte imbalnces. 1o Slow
removal of fluid and concurrent administration of intravenous fluid is
important to prevent circulatory shock due to splanchnic pooling of
blood. 1o

Urethral Process Amputation:

If the offending calculus or calculi are lodged in the urethral process, the
process can be surgically removed to re-establish patency.1O Sedation or
lumbosacral epidural anesthesia facilitates penile extrusion. Xylazine is
not recommended for use in small ruminants with obstructive urolithiasis
because of its osmotic diuretic effect, which may worsen bladder
distension. 1O Acepromazine (0.5-0.1 mg/kg, IV) or diazepam (0.1 mg/kg,
IV) may be used in pet goats for this purpose. 1O Lumbosacral epidural
anesthesia using 2% lidocaine (1 mIl5-10kg) eliminates resistance to
penile extrusion caused by the retractor penis muscle. 10 Immediate

- 48 -
restoration of urethral patency reportedly occurred in 37.5% to 66% of
amputations. 1O Management and dietary changes must be instituted
immediately after establishing urethral patency by urethral process
amputation to prevent further formation of calculi. Additional calculi in
the bladder or urethra can result in reobstruction within hours to days
following resection of the urethral process. Urethral process amputation
alone rarely results in a long-term cure and is best suited for cases in
which definitive surgical resolution of the problem cannot be performed
because of financial limitations on the part of the owner. 10 Removal of the
urethral process has no adverse effects on breeding ability or fertility. 10

Urethrotomy:
In intact breeding bucks,· urethrotomy can be attempted to remove
urethral calculi and preserve breeding abiIity.1O Presurgical localization of
a stone in the urethra by radiography or ultrasonography is important to
determine the appropriate surgical site. A skin incision is made directly
over the site of obstruction. The subcutaneous tissues are dissected
bluntly and the penis is identified. The site of obstruction within the
urethra is identified and a 3-5mm longitudinal incision is made into the
urethra. Retrograde passage of a rigid catheter helps identify the urethra
and aid in incising the urethral wall. Calculi are removed and retrograde
urethral flushing may be performed to ensure no calculi are left in the
urethra. Primary closure of the urethra after removal of the calculi can be
achieved if urethral mucosal inflammation and necrosis is minimum. II
Urethral stricture and recurrence of obstruction within 3-4 months
following surgery are the major disadvantages of this procedure. IO• 11 This
procedure is a poor choice for animals with urethral rupture because
primary closure of the urethra is usually unsuccessful and dehiscence of
the suture is common because of lack of suture holding power of the
inflamed urethral wall. 10

Perineal Urethrostomy:
Perineal urethrostomy is a salvage procedure used in feedlot animals with
obstructive urolithiasis to allow time for uremia to resolve before
slaughter lO, and may not be a suitable procedure in pet small ruminants. If
desired, the procedure can be performed using epidural anesthesia.
General anesthesia is preferred in pet goats to minimize patient
movement during the procedure. The skin incision is made directly over
the penis. Low perineal urethrostomy is preferred to minimize urine
scalding of the perineal area and to allow for repeat urethrostomy if
stricture at the original site occurs. The subcutaneous tissues are dissected
bluntly and the penis is identified and exteriorized through the skin

- 49-
 incision. The urethra is incised and the urethral mucosa is sutured to the
skin using monofilament, absorbable suture material in simple interrupted
pattern. This procedure frequently fails in small ruminants because of
. stncture
progressIve . and reob ' " ,,0 Iowmg
struchon I' surgery."31012 Reports
indicate a 78% stricture rate within 8 months of surgery. 10.12 Even when
patency is maintained after urethrostomy, persistent problems with urine
scalding on the perineum and hind legs can increase patient morbidity.
An alternative to perineal urethrostomy is ischial urethrostomy that
exteriorizes the wider-bore pelvic urethra rather than the narrower penile
urethra. This technique is an adaptation of the procedure performed in
obstructed male cats l3 and may provide better long-term results than
procedures designed primarily as feedlot salvage operations. MUltiple
linear or stab incisions may be made lateral to the prepuce to drain
edematous tissues in cases of urethral rupture,

Cystotomy
General anesthesia is preferred in obstructed small ruminants if
cystotomy is selected. Laparocystotomy with bi-directional (normograde
and retrograde) urethral flushing allows for maintenance of breeding
soundness and removal of additional calculi from the urinary bladderY
A paramedian skin incision is performed 1-2 centimeters lateral to the
prepuce. The abdominal incision is made through the linea alba. The
bladder is exteriorized and stay sutures are placed in either end of the
proposed cystotomy incision to stabilize the bladder. A 5-cm cystotomy
incision is made at the apex of the bladder between the stay sutures. Urine
and calculi are removed by suction and lavage with warm saline.
Normograde flushing of the urethra can be attempted with an 8-10
French, polypropylene catheter. If necessary, retrograde flushing can be
established by a non-sterile assistant by introducing a catheter into the
urethra at the tip of the penis. Lavage can be attempted to distend the
urethra and ease calculi expulsion either to the outside or to the bladder
where they can be removed during surgery. The bladder is closed with
double-layer inverting pattern such as simple continuous, Cushing, or
Lumbert patterns using 2-0 or 3-0 synthetic absorbable suture material.
• This procedure is associated with fewer postoperative complications and
a lower incidence of reobstruction than perineal urethrostomy. Sites of
urinary bladder rupture should be repaired using absorbable suture in a
double inverting pattern. Antibiotic therapy (penicillin G procaine,
22,000 IU/kg, 1M or SQ ql2 h) should be initiated prior to surgery and
continued for 3 to 5 days as prophylaxis against peritonitis and to treat
preexisting urinary tract infection if present. Haven and colleagues
reported that cystotomy with retrograde and normograde urethral flushing

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was successful in resolving 7 of 8 cases of urolithiasis in small
ruminants. 12 No complications occurred with a median follow-up of 23
months. The main disadvantage of this procedure is the potential for
catheter-induced rupture or irritation of the urethra during attempts to
dislodge large numbers of calculi in the urethra by repetitive flushings. 4

Tube Cystostomy:
Tube cystostomy should be considered as the treatment of choice for
urethral obstruction in small ruminants before urethral rupture. 14 Urine is
diverted from the bladder via a temporary, 18-20 French Foley catheter,
which is anchored in the bladder lumen and exits the ventral abdomen.
Urinary tract diversion allows for resolution of urethral inflammation and
helps decompress the atonic urinary bladder. Urethral patency is restored
when calculi are spontaneously expelled from the urethra. The procedure
is performed under general anesthesia. A paramedian skin incision is
performed 1-2 centimeters lateral to the prepuce and the abdominal cavity
is entered through the linea alba. The bladder is exteriorized and stay
sutures are placed in either end of the proposed cystotomy incision to
stabilize the bladder. A 5-cm cystotomy incision is made at the apex of
the bladder between the stay sutures. Urine and calculi are removed by
suction and lavage with warm saline. 14 Normograde and retrograde
urethral flushing can be performed if desired. The cystotomy incision is
closed as previously described. An 18-20-French Foley catheter is passed
through a stab incision in the abdominal wall 2-cm lateral to the
paramedian laparotomy incision and placed in the bladder lumen through
a separate cystostomy incision. The balloon end of the catheter is inflated
using sterile saline, drawn against the bladder wall, and secured to the
bladder wall with a purse-string suture using a synthetic absorbable suture
material. The abdominal skin incision is closed routinely, and the Foley
catheter is sutured to the skin. In 15 small ruminants treated by tube
cystostomy without urethral lavage, urine first began to drip from the
prepuce in an average of 7.5 days (range, 1-20 days) after surgery.14 In
this study normograde flushing was unsuccessful in relieving the
obstruction. Uroperitoneum, caused by leakage at the cystostomy site can
occur if the tube is removed prematurely or accidentally by the patient.
The catheter should be maintained for at least 7 to 10 days to ensure that
a fibrous or omental seal has developed prior to removal. 14 Antimicrobial
therapy should be initiated prior to surgery and maintained until catheter
removal, to prevent cystitis, and catheter induced urinary tract
infections. 14 Cystitis related to the catheter was reported in 2 of 13 small
ruminants with obstructed urolithiasis treated by tube cystostomy.14
Corticosteriods (dexamethasone, 0.5 mglkg, IV or 1M q 24h) or

