FM 21 -76

REPRINT OF
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

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U.S. ARMY
SURVIVAL
MANUAL
U.S. ARMY
SURVIVAL
MANUAL
 New material © 1991 by Platinum Press Inc.

This 1992 edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc.,

by arrangement with Platinum Press, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without prior written permission from the publisher.

Barnes & Noble, Inc.

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ISBN: 978-1-56619-022-0

Printed and bound in the United States of Ajnerica

25 27 29 31 33 35 34 32 30 28 26
 U.S. ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

-^Table of Contents

Preface.vii
Chapter 1: The Will to Survive .1-1
Chapter 2: Survival Planning.2-1
Chapter 3: Survival Medicine.3-1
Chapter 4: Field Expedient Weapons and Tools .4-1
Chapter 5: Water Procurement .5-1
Chapter 6: Wild Plants for Food ..6-1
Chapter 7: Wildlife for Food.7-1
Chapter 8: Shelters.8-1
Chapter 9: Firebuilding.9-1
Chapter 10: Water Crossings.10-1
Chapter 11: Field Expedient Direction Finding.11-1
Chapter 12: Signaling. 12-1
Chapter 13: Desert Survival.13-1
Chapter 14: Tropical Survival .....14-1
Chapter 15: Arctic and Subarctic Survival.15-1
Chapter 16: Sea Survival.16-1
Chapter 17: Knots.17-1
Appendix A: Poisonous Snakes.A-1
Appendix B: Clouds — Foretellers of Weather.B-1
Appendix C: Edible Plants.C-1
Appendix D: Poisonous Plants.D-1
Index...Index 1
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 Preface

No one knows survival better than the U.S. Army, so

this exceptional field guide is the most authoritative of
its kind. Originally commissioned by the Department of
the Army to train its special forces In all-climate, all-
terrain survival tactics, this newly issued edition is
meant to serve as "a civilian’s best guide for toughing
it...anyplace in the world."

A must for campers, hikers, explorers, pilots, and

others whose vocation or avocations require familiar¬
ity with the wilderness or out-of-doors, this excellent
manual describes and clearly illustrates the techniques
qf survival medicine, tool making, food and water
procurement, shelter building, direction finding, signal¬
ing, and many others that could mean the difference
between life and death in remote areas. The book will
also stimulate the juices of armchair adventurers.
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Many survival case histories show that stubborn, strong willpower
can conquer many obstacles. One case history tells of a man
stranded In the desert for eight days without food and water; he
had no survival training, and he did nothing right. But he wanted
to survive, and through sheer willpower, he did survive.
With training, equipment, and the will to survive, you will find you
can overcome any obstacle you may face. You will survive.

- Preparing for Survival

Two things that you can do now to help you prepare are (1) train
for survival in different environments and (2) learn about the area
where you are going.
Learn how to find and get food and water, how to use natural en¬
vironmental features for shelter, how to build shelter, how to deter¬
mine direction, and how and when to travel through different types
of terrain.
You should learn how to maintain your health, how to avoid en¬
vironmental hazards, and how to doctor yourself.
Most important, you should learn that rest can be more valuable
than speed. Whether you are struggling through jungle
undergrowth, facing a dwindling water supply in the desert, or
making your way across arctic ice, you should plan and make your
way carefully; do not dash blindly on.
You should learn about the natives in the area(s) where you ex¬
pect to go. This knowledge and common sense will enable you to
make contact with them. If you reach an area where the natives
are not allied with the enemy, you will have little to fear and much
1-1
to gain by thoughtful contact with them. By knowing their customs
in advance and by being courteous by their standards, you may
be able to get their help.

Learning about the different environments, how to get food and

water, how to take care of yourself is not enough, however. You
must have the right attitude. That is, you must accept the fact that
as a soldier you may find yourself in a survival situation for an ex¬
tended period of time, alone, with minimum equipment. You must
understand that this situation could come about without warning,
and you must be prepared.

If you have the opportunity, go through a survival school in which

you can train and practice your skills before they really count. The
training you receive will give you confidence in yourself. A few
hours spent in applying what you learn—finding that it works, fin¬
ding that you can accomplish things that previously seemed
impossible—will remove any doubt about your personal ability and
stamina.

-Survival Stresses
You must understand the emotional states associated with survival
just as you must understand survival conditions and equipment.
In a survival situation, you (and your companions, if any) are the
most important element in determining your success or failure.

You have probably never given much thought to—

• How do I react to various situations?

• What do the various signs, feelings, expressions, and reac¬
tions in me (and in others) mean?
• What are my tolerances to different physical and mental
stresses?
• How can I maintain and use my abilities effectively to per¬
form and to control myself?
• How can I influence my companions in a way that will help
them and me?

Yet, knowing these things—knowing '‘thyself”—is extremely im¬

portant in a survival situation and bears directly on how well you
cope with serious stresses: fear and anxiety; pain, injury, and
illness; cold and heat; thirst; hunger; fatigue; sleep deprivation;
boredom; and loneliness and isolation.

1-2
Your body has reaction mechanisms that generally help you to
adapt to stress. For example, when you are scared or angry, these
mechanisms cause changes within your body that tend to increase
your alertness and to provide you with extra energy. These reac¬
tion mechanisms, however, can betray you under survival condi¬
tions. For instance, your “normal” reaction to hunger (a stress)
might cause you to cast reason aside and forage for food in enemy
territory, exposing yourself to capture.

Two of the gravest general dangers to survival are the desire for
comfort and a passive outlook. You must recognize that these
dangers represent attitudes—attitudes that follow lines of least
resistance, that overrule your effort or desire to cope with stress,
that make your primary concern the immediate situation rather
than the overall problem of survival.

To overcome the first danger—desire for comfort—yow need to

change the way you think of comfort. And the key to changing
is reasoning: You compare your present discomfort with the
discomfort you will face if captured. Your present discomfort is
a temporary problem; as a prisoner your discomfort would probably
continue indefinitely and be more intense. Knowing how much
discomfort you can take and understanding your demand for com¬
fort will help you to carry on. Comfort is not essential!

To avoid the second danger—passive outlook—yow should know

what can bring it on.

Some physical conditions contribute to the passive outlook. They

include exhaustion due to prolonged exposure to cold, excessive
loss of body fluids (dehydration), excessive fatigue, weakness, and
illness. You can avoid these conditions by proper planning and
sound decisions.

Lack of the will to keep trying can also result in a passive outlook.
Lethargy, mental numbness, and indifference creep in slowly, but
they can suddenly take over and leave you helpless.

Recognizing the onset of a passive outlook in a companion is im¬

portant. The first signs are an air of resignation, quietness, lack
of communication, loss of appetite, and withdrawal from the group.
The best way to deal with such an outlook is to stop or to counter
the physical and mental stresses that produce it.
1-3
Following are the enemies of survival. They are common physical
and mental stresses that will impact on your ability to cope with
a survival situation.
Pain. Pain is your body’s way of telling you that you have an in¬
jury. Pain, in itself, is not harmful, but it does make you uncom¬
fortable. You may not notice pain if your mind is concentrated on
other matters. But if you let it, pain can get the best of you. It can
weaken your will to survive. You can tolerate pain, however, if
you—
• Understand its source and nature.
• Recognize it as something to be tolerated.
• Concentrate on things you need to do (think, plan, keep
busy).
• Take pride in your ability to take it.
Cold. Being cold lowers your efficiency, your ability to think, and
your will to do anything but try to get warm. It slows down the
flow of blood so that you get sleepy. These effects of cold are
dangerous. You should immediately seek shelter and build a fire
to warm yourself before the cold weakens your will to survive.
Heat. Weakness is the principal symptom of unaccustomed ex¬
posure to heat. You can, however, become accustomed to high
temperatures. It may take 2 to 6 days for your circulation, your
breathing, your heart action, and your sweat glands to get adjusted
to a hot climate. When you are in direct sunlight in hot climates
keep your head covered. If your situation allows, do not exert
yourself during the hottest hours of the day.
Thirst. Two of the most serious problems of survival are thirst
and dehydration. Thirst, even though not extreme, can dull your
mind. Drink plenty of water when there is an ample supply
available, particularly when eating. If your water supply is low,
cut down your food intake. Your body must use extra water to carry
off wastes from food; this causes the body to become dehydrated
more quickly. You can reverse almost any stage of dehydration
simply by drinking enough water.
Hunger. Unrelieved hunger will affect attitude, morale, and will
to survive. If this condition does not change, undernourish¬
ment/starvation will bring on the following symptoms: loss of
weight, weakness, dizziness and blackouts on standing up sudden¬
ly, slowed heart rate, increased sensitivity to cold, and increased
1-4
thirst. In many areas you can find a lot of edible material that you
may not regard as food (Chapter 6). To survive, you must over¬
come your food dislikes and prejudices and eat whatever edible
items are available.

Fatigue. Being tired can reduce your mental ability, make you
careless, and give you an I-don’t-care feeling. Overexertion causes
fatigue; but so does mental outlook: hopelessness, lack of a goal,
dissatisfaction, frustration, and boredom. Rest, of course, is the
primary means of overcoming fatigue caused by overexertion. You
can tell when you have reached the state of tiredness that affects
your mental and physical ability. Often you can summon the
strength to go on if you recognize the dangers of a situation. Fatigue
caused by mental outlook can sometimes be overcome by a change
of activity, by mild exercise, or by conversation with others.

Boredom. Repetitiveness and uniformity are two sources of

boredom. And with boredom comes lack of interest, feelings of
strain, and anxiety or depression, especially when you can see no
relief and are frustrated. To overcome boredom, you must keep
your goal—survival—in mind and realize how the tasks you must
perform fit into your overall survival plan.

Loneliness. Being isolated under trying and threatening conditions

will often bring on another stress—a feeling of loneliness—which
can lead to feelings of helplessness and despair. Self-sufficiency
plays a major role in overcoming these feelings.

You have been developing self-sufficiency all your life. You learn¬
ed how to do things by yourself, how to be comfortable while alone,
how to accept new surroundings, and how to cope with new
problems. Added to that, your military training has provided you
with additional knowledge on problems and conditions you can
expect. You are prepared to be active, to plan, and to think with
a deliberate purpose. These are countermeasures to loneliness.

You can increase your self-sufficiency—your ability to function

competently on your own—with practice. You have opportunities
to do so each day of your life: Make your own decisions and rely
on yourself; explore new situations and solve problems. You must
learn to accept the reality of a new situation or of an emergency
and then take suitable action. This is one of the most important
psychological requirements for survival. Do not sit down and worry.
Stay busy!
1-5
 -- Attitude
Having a “survival attitude” for whatever may occur is extreme¬
ly important. Mental and actual rehearsal of emergency procedures
prepares a person to take automatic action. Knowledge and rehear¬
sal of survival procedures will give you a feeling of confidence—a
“survival attitude”—and will prepare you for any emergency, even
though you may be semiconscious at the time. A person without
a positive mental attitude may panic under dire circumstances.

- Personal Qualities
Personality also plays an important role in survival. In fact, it may
have more bearing on survival than danger, weather, terrain, or
the nature of the emergency. For example, whether a person’s
fatigue duUs or sharpens his mind, overcomes or intensifies his
ability to take necessary survival actions, or lessens or increases
his determination to carry on depends, to a large extent, more on
that person than on the situation. The following personal qualities
are important to survival:

• Being able to make up your mind.

• Being able to improvise.
• Being able to live with yourself.
• Being able to adapt to the situation—to make a good thing
out of a bad thing.
• Remaining cool, calm, and collected.
• Hoping for the best, but preparing for the worst.
• Having patience.
• Being prepared to meet the worst that can happen.
• Being able to “figure out” other people—to understand and
predict what other people will do.
• Understanding where your special fears and worries come
from, and knowing what to do to control them.

--- Survival Actions

You can reduce and overcome the shock of being isolated
behind enemy lines if you keep the key word S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L
foremost in your mind. Its letters can help to guide you in
your actions:

1-6
S - Size up the situation.

If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can con¬
ceal yourself from the enemy—remember, security takes priority.
Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel for the
battlefield. What is the enemy doing? Advancing? Holding in place?
Retreating? You will have to consider what is developing on the
battlefield when you make your survival plan.

Size up your surroundings.

Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on
around you. Every environment, whether forest, jungle, or desert,
has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or pattern includes animal
and bird noises and movements and insect sounds. It may also in¬
clude enemy traffic and civilian movements.

Size up your physical condition.

The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of being in
a survival situation may have caused you to overlook wounds you
received. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. Take care
to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in any climate, drink
plenty of water to prevent dehydration; if you are in a cold or wet
climate, put on additional clothing to prevent hypothermia.

Size up your equipment.

Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of your

equipment. Check to see what equipment you have and what con¬
dition it is in.

Now that you have sized up your situation, your surroundings, your
physical condition, and your equipment, you are ready to make your
survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs:
water, food, and shelter.

U - Undue haste makes waste.

You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without
thinking or planning, and that move may result in your capture
or death. Don’t move just for the sake of taking action. Consider
all aspects of your situation (size up your situation) before you make
a decision and a move. If you act in haste, you may forget or lose
some of your equipment, and you may become disoriented so that
you don’t know which way to go. Plan your moves so that you are
1-7
prepared to move out quickly without endangering yourself if the
enemy is near you.

R - Remember where you are.

Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding
terrain. This is a basic principle that you should always follow. If
there are other persons with you, make sure that they also know
their location. Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft
has a map and compass. If that person is killed, you will have to
get the map and compass from him. Pay close attention to where
you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others present
to keep track of the route. Constantly orient yourself. You should
always try to determine, as a minimum, how your location relates
to:
• The location of enemy units and controlled areas.
• The location of friendly units and controlled areas.
® The location of local water sources (this is especially im¬
portant in the desert).
• Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.
This information will allow you to make intelligent decisions when
you are in a survival/evasion situation.

V - Vanquish fear and panic.

The greatest enemies in a combat survival/evasion situation are

fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to
make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your
feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They can
drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions.
Previous survival/evasion training and self-confidence (page 1-2)
will enable you to vanquish fear and panic.

I - Improvise.

In the United States we have items available for all of our needs.
And many of these items are cheap to replace when damaged. This
easy-to-come easy-to-go easy-to-replace culture of ours makes it
unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in improvisa¬
tion can be one of the greatest enemies in a survival situation. Learn
to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see
how many other uses you can make of it.

1-8
Learn to use natural things around you for different needs. An ex¬
ample is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a
survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after
awhile. But your imagination will not. Use it.

V - Value living.
All of, us were born kicking and fighting to live. But we have
become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of com¬
fort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. So, what happens
when we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, in¬
conveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live-
placing a high value on living—is vital. The experience and
knowledge you have gained through life and through your Army
training have bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal
to give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you
the mental and physical strength to endure.

A - Act like the natives.

The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environ¬

ment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go about
their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and
how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water?
What time do they usually go to bed and get up? These things are
important to you as an evader.

Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive.
Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By watching them,
you can find sources of water and food.

NOTE: Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can

eat and drink.

Keep in mind that the reaction of animals to your presence can

reveal your presence to the enemy.

If you are in a friendly area, one of the best ways to gain rapport
with the natives is to show interest in their tools and their ways
of procuring food and water. By studying the people, you will learn
to respect them, you can often make valuable friends, and, most
important, you can learn how to adapt to their environment and
increase your chances of survival.

1-9
L - Live by your wits, hut for now, learn basic skills.

Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the

battlefield, your chances of living through a combat survival/eva¬
sion situation are slight.

The time to learn these basic skills is NOW—not when you are
headed for or are in the battle. How you decide to equip yourself
prior to deployment will impact on whether or not you survive.
You need to know about the environment to which you are going,
and you must practice basic skills geared to that environment. For
instance, if you are going to a desert, you need to know how to
get water in the desert.

Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and ex¬
ercises. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and gives
you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.

- Pattern for Survival

You should develop a pattern for survival to enable you to beat
the enemies of survival described on pages 1-4 and 1-5. This pat¬
tern of survival must include food, water, shelter, fire, first aid,
and signals placed in order of importance. For example, in a cold
environment, you would need a fire to get warm; a shelter for pro¬
tection from cold, wind, and rain or snow; traps or snares to pro¬
cure food; a means to signal to friendly aircraft; and first aid to
maintain health. If you are injured, first aid has top priority no mat¬
ter what climate you are in.

You must change your pattern of survival to meet your immediate

physical needs in your environment. In the desert, for instance,
water will have top priority if you are not injured.

1-10
 Chapter

Survival planning is nothing more than realizing that something

could happen that would put you in a survival situation and, with
that realization, taking steps to increase your chances of survival.
In other words, survival planning is being prepared.

Being prepared means you have survival items with you, and know
how to use them. For instance, people who live in snow regions
prepare their vehicles for poor road conditions. They put snow tires
on their vehicles; they add extra weight in the back for traction;
and they carry a shovel, salt, and a blanket. They realize they could
get stuck in snow, and they are prepared. Another example of be¬
ing prepared is finding the exits on an aircraft when you board it
fora flight. You realize that something could happen requiring you
to get out of the plane quickly, and you prepare for it. You note
where the exits are located-—to your front or back, to your left or
right, the number of rows away from you.

You read in Chapter 1 about the will to survive. Until you face a
survival situation, however, you can only ‘‘think” rather than
‘‘know” you have that will to survive. But you can train, practice,
and prepare to meet any survival challenge.

-Importance of Planning
The details in survival planning may seem of little importance when
compared with those in military operations planning. They can
become quite significant, however, if a survival situation arises.
Imagine how your chances of success in evading an enemy would
decrease if you were wearing new or improperly fitted boots. A
person who normally is not required to walk long distances will
tend to overlook the importance of proper footgear.
2-1
A small detail that is extremely important when working in an arid
area is conserving water. You must make maximum use of the
available water. If you have troops serving under you, for instance,
you might devise a means to catch the water that overflows when
they fill their canteens from 5-gallon cans. They can then use the
overflow for washing and shaving.

Another small detail is preventive medicine. Have your teeth check¬

ed and your shots up to date before you go on a mission. A tooth
problem in a survival situation will greatly reduce your ability to
cope with other problems you may face. Failure to keep your shots
up to date may mean your body is not immune to diseases that
are prevalent in the area.

If your job requires that you work in a small enclosed area that
limits what you can carry on your person, plan where you can put
your rucksack or your load-bearing equipment. Put it where it will
not prevent you from getting out quickly, yet where you can grab
it quickly.

-Survival Kit
Just as important as the preparations and plans mentioned above
is preparing and carrying a survival kit.

Army aircraft normally have survival kits on board for the type
area(s) over which they will fly. There are kits for overwater
survival, for hot climate survival, and for cold climate survival;
there is also an aviator survival vest. As you go over the lists of
equipment in these survival kits, you will note that each kit has—

• Water or a means to obtain/store water (desalter kit, water

storage bag).
• Food packets and items you can use to obtain food (fishing
tackle, snare wire).
• Trioxane fuel.
• Wooden matches and waterproof matchbox.
• Frying pan.
• Pocketknife.

2-2
 • Plastic spoon.
• Compass.
• Signaling mirror (the overwater kit also contains sea dye
marker, and the hot climate kit contains a plastic whistle).
• Mark 113 MOD 0.
• First aid kit.
• Items to protect oneself against environmental elements
(sunburn-preventive preparation,, insect headnet, and
reversible sun hat are in the overwater and hot climate kits;
poncho, sleeping bag, insect headnet, shovel, and candles
are in the cold climate kit), and a survival manual.

If you are not an aviator, you will probably not have access to the
survival vest or the survival kits, but becoming familiar with what
they contain will help you to plan and to prepare your own
survival kit.

Even the smallest survival kit if properly prepared is invaluable

when you are faced with a survival problem.

-Selection of Survival Kit Items

The key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit
is the environment.

The key to how much you put in your kit and where you carry
it is your mode of travel and your unit’s organic equipment.
In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more
than one thing. If you have two items that will serve the same func¬
tion, pick the one that you can also use for another function. Do
not duplicate items as this will Increase the size and weight of your
kit.

Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only functional
items that will meet your needs and a case to hold the items. For
the case you might use a band-aid box, a first aid case, an ammo
pouch, or other suitable case, but it should be—
• Water repellent.

2-3
 • Easy to carry.
• Durable, and
• Large enough to hold the items you need.
In your survival kit you should have—
• First aid items.
• Signaling items.
• Water and/or means to obtain potable water.
• Fire-starting items.
® Food and/or items to help you obtain food.
• Shelter items.

You should include a weapon only if the situation so dictates.

2-4
 Chapter

Survival Medicine

You probably take good health for granted; at least, you take hav¬
ing a doctor available for granted. And when you feel sick, you head
for the dispensary, knowing that the doctor will have a solution
to your health problem: he can make you healthy.
In a survival situation, however, it is you who must know what to
do to stay healthy. In other words, you must know how to avoid
illnesses and how to prevent injuries.

- Staying Healthy
Four of the most crucial factors in staying healthy are having ade¬
quate water and food, practicing good personal hygiene, getting
sufficient rest, and having your shots/immunizations up to date.

Adequate Water. Your body loses water through normal body

processes—sweating, urinating, and defecating. When the at¬
mospheric temperature is 68® F, the average adult loses, and
therefore requires, 2 to 3 liters (2 to 3 quarts) of water daily. In
other circumstances, such as heat exposure, cold exposure, intense
activity, high altitude, burns, or illness, your body may lose more
water. This water must be replaced. Figure 3-1 describes what oc¬
curs when lost body fluid is not replaced.

Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost body

fluids. It will decrease your efficiency in doing even the simplest
task, and it will increase your susceptibility to severe shock if you
are injured.

Thirst is no indication of how much water you need, so even when

you are not thirsty, drink small amounts of water regularly to pre¬
vent dehydration. If you are exerting a lot of energy or are under
3-1
 ; V -V ~ "''"''"'’a "7

P BODY FLUID LOSS resuLts""'"'^!^^

5% Thirst, irritability, nausea, and weakness.

10% Dizziness, headache, inability to walk, and a

tingling sensation in limbs.

15% Dim vision, painful urination, swollen tongue.

deafness, and a numb feeling in the skin.

More than 15% Death.

Figure 3*1. The effects of dehydration.

severe conditions, increase your water intake. Drink enough liquids

to maintain a urine output of at least 1 pint every 24 hours. In a
hot climate, you should drink 4 to 8 gallons of water a day.

To treat dehydration, replace the body fluids that were lost. Drink
any potable fluids available—water, fruit juices, soft drinks, tea,
and so forth. (Chapter 5 tells you ways to obtain water).

CAUTION: Do not use sea water or urine under any circumstances.

Although they will satisfy thirst temporarily, they actually cause ad¬
ditional water loss from the body, promote dehydration, and if taken
in sufficent quantity, will kill you.

Adequate Food. Although you can live several days without food,
you need an adequate amount to stay healthy. Without food your
mental and physical capability will rapidly deteriorate, and you will
become weak. Food replenishes the substances that your body
burns and provides energy. It provides vitamins, minerals, salts,
and other elements essential to good health. Possibly more impor¬
tant, it helps morale.

Meats provide fats, which furnish energy, and proteins, which the
body uses for production of special chemical compounds it needs.
Plants provide carbohydrates, which are the main source of energy,
and many plants provide enough protein to keep the body at nor¬
mal efficiency.

In a survival situation, the type of food available may be unappeal¬

ing and foul-smelling. But if it’s edible, eat it. (See (Chapters 6 and
7 for information on using wild plants and animals for food.)

3-2
Personal Hygiene. In any situation, cleanliness is an important
factor in preventing infection and disease; in a survival situation
it becomes even more important.
Of course, a daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you
can keep clean without this luxury. Use a cloth and soapy water
to wash yourself. If water is scarce, take an ‘‘air’’ bath: Remove
as much of your clothing as practical and expose your body to sun
and air.
If you are out of soap, you can use ashes or sand. Or you can make
soap from animal fat and wood ashes if your situation allows. The
odor from the fire and hot fat can alert the enemy of your presence.
To make soap—
• Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into small
pieces and cooking them in a pot. Add enough water to
the pot to keep the fat from sticking as it cooks. Cook the
fat slowly, stirring frequently. After the fat is rendered,
pour the grease into a container to harden.
• Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom.
Pour water over the ashes, and in a separate container col¬
lect the liquid that drips out of the spout. This liquid is
the potash or lye. Another method for obtaining the lye
is to pour the slurry (the mixture of ashes and water)
through a straining cloth.