- 51 -
nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs (flunixin meglumine, 1.1mg/kg, IV
q 12-24h) are recommended to reduce urethral inflammation. Ascending
infections, obstruction, displacement, or loss of the catheter are
complications associated with tube cystostomy. 14

Urinary Bladder Marsupialization:

Urinary bladder marsupialization was developed to provide long-term
resolution of urinary obstruction in small ruminants not intended for
slaughter. 15 The procedure is performed under general anesthesia. A
paramedian incision is made in the caudoventral abdomen approximately
3-cm lateral and parallel to the prepuce. Cystotomy is performed as
discussed in the section of tube cystostomy to lavage the bladder and
remove calculi. A second, 4-cm, paramedian incision is made on the
contralateral side of the prepuce. The second incision is made as far
cranial as possible to avoid urine scalding of the ventral abdominal wall.
The bladder apex is exteriorized through the second incision and the
seromuscular layer of the bladder is sutured circumferentially to the
abdominal wall and rectus abdominal fascia with interrupted, horizontal
mattress sutures using 2-0, monofilament suture material. Anchoring
sutures at the most cranial, medial, lateral, and caudal aspects are placed
prior to seromuscular suture to the body.wall. The mucosa of the bladder
is sutured circumferentially to the skin with 3-0 absorbable suture in a
simple interrupted pattern. Urinary bladder marsupialization provides a
long-term resolution of urinary outflow obstruction through permanent
fistulization of the urinary bladder to the ventral abdominal wall. 15
Complete resolution of obstruction was obtained in all 19 goats treated by
this procedure in one report. 15 Antimicrobials are administered prior to
surgery and maintained for 3 to 5 days post-operatively. This procedure
has a good prognosis for long-term resolution of obstructive urolithiasis
in pet goats, however the main disadvantage is that the animal is urinary
incontinent. 15 Rare long-term complications associated with urinary
bladder marsupialization include recurrent cystitis, stricture of
cystostomy site, and prolapse of bladder mucosa. 15

Prevention:
Prevention of urolithiasis is by far the most profitable approach. An
understanding of the type of urolith involved, and ration analysis if
applicable are necessary for establishing an appropriate preventive
program. 1,2,3.4
1. To prevent struvite calculi formation, grain (high in phosphorus)
should be eliminated in the diet and the animal provided a ration of
high quality (second or third cut, pre-bloomed) free choice alfalfa

- 52-
 hay. Calcium to phosphorus ratio in the diet should be adjusted to
2: 1 by adding calcium chloride or limestone.
2. Since the role of elevated dietary calcium is established in calcium
carbonate calculi, recommendations to change the diet to grass hay
such as oat hay is appropriate for animals with this type of calculi.
Alfalfa hay contains a higher concentration of calcium than does
grass hay. Discontinuing the feeding of alfalfa hay is
recommended.
3. To prevent oxalate or silica calculi, pastures rich in oxalate or silica
must be avoided.
4. Urine acidification to prevent formation or increase solubility of
calculi (calcium carbonate calculi, struvite, calcium phosphate, and
silicatet is recommended by adding ammonium chloride (2% of
dry matter) in the diet. Results are variable and the efficacy of
using ammonium chloride is limited. I Urine pH is monitored
during ammonium chloride administration. If urine pH is alkaline
in spite of ammonium chloride administration the product is
discontinued for 1 week. It is administered again and urine pH is
monitored and so forth. Palatability of concentrates is decreased if
high concentrations of ammonium chloride are added to the diet.
Ammonium chloride has been incriminated in excessive coughing,
which contributes to rectal prolapse.
5. General management recommendations to prevent formation of all
types of calculi include adding table salt, 1-4% to the ration will
increase water intake and urine output, thereby diluting the
constituents necessary for calculi formation. Salt can be dissolved
in water and sprayed on the hay to ensure consumption.
Alternatively a free-choice mineral block should be available. The
ration should contain adequate amounts of vitamin A. Ample
supply of clean palatable water should be available to encourage
drinking. Delaying castration beyond 6-8 months of age is
recommended to reduce the prevalence of obstructive urolithiasis.

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References

1. Smith MC, Sherman MD, Nutritional and metabolic diseases. In: Correl
CC, ed. Goat Medicine. Philadelphia: Lea and Fibiger, 1994; 398-409

2. Kimberling CV, Arnold KS. Diseases of the urinary system of sheep and
goats. Veterinary clinics of North America Food Animal Practice 1983;
5(3): 637-655

3. Floyd lG. Urolithiasis in food animals (urinary calculi, waterbelly,

calculosis). In: Haward lL, ed. Current Veterinary Therapy: food Animal
Practice. 2nd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co 1989: 621-624

4. Van Metre DC, House JK, Smith BP, Thurmound MC, Fecteau G, George
LW, Angelos SM, Angelos lA,. Obstructive urolithiasis in small ruminants:
Surgical management and prevention. Compend Contin Edu Pract Vet
1996; 18(10): S275-S289
5. Weeren R, Klein WR, Voorhout G. Urolithiasis in small ruminants II:
Cysto-urethrography as a new aid in diagnosis. Vet Q 1987; 9(1): 79-83

6. Van Metre DC, Smith BP. Clinical management of urolithiasis in small

ruminants. Proc Ninth Annu ACVIM Vet Forum 1991; 555-557

7. Sockett D, Knight AP. Metabolic changes associated with obstructive

urolithiasis in cattle. Compen Contin educ Practic Vet 1984; 6(5): S311-
S316

8. Van Metre DC, Divers TJ. Ruminant renal system. In: Large Animal
Internal Medicine. 2nd edition. Mosby: St. Louis, Missouri 1996: 975-1000

9. Oehme FW, Tillmann H. Diagnosis and treatment of ruminant urolithiasis.

JAVMA 1965;147(12): 1331-1339
10. Van Metre DC, House lK, Smith BP, George LW, Angelos SM, Angelos
lA, Fecteau G. Obstructive urolithiasis in small ruminants: Medical
treatment and urethral surgery.

11. Slatter D. Surgical diseases of the urethra. In: Sounders WB ed ..

Vol 2, 2nd edition. Harcourt Brace: Philadelphia 1993: Textbook of
small animal surgery 1462-1473

12.Haven ML, Bowman KF, Englebert TA, Blickslager AT. Surgical

management of urolithiasis in small ruminants. Cornell Vet 1993; 83: 47-55

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13. Wilson GP, Kusba JK. Perineal urethrostomy in the cat. In: Bojrab MJ, ed.
Current Techniques in Small Animal Surgery, 2nd edition. Philadelphia: Lea
and Fibiger, 1993

14.Rakestraw PC, Fubini SL, Gilbert RO, Ward JO. Tube cystostomy for
treatment of obstructive urolithiasis in small ruminants. Am J Vet Surg
1995; 24: 498-505

15. May KA, Moll lID, Wallace LL, Pleasant RS, Howard RD. Urinary bladder
marsupialization for treatment of obstructive urolithiasis in male goats. Vet
Surg 1998; 27: 583-588

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'ID
 Reproductive Managemmt of the Goat

Mohammed Ababneh, PhD; Dipl ACT

Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jordan

University of Science and Technology, P.o.Box 3030, Irbid 22110, Jordan

Introduction
Although reproductive perfonnance is of paramount importance, limited
research is available on reproduction in goats. Most available data are
drawn from sheep and cattle. Goat productivity is largely a function of
the number of offspring born and the frequency of parturition, which is in
other tenns reproductive efficiency. In general, goats have a high
reproductive rate with conception rate not being a problem. Several
studies have shown that even though twins and triplets have lower birth
and weaning weights and have slower growth rates, they produce more
total weight of kid weaned. Thus, prolificacy, defined as the number of
kids born per doe, is an important reproductive criterion in evaluating
goat productivity. Understanding reproductive physiology of goats and
methods of manipulations are important steps in the improvement in this
species.