• In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part potash.

Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens.

• After the mixture—the soap—cools, you can use it in the

semiliquid state directly from the pot, or you can pour it
into a pan, allow it to harden, and cut it into bars for later
use.

Keep Your Hands Clean. Germs on your hands can infect food and
wounds. So be sure to wash your hands after handling any material
that is likely to carry germs, after visiting the latrine, after caring
for the sick, and before handling any food, food utensils, or drink¬
ing water. Keep your fingernails closely trimmed and clean, and
keep your fingers out of your mouth.

Keep Your Hair Clean. Your hair can become a haven for fleas,
lice, and other parasites or bacteria. Keeping your hair clean and

3-3
trimmed will help you to avoid this danger. Fleas and lice live and
feed on warm-blooded animals and are carriers of dangerous
diseases. Rodents, for instance, are likely to have fleas or lice. So
if you kill a rodent to eat, let it become completely cold before clean¬
ing it so that the lice or fleas will be gone. Louse powder is the
best way to rid yourself of fleas and lice should you become in¬
fested. Other ways to rid yourself of these insects is to place your
clothing in direct sunlight for a few hours or wash frequently in
hot, soapy water.
Keep Your Clothing Clean. You should keep your clothing and bed¬
ding as clean as possible to reduce the chance of skin infection as
well as to decrease the danger of parasite infestation. Clean your
outer clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear clean
underclothing and socks each day. If water is in short supply, ”air'’
clean your clothing (shake, air, and sun for 2 hours). Turn your
sleeping bag inside out after each use and fluff and air it.

Keep Your Teeth Clean. At least once each day, thoroughly clean
your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush or dentifrice. If you don’t
have a toothbrush, make a “chewing stick.” Find a twig about 8
inches long and V2 inch wide. Brush your teeth thoroughly with
your chewing stick. Or wrap a clean strip of cloth around your
finger and rub your teeth with it to wipe away food particles. To
remove food stuck between your teeth, use a toothpick made from
a twig or use dental floss made from thread, string, or thin strips
of bark or vine.

Take Care of Your Feet. To prevent serious foot trouble, break in

your shoes prior to wearing them on any mission, wash and
massage your feet daily, trim your toenails straight across, and
check your feet for blisters. If you get a blister, do not open it.
An intact blister is safe from infection. Apply a dressing around
the blister, not on it. If the blister bursts, clean it and apply a ban¬
dage over it.

Sufficient Rest. You need a certain amount of rest to keep going.

Rest restores physical and mental vigor. If you are ill or injured,
it promotes healing. You should plan for regular rest periods in
your daily activities, and you should learn to make yourself com¬
fortable under less than ideal conditions.

Immunizations. Before you go on a mission, make sure your im¬

munizations are up to date.

3-4
 Medical Emergencies

Knowing how to treat and immediately treating a companion who

has a serious medical problem are important in any situation; they
are critical in a survival situation where medical personnel are not
available and may not be available for weeks, possibly months.
Stopped breathing, severe bleeding, and shock constitute serious
medical emergencies that must be treated at once to prevent loss
of life.
Stopped Breathing. Any one of the following can cause airway
obstruction, resulting in stopped breathing:
• The presence of some foreign matter in the mouth or throat
that obstructs the opening to the trachea.
• Face and/or neck injuries.
• Inflammation and swelling of the mouth, throat, and
trachea caused by inhaling of smoke, flames, or irritating
vapors or by an allergic response to foodstuffs, insect bites,
plants, or other items.
• Flexion of the neck. If the neck is bent forward so that
the chin is resting upon the chest, the resulting “kink’’ in
the throat can block the passage of air from the mouth
and/or nose to the lungs.
• Unconsciousness. A state of unconsciousness produces
complete relaxation of the muscles of the lower jaw and
the tongue. If the neck is bent forward, the lower jaw sags
and the tongue drops back, blocking the passage of air in¬
to the lungs.

The following are signs of airway obstruction:

• The victim is struggling to move air in and out of his lungs.
• The muscles in the front of the victim’s neck stand out
prominently but no air can be heard or felt moving in and
out of the mouth or nose.
• Cyanosis, a notable blue or gray color of the skin around
the lips, ears, fingernails, and sometimes the whole body,
is present.

Stopped breathing, regardless of its cause, is a critical medical

emergency. When the air supply to the lungs is restricted or stop¬
ped, irreversible brain damage and eventually death can occur
within a matter of minutes. Time is of the utmost importance.
3-5
opening the Airway.To restore and maintain an open airway, take
the following steps.

NOTE: If any step opens the airway so that the victim begins to breath
spontaneously, you need not proceed any further.

Step 1. Clean out the victim’s mouth. Using a finger, quickly

sweep the victim’s mouth clear of any foreign objects, broken
teeth, dentures, sand, etc.

Step 2. Tilt the head back.

Adjust the victim’s position to enlarge the airway by immediately
placing him on his back with his head in a chin-up position (figure
3-2).

Tilt the victim’s head backwards as far as possible so that the

front of the neck is stretched tightly. This is done by placing
one hand on the back of the neck and lifting while pushing down
on the forehead with the heel of the other hand. This usually
opens the mouth automatically.

If a rolled blanket, poncho, or similar object is available, it can

be placed under the victim’s shoulders to maintain this position,
but do not waste time obtaining such materials.

If tilting the head back opens the airway and the victim starts
to breathe, go no further; otherwise go on to step 3. Keep the
head tilted back throughout all of the remaining steps.

Step 3. Force air into the lungs.

Try to force two or three breaths quickly into the victim’s lungs
through the mouth while holding the nostrils pinched shut.
Watch the victim’s chest for movement indicating that the air
is reaching his lungs.
This forced breathing may be enough to start spontaneous
respiration, or it may remove a small obstruction that has been
restricting breathing.

Watch the victim’s chest for movement indicating that the air
is reaching the lungs. If the chest rises and falls with the forced
ventilations, the airway is unobstructed. If the airway is not
open, go on to Step 4.

3-6
 AIRWAY OPENED BY
AIRWAY CLOSED EXTENDING NECK
BY TONGUE

Figure 3-2. Neck extended in a chin-up position.

Step 4. Lift the jaw.

Accentuate the stretch of the neck to get the tongue out of the
way by using one of the following two jaw-lift methods:
• Thumb jaw-lift. Place your thumb in the victim’s mouth,
grasp the lower jaw firmly with your fingers, and lift the
jaw forward (figure 3-3). Do not try to hold or depress the
tongue.
• Two-hand jaw-lift. This method is used when the victim’s
jaws are closed so tightly that the thumb cannot be inserted

AIRWAY OPENED FARTHER

BY ADJUSTING JAW

THUMB JAW-LIFT TWO-HAND JAW-LIFT

Figure 3-3. Method for adjusting lower

jaw to jutting out position.
3-7
 into the mouth. Using both hands, grasp the angles of the
lower jaw just below the ear lobes. Lift the jaw forcibly
forward so that the lower teeth are in front of the upper
teeth. Open the lips by pushing the lower lip toward the
chin with the thumbs (figure 3-3).
• Once the tongue is in the extreme forward position, another
quick breath into the victim’s mouth will determine
whether or not the airway is clear. If the victim’s chest
rises and falls with the forced ventilation, the airway is
clear. If the airway if still obstructed, proceed to step 5.

Step 5. Clear the air passage. When efforts to open the airway
by head tilt, forced ventilation, and maximum jaw extension all
fail, it is probably that a foreign object is lodged so deeply in
the victim’s throat that the quick sweep of the mouth in step
1 failed to reach it. The following maneuvers should be perform¬
ed in an attempt to dislodge the object.

• Finger probe. Sweep an index finger down the inside of

the victim’s upper cheek to the base of the tongue. Use
the finger as a hook to attempt to dislodge the foreign body
up into the mouth. When the object comes within reach,
remove it.

• Back blows. Turn the victim on his side and deliver a few
sharp slaps to the back between the shoulder blades. After
delivering the back blows, sweep an index finger inside
the victim’s mouth to determine if the object has been
dislodged.

• Abdominal thrusts (figure 3-4). If the victim is sitting or

standing, stand behind him and wrap your arms around
his waist. Grasp one of your fists with your other hand and
place the thumb side of this fist in the victim’s abdomen
between the lowest end of the sternum and the navel. Press
your fist into the victim’s abdomen with a quick upward
thrust. Repeat several times if necessary.

• If the victim is lying down, place him on his back and kneel
close to the victim’s hips. Place the heel of one of your
hands against the victim’s abdomen, between the lowest
end of the sternum and the navel. Place your other hand
on top of the first. Press your hand into the victim’s ab-

3-8
 DOING THE HEIMLICH HUG DOING THE HEIMLICH HUG WITH
WITH VICTIM STANDING OR VICTIM LYING ON HIS BACK
SITTING

Figure 3-4. Abdominal thrust.

domen with a quick upward thrust. Repeat several times

if necessary.
• Combined use of back blows and manual thrusts. A com¬
bination of back blows and manual thrusts may be
necessary for clearing upper airway obstructions.

Cricothyroidotomy. A person with acute upper airway obstructions

may require an immediate cricothyroidotomy (an artificial airway)
to save his life. A cricothyroidotomy is an opening in the trachea
between the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage that per¬
mits air to pass directly from the outside into the trachea without
passing through the upper air passages. A cricothyroidotomy is
performed as follows:

CAUTION: This procedure requires specific knowledge and training.

Nonmedical personnel should perform it only in a combat survival
situation and only as a last resort.

• Place the victim on a flat surface with the neck extended

and the head tilted backwards so that the structures in the
neck are stretched.
• Only if time permits, clean the skin with soap and water.
If an antiseptic is available, apply it to the skin.
• With your fingers on the victim’s neck, identify precisely
the cricothyroid membrane (figure 3-5).
The thyroid cartilage is the rather large structure that
forms the Adam’s apple.
3-9
 The cricoid cartilage is the ringlike cartilaginous structure
just below the thyroid cartilage. It is not as large as the
thyroid cartilage, but it is approximately twice as thick as
the cartilaginous rings that make up the remainder of the
trachea below it.
The membrane that is located between the thyroid car¬
tilage and the cricoid cartilage is the cricothyroid mem¬
brane. At this point, only the membrane and the skin
separate the airway from the outside.

• Lift the skin over the cricothyroid membrane and make

a 1/2-inch vertical incision through the skin in the midline
with a scalpel, razor blade, knife, or any other sharp in¬
strument.
• With your fingers, separate the skin, exposing the
cricothyroid membrane, and make a transverse incision in
the membrane, exposing the tracheal lumen.
Once the incision has been made in the cricothyroid mem¬
brane, the opening must he maintained so that air can move
between the trachea and the outside. This can best be done
by carefully inserting a piece of clean tubing, which can
be obtained from a ballpoint pen, into the opening;
however, in an absolute emergency, anything that will
maintain this opening may be used. When the tube has
been inserted, air can be heard moving in and out of the
opening immediately.
• Secure the opening. If a tube has been inserted, attach a
strip of cloth or a piece of string carefully around the tube
and tie it around the neck. The tube must be anchored to
keep it from falling out or from being jammed into the back
wall of the trachea.
The opening must be maintained until the victim is in the
care of a physician or until the unconscious victim recovers
enough that the cricothyroidotomy is no longer necessary
(swelling goes down and victim can breathe normally).
When the tube is removed, the wound will close and heal
with no further attention, other than antiseptic and an air¬
tight bandage.

Bleeding. Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body
is extremely dangerous. Loss of 1 quart of blood will produce

3-10
moderate symptoms of shock, loss of 2 quarts will produce a severe
state of shock that places the body in extreme danger, and loss
of 3 quarts is usually fatal. In a survival situation, serious bleeding
must be controlled immediately because replacement fluids normal¬
ly are not available and the victim can die within a matter of
minutes.

External bleeding can be classified according to its source.

Arterial Blood is carried away from the heart and through the body
in blood vessels called arteries. When an artery has been cut, bright
red blood issues from the wound in distinct spurts or pulses that
correspond to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because the blood in
the arteries is under high pressure, quite a large volume of blood
can be lost in a short period of time when an artery of significant
size is damaged. For this reason, arterial bleeding is considered
the most serious type of bleeding; if it is not controlled promptly,
it can be fatal.