Reproductive physiology

Onset of Puberty

Sexual development in the goat, as in other mammals, is a process of

gradual maturation of the interaction between the hypothalamus, pituitary
and gonads. Puberty is generally defined as the point of sexual
development at which the animal becomes capable of reproduction (first
ovulation in the female and first spennatozoa in the ejaculate of the
male), but often animals are not fully sexually competent at this stage. In
both the male and female goat, puberty is often reached without having
achieved adequate physical growth to support reproduction. Sexual
development and the age of puberty are influenced by genetic and
environmental factors. In does and bucks the age at puberty ranges from 6
months to 1.5 years and is dependent on breed, nutrition, location and
season of birth. In Jordan and of importance, the Shami breed of goats
attains puberty at later ages at 1.5 years of age. Nutrition is among the
most significant factors influencing reproductive development and the
onset of puberty. Replacement does should be managed closely to

- 56 -
achieve a level of sexual maturity that allows an early mating (at 60-70%
of adult body weight) within one year of age, thus increasing life time
production of the doe. Increasing the overall plane of nutrition generally
advances the onset of puberty, but overfeeding will decrease subsequent
fertility and impair mammary gland development. Season of birth also
has a significant impact on the timing of puberty with sensitivity to
photoperiodic cues already being in effect in the fetal stages. Due to
pheromonal and neurological stimuli and similar to the advancing effect
of boars on the age of puberty in gilts, there are some indications that the
introduction of bucks may induce estrus and ovulation in the pubertal
does. First ovulation at puberty or subsequent first ovulations at the start
of the following breeding seasons are usually silent and do not
necessarily coincide with signs of estrus. In addition, the formed corpus
luteum of the first ovulation of the breeding seasons is usually short lived.
Thus, progesterone supplementation is an indispensable step in inducing
estrus for out of season breeding.

The estrous cycle

The events of the estrous cycle are largely controlled by the hormonal
interactions of the ovaries with other endocrine glands (mainly the
pituitary gland). In addition to internal stimuli, this system is also
responsive to external stimulation such as changes in day length and the
presence and absence of males.
In short, primary follicles in the ovaries develop in successive waves to
Graafian follicles. The development of the follicle is under the control of
gonadotropins (follicle stimulating hormone - FSH and luteinizing
hormone - LH) released by the pituitary gland. The gonadotropins also
control the release of estrogens which control the estrous behavior
(flagging, restlessness, frequent urination, vaginal swelling and mucus
discharge, mounting etc.). Mature follicles, under the effect of the
luteinizing hormone, will rupture and release an oocyte during ovulation.
The released oocyte is fertilized by a spermatozoon in the oviduct,
whereas the ruptured Graafian follicle is transformed into a corpus
luteum. The newly formed corpus luteum secrets progesterone as early as
2-3 days after ovulation and continue to secret progesterone during the
luteal phase of the cycle. Progesterone prepares the uterus for a possible
pregnancy. Failure to establish pregnancy will result in the release of
prostaglandin from the non-pregnant uterus causing regression of the
corpus luteum and allows a new cycle to proceed. Knowledge of these
processes facilitates an understanding of the techniques that can be used
to increase reproductive efficiency.

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During the period of cyclicity, goats show sighs of estrus every 21 days.
The most important characteristics of goats are present in table I

Table 1: Reproductive characteristics of does

Cycle length (17-24) 21 days

Duration of estrus (hrs) (24-48) 30 hours
Ovulation after estrus (hrs) 30-36 hours
Gestation length (d) (144-155) 150 days

Seasonality of Breeding

The environmental cue affecting seasonal breeding in small ruminants is

the annual change in day length. Photoperiodic control of reproductive
patterns is mediated through rhythmic secretions of melatonin by the
pineal gland during darkness which influence the gonadotropin-releasing
hormone pulse generation and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal
feedback loop. However, following extended exposure to decreasing day
length, animals become photo refractory to the short day stimulus and
will cease cyclic activity until the next season when a period of long day
photo stimulation ended the previous short day breeding season.
Differences exist in the onset and duration of seasonal breeding between
various breeds of goats and even between individual animals within a
breed. Geographical location, particularly degree of latitude, has a
significant impact on timing and length of the breeding season. At
locations close to the equator and in tropical breeds of goat, animals often
are aseasonal and breed throughout the year. In the seasonally breeding
does, the breeding season is enclosed by two transitional periods.
Although Goats are considered as seasonally polyestrous animals under
the temperate climatic conditions, patterns of seasonality in Jordan do not
follow the short day seasonal pattern known elsewhere. Short day
breeders come into estrus in the fall with anestrus occurring in late spring.
In Jordan, goats start cycling during June -July months of the year with
anestrus occurring during the winter and continue through spring.

The Buck

In the buck, the primary sex organs are the testis, which weigh 150 grams
in the mature animals and fluctuate in size with changes in breeding

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season. The testes produce the sex honnones (i.e. testosterone) and male
gametes (spennatozoa). While the Leydig cells in the interstitial tissue
are responsible for testosterone production, spennatogenesis takes place
inside the seminiferous tubules. Spennatozoa are passed and stored in the
epididymis. In addition to storage, the epididymis and epididymal
secretion playa major role in maturation and acquisition of motility and
fertilizing ability ofthe spenn. The vas deferens is a cord like structure
connecting the epididymis to the ampulla and accessory sex glands. The
accessory glands mainly (seminal vesicles) provide most of the seminal
plasma of the ejaculate. The seminal plasma activates the progressive
motility and acts as buffer and nourishment for the spennatozoa. The
spennatogenesis and honnone production in the testis are controlled
through the pituitary gonadotropins.
The penis is the final component of the male reproductive tract and is
used to deposit the semen into the female. In the buck, erection is
achieved through the extension of the sigmoid flexure that allows an
extension of up to 30 cm and the filling of the cavernous tissues with
blood. In the non-erect state the glans penis is contained in the sheath.
During natural mating, the urethral process which is an extension of the
urethra sprays semen in the anterior part of the vaginal and the cervix.
However, the removal of this process, as in cases of urolithiasis is not
detrimental to the buck fertility.

Breeding Soundness Examination (BSE)

The male represents half of the flock. Thus, breeding bucks should be
assessed and evaluated for breeding soundness 4-6 weeks prior to the
breeding season. Breeding soundness examination is an evaluation of
the overall condition of the buck including his physical soundness,
thorough examination of the external genitalia for signs of pathological
abnonnalities and semen collection and evaluation
Detailed examination of the external genitalia constitutes the first part of
the BSE. The testes are located in the scrotum. The scrotum should be
evaluated for any lesions, contents due to inflammation or herniation and
adhesions with the testicles. It should be emphasized the importance of
the scrotum in the thennoregulation of the testes. The Testicles should
be evaluated for size, consistency and resiliency, symmetry, pain and
scrotal circumference. Although there are currently no age and breed
standards for scrotal circumference in goats, there is a great need to
establish these guide line for goats because of the underlining importance
of this traits in the fertility and age of puberty of their offsprings. In
general, the scrotal circumference ranges from 28-34 cm. The penis

- 59-
should be free in the prepuce with no signs of adhesions and the breakage
of the penile frenulum. The second part of the examination involves
semen collection and evaluation. Semen sample can collected using an
artificial vagina or an electroejaculator. The ejaculate is immediately
scored for motility under low (mass motility) and high magnification
(percentage motile sperm) of a light microscope on a pre-warmed slide.
Morphological abnormalities and viability are determined from stained
semen smears. However, BSE dose not evaluate libido and mating
behavior unless a number of female are available to measure the serving
capacity of buck. Never the less, libido and mating behavior should be
carefully observed as the bucks are introduced to the flock during the
breeding season.
At the conclusion of BSE, bucks are classified as either sound,
questionable or un-satisfactory, based on all components of the
examination. No firm guidelines have been developed to assign bucks
into these categories and interpretation rests largely with the experience
of the examiner. Table 2 shows the most important guidelines in BSE.
Animals deficient in any part of the examination should be considered
questionable and retested after several weeks. A second failed test would
indicate reproductive deficiencies and such a buck should not be used in
natural mating.

Table 2: Major characteristics of the sound buck.

Character Average Range

Daily testicular sperm production (billion) 3.5 2.5-7
Eiaculate volume (ml) 1.0 0.5-1.5
Ejaculate concentration (billion/ml) 3.0 1.5-5.0
Total motility >65-70%
Normal Morphology >70%
Primary abnormalities <15%
Secondary abnormalities <25%

Goat Reproductive Management Techniques

Reproduction is major component of the overall herd management and

closely associated with nutritional, health and production aspects.

- 60-
 Feeding must account for the reproductive stage of the goat. particularly
during lactation and gestation. Preparation for the breeding season should
start 4-6 weeks before the introduction of the bucks. This is usually
starts by performing BSE on bucks as described above. This is followed
by deworming and necessary vaccinations 4 weeks prior to breeding. A
period of2-3 weeks of higher nutritional plane should be provided to the
flock to stimulate higher ovulation rates and maintained for at least two
weeks post buck introduction. The bucks are allowed access to the does
for 42 days. This period is usually followed by a month of separation and
pregnancy diagnosis. Does should be separated according their
reproductive status into pregnant preferentially fed based on pregnancy
status and fetal numbers and open does. Open does are placed back again
with the breeding bucks and the breeding cycle is repeated.
Currently, Brucellosis, and Chlamydia psittaci are the major reproductive
-diseases affecting goats in Jordan. Brucellosis is of high prevalence and
abortion rates exceeding 30% are reported in Jordan. Vaccination using
Rev I reduced dose annually is currently adapted by the ministry of
agriculture. Brucella vaccine should be administrated one month before
mating. No vaccine is available for Chlamydia at present in Jordan.

Pregnancy Diagnosis

Pregnancy diagnosis, although is marginalized under the raising goats in

Jordan, is the center for improvement in the reproductive and production
efficiency. The importance of early detection of pregnancy is two folded.
First: Identification of non-pregnant animals will allow separation of
pregnant and non-pregnant does. Thus, differential management.
nutritional supplement and repeat breeding or inseminations are
practiced. Second. determination of fetal numbers would allow ewes to
be fed during late gestation according to the fetal number. This would
probably help optimize birth weight and the probability of survival of
kids. In addition, prevention of pregnancy toxemia in those goats with
triplets. Thus, pregnancy diagnosis can divide the flock into open.
pregnant with singles and pregnant does with multiple litters. Thus.
feeding regimes. management and stocking rate in the lambing paddock
can be improved and attention can be focused more appropriately.
A wide variety of approaches including manuaL visuaL behavioraL
ultrasonic. radiographic and hormonal measurement have been explored
for the early detection of pregnancy and possibly fetal numbers( see table
3). The most promising technique currently available for pregnancy
diagnosis in the goat is the use of real-time Ultrasonography. The quick.

- 61 -
 ·.

accurate combined with the ability to detennine fetal number, and

minimal animal restraint has made the application of this technology
economically feasible. Transabdominal ultrasonography allows reliable
pregnancy diagnosis as early as 35 days of gestation, whereas transrectal
examination will reduce this period further to 25 days. Fetometry using
biparietal diameter and cotyledons size for the aging ofthe fetus has been
reported.

Table 3. Comparisons of the most common techniques available for

Technique Early diagnosis (days) Fetal numbers Accuracy ('Yo)
Behavioral (Teasers) 18-22 no <80
Abdominal palpation 75 -90 no 60-90
Progesterone assay 18 -22 no < 90
Real-time ultrasound 25-35 yes >95
pregnancy diagnosIs III Goats

Manipulation of Reproduction in Goats

Reproductive management techniques are very useful tool to improve

perfonnance of goats in Jordan. As mentioned before, prolificacy,
defined as the number of kids born per doe, is an important reproductive
criterion in evaluating goat productivity. Increasing the number of
kidding, breeding all year, concentrate kidding in a short period and
increasing the litter size are the main focus of reproductive techniques to
increase goat productivity and reduce labor.

Estrus synchronization

Approaches towards synchronizing estrus in ruminants focused on

controlling the long luteal of the estrous cycle. Several approaches either
extending or shortening the luteal phase of the estrous have been
described. Supplying exogenous progesterone fro 14-17 days or injection
of prostaglandin F20 (PGF20) successfully synchronized estrus and a
reasonable level offertility.
The treatment of choice for estrous synchronization and also out-of-
season breeding, in goats has been the intravaginal sponge, impregnated
with 45-60 mg of synthetic progestin. Sponges are widely used either in

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conjunction with pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG), estrogen,
FSH or PGF20 to more tightly synchronize and increase the litter size.

Out-of-season breeding

The techniques used for out-of-season breeding are essentially the same
progestins- gonadotropin treatments described for estrus synchronization
above. Estrus response and subsequent fertility for the out-of-season
application of intravaginal sponges are similar to that reported for does
during the breeding season. Under research conditions sponges
impregnated with 500 mg of natural progesterone have been used in out
of season breeding and similar synchrony and fertility to that of synthetic
progestins were achieved.
Exposing anestrous females to bucks following one month of isolation
has been commonly used to induce estrus and ovulation in the doe during
the transitional and out of season periods. This "male effect" is usually
used in combination with intravaginal sponges. Males are usually
introduced at the time of gonadotropin injection and sponge removal.
The male-induced estrus is usually synchronized, with ovulation
occurring within 2-3 days of stimulation. However, introduction of the
male with progestin supplement show similar trends. The response to
male stimulation is influenced by breed, completeness of prior isolation,
nutrition and time of the year in relation to the beginning of the breeding
season.
An alternative means of modifying the seasonal breeding patterns is
through controlling the hours of light. Administration of melatonin
(subcutaneous slow release melatonin implant; Regulin®) after at least 30
days of long day light was associated with the onset of breeding season.
Artificial lighting, either by itself or in conjunction with melatonin and/or
the male effect, provides effective manipulation of the breeding season in
goats. Although the period of cyclic activity was extended, animals
reverted back to anestrus. Most practical systems have focused on the
extension of the natural breeding season, combining a period oflong days
followed by melatonin treatment for short day simulation. Goats
generally respond more favorably to out-of-season breeding using
melatonin, artificial lighting and the male effect than sheep. Differences
have been attributed to the higher and more variable endogenous night-
time melatonin levels in sheep compared to goats.

Intensive breeding programs

Traditional, goats give birth only once yearly with 12 month kidding
interval. Reproductive parameters in goats including a 5 months

- 63 -
 --------------------,-

pregnancy and 60 days weaning and a 30-45 days breeding period dictate
an 8 months kidding intervaL Thus, goat could kid three times in 2 years
or even under very intensive systems twice yearly. However, a 6 month
kidding interval is very hard to attain. In a 3 kiddings in 2 years, the
flock should be divided into two subflocks with kiddings every four
months. Open does of the first group are bred again with the second
group. Thus each doe is given the opportunity to kid every 8 months or
12 months if she did not conceive. More intensive breeding programs
involve a 5 kiddings in 3 years (Cornell Star Accelerated System
developed for sheep) can be implemented in goats.

Assisted Reproduction in Goats

The techniques of artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer (ET) in

livestock production have been successfully implemented in the world.
However, it is still its infancy and on research basis in Jordan. The need
for experienced personnel and special equipment and the cost incur with
these procedures are hindering the commercializing ofthese techniques in
Jordan. However, these techniques can be used to propagate and
disseminate the Shami breed of goat in Jordan for its milk and prolific
genetics nature. Goats should be inseminated 12-18 hours after the onset
of estrus. In case of frozen semen, acceptable fertility levels are reported
with transcervical or intrauterine insemination.