Venous. Venous blood is blood that is being returned to the heart

by means of blood vessels called veins. Bleeding from a vein is
characterized by a steady flow of dark red, maroon, or bluish blood.
Pressure of the blood in the veins is much lower than in the arteries,
but nevertheless, venous bleeding can be quite profuse. Venous
bleeding usually is controlled more easily than arterial bleeding.

Figure 3-5. Location of cricothyroid membrane.

3-11
Capillary. The capillaries are the extremely small vessels that con¬
nect the arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding most common¬
ly occurs in minor cuts and scrapes. Blood flow from such injuries
is slow and oozing, and blood flow is not profuse. Bleeding from
capillaries is not difficult to control because the blood usually clots
and the bleeding stops on its own accord.

Control external bleeding by direct pressure, elevation, or tour¬

niquet.

Direct pressure. The most effective means of controlling external

bleeding is by the application of pressure directly over the wound.
This pressure must not only be firm enough to stop the bleeding,
but it also must be maintained long enough to '‘seal off” the damag¬
ed surface.

The initial application of pressure should be with a finger or hand

placed directly over the bleeding point. If a sterile dressing or clean
cloth compress is immediately available, it may be held over the
bleeding point as the pressure is applied, but time should not be
wasted locating these.

Firm, even pressure should be applied to the bleeding point until

the bleeding stops. However, alternate application and relaxation
of the pressure to determine if the bleeding has stopped is not
desirable. It is best to apply the pressure to the bleeding point con¬
tinuously for up to 30 minutes before releasing it to determine if
the bleeding has stopped. In most cases, this is sufficient time for
the bleeding to be stopped.

If bleeding continues after the application of direct pressure for

a 30-minute period, a pressure dressing (figure 3-6) should be ap¬
plied. This dressing consists of a thick dressing of gauze or other
suitable material applied directly over the wound and held in place
with a tightly wrapped bandage. The pressure is generated by the
bandage which is wound circumferentially. This bandage should
be tighter than an ordinary compression bandage but not so tight
that circulation to the rest of the limb is impaired. Indications that
the bandage is too tight include the absence of pulses, a bluish
discoloration of the nails and skin, and tingling sensations or pain
in the extremity beyond the bandage.

Once a pressure dressing has been applied it should not be removed

even if bleeding continues. If the dressing becomes blood-soaked.

3-12
sufficient pressure was not generated to stop the bleeding and ad¬
ditional pressure must be applied. This additional pressure may
be provided by another dressing placed on top of the original dress¬
ing. Elevation of the wounded extremity and application of digital
pressure should be used in conjunction with the additional dressing.

ADDITIONAL PRESSURE APPLIED

TO WOUND WITH HAND

ADDITIONAL PRESSURE APPLIED TO

WOUND WITH PAD (RAG) FIRMLY
SECURED WITH CRAVAT OR OTHER
STRIP OF MATERIAL

Figure 3-6. Application of a pressure dressing.

3-13
The pressure dressing should be left in place for 1 or 2 days, after
which it can be removed and replaced by a smaller dressing. Dur¬
ing the 2-day interval, the wound and pressure dressing should be
checked frequently for indications of controlled bleeding, insuffi¬
cient circulation, and infection. Failure to do this could result in
gangrene or frostbite, due to a decrease in circulation, and then
in loss of the extremity.

Elevation. Raising an injured extremity as high above the level of

the heart as possible slows blood loss by aiding the return of blood
to the heart and lowering the blood pressure at the wound.
However, elevation alone will not control bleeding entirely; it must
be accompanied by direct pressure over the wound.

Tourniquet. Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the

bleeding point in conjunction with pressure over the appropriate
pressure point and elevation of the injured extremity fail to con¬
trol the bleeding. Application of direct pressure is so effective in
the control of bleeding that the use of a tourniquet is rarely
necessary; furthermore, a tourniquet is not recommended for
general use because of the following:

• A tourniquet, properly applied, obstructs blood flow both

to and from that portion of the extremity beyond the tour¬
niquet, resulting in damage to all tissues. If the tourniquet
is left in place for too long, the damage to the tissues can
progress to total gangrene with subsequent loss of the limb.

• A tourniquet may obstruct venous blood flow without total¬

ly obstructing arterial flow, resulting in more profuse
arterial bleeding than before the tourniquet was applied.

• A tourniquet, improperly applied, can cause permanent

damage to nerves and other tissues at the site of the con¬
striction.

If you must use a tourniquet, you can improvise one from any
strong, soft, pliable material such as gauze, a large handkerchief,
a triangular bandage, a towel, or similar item. To minimize damage
to nerves, blood vessels, and other underlying tissues, the tourni¬
quet should be 3 to 4 inches wide before it is wrapped around the
extremity and at least 1 inch wide after it is tightened. Apply the

3-14
tourniquet as follows:

• Place the tourniquet around the extremity between the

wound and the heart 2 to 4 inches above the wound site
(figure 3-7). Never place it directly over the wound or
directly over a fracture.
• Wrap the tourniquet twice around the extremity and tie
. it with a single overhand knot. Place short stick or similar
object on top of this knot (figure 3-7) and use a square knot
to hold it in place.
• Use the stick as a handle to tighten the tourniquet (figure
3-7). Tighten it only enough to stop blood flow. If you can
feel a pulse in the intact extremity before the tourniquet
is applied, use the absence of this pulse after tightening
the tourniquet as an indicator that tourniquet pressure is
sufficient.
• When you have tightened the tourniquet sufficiently, bind
the free end of the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding
(figure 3-7).
• After you secure the stick, clean, dress, and bandage the
wound.

A lone survivor should not remove or release a tourniquet once

it has been applied.

Shock. Shock is not a disease entity in itself; it is a syndrome, or

collection of symptoms. These symptoms result from a decrease
in the volume of blood circulating through the body and from the
body’s efforts to compensate for this decrease.

Signs/symptoms. Early signs of shock are~

• Pale skin.
• Rapid pulse.
• Coldness of extremities.
• Thirst.
• Dryness of mouth.

Symptoms of shock often observed are—

• Faintness, disorientation, or unexplainable restlessness.

• Weak, feeble, pulse.

3-15
 MAKE A LOOP AROUND THE
LIMB. TIE WITH SQUARE KNOT

SQUARE KNOT

PASS A STICK, SCABBARD, OR

BAYONET UNDER THE LOOP

TIGHTEN TOURNIQUET
JUST ENOUGH TO STOP
ARTERIAL BLEEDING

BIND FREE END OF STICK

TO LIMB TO KEEP TOURNIQUET
FROM UNWINDING

Figure 3-7. Application of tourniquet

3-16
 • Cold, clammy sweating.
• Decreased urinary output.

As shock becomes more severe, the following symptoms will be

evident:

• Rapid and weak or “thready” pulse, or unobtainable pulse.

• .Irregular, gasping respirations.
• Dilated pupils that are slow to respond to light.
• Mental confusion and eventual coma and death.

Complications. Shock can cause death if it is not treated promptly,

even though the injuries that brought on shock might not be serious
enough to cause death. In fact, individuals may go into shock
without having any physical injuries.
Treatment. Shock should be anticipated in all persons who have
been injured. All injured persons should be treated in the follow¬
ing manner, regardless of what symptoms appear, in order to pre¬
vent and/or control shock:

• If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with

the lower extremities elevated 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches).
• If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or ab¬
domen with the head turned to one side to prevent chok¬
ing on vomitus, blood, or other fluids.
• If there is any doubt as to the best position, place the vic¬
tim perfectly flat. Once the victim is in a shock position,
do not move him.
• Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the sur¬
roundings and, in some instances, applying external heat.
• If the victim is wet, remove all wet clothing as soon as
possible and replace with dry garments.
• Insulate the victim from the ground with clothing,
parachute material, tree boughs, or any other available
material. Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from
the weather.
• Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed sleeping bag,
another person, warmed water in canteens, hot rocks wrap¬
ped in clothing, or fires on either side of the victim to pro¬
vide external warmth.

3-17
 The warm liquids or foods should be given only if the
victim is conscious.
• If the victim is conscious, administer a warm salt solution
slowly in small doses to him. The use of bouillon, tea, or

MAINTAIN BODY HEAT INSULATE FROM GROUND

REMOVE ALL WET SHELTER FROM WEATHER

CLOTHING

GIVE WARM FLUIDS

AND FOODS

REST AT LEAST
24 HOURS

CONSCIOUS VICTIM

DO NOT ADMINISTER FLUIDS

TURN HEAD TO ONE SIDE

TO PREVENT CHOKING ON
VOMITUS, BLOOD, OR OTHER

UNCONSCIOUS VICTIM

Figure 3-8. Treatment for shock.

3-18
 any other warm beverage may make the solution more
palatable.
• Do not administer fluids if the victim is unconscious or if
the victim has abdominal wounds.
• The victim should rest for at least 24 hours.
If you are a lone survivor, lie in a depression in the ground, behind
a tree, or any other place out of the weather with head lower than
feet. Try to keep warm and to rest for at least 24 hours (see figure
3-8).

--Other Health Hazards

Insect bites and stings, animal bites, open wounds, skin infections,
and intestinal parasites are just a few of the health hazards that
you may face in a sur/ival situation. Learn how you can avoid these
hazards (Chapters 13-16) and how to treat yourself if you become
a victim to these health problems.
Insect Bites and Stings. Insects and related pests are hazards in
a survival situation not only because of the irritation that results
but because some are carriers of diseases and others may cause
a severe allergic reaction in some individuals. In many parts of the
world you will be exposed to serious, even fatal, diseases not en¬
countered in the United States. For instance—
• Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, and many other
diseases.
• Flies can spread disease from contact with infectious
sources. They are causes of sleeping sickness, typhoid,
cholera, and, in rare cases, dysentery.
• Fleas can transmit plague.
• Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing fever.
• Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such as Rocky
Mountain spotted fever which is common in many parts
of the United States.
• Bee and wasp stings can be dangerous and even fatal in
individuals who are sensitive to their venom.
If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch the bite as it may become
infected.
You should inspect your body at least once a day to ensure that
there are no insects attached on you. If you find ticks attached to

3-19
your body, cover them with a substance such as vaseline, heavy
oil, or tree sap that will cut off their air supply. This will cause
the tick to release its hold and you can remove it. Take care to
remove the whole tick. Use tweezers if you have them. Grasp the
tick where the mouth parts are attached to the skin. Do not squeeze
the tick’s body. Wash your hands after touching the tick since in¬
fective fluids from it can cause disease. Clean the tick wound well
each day until it is healed.
If you have been in a chigger or mite - infested area, wash your
skin thoroughly with soap and water, repeating several times.
If you are stung by a bee or wasp, immediately remove the stinger
and venom sac if attached by scraping with a fingernail or a knife
blade. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac with
tweezers or with your fingers as squeezing will force more venom
into the wound. Wash the sting site thoroughly with soap and water
to lessen the chance of a secondary infection and apply an ice pack
or cold compress.
If you know or suspect you are allergic to insect stings, always
carry an insect sting kit with you.
You can sometimes relieve the itching and discomfort caused by
insect bites by applying cold compresses, a cooling paste of mud
and ashes, the milky sap from dandelions, coconut meat, or crush¬
ed leaves of garlic.
Other pests whose bites or stings can be dangerous are spiders,
centipedes, scorpions, and ants. A few spiders have poisonous bites
that may be as painful as a wasp’s sting. A centipede’s sting is
like that of a wasp. A scorpion’s sting can make you sick or kill
you, depending on the species. Biting ants can cause a lot of discom¬
fort and serious allergic reactions in some people. To treat a spider
or scorpion bite, clean the wound extremely well and try to remove
the toxin by suction or by squeezing the bite site. If you have any
type of tobacco, chew it and place it over the bite site. This will
help to ease the pain. Treat the bite as you would an open wound
(page 3-24).
Animal Bites. Although you are less likely to be bitten by an
animal than an insect in a survival situation, it is extremely impor¬
tant that you know how to treat an animal bite. If there are no
means to test the animal for rabies, consider its bite rabid and begin
shots if serum is available. Clean the wound extremely well, and

3-20
then continue to treat the bite as you would an open wound
(page 3-24).
NOTE: Consider using the treatments the local population uses on
spider and animal bites, but do so with caution (page 3-20).
Snakebite.The possibility of a snakebite in a survival situation is
rather small if you are familiar with the various types of snakes
and their habitats. But because the possibility does exist, you should
know how to treat a snakebite. You should also know that deaths
from snakebites are rare. More than one-half of the victims of
snakebite will have little or no poisoning, and only about one-
quarter will develop serious systemic poisoning. However, the
possibility of snakebite in a survival situation can affect morale,
and failure to take preventive measures or failure to properly treat
a snakebite can result in needless tragedy.
A bite wound, regardless of the type of animal that inflicted it, can
become infected from the bacteria in the animal’s mouth. With non-
poisonous as well as poisonous snakebites, this local infection is
responsible for a large part of the residual damage that results.
Shock and panic in a person bitten by a snake can also affect the
person’s recovery. Excited, hysterical, and panicky reactions can
speed up the circulatory system, causing the body to absorb the
toxin quickly.
Very few snakebite victims die or become permanently disabled,
however, if they receive proper treatment promptly.
Before you begin treatment for a snakebite, you should determine
if the bite was made by a poisonous or nonpoisonous snake. If you
did not get a good enough look at the snake to identify it, you can
tell by the bite mark whether it was poisonous.
All snakes have several rows of teeth. Some snakes, however, have
one or more pairs of fangs (large, grooved or hollow teeth) through
which the snake injects venom. All snakes that possess fangs are
considered poisonous.
Look for the following signs/symptoms to determine if a snakebite
is made by a poisonous snake:
• Fang punctures at the site of the bite. One or two punc¬
tures (sometimes three or four) generally indicate a
poisonous snake, especially if one or more of the symp¬
toms below are present.