Conclusions

Appropriate reproductive management is vital to a successful goat

production. The increase in litter size and frequency of kidding is the
main route to increase he profit in goat production operations. A number
of the reproductive techniques described above centered around induction
and synchronization of estrus are applicable to the goat producer.
Advanced assisted reproductive techniques such as AI and embryo
transfer especially with Shami breed have the potential to up grade the
genetic value of Balady goats in Jordan.

- 64-
References:

1. Bearden H.J. and Fuquay J.W.1997 Applied animal reproduction, 4th

edition. USA

2. Buckrell, B.C. 1988. Application of ultrasonography in reproduction in

sheep and goats, Theriogenology, 29(1), pp. 71-84.

3. Greyling, J.P.C., 2000. Reproduction traits in the Boar goat doe, Small
Rumin. Res. 36, 17l-ln

4. McEntee K. 1990, Reproductive pathology of domestic mammals,

Academic Press Inc.

5. Morrow D.A.1986. Current therapy in Theriogenology, 2nd ed. W.B.

Saunders Company, Philadelphia. USA

6. Roberts, S.J. 1986. Veterinary Obstetrics and Genital Diseases,

Theriogenology, Published by the author, Woodstock, Vermont.

7. Youngquist R.S.1997 Current therapy in large Animal Theriogenology.

W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia. USA

- 65 -
 Mycotic abortion in goats
Ahmed L. EI-Naggar
Animal Health Dept., Desert Research Center, P.o.Box 11753, Cairo, Egypt.

Goat farming is an important socio-economic actIvIty in desert areas

because of their milk and meat production and their ability to make use of
natural resources. The fungal diseases are known as mycoses (S.mycosis,
Greek Mykes, Fungus). Fungal infection ofthe reproductive tract of goats
is not well studied. With the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and
hormonal therapy more and more fungal infections are coming to light
and their incidence is increasing. The maintenance of good fertility in
herds is important because the reproductive health of animals is related to
the nutritional needs of human population from meat, milk and Hides.
Mycotic abortion is the most important consequence of fungal infection
of the genital tract as several moulds and yeasts have been implicated in
mycotic abortion (kirkbride, 1990 and Knudtson and kirkbride, 1992).
It is of interest to mention that at least 50 species of filamentous fungi
(Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium and Penicillium) and
yeasts have been implicated in abortion (Corbel, 1988). Mycotic
abortions usually occurred during the last trimester of pregnancy (
williams et aI., 1977 and Corbel, 1988).

Concerning the pathogenesis of spreading of fungi, gastro-intestinal and

respiratory routes are important. Fungal spores are believed to be
disseminated throughout the body via haematogenous spread following
inhalation or ingestion. Concerning the gastrointestinal route any factor
that causes damage to the mucosa of the forestomach, such as acidosis,
may inhance invasion of blood vessels by the proliferating fungi. Then
the hyphae are carried to other locations, including the pregnant uterus (
Jesen et al. 1994). On the other hand, Chihaya et al. (1992) mentioned
that antibiotic treatment plays an important role in the development of
systemic mycosis, as antibacterial agents destroy the resident bacteria and
reduce competition of the microorganisms within the gastrointestinal
tract, so that yeasts and moulds proliferate. Roughages and irritant
antibiotics may cause damage to the alimentary mucosa and allow the
entry of the fungi to the underlying tissue, invasion of blood vessels and
metastatic foci were established from site in the alimentary tract. Kirbride
(1990) reported that a conclusive diagnosis of mycotic abortion can be
made when the following is achieved:

- 66-

ql
 1. Finding characteristic gross or microscopic lesions of placentitis
and demonstrating mycotic elements associated with such lesions.
2. Finding characteristic lesions of dematomycosis on the foetus and
demonstrating by microscopic examination mycotic elements
accompanied by inflammation.
3. Finding foetal bronchopneumonia associated with mycotic
elements.

He also added that yeasts and moulds of unknown source often may be
present in the abomosal contents of aborted foeti but they, in fact, are not
the cause of abortion. Therefore , cultural examination alone is not a
reliable method for diagnosis of mycotic infection, because fungi are
found in the environment, mainly in hay and straw as part of the natural
saprophytic microflora which can easily contaminate the placental tissue.
Therefore, microscopic and histologic demonstration of fungal elements
in tissue sections accompanied by signs of inflammation must be included
for accurate diagnosis (Krogh, 1985 and Kirkbride 1990).

The microscopical examination of the placenta of aborted goat revealed

extensive necrotizing placentitis and coagulative necrosis extended
throughout the foetal and maternal placental tissue of chorioallantoic villi
and well developed infarction in the placentome.
The fungal hyphae were concentrated mainly in the maternal placenta
then directed to the chorionic villi of the foetal placenta and the hyphae
invaded and penetrated the placental and foetal capillaries forming
thrombosis and vasculitis affecting mainly the allantoic blood vessels. It
is of interest to mention that abortion occurring due to disruption of
placentation.

Fig (1): Placentome of aborted does, showing parallel hyphae within the necrotic
chorionic villus (GMS, X50)

- 67-
Fig (2): Placentome of aborted does, showing hyphae of A.fumigatus deeply seated at
maternal placenta and directed toward the foetal placenta of the chorioallantoic villus.
(GMS, X440)

Fig (3):Placentome of aborted does, shoeing hyphae of A.fumigatus in the necrotic

chorioallantoic villus (PAS, X220)

Fig(4): Placentome of aborted does, allantoic blood vessels, showing hyphae of

A.fumigatus penetrating the vascular wall (GMS, X220)

- 68 -
Fig(5): Lung of aborted does, showing nodule of A.fumigatus and hyphae
arrangement in the necrotic tissue of the lung (PAS, X440)

- 69-
References

1. Chihaya, Y.; Okada, H; Matsukawa, K. and Matsui, Y. (1992):

Disseminated mycoses in cattle: A study on nine autopsy
Cases.
J. Vet. Med. Sci. 54(3), 485 - 491.

2. Corbel, M.J. (1988):

Fungal infectious agents. Infertility and fertility in veterinary
Practice (Laing et aI., Ed).
4th Ed. pp. 229-233, English Language Book Society,
Bailliere, Tindall.

3. Jensen, H.E.; Olsen, S.N. and Aalbek, B. (1994) :

Gastrointestinal aspergillosis and zygomycosis of cattle.
Vet. Path. 31,28 - 36.

4. Kirkbride, C.A. ( 1990 ):

Mycotic abortion in cattle. In : Laboratory diagnosis of
livestock abortion, ( Kirbride, C.A., ed.),pp. 136-152. Iowa
State University. Press, Ames.

5. Knudtson, W.U. and kirkbride, C.A.( 1992):

Fungi associated with bovine abortion in the Northern Plains States (
USA).
J. Vet. Diagn. InvestA, 181- 185.

6. Krogh, H.V.(1985):
Bovine mycotic abortion in Denmark.
Nord. Vet. Med. 37,27-33.

7. Williams, B.M.; Shreeve, B.J.; Hebert, C.N. and swire, P.W.

(1977) :
Bovine mycotic abortion: some epidemiological studies.
Vet. Rec, 100,382 - 385.

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.... -

Chlamydia Infection in Goats

Dr. Vasser Mahmoud Kamel
Desert Research center, animal health departmenl,Egept, Cairo

DEFINITION
The word CHLAMYS is Greek for "a cloak draped around the shoulder"
this describes how the intracytoplasmic inclusions by the bacterium are
draped around the infected cell nucleus as shown in fig (1). Chlamydia is
small spherical (0.3-1/lm in diameter) non-motile Gram negative
bacterium, have neither nuclear membrane and the DNA occurs in
irregular mass in the cytoplasm nor capsule.
Chlamydia are obligate intracellular life cycle in mucosal surfaces,
depend on energy rich phosphates of their host cells, therefore, they
considered energy parasite. They resemble the viruses in that they
mUltiply only in living cells.

SURVIVAL
Temperature: At 35-370C, the infectivity decreased while at subzero
maintained for months and years.
Chemicals: Ether, alcohol, potassium permanganate and Sodium
hypochlorite destroy the Chlamydia.
In water: Chlamydia can survive in tape water for 24 hours and in sea
water for 1 hour.

TAXONOMY
Family Chlamydiaceae has two new genera, genus Chlamydia includes
C.trachomatis (human), C.suis (swine) and C.muridarum (mouse and
hamster). The genus Chlamydophila includes C.psittaci (avian), C.felis
(cat), C.caviae (guinea pigs), the former species C.pecorum (sheep, goats
and cattle), c.pneumoniae (human) and C.abortus (sheep, goats and
cattle). The two genera and nine species have merit both on the basis of
molecular structure and for the purposes of classification of host range
and clinical disease. The species show a high degree of correlation with
the host range, disease syndrome and virulence, thus assisting in
understanding the epidemiology of the various species and serovars
affecting mammals and birds. The terms "Chlamydiosis" and
"Chlamydia(e)" are used to refer to members of either of the two genera.

- 71 -
Chlamydophila abortus cause ENZOOTIC ABORTION and may impair
overall reproductive performance. Elementary body of the bacterium
taken by the phagocytosis into the host cells, there is no eclipse (period in
which the parasite loss the infectious ability), then recognized into
reticulate body which muliplicate by binary fission to increase in its
number and then recognized again into elementary bodies to infect new
cells. Time required for completion of a cycle varies from 24 to 48 hours
depending on host-parasite interaction. Chlamydophiia abortus invade the
non pregnant does and lays dormant until the does conceive, then directed
into the gravid uterus to the placenta where induce necrosis and hence,
abortion.

Chlamydophila psittaci and Chlamydophiia pecorum associated in goats

with abortion, conjunctivitis, encephalomylitis, enteritis, polyartheritis
and pneumonia.

DIAGNOSIS

1- Identification of the agent

a) Smears:
Microscopic examination of smears· made from aborted placentae.
Several staining procedures are satisfactory, for example, Giemsa,
Gimenez and modified Zieh-Neelson stains (fig 3).
b) Antigen detection:
By using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and flurescent antibody
technique.
c) DNA:
Amplification of Chlamydial DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
provides an alternative approach for vertif)dng the. presence of
chlamydiae in biological samples without resorting to culture.
d) Tissue section:
Intracellular chlamydial inclusions can be demonstrated by Giemsa
staining of thin (4f!m) sections taken from target tissues.
e) Isolation of the agent:
Chlamydia can be isolated in embryonated chicken egg or in cell culture
as Hell a cells and BHK cells.

II-Serological tests:
1. Complement fixation test
2. Indirect immunofluorescence technique.
3. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.

- 72-
TREATMENT
Tetracycline affect the replication of chlamydia and can be effective in
preventing abortion but not Chlamydia shedding at kidding, in dose
20mg/kg body weight intramuscular at 105 and 120 days of pregnancy.

CONTROL
Inactivated vaccines from infected yolk sacs or cell cultures, and
incorporate whole organisms or fractions of them. A recombinant vaccine
against C.abortus remains a future goal. Vaccination of naIve breeding
females afforded substantial protection against challenge and reduced
shedding of chlamydiae by vaccination was less effective in females
already carrying infection. Revaccination is recommended after 1-3 years,
according to the exposure risk.

Fig( I): inclusion body of chlamydia draped around the nucleus of infected cell

Fig(2) life cycle of chlamydia

- 73 -
 Fig(3) Chlamydia stained with modified Zieh-Neelson stain

Some pathogenic lesions due to chlamydia infection

Fig(4): endometritis Fig(5): conjunctivitis

Fig(6): Polyartheritis

- 74-
 Mastitis in Dairy Goats
Dr. Dima A. AI-Ajlouni, BVM.
Project Veterinarian. Faculty ajVeterinary Medicine, Jordan University oj
Science and Technology. P.o.Bax 3030, Irbid 221 10, Jordan

Introduction

Mastitis may be defined as inflammation of the mammary gland

caused by specific disease producing microorganisms and it is
characterized by physical chemical and usually bacteriological changes in
the milk and also by pathological changes in the udder.

The major portion of a doe's udder is comprised of the cistern areas

where milk is stored. The amount of glandular or milk secreting tissue is
relatively small and is positioned high in the udder against the body wall.
Bacteria, which gain entrance to the gland through the teat opening,
multiply and migrate to the glandular tissue where they cause
inflammation. Mastitis in dairy goats is a disease of considerable
economic importance. Infection is usually spread from infected to non-
infected susceptible animals during the milking process.

Etiology and Symptoms

Regardless of cause the symptoms off all types of mastitis are heat,
pain and swelling of the udder. Some aspects of dairy goat mastitis
closely resemble mastitis in dairy cows; others resemble the disease in
sheep. Subclinical mastitis may be defined as mammary gland infection
as revealed by laboratory examination of milk samples.
Clinical mastitis is characterized by signs of inflammation: swelling,
pain, fever temperature and abnormal milk secretion. Clinical cases may
be acute, where animals clearly show all the characteristic signs of
inflammation and chronic, where the infection remains in a more or less
quiescent state with recurrent mild to severe attacks.

Clinical acute cases result when infected udders are injured and they
are characterized by severe inflammation which may rapidly become
gangrenous, with fever, intoxication and gross changes in milk secretion.
The milk secretion of a clinical mastitis flare-up in a gland or the whole
udder may become yellow, thick and greatly reduced in quantity.

- 75-
 In peracute cases, gangrene quickly develops, often within a few hours
and the affected animal may die unless the entire gangrenous gland is
surgically removed.

The most common organism involved in dairy goat mammary disease

is Staphylococcus epidermitis which is commonly found on the skin of
human hands and the udder skin of goats. This organism produces
progressive chronic mastitis very similar to Streptococcus agalactiae
infection in dairy cows. Recurrent attacks where the udder is feverish and
painful; the quantity of milk secreted is curtailed and the somatic cell
count is greatly elevated depending on the frequency and severity of
attacks.

Staphylococcus aureus is also an important organism involved in dairy

goat mastitis. It is found in both non-clinical and acute mastitis cases.
Acute or peracute attacks are quite similar to blue bag, the common form
recognized in sheep.

Streptococcus agalactiae infection is often reported as a cause of dairy

goat mastitis. It and other streptococci (Streptococcus uberis, and
Streptococcus dysgalactiae) are not nearly as prevalent or economically
important as they are in dairy cows.

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis mastitis in dairy goats is

characterized by the presence of firm round abscesses in the milk
producing tissue. The disease is usually progressive; advanced cases of
the disease reveal mUltiple abscess formation with nearly complete
destruction of milk secreting tissue.

Mycoplasma infections, primarily Mycoplasma mycoides and

Mycoplasma putrefaciens, sometimes cause serious outbreaks of mastitis
in goats.
The latter also causes septicemia, polyarthritis, pneumonia, and
encephalitis together with serious disease and mortality in suckling kids.
Mycoplasma capricolum has also been reported to cause severe
mastitis in goats and infection in kids. Does usually recover in 4 weeks.

Diagnosis

• Laboratory culture

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101
 Staphylococcus aureus is readily identified by laboratory culture of
milk samples. Corynebacterium pyogenes may not be detected by
laboratory examination if udder lesions are few and well isolated by
abscess formation.

• Somatic Cell Count and California Mastitis Test

Subclinical mastitis is less obvious and may only be detectable by

measures of the milk's cellular content (somatic cells). The predominant
cells in milk are epithelial and white blood cells, the latter of which
increase to tremendous number (millions/ml) whenever injury. or
infection of the gland occurs. Thus, by determining the number of cells
present in a sample of milk from the mammary gland one can determine
the likelihood of mastitis even though all other visible signs of
inflammation are apsent. However, it must be remembered that
interpretation and methods for enumerating somatic cell counts in goat
milk are different due to some unique and important differences between
the milk of goats and that of cows.

The scores are related broadly to the number of somatic cells in milk.
Somatic cell numbers in milk tend to increase during milking, and remain
high for a few hours afterwards. For reliable results, test should be
conducted just before milking after stimulating milk down and discarding
the foremilk.