3-21
 • Pain at the site of the bite.
• Swelling at the site of the bite within a few minutes or
within 2 hours.
• Paralysis, weakness, twitching, and numbness. These are
signs of neurotoxic venoms, and usually appear IV2 to 2
hours after the person is bitten.

If you determine that you have been bitten by a poisonous snake,

take the steps listed in figure 3-9.

If antivenom is available and you are certain you are not allergic to
it, use it.

If a medically trained person (medic or doctor) is present, he should

give the bite victim a 0.1 cc test dose of antivenom. If the victim
is allergic to the antivenom but IV fluids are available, the medic
should start two IV lines, TKO rate, one with antivenom, then one
with epinephrine of 1:1000 0.4-1 cc. (Use epinephrine only if
allergic reaction occurs.) Repeat every 5 to 10 minutes if needed.
Keep IV dripping.

If the victim is allergic to the antivenom and no IV fluid is available,

divide the dose of antivenom.

CAUTION: In a survival sitmtion, the amount of antivenom available

will be minimal

If the victim is allergic to the antivenom, using one or two vials

will probably cause more danger than help due to anaphylactic reac¬
tion. To be effective for a major envenomation, 15 to 20 vials of
antivenom are required.

Following the above-described care of the victim, the medic should

take the following actions to minimize local effects:

• Remove any necrotic tissue.

• Watch for infection.
• If infection appears, keep the wound open and clean.
Remove necrotic tissue as needed. If scrubbing does not
remove all necrotic tissue and the infection is getting
worse, consider maggot therapy (page 3-25).
• May use sterile (or as clean as possible) cloth as a wick
for continued drainage.
3-22
 • Flush the wound daily with water or fresh urine. (Do not
store urine for later use.)
• Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent spread of
local infection.
• Keep wound covered with dry sterile dressing.
• Have victim drink large amounts of fluids until infection
, is gone.

DO'S t ^ ^ DON'TS

Lie down (if circumstances Do not move around because

permit) with head slightly activity makes the blood cir¬
lower than the rest of the culate faster thereby speeding
body. up the spread of the venom.

Refer to the DON’TS before Do not make any deep cuts at

considering cutting. If making bite site. Cutting opens
an incision, cut no deeper capillaries, which in turn
than the two layers of skin. opens a direct route into the
blood stream for venom and
infection.
Remove toxin as soon as Do not use your mouth to
possible by using a suck out venom. The vessels
mechanical suction device or under the tongue will absorb
by squeezing. toxins almost immediately
and carry them to the heart.

Clean the bite site and hands Do not use ice on bite.
extremely well.

If the bite is on an extremity, Do not put hands on face as

snuggly wrap the extremity venom may be on hands.
halfway above the bite site,
using material at least 2 in¬
ches wide.
Remove watches, rings, Do not use a tourniquet.
bracelets, and any other
restricting items.

Drink small amounts of fluid, Do not drink alcoholic type

preferably water. fluids.

Use aspirin or Tylenol for Do not use morphine or mor¬

pain. phine derivatives.

Figure 3-9. Snakebite do’s and don’ts.

3-23
Open wounds. All open wounds are serious in a survival situation,
not only because of tissue damage and blood loss, but also because
they may become infected. Bacteria on the object that made the
wound, on the skin and clothing of the individual, or on other
foreign material or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection.

By taking proper care of the wound, however, you can reduce fur¬
ther contamination and promote healing. Clean the wound as soon
as possible after it occurs:

• Remove or cut clothing away from the wound.

• Thoroughly clean the skin around the wound.
• Rinse (do not scrub) the wound with large amounts of the
cleanest water available. You can use fresh urine if water
is in short supply. Fresh urine is sterile.

CAUTION: Do not apply common antiseptics such as iodine, mer-

thiolate, and mercurochrome directly to a wound without diluting them.
These solutions can cause further tissue damage, and should he used
on intact skin only.

CAUTION: Do not attempt to close a wound by sewing or by a similar

procedure. Leave the wound open to allow pus or infectious material
to drain.

• Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage

on the dressing to hold it in place.
• Change the dressing daily to check for infection.

In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost

inevitable. Pain, swelling, and redness around the wound; increased
temperature; and pus in the wound or on the dressing indicate in¬
fection is present.

To treat an infected wound—

• Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected
wound. Change the compress when it cools, keeping a
warm compress on the wound for a total of 30 minutes.
Apply the compresses three to four times daily.
• Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected
wound with a sterile instrument (knife, glass, wood, or
other item) so that the pus can drain. Gently remove all
accumulations of pus or crusted matter.

3-24
 • Dress and bandage the wound.
• Drink a lot of water.
• Continue the above treatment daily until all signs of infec¬
tion have disappeared.
During World War I, maggots were an accepted treatment for in¬
fected wounds. However, you should be aware of the following
before you decide to use maggots to eat infected tissue:

• You must expose the wound to flies to introduce maggots.

Because of their filthy habits, flies are likely to introduce
other bacteria to the wound, possibly causing more com¬
plications.
• Maggots will invade live, healthy tissue when the dead
tissue is gone or not readily available.
You should consider maggot therapy despite its hazards when you
do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely in¬
fected, does not heal, and ordinary debridement is impossible.
To use maggot therapy, proceed as follows:

• Expose wound to flies for one day and then cover wound.
• Check daily for maggots.
• Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check
daily.
• Remove all maggots once they have cleaned out all dead
tissue and before they start on healthy tissue. Increased
pain and bright red blood in the wound indicate that the
maggots have reached healthy tissue.
• Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh
urine to remove the maggots.
• Check the wound every 4 hours for several days to ensure
all maggots have been removed.
• Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It
should heal normally.
Skin Infections. Although boils, fungal infections, and heat rash
rarely develop into a serious health problem, they cause discom¬
fort, and you should treat them.
Boils. Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Then
open the boil using a sterile knife, wire, needle, or similar item.

3-25
Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and water. Cover the boil
site, checking it periodically to ensure no further infection develops.
Fungal infections. Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the in¬
fected area to as much sunlight as possible. Do not scratch and do
not use strong substances such as iodine and alcohol. You cannot
“burn out” fungus.
Heat rash. Keep the area clean and dry. Apply powder if available.
A cold compress may help relieve itching.

Intestinal Parasites. You can usually avoid infestations of worms

and other intestinal parasites if you take preventive measures. For
example, never go barefooted. The most effective way to avoid
intestinal parasites is: Do not eat uncooked meat and do not eat
raw vegetables possibly contaminated with raw sewage or human
feces used as a fertilizer (night soil). However, if you should become
infested and lack proper medicine, you might try one of the follow¬
ing home remedies. Keep in mind, though, that these home
remedies are not without danger. Most of these following remedies
work on the principle of changing the environment of the
gastrointestinal tract:
• Saltwater. Mix 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 quart of water
and drink. Do not repeat this treatment.
• Tobacco. Eat 1 to IV2 cigarettes. The nicotine in the
cigarette will kill or stun the worms long enough for your
system to pass them. If the infestation is severe, repeat
the treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but not sooner.
• Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene but no more.
If necessary, you can repeat this treatment in 24 to 48
hours but no sooner.
• Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady
part of your diet. You can eat them raw or put them in
soups or rice and meat dishes.

Diarrhea. This is a common, debilitating ailment that may be caus¬

ed by such things as a change of water and food, drinking con¬
taminated water, eating spoiled food, becoming fatigued, and using
dirty dishes. You can avoid most of these causes by practicing
preventive medicine. If you get diarrhea, however, and do not have
antidiarrhea medicine with you, you may find one of the following
treatments is effective:
3-26
 • Limit your intake to fluids for 24 hours.
• Drink 1 cup of a strong solution of tea every 2 hours until
the diarrhea slows or stops. The tannic acid in the tea helps
to control diarrhea. Tannic acid is also found in the moist
inner bark of hardwood trees. Boil the inner bark for 2
hours or more to release the tannic acid. Although this solu¬
tion will have a vile taste and smell, it will stop most cases
of diarrhea.
• Make a solution of one handful of ground chalk, charcoal,
or dried bones and treated water. (The solution should be
the consistency of kaopectate.) If you have some apple
pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an equal portion
to the mixture to make it more effective. Take 2 tables¬
poons of the solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows
down or stops.
You should drink a lot of liquids to replace the lost fluids.
Bums. Following is a field treatment for burns that relieves the
pain somewhat, seems to help speed healing, and offers some pro¬
tection against infection:
• Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling
tannic acid solution (tea or inner bark of hardwood trees
boiled in water).
• Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over the burns.
CAUTION: Do not apply grease or fats to burns.

-Herbal Medicines
Our modem day wonder dmgs and fine laboratories and equipment
have obscured the old-time “country doctor” type of medicine-
determination, common sense, and a few primitive treatments. In
many areas of the world, however, the people still depend on the
local witch doctor or healer to cure their ailments. And many of
the herbs (plants) and treatments they use are as effective as the
most modem medications available. In fact, many modem medica¬
tions come from refined herbs. For example, the white, stringy part
of the rinds of citms fmits and the apple pulp (apple pomace) left
after pressing out the juice contain pectin. By mixing either the
rind pieces or the apple pomace with ground chalk, you will have
a primitive form of kaopectate.
3-27
You should use herbal medicines with extreme caution, however,
and only when you lack or have limited medical supplies. Some her¬
bal medicines are dangerous and may cause further damage or even
death.

3-28
 Chapter

Field Expedient
Weapons and Tools

As a soldier, you know you have to take proper care of your tools
and weapons to get the best results when you use them. This is
especially true of your knife. Keep it sharpened and ready to use.
In a survival situation it is one of your most valuable items.
Can you imagine being in a survival situation without any weapons
or tools except your knife? It could happen! You might even be
without a knife. So it is important that you know how to improvise.
The main reason why you need a weapon is so you can hunt on
the move. A field expedient weapon is not intended to protect you
from enemy soldiers, but it can extend your area of defense beyond
your fingertips. It can also give you a feeling of security.