The California Mastitis Test (CMT) is a useful monitoring tools to

detect the presence of mastitis in the mammary glands of dairy goats.
The test is a simple rapid means for detecting mammary gland infection
and irritation. It has had wide acceptance and use by veterinarians and
dairymen in routine mastitis prevention and control programs. There is
widespread belief that a higher CMT is normal for goats than for cows.
Until that argument is definitely settled, a CMT of I or higher should be
cause for concern in goats.

A CMT kit, consisting of a plastic paddle plus all the necessary

reagents, is available commercially. Equal quantities (2 ml) of reagents
and milk are mixed in the cups of the plastic paddle by a swirling motion.
Negative samples are free of gel formation; positive samples show
various degrees of gelling, produced when the CMT reagent reacts with
the DNA of white blood cells, which is a reflection ofthe degree of udder
inflammation. There is a high degree of correlation between the CMT

-77 -
and the somatic cell count. The CMT may be used to estimate the somatic
cell count of the bulk tank, bucket milk, or quarter milk.

Somatic cell counts are accurate measure of udder health. Healthy

dairy goat herds can be expected to produce milk with a somatic cell
count under 500,000. The presence of mastitis infection in dairy goat
herds is reflected in bulk tank milk samples with a CMT of 1 or higher
and a somatic cell count exceeding 1,000,000 cells per milliliter.

Regular use of the CMT or SCC can give both the owner and the milk
consumer confidence that the milk is produced by healthy animals.

o No reaction 68,000
Trace Slight slime, tends to disappear 268,000
with continued ~""irl'in
but
2 Immediate gel formation; move 2,560,000
as a mass
3 Gel develops a convex surface 2:10,000,000
and adheres to the bottom ofth

Table 1. Interpretation ofeMT scores on goat milk.

Prevention

• Remove any objects around the farmstead that might cause udder
injury, such as low branches or door openings that may hit the udder.
All goats should be dehorned and have regular foot care.

- 78-
• The CMT should be perfonned on all lactating goats monthly. This
will help to identify goats which may be contributing to high cell
counts and will also pennit earlier detection of those goats with
subclinical infections.

• Dairy goats are very sensitive, intelligent animals. When the person
milking the goat likes the animals and handles them gently, quietly
and patiently, goats willingly and eagerly participate in the milking
procedure. With ideal milking management, goats show abundant
evidence of affection for the person doing the milking job, letting their
milk down for maximum ease and speed of mil king.

• Use modem milking machine equipments that will milk goats rapidly
without injury when used by trained operators who like the animals.

• Rough hand milking which pulls on the teats and excessively strips
after milk-out can be stressful and injurious as bad machine milking.
Good hand milking requires full hand milking and no tug and pull on
the teats.

• Good milking preparation - clean dry teats and clean dry hands and/or
teat cup inflations. Rough handling, irregular milking times,
ovennilking or inadequate preparation for milking all take their toll in
providing stress and injury. These directly affect mastitis resistance
and susceptibility.

• The use of a bactericidal solution to cleanse the udder and teats

stimulates good milk let-down. Dry the udder and teats with an
individual paper towel before milking begins. With hand milking, it is
very important that milker's hands be thoroughly washed and dried
before milking.

• Teat Dipping. This procedure has been found useful for preventing
spread of mastitis from infected to susceptible glands in dairy cow
herds. It is equally effective and useful in dairy goats. However, some
teat dipping solutions tolerated by dairy cow teats may be too irritant
for dairy goats. Teat dipping solutions should not be used for dairy
goats if they produce drying or irritation of the skin of the teats.

• Vaccination to prevent mastitis has been somewhat unrewarding in

cattle and few, if any, well-controlled studies have been conducted in
goats. At best, vaccination against staphylococcal mastitis (the most

- 79-
 .• ~

common type of mastitis in dairy goats) in cattle has been shown to

reduce severity and possibly duration of infection by these agents.
Their efficacy in goats is unknown.

Treatment

Generally, the treatment of mastitis in goats may not always be

satisfactory, because the organisms causing mastitis in goats are among
the most difficult to kill with medication.

Systemic Treatment

Initially one should determirie if there is significant· systemic·

involvement as judged by the animal's attitude, appetite, and the presence
of fever. Intramuscular administration of antibiotics such as penicillin,
ampicillin, erythromycine, or tetracycline is required. Antihistamines,
anti-inflammatory agents, or fluid therapy also may be required in severe
cases.

Several products are almost universally available for intramammary

infusion. These products are antibiotics or combination of antibiotics in a
10 to 15 cc dose and are packaged in a plastic throwaway tube to inject
into the teat. When using one of these products, always wash the teat end
with soap and water and wipe with alcohol before sticking the applicator
into the teat. You should not reuse applicator or divide a dose between
two teats.

Intravenous and intramuscular antibiotic injections should also be

used in very serious cases. The udder should be milked out at least three
times per day. Bathing the udder two or three times per day in warm
water also will help reduce some of the pain and swelling, because
frequent udder massage with gentle hand milking may be helpful to
relieve pressure in the affected gland to aid recovery.

Dry Treatment

Dry cow mastitis treatment udder infusion formulations are

recommended for goats which have had evidence of mastitis infection
before drying off and they may be at least as effective in preventing
mastitis attack during the dry period. A single dry cow quarter udder
infusion dose is recommended for each udder half in the goat.

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'.

Public health significance

Milk which does not appear normal or which has drug residues should
never be used for human consumption.
Some of the bacteria that cause mastitis can cause sickness in humans.
Never use infected milk for human consumption, especially for babies.
Do not use milk for human consumption for at least 3 days after animals
are treated with drugs. All milk should de pasteurized or boiled before
being fed to babies or sick people.

Summary

Mastitis in dairy goats is usually the result of defective milking

management which gives the organisms responsible the opportunity to
spread and produce disease.
Good husbandry practice, sanitation fot milking which results in
clean dry udders, clean dry milker's hands or milking equipment, sound
milking procedures including post-milking-teat-dipping and treatment
during the non-lactating period, and culling of chronically infected does.

Regular use of the California Mastitis Test and/or Somatic Cell

Counts can successfully monitor the progress of mastitis control and the
health status of udders in the herd.
Careful interpretation of the SCC must be done due to the higher rate
of epithelial cell sloughing and the presence of cytoplasmic masses in
goat milk.

Available antibiotic for udder treatments are excellent for the

treatment of infected mammary glands in the herd, but success with their
use is determined by the level of milking management and sanitation that
used in milking the herd.

Never use milk and meat of infected animals; it may contain antibiotic
residues and harmful bacteria which may lead to human sickness
specially children.

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 .'

References

1.Blood, D.C., and Radostits, O.M.: 1989. Veterinary Medicine. 7th Edition,
Bailliere Tindale, p. 501-559.

2.East, N. E., Birnie, E. F. and Eever, T. B.: Risk factors associated with
mastitis in dairy goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1986.

3. Guss, S.B.: 1977. Management and Diseases of Dairy Goats Publishing

Corp., p. 116-126.

4. Hinckley, L.S., and Leander W.F.: 1981. Diagnosis of Mastitis in Goats,

AgriPractice, May, p. 711-712.

5. Hinckley, L.S.: 1983. Somatic cell count in relation to caprine mastitis,

AgriPractice, August, p. 1267-1271.

6. Kalogridou, T., VassiJiadou, D., Manolkidis, K. and Tsigoida, A.: Somatic

cell counts in relation to infection status of the goat udder. 1. Dairy Res.
1992.

7. Mackenzie, D.: 1970. Goat Husbandry, 3rd edn. Faber and Faber, London.

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 Goat Breeds in Jordan
Ismail ZaitouD, BSc. MSc
Project Extension Officer. Faculty ojAgriculture. Jordan University ojScience and
Technology. P.O.Box 3030. Jrbid 22110, Jordan

Goat is well-adapted animal to the diverse environmental conditions of

Jordan. It is efficient in utilization of low-quality roughage (Knights and
Gracial, 1996). Due to their unique biological and structural features,
goats can be successfully raised in zones with poor vegetation such as
mountains, deserts, semi-deserts and steppe lands.
Goat in Jordan belongs to several breeds and their crosses. These breeds
are Shami (Damascus) goat, Mountain Black goat, Dhaiwi goat, and
Desert goat. Crossbred goat tends to have been produced from continuous
crossing between Mountain and Shami goats. It is assumed that Jordanian
native goat breeds are present in extended areas of adjacent countries to
Jordan. These breeds vary in their color, body weight, size,
morphostructural characteristics, shape of horns and presence or absence
of horns and wattles.