- Clubs
There are three basic types of clubs.
Simple Club. A simple club is merely a staff or branch short
enough for you to swing easily but long enough and strong enough
for you to damage whatever you hit.
Weighted Club. A weighted club is any simple club with a weight
on one end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as a knot
on the wood, or it may be something added, such as a stone. You
will also need some type of lashing (page 4-7).
To make a weighted club—
• Find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash
it securely to the club. A stone with a slight hourglass
shape works well.
• Find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A
straight-grained hardwood is best if you can find it.
• Lash the stone to the handle.
4-1
SPLIT-HANDLE TECHNIQUE
T

BIND SPLIT END

TIGHTLY TO
SECURE STONE
LASHING

SPLIT END LASH SECURELY

TO LASHING ABOVE, BELOW,
AND ACROSS STONE
INSERT STONE

FORKEO-BRANCH TECHNIQUE

STARTING AT
CROTCH, LASH
SECURELY TO
PREVENT SPLITTING

WRAPPEO-HANDLE TECHNIQUE
SHAVE END
TO APPROX.

HARDWOOD 3 FEET LONG HALF THE

AND 1 INCH IN DIAMETER DIAMETER

STONE WITH
“PECKED”
GROOVE
WRAP THE SHAVED
END AROUND THE STONE

Figure 4-1. Lashing clubs.

4-2
There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split
handle, forked branch, and wrapped handle. Which technique you
use will depend on the type of handle you use (see figure 44).

Sling Club. A sling club is another type of weighted club. However,

the weight suspends from the handle (see figure 4-2). A blow from
this type of club has more force than a blow from the other types
of weighted clubs.
You can make another type of sling club by putting sand or a rock
in a sock. This type of weapon, however, is a one-shot deal.

-Edged Weapons
In Chapter 2 you learned that you should always have a pocket
knife in your survival kit, but maybe you find you need another
type knife or a spear. You can use wood, bone, stone, or metal
to make a knife or spear blade.

To make a wooden knife—

• Find a straight-grained piece of hardwood about 12 inches
long and 1 inch in diameter.
• Shave about 6 inches of this hardwood to form the knife
blade, making the point of the blade slightly off- center
so that it is not formed by the pith. (The pith makes a
weak point.)
4-3
 • If you have a fire, slowly dry the blade portion over the
fire until it is slightly charred. (The drier the wood, the
harder the point.)
• Sharpen the blade using a coarse stone.

You can use bamboo instead of hardwood to make your knife.

However, after you shape the blade, you should remove only the
inside portion of the bamboo to make the blade thinner. The outer
layer is harder and should be used to get the hardest possible blade.
Char only the inside of the bamboo to harden the blade.

To make a bone knife you v/ill need a suitable bone such as the
leg bone of a deer or other medium-size animal, a hard surface and
a heavy object with which to shatter the bone, a piece of hardwood
for a handle, and lashing material. To do so—

® Find a suitable bone and lay it on a hard surface.

® Hit the bone with a heavy object so that the bone shatters,
• Select a pointed bone splinter that can be further shaped.
• Sharpen the splinter by rubbing it on a rough-textured
rock.
® Lash the sharpened bone splinter to a piece of hardwood
(handle).

To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone,

a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. (A chipping tool is a light blunt-
edged tool for breaking off small pieces of stone, and a flaking tool
is a pointed tool used to break off thin flattened pieces.) You can
make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or metal and a flaking tool
from bone, antler tine, or soft iron. Lash the blade to the hilt (see
figure 4-3).

You can make a metal knife using basic metalworking techniques.

To do so—

• Find a piece of soft iron whose shape closely resembles

the intended knife (if possible).
• Place the metal on a flat, hard surface and hammer it to
get the shape you desire.
® Rub the metal on a rough-textured rock to get a cutting
edge and point.
• Lash the knife onto a hardwood handle.
4-4
 CHIPPING TOOL

SHAPE BLADE.(STRIKE
GLANCING BLOWS NEAR
EDGE TO GET EDGE THIN
ENOUGH TO SHARPEN)

SHARP-EDGED PIECE OF STONE

SHAPED LIKE A KNIFE BLADE

FLAKING TOOL

SHARPEN BLADE.(PRESS
DOWNWARD WITH FLAKING
TOOL AT STONE EDGE OR
PUSH FLAKING TOOL ALONG ^
EDGE)

LASH BLADE TO
HILT (HARDWOOD,
ANTLER, ETC.)

NOTCHES FOR
LASHING BLADE
TO HILT

Figure 4*3. Making a stone knife.

4-5,
To make a spear, use the same procedures to make the blade as
you used to make a knife blade. Then—

• Select a shaft (a straight sapling) 4 to 5 feet long. The

length should allow you to handle the spear easily and ef¬
fectively.
• Attach the spear blade to the shaft.

Other Expedient Weapons

The bola is another field expedient weapon that is easy to make
(see figure 4-4). It is especially effective for capturing running game
or low-flying fowl in a flock.

To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and twirl it above your
head. Release the knot so that the bola goes toward your target.
When you release the bola, the weighted cords will separate. These
cords will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or animal that
you hit.

USE OVERHAND KNOT TO

JOIN THREE 24” CORDS

TIE 1/2-LB WEIGHT

SECURELY TO ENDS
OF CORDS

HOLDING KNOT, TWIRL BOLA

OVER YOUR HEAD AND RELEASE
TOWARD YOUR TARGET

Figure 4-4. Bola.

4-6
 Figure 4-5. Rabbit stick.

A rabbit stick can be used to kill small game. It is a flat curved

club resembling a boomerang. Find a blunt stick that curves
naturally at about a 45° angle and shave off two sides so it is flat
like a boomerang (see figure 4-5).

-Lashing Materials
There are several natural materials you can use to make lashing.
However, don’t overlook the man-made items you have with you.
For instance, you can unravel a cotton web belt and braid enough
strands together to give you a cord strong enough to use on a field
expedient weapon.
If you have no man-made materials you can use for lashing, look
for natural materials. The inner bark of some trees, such as the
linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and
white cedar, can be shredded and braided together to make cord.
After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for
your purpose.
Sinew (tendon) is the best natural material for lashing small
objects. To make the lashing, use tendons from large game, such
as deer, as follows:
• Remove the tendons from the game and dry them com¬
pletely.
• Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers.
• Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous strand.
If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid
the strands.
4-7
NOTE: When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots
as the moistened sinew is sticky and dries hard.
Rawhide is also good lashing. It is made from the skins of medium
or large game. To get the rawhide—
• Skin the animal and remove all fat and meat from the skin.
• Spread out the skin, making sure there are no folds that
can trap moisture.
• Cut the dry skin into strips.
• Soak the strips (2 to 4 hours) until they are soft and pliable.

--A Drill
On page 9-9 you will find how to make a bow and drill for starting
a fire. By adding a drill bit you can use this same drill for boring
holes. For the bit you can use a piece of flint or a piece of iron
sharpened so it will cut downward and on the side. Drive the bit
into the working end of the shaft and lash it securely.
If you need a free hand to hold the material you are drilling, you
can fashion a mouthpiece from softwood to use as a cap for the
drill. Shape the mouthpiece so you can hold it firmly with your
teeth; make the mouthpiece with wing pieces to rest on the out¬
side of the cheeks for comfort. Insert a bone in the mouthpiece
at the point where it will connect with the drill and insert the other
end of the bone in the drill.
You can also use a hot metal wire or rod to burn a hole in wood.

4-8
y\later is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. You
can't live long without it, especially in hot areas where you lose
so much through sweating. Even in cold areas, you need a
minimum of 2 quarts of water a day to maintain efficiency
(Chapter 3).

More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your

body loses fluid as a result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. The
fluid your body loses must be replaced for you to function effec¬
tively (Chapter 3). So, one of your first objectives is to obtain an
adequate supply of water.

-Obtaining Water

Almost any environment has water present to some degree. On

pages 5-2 through 5-5 is a figure that lists possible sources of water
in various environments. And on page 5-13 is information on how
to make the water potable.

NOTE: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of

water container, you can improvise one from plastic or water-resistant
cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins,
sharp bones, or other suitable items—even your hands—to hold the
pleats.

If you do not have a reliable source for replenishing your water

supply, stay alert for ways in which your environment can help you.
5-1
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5-2
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5-3
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5-4
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5-5
 FLUID /remarks". -

Alcoholic beverages Dehydrates the body and clouds

judgment.
Urine Contains harmful body wastes. Is
about 2 percent salt.

Blood Is salty and is considered a food;

therefore, requires additional body
fluids to digest.
Sea water Is about 4 percent salt. It takes
about 2 quarts of body fluids to rid
the body of waste from 1 quart of
sea water. Therefore, by drinking
sea water you are depleting your
body’s water supply, which can
cause death.

Figure 5-2. The effects of substitute fiuids.

CAUTION: Do not substitue the fluids listed in figure 5-2 for water.
Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around
your ankles and walk through dew-covered grass before sunrise.
As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water out in¬
to a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply of water
or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes mop up as
much as a quart an hour in this way.
Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may indicate a water-filled
hole. Siphon the water out with plastic tubing, scoop it out with
an improvised dipper, or stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water,
then wring it out.
Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use
the same procedure as above to get the water.
In arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may in¬
dicate water in or near the crack.

Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water.

Water from green bamboo is clear and without odor. To get the
water, bend over a stalk of green bamboo, tie it down, and cut off
the top (figure 5-3). The water will drip freely during the night.
Old, cracked bamboo segments may contain water.
CAUTION: You must purify the water before drinking it.
5-6
 Figure 5-3. Getting water from green bamboo.

CUT OUT BOWL

CUT HERE

WATER WILL FILL

BOWL FROM ROOTS

Figure 5-4. Water from piantain or banana tree stump.

5-7
Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water.
Cut off the tree, leaving about a 1-foot stump, and scoop out the
center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from
the roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three
fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be
palatable. The stump (figure 5-4) will supply water for up to 4 days.
Be sure to cover it to keep out insects.

Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine
as high as you can reach, then cut the vine off close to the ground.
Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth (figure
5-5). Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting.

The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher.

However, the milk from mature coconuts contains an oil that acts
as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.
In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches
support air plants. These air plants may hold a considerable amount
of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly growing leaves. Strain
the water through a cloth to remove insects and debris.

Figure 5-5. Getting water from a vine.

5-8
You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off
a section of plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the
moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the
ground, cut them into short pieces, and remove the bark. Usually
you can suck water from the roots.

Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo contain water. Cut

or notch stalks at the base of a joint to drain out the liquid.

The following trees can also provide water:

• Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, and nipa, contain

liquid. Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so the tree
will “bleed’’ at the injury.
• The traveler’s tree of Madagascar has a cup-like sheath
at the base of its leaves in which water collects.
• The leaf bases and roots of the umbrella tree of western
tropical Africa can provide water.
• The baobab tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia
and Africa collects water in its bottle-like trunk during the
wet season. Frequently, clear fresh water can be found in
these trees after weeks of dry weather.

CAUTION: Do not keep sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It begins
fermenting, becoming dangerous as a water source.

Stills can be used in various areas of the world. They draw

moisture from the ground and from plant material. But you need
certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect
the water. It takes about 24 hours to obtain from 1 pint to 1 quart
of water.

-Constructing a Still

There are two types of water stills: the aboveground and the below¬
ground.

For the aboveground still, see figure 5-6 .

5-9
 Figure 5-6. Aboveground solar water still.

You must have a sunny slope on which to place the still. Proceed
as follows:

• Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze
or by “scooping” air into the bag.
• Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy
vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp
spines that might puncture the bag. CAUTION: Do not use
poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid.
• Place a small rock or similar item into the bag.
• Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the
end of the bag as possible to retain the maximum amount
of air space. (If you have a piece of tubing, small straw,
or hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag
before you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing
so that air will not escape. This will allow you to drain out
condensed water without untying the bag).
• Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight.
The mouth of the bag should be slightly higher than the
low point in the bag.
• Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into
the low point in the bag.

5-10
 Figure 5-7. Belowground still.

To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around
the bag’s mouth and tip the bag so that the water collected around
the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth securely and reposi¬
tion the still to allow further condensation.
For the belowground still (figure 5-7),you will need a digging tool.
You should select a site where you believe the soil will contain
moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot where rainwater
has collected), where the soil will be easy to dig, and where sunlight
hits most of the day. Proceed as follows:
• Dig a bowl-shaped hole approximately 3 feet across and
2 feet deep.
• Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The depth and the
perimeter of the sump will depend on the size of the con¬
tainer that you have to set in it. The bottom of the sump
should allow the container to stand upright.
• Anchor the tubing to the bottom of the container by form¬
ing a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
• Place the container upright in the sump.
• Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and
beyond the lip of the hole.
• Place the plastic sheeting over the hole, covering the edges
with soil to hold it in place.
5-11
 • Place a rock in the center of the plastic.
• Allow the plastic to lower into the hole until it is about 15
inches below ground level. The plastic now forms an in¬
verted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the
apex of the cone is directly over your container. Also make
sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole
because the earth will absorb the condensed water.
• Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it secure¬
ly in place and to prevent loss of moisture.
• Plug the tube when not being used so that moisture will
not evaporate.

You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube
as a straw.
You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If
so, when you dig the hole you should dig out additional soil from
the sides of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants.
Then proceed as above.

If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough

outside the hole about 10 inches away from the lip of your still
(figure 5-8). Dig the trough about 10 inches deep and 3 inches wide.
Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill any
polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic touches
the soil. The purpose of the trough is to hold the polluted water
so that the soil will filter it as it is drawn into the still. The water
then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This
process works extremely well when your only water source is
saltwater.

--Making Water Potable

Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is generally

safe for drinking. However, you must purify water from lakes,
ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially those near human
habitation or in the tropics. When at all possible, you must disinfect
all water obtained from vegetation or from the ground by using
iodine or chlorine or by boiling.

5-12
 SAND OR DIRT TO DRINKING TUBE
ANCHOR PLASTIC SHEET

WATER TROUGH FOR WATER TROUGH FOR

POLLUTED WATER POLLUTED WATER

CONTAINER

Figure 5-8. Belowground still for obtaining potable

water from polluted water.

You can purify water by—

• Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions
provided.)
• Pouring 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a can¬
teen full of clear water, and 10 drops in a canteen full of
cloudy or cold water. (Let the canteen of water stand for
30 minutes before drinking.)
• Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute
for each additional 1,000 feet above sea level, or boil for
10 minutes no matter where you are.
By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow
organisms that can harm you. For example—
• Dysentery (severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools,
fever, and weakness).
• Cholera and typhoid. (You may be susceptible even though
you have been innoculated.)
• Flukes. (Stagnant, polluted water—especially in tropical
areas— often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes,
they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and
cause disease).
• Leeches. (If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the
throat passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create
a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound
may become infected ).
5-13
If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling,
you can clear the water—
• By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours
or
• By pouring it through a filtering system.

NOTE: This only clears the water and makes it more palatable. You
will have to purify it.
To make a filtering system, place several inches or layers of filter¬
ing material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in bam¬
boo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing (figure 5-9).
Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire
to it. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before drinking it.

CLOTH BAG OR
TROUSERS LEG

LAYERS OF ROCKS
LAYERS OF SAND

FILTERED WATER

Figure 5-9. Water filtering system.

5-14
 Chapter

After water, food is your most urgent need. So in a survival situa¬

tion you should always be on the lookout for wild foods and live
off the land whenever possible. Save your rations, if any, for
emergencies.
You should keep in mind, however, that—
• You can live many days without food if you have water.
So when water is no problem, drink more than your
normal amount to keep fit.
• Eating increases thirst. If you have less than a quart
of water daily, avoid dry, starchy, and highly flavored
foods and meat. Eat foods that have a high car¬
bohydrate content such as hard candy and fruit bars
if available.
• Every bit of work requires additional food and water,
so keep work to a minimum when you have limited
food and water.
• With few exceptions, everything that grows from the
soil or that walks, crawls, or swims is a potential food
source.
Nature can provide food that will enable you to survive. You must
know, however, how to find and obtain the food. In this chapter
you will learn about obtaining and preparing plant food. In Chapter
7 you will learn how to obtain and prepare wildlife for food.

-Nourishment From Plants

Plants are a valuable food source. Although they may not provide
a balanced diet, they will sustain you even in the arctic where the
6-1
heat-producing qualities of meat are normally essential. Many plant
foods such as nuts and seeds will give you enough protein for nor¬
mal efficiency. Roots, green vegetables, and plant food contain¬
ing natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates that give
the body energy.

The food value of plants becomes more and more important if you
are eluding the enemy or if you are in an area where wildlife is
scarce. For instance—

• You can dry plants by wind, air, sun, or fire. This retards
spoilage so that you can store or carry the plant food with
you to use when needed.
• You can obtain plants more easily and more quietly than
meat. This is extremely important when the enemy is near.

—- Edibility of Plants
Being able to recognize both cultivated and wild edible plants is
important in a survival situation. However, since information on
cultivated plants is readily available, most of the information in
this manual is about wild plants.

There are certain things you should keep in mind when collecting
edible plants:

• Cultivated plants and wild plants growing in or near

cultivated plants may have been sprayed with pesticides.
So thoroughly wash whatever plants you collect.
• The surface of any plant food that grows or is washed in
contaminated water is also contaminated. If you are go¬
ing to eat the plant raw, wash it in water suitable for
drinking.
• Some plants may have fungal toxins that are extremely
poisonous. To lessen the chances that these toxins are pre¬
sent, collect fresh seeds, fruit, or leaves—not those that
have fallen to the ground.
• Plants of the same species may differ in the amount of toxic
or subtoxic compounds they contain because of different
environmental and genetic factors. One example of this is
the foliage of the common chokeberry. Some chokeberry
6-2
 plants have high concentrations of cyanide compounds,
other plants have low concentrations.
• Some people are more susceptible than others to gastric
upset from plants. If you are sensitive this way, avoid
unknown wild plants. If you are extremely sensitive to
poison ivy, avoid products from this family, including
drinks made from sumacs, mangos, and cashews.
• There are some edible wild plants, such as acorns and
water lily rhizomes, that are bitter. These bitter substances
(usually tannin compounds) make them unpalatable. Boil¬
ing in several changes of water will help remove these
substances.
• There are many valuable wild plants that have high con¬
centrations of oxalate compounds. Oxalates usually pro¬
duce a sharp burning sensation in your mouth. And they
are bad for the kidneys. Boiling usually destroys these ox¬
alates.
• The only way to tell if a mushroom is edible is by proper
determination. Even then, some species are questionable.
So do not eat mushrooms.

There are many, many plants throughout the world. Tasting or

swallowing even a small portion of some can cause severe discom¬
fort, extreme internal disorders, or death. Therefore, if you have
the slightest doubt as to the edibility of a plant, apply the Univer¬
sal Edibility Test (figure 6-1) before eating any part of it.

Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are a suffi¬
cient number of the plants to make testing worth your time and
effort. You need more than 24 hours to apply the edibility test.

Keep in mind that eating large amounts of plant food on an empty

stomach may cause diarrhea or cramps. Two good examples of
familiar foods that can cause this problem are green apples and
too many fresh berries. Even though you have tested plant food
and found it safe, eat it in moderation with other foods.

You can see from the steps and time involved in testing edibility
just how important it is to be able to identify edible plants.

6-3
 1. Test only one part of a potential food plant at a time.
2. Break the plant into its basic components—leaves, stems, roots, buds,
and flowers.
3. Smell the food for strong or acid odors. Keep in mind that smell alone
does not indicate a plant is inedible.
4. Do not eat for 8 hours before starting the test.
5. During the 8 hours you are abstaining from eating, test for contact
poisoning by placing a piece of the plant part you are testing on the
inside of your elbow or wrist. Usually 15 minutes is enough time to
allow for a reaction.
6. During the test period, take nothing by mouth except purified water
and the plant part being tested.
7. Select a small portion of a single component and prepare it the way
you plan to eat it.
8. Before putting the prepared plant part in your mouth, touch a small
portion (a pinch) to the outer surface of the lip to test for burning or
itching.
9. If after 3 minutes there is no reaction on your lip, place the plant part
on your tongue, holding it there for 15 minutes.
10. If there is no reaction, thoroughly chew a pinch and hold it in your
mouth for 15 minutes. DO NOT SWALLOW.
11. If no burning, itching, numbing, stinging, or other irritation occurs dur¬
ing the 15 minutes, swallow the food.
1 2. Wait 8 hours. If any ill effects occur during this period, induce vomiting
and drink a lot of water.
13. If no ill effects occur, eat Va cup of the same plant part prepared the
same way. Wait another 8 hours. If no ill effects occur, the plant part
as prepared is safe for eating.

CAUTION: Test all parts of the plant for edibility, as some plants have both edible
and inedible parts. Do not assume that a part that proved edible when cooked is also
edible when raw. Test the part raw to ensure edibility before eating raw.

Figure 6-1. Universal Edibility Test.

6-4
Do not eat unknown plants that—

• Have a milky sap or a sap that turns black when exposed

to air.
• Are mushroomlike.
• Resemble onion or garlic.
• Resemble parsley, parsnip, or dill.
• Have carrotlike leaves, roots, or tubers.

-Preparation of Plant Food

Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, others must
be cooked to be edible or palatable.
Some methods of improving the taste of plant food are soaking,
parboiling, cooking, or leaching. (Leaching is done by crushing
food, placing it in some sort of strainer, and pouring boiling water
through it.)

Leaves, Stems, and Buds. Boil until tender. Several changes of

water help to eliminate bitterness.

Roots and Tubers. Boil, bake, or roast. Boiling removes harmful

substances such as oxalic acid crystals.

Nuts. Leach or soak acorns in water to remove the bitterness.

Although chestnuts are edible raw, they are tastier roasted or
steamed.

Grains and Seeds. Parch to improve the taste, or grind into meal
to use as a thickener with soups or stews or to use as flour to make
bread.
Sap. If the sap contains sugar, dehydrate it by boiling until the
water in it is gone.

Fruit. Bake or roast tough, heavy-skinned fruit. Boil juicy fruit.

-Cooking Methods
In a survival situation, you may have to improvise containers for
cooking your food. The cooking processes, however, are the same
as you would use in a kitchen. They are boiling, frying, parching,
baking, steaming, and roasting or broiling.

6-5
Boiling is one of the best methods to use in that you can retain
the juices that contain salts and nutrients.

If you do not have a metal container in which to boil your food,

use a rock that has a hole in it. Or use a hollowed out piece of wood
that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the
wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and
food; remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot rocks until
your food is cooked.

CAUTION: Do not use rocks with a high moisture content, such as

those from streams or wet areas, as they may explode.

You can also use this method with containers made of bark or
leaves, but these containers will burn above the water line unless
you keep them moist or keep the fire low.

Other items you can use as containers for boiling food are coconut
shells, sea shells, turtle shells, half sections of bamboo, complete
sections of bamboo (figure 6-2), even a bag made from the stomach
or skin of an animal.

CAUTION: A closed section of bamboo may explode when heated.

Rock frying is a method you can use when you do not have a fry¬
ing pan. Place a flat or slightly concave rock on the fire. When
the rock is hot, place grease and your food on it and heat until
cooked.

Parching works especially well with nuts and grains. Place the nuts
or grain in a container or on a rock and heat slowly until the nuts
or grain is scorched.

Baking is cooking in an oven over slow, steady, moderate heat.

An oven may be improvised using a pit under a fire, a closed con¬
tainer, or a wrapping of leaves or clay.
One method is to dig a pit and partly fill it with hot coals. Put your
food with some water in a covered container. Place the covered
container in the pit. Cover the container with a layer of coals and
thin layer of dirt.

Another pit method is to line the pit with moisture-free stones.

Build a fire in the pit, and as the coals burn down, scrape them
back, put the covered container in, and continue as above.
6-6
COCONUT SHELL SEA SHELL

BAMBOO SECTION

Figure 6-2. Containers for boiling food.

6-7
 Figure 6-3. Steaming food.

A rock-type oven is also suitable for baking. Use a rock for the
bottom. Use four more rocks as the walls of the oven and a rock
large enough to cover your rock ‘‘box” as the top. Place coals in¬
side around the sides of the bottom rock and then place the food
on the bottom rock. By adding or taking away coals, you can keep
the heat relatively uniform.

Steaming is also done with a pit. It works best with shellfish or

other foods that require little cooking such as plantains or green
bananas. Wrap the food in large leaves or moss. Place one piece
or one layer of wrapped food in the coals-lined pit. Add another
layer of leaves or moss. Continue alternating layers of wrapped
food and layers of leaves or moss until the pit is almost full. Push
a stick down through the layers of food and leaves or moss. Try
to seal the pit with more leaves or dirt, and then remove the stick.
This is a slow but effective way to cook.