1. Shami goat
Shami is originated in Syria and it is imported to Jordan due to its high
productivity of milk and twins (Sawalha, 1998). It is called by other
names such as Damascus, Balani, and Damanscence (AI-Khoury, 1997;
Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982). In addition, it is present in Palestine, Iraq,
Lebanon and Cyprus (AI-Khoury, 1997; Devendra and Bums, 1983;
Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982; Harb and Khaled, 1984; Hassan and
Shaker, 1990). Shami goat was found in all different locations of Jordan.
Because of its well-known high productivity, the governmental stations
distributed it to many farmers in all locations of the country (Ministry of
Agriculture, 1998).
Shami goat was found to be the heaviest goat breed of Jordan (Figure 1),
where it has an average mature body weight of 56 kg and a range of 33-
100 kg.

Its head tends to be similar to that of Mountain goat breed; medium sized.
It tends to be polled breed and wattles present among 33% of its
population. However, its horns shapes were found to be similar to that of
Mountain and Dhaiwi goat breeds. Nose shape of Shami goat tends to be
convex, largely convex and very largely convex. Ears were large or
medium in size. However, small and trace ears could be noticed among

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its individuals. Shami goat in Jordan usually appeared in dark brown and
irregular random mixture of different colors. However, other colors could
be seen among goats of this breed. Generally brown, dark brown and
white in color, with convex nose shape and long ears. Its udder tends to
be well developed, similar to Mountain goat udder.

2. Mountain Black goats

Mountain Black goat is also known in Jordan as Mountain, Black and
Balady (Local) goat. It is indigenous in Jordan and other Middle Eastern
countries such as Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Iraq (Devendra and
Mcleroy, 1982; Devendra and Burns, 1983; Harb and Khaled, 1984). This
breed of goat is known by other names such as Mamber and Syrian
Mountain (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982; AI-Khoury, 1997). This breed
presents in all locations of Jordan.
The mean value of mature body weight of Mountain breed was 46 kg and
ranged from 25 to 70 kg (Figure 2).
The head of Mountain goat was medium in size. Horns and wattles
present in 60% and 35% of the population, respectively. Horns of adult
males are strong, moderately heavy, long, homonymously twisted and
projecting sideways or backward and outwards, while females have
lighter, scimitar shaped and backward curving horns, and also twisted
homonymously.

Nose shape of Mountain goat tends to be straight and slightly convex.

Ears were large or medium in size. However, small and trace ears could
be noticed among some individuals. Nearly the same descriptive status of
the head and its related characteristics for Mountain goat were reported in
Jordan and Syria (AI-Khoury, 1997; Harb and Khaled, 1984; Hassan and
Shaker, 1990).
Mountain goat usually appeared in black (45%) white (20%) and dark
brown color (23%). However, gray and random unrepeated mixed colors
could be seen in this goat breed (Table 2). Udders of Mountain goat tend
to be well developed (70%). However, spherical udder could be seen
between Mountain goat.

3. Dhaiwi goat
Dhaiwi breed presents mainly in southern provinces of Jordan, which is
also found in the extended area of Egyptian Sinai and Palestinian Negev
(Devendra and Burns, 1983; Hassan, 1993). Dhaiwi breed is also called
Black Bedouin or Bedouin goat.
Dhaiwi was the lightest breed among all goat breeds of Jordan; it had an
average weight of32 kg with a range of20 to 39 kg (Figure 3).

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Individuals of this breed tend to have small head with straight nose.
Eighty percent ofDhaiwi does have horns. So that, it could be considered
as a homed breed. Dhaiwi horns are Homonymously twisted in both
sexes. Males have simple or partially twisted backwards or divergent
sweep horns, whereas females usually have finer and backward sweeping
horns. Wattles present only in 30% of its population. Most individuals of
Dhaiwi breed have trace and small ears. The most apparent colors are
black and black mixed with red or gray on abdomen, limbs, ears and face
areas of animals. Does of this breed have both well developed (55%) and
spherical (45%) udder.

4. Desert goat
Desert breed was recorded from northern Badia, which is also known in
Syria where it was found in the extended Badia (AI-Khoury, 1997).
Desert breed had mean mature body weight of 40 kg with a range from 26
to 46 kg. So, it had heavier body weight than Dhaiwi goats (Figure 4).
Similar to Mountain goat, Desert goat had head of medium size. Nose
shape of this breed was found to be mainly straight (80%) and semi-
straight (20%), which is similar to Dhaiwi goat. Most population of
Desert goat had horns (80%). In contrast with all other native goat breeds
of Jordan, horns of Desert goat have heteronymously twisted horns.
Horns of males and females grow up and backwards witp outward
direction, which then turned inward at their tips. Wattles were found only
in 25% of the individuals of Desert goat. Similarly, most individuals of
this breed had medium (40%) and trace (27%) ears. However, other types
of ear could be seen in Desert goat.

Most of the Desert goats have black colors (65%). Dhaiwi goats have
black mixed with red or gray batches on face, ears, limbs and abdominal
areas of the body (15%). Other colors such as white, dark brown and gray
could be found also but with lower frequencies.
Udder shape is either spherical (56%) or well developed (44%).
Generally, similar description of Desert goat in Syria was reported (AI-
Khoury, 1997).

Conclusion and recommendations

• Shami and Mountain Black goats are large breeds with a dual-
purpose function, meat and milk production, and reared around the
towns and countryside under intensive or semi-intensive
production systems. On the contrary, Dhaiwi and Desert are dwarf
breeds and they tend to have meat production aptitude. These two

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 breeds are reared under harsh environmental circumstances of
Badia in Jordan (semi-desert).

• Crossbred goat has been found to be derived mainly from Shami

and Mountain Black breeds but more related to the latter breed.

• Crossbred goat has been extended across the country at the expense
of other native goat breeds such as, Mountain Black goat due to
uncontrolled breeding and indiscriminant crossbreeding.

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/1/
- 87-
 References

1. AI-Khoury, H. 1997. The Encyclopedia of Goat Breeds in the Arab

Countries. Conservation of Biodiversity and Environments in the Arab
Countries. The Arab Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
(ACSAD/ASIP 158/1996), Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic.

2. Devendra, C. and Mcleroy, G. B. 1982. Goat and SheepPtoduction in

the Tropics. Longman, UK.

3. Devendra, C. and Burns, M. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics.

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, UK.

4. Harb, M. Y. and Khaled, M. K. 1984. Encyclopedia of Animal

Resources in the Arab Countries, the Hashimite Kingdom of Jordan. The
Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD),
Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic.

5. Hassan, N. I. and Shaker, B. 1990. Goat Resources in Arab States in

Syrian Arab Republic. ACSAD, Syria.

6. Hassan, N. I. 1993. Goat Resources in Arab States, Arab Republic of

Egypt. The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
(ACSAD), Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic.

7. Sawalha, R. 1998. Some Genetic and Non-Genetic Factors Affecting

Body Dimensions of Damascus Kids in Jordan. M.Sc. Thesis,
University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.

8. Ministry of Agriculture. Directorate of Animal Production and Health.

Annual Report, 1998.

9. Knights, M. and Garcia, G.W. 1996. The Status and Characteristics of

the Goat (Capra Hircus) and its Potential Role as a Significant Milk
Producer in the Tropics: A Review. Small Ruminant Research, 26: 203-
215.

10.Zaitoun, 1. S. 2002. Identification Of Native Caprine Breeds In Jordan

by Using A Polymerase Chain Reaction Technique and by Studying
Some Production and Morphstructural Characteristics. M. Sc. Theses,
University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan

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