Roasting or broiling is done with a skewer or spit. You can cook

all meats over an open fire using this method. Simply stick the meat
on a nontoxic spit and place it over the fire until done. This method
sears the flesh, which holds the juices in and allows the meat to
cook in its own juice. This is a good method for cooking whole
fowls or small animals.

6-8
 Chapter

Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may even be

more readily available in some places. But to get meat, you need
to know the habits of, and how to capture,, the various wildlife.
To satisfy your immediate food needs, you should seek first the
more abundant and easier to obtain wildlife, such as insects,
crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles.

- Insects
Many insects that are abundant in various parts of the world are
a valuable source of food, and most are easily caught by hand.
These include large grubs (the larvae of insects), locusts, grasshop¬
pers, ants, and termites. You can fry, boil, or roast them, but you
may prefer to add them to a stew containing other foods to make
them more palatable. You can even eat them raw except for
grasshoppers, which may contain harmful parasites. (Do not try
to eat the large grasshopper legs as they have barbs that may stick
in your throat.) Insects are high in fat content; many, ounce for
ounce, have higher protein value than beef.

Woodgrubs are found in rotten logs, in the ground, and under the
bark of dead trees. Locusts, grasshoppers, and ants are found
throughout temperate and tropical zones. Termites are generally
available in jungles.

-Water Wildlife
You should never go hungry when you’re near a body of water—a
lake, a stream, a river, an ocean. Most bodies of freshwater and
saltwater contain crustaceans, mollusks, and fish as well as other
forms of edible water creatures. And you can usually catch water
wildlife faster, more easily, more quietly, and in greater quantity

7-1
than you can land wildlife. You need only know their habits, the
best time of day to catch them, and how to catch them to have
a plentiful supply of food.

Crustaceans. This class includes freshwater and saltwater crabs,

crayfish, lobsters, shrimp, and prawns. All are edible, but you
should always cook the freshwater crustaceans as they may har¬
bor harmful parasites.
Freshwater shrimp are abundant in tropical streams, especially
where the water is sluggish. Look for them swimming or clinging
to branches or vegetation in the water.
Saltwater shrimp live on or near the sea bottom. You can scrap
them up, or at night you can lure them to the surface with a light
and catch them with a hand net.
Freshwater crabs and crayfish are found on moss beds under rocks
and brush in streams or swimming in shallow water. You can pick
them up by hand or scoop them up with a dip net.
Saltwater crayfish and lobsters are found on the ocean bottom in
water 10 to 30 feet deep. You can use lobster traps (page 7-11),
a jug, or a baited hook to catch them. Lift your catch out of the
water with a dip net.
Many species of crabs and lobsters are nocturnal and are most easi¬
ly caught at night.
Crabs creep, climb, and burrow. You can easily catch them in
shallow water using a dip net. You can also catch them in traps
baited with fish heads or animal guts.

Mollusks. This class includes freshwater and saltwater shellfish

such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, periwinkles, chitons, and
sea urchins. Bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and ter¬
restrial and aquatic snails are found worldwide under all water con¬
ditions.
River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in the rivers,
streams, and lakes of northern coniferous forests. These snails may
be pencilpoint or globular in shape.
In freshwater, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in water
with a sandy or muddy bottom. Look for the narrow trails they
leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their open valves.
7-2
Near the sea, wait for low tide and then check in the tidal pools
and the wet sand. Rocks along beaches or extending as reefs into
deeper water often bear clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling
to rocks and seaweed from the low-water mark up. Large snails
called chitons adhere tightly to rocks above the surf line.
Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at
the base of boulders.
CAUTION: Mussels are poisonous in tropical zones during the
summer.
Mollusks should be steamed, boiled, or baked in the shell. They
make excellent stews in combination with greens and tubers.
CAUTION: Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at high
tide.

Fish. Of the wildlife around or in freshwater, fish are probably

the most difficult to catch. But you can catch fish, even without
modern fishing equipment, if you know when, where, and how to
fish. And you can easily make hooks and line and find bait in most
areas near water.
How to Make Fishhooks. You can make hooks from pins, needles,
wire, small nails, or any piece of metal; out of wood, coconut shell,
bone, thorns, flint, seashell, tortoise shell; or out of a combination
of these items. One way to make a wooden fishhook (figure 7-1)
is as follows:
• Cut a piece of hardwood about 2 inches long and V2 inch
in diameter to form the shank.
• Cut a notch near one end of the wood in which to place
the point.
• Place the point (a small, pointed piece of wood, a pin, nail,
piece of bone, or similar item) in the notch.
• Hold the point in the notch and tie it securely.
To tie securely—
• Make a clove hitch in the cord and take about six turns
around the end of the point and the hardwood shank,
• Take two or three trapping turns between the point and
the shank to spread and hold the point firmly angled to
the shank.
7-3
 CARVED WOOD
SHANK- THORN HOOKS

CARVED WOOD GORGE HOOK

Figure 7-1. improvised fishhooks.

• Take two more turns around the shank and tie with a clove
hitch.
Make sure that the fishhook is the right size for the size of fish
found in the area.
How to Make Fishlines. You can make a fishline from suspension
lines or from plant or cloth fibers. The inner bark of trees make
the best fibers to use. To make a line from the fibers
(figure 7-2)-
• Knot the ends of two strands and secure them to a solid
base.
• Hold a strand in each hand and twist clockwise.
• Cross one twisted strand counterclockwise over the other.
• Add fiber as necessary to increase the length of the line.
NOTE: Fibers from hemp, nettle, common and swamp milkweed,
yucca, and reeds also make good lines.

How to Find Bait, (jenerally, fish bite bait that is native to their
area. So look in the water near the shores for crabs, fish eggs, and
minnows and on the bank for worms and insects. After you catch
a fish, open it and examine its stomach and intestines to see what
it was eating. Try to duplicate its food. You can use feathers, pieces
of brightly colored cloth, or bits of bright metal or shell to make
artificial lures.

7-4
 SECURE TWIST ONE
FIRMLY STRAND
AT KNOT AROUND
THE OTHER
COUNTER¬
TWIST BOTH CLOCKWISE
STRANDS
CLOCKWISE

Figure 7-2. Making iines from piant fibers.

When to Fish. As a general rule, look for fish to feed just before
dawn and just after dusk, just before a storm as the front is mov¬
ing in, and at night when the moon is full or waning. Rising fish
and jumping minnows are often signs of feeding fish.

Where to Fish. The body of water, the zone in which it is located,

the time of year, and the time of day all have a bearing on where
to fish.

In lakes or large streams, fish tend to approach the banks and

shallows in the morning and evening.

In streams, fish often gather in pools and deep calm water, at the
bottom of riffles and small rapids, at the tail of a pool, in eddies
below rocks or logs, under deep undercut banks, in the shade of
overhanging bushes, and around submerged logs and rocks.

Fish seek shelter at the mouths of small tributary streams when

the main rivers or streams are high or muddy.

In shallow streams during hot weather, fish gather in the deepest

pools, in places where cool underground water enters the main
stream, and under rocks.

In temperate zones in cool spring weather, fish tend to move to

shallow water that is warmed by the sun.
7-5
How to Catch Fish. Perhaps you’ve failed to catch any fish with
your pole, hook, line, and bait. Don’t get discouraged. Try other
methods, such as those described below.
Set lines. This is a practical way to catch fish if you stay near a
lake or stream for some time. Tie several hooks on a line, bait the
hooks, and fasten the line to a low-hanging branch that will bend
when a fish is hooked. Check the line periodically to remove fish
and to rebait the hooks.
A gorge or skewer hook is an excellent hook for a set line. To make
a gorge hook (figure 7-1), sharpen both ends of a short piece of
bone or wood and cut a notch circling the middle of it. Tie a line
to it. Bait the hook so that when the skewer is in the water, it will
lie back along the line. Fix the line in the water. When a fish
swallows the bait, the line sets and the gorge swings crosswise and
lodges in the fish’s gullet or stomach.
Set a stakeout. This is a fishing device you can use secretly. You
can set many stakeouts with little danger that other persons will
detect them. To make a stakeout (figure 7-3), stick two reeds on
the bottom of the stream or lake. Run a line between the two reeds
(the line can slide up and down the reeds). To this line, tie two
other lines with fishhooks attached. Make sure the lines will not
become entangled with each other or with the upright reeds.

Figure 7-3. Stakeout.

7-6
Just before dark, bait hooks with worms, bee larva, or other suitable
bait. At dark, lower lines in the water. Wait 1 to 1-1/2 hours before
checking the lines for fish; rebait the hooks if needed and then wait
another hour before checking for fish. Check the lines again at first
light.

Try jigging. This method is especially effective at night. You will

need a limber cane or pole 8 to 10 feet long; a piece of line about
10 inches long; a hook; a piece of bright metal shaped like a com¬
mercial fishing spoon; and a small strip of white meat or fish in¬
testine. Tie the line to the end of the pole. Attach the spoon and
the hook on the line so that the hook is just below the spoon. Bait
the hook and dabble it and the spoon just below the surface of the
water near lily pads or weed beds. Occasionally slap the water with
the tip of the pole to attract large fish to the bait.

Use your hands. This method is effective in small streams with

undercut banks or in shallow ponds left by receding flood waters.
Place your hands in the water and slowly reach under the bank,
keeping your hands close to the bottom if possible. Move your
fingers slightly until you contact a fish. Then work your hand gently
along its belly until you reach its gills. Grasp the fish firmly just
behind the gills. If you are handling catfish or fish with spiney dor¬
sal fins, take care to avoid getting stuck.

Try muddying. Small pools caused by receding waters of flooded

streams often contain many fish. By stamping the bottoms of these
pools or stirring the mud with a stick, you make the water muddy
so that the fish rise to the surface to seek clearer water. You can
then club the fish or toss them out of the water with your hands.

Use a net. A net is more efficient than the other means discussed
above for catching fish. But it takes time to make a large net. You
can, however, quickly make a dip net to catch small fish to use
for bait or to eat. Fish too small to hook or spear are usually abun¬
dant at the edges of lakes and streams or in their tributaries. A
dip net to catch these fish can be made using a forked sapling and
a piece of cloth, such as your undershirt. Bend the two limbs of
the sapling fork, securing the ends firmly together, so that they
form a circular frame. Close the neck and armholes of the under¬
shirt by making a knot in the top. Attach the bottom of the under¬
shirt to the circular frame, using pins, wire, or any other available
item that will secure it.

7-7
An even better way to catch fish is with a gill net. But you need
time to make it. You also need a suspension line or similar line
and two uprights or trees standing apart about the same distance
as the planned length of your net. To make it (figure 7-4)—
• Remove the core lines from your suspension lines.
• Suspend the suspension line casing at about eye level be¬
tween two trees. (We’ll call this the main suspension line.)
The length of this line depends on how long you wish to
make the net and how much line you have.
• Attach an even number of core lines to the main suspen¬
sion line using a Prusik knot or girth hitch. (The double
lines from these knots should be about the same length.)
The number of core lines used and their distance apart are
determined by the length of the net and the mesh size
desired. Use 1-inch space to make 1-inch mesh, 2-inch
space to make 2-inch mesh, and so forth.
• Starting at one end of the main suspension line, tie the
second and third core lines together with an overhand knot,
fourth and fifth lines together, and so forth. You will have
one line remaining at the end.
• For the second row of knots, tie the first and second core
lines together, the third and fourth together, and so forth.

NOTE: You can use a guide line, moving it down for each row of knots,
to make the mesh the same size. Be sure to place the guide line on the side
of the net opposite to you so it won Y interfere with your work.

Follow the same procedure for the third row as you did for the first row
and the same procedure for the fourth as for the second, and so forth.

Continue making the mesh until you reach the depth of net you desire.

Thread suspension line casing along the bottom and sides of the net to
strengthen it and to make it easier to handle.

You are now ready to set the net. But first, attach small pieces of wood
(floats) to the top and stones (anchors) to the bottom of the net.

Secure the net to poles or saplings in the water near the bank so that
the net is set at a 45® angle to the current (figure 7-9). This angle will
help to keep floating refuse from catching in the net.
7-8
 PRUSIK KNOT OR
PARACHUTE
GIRTH HITCH
SUSPENSION
LINE

GUIDELINE
(STRING)

CORE LINERS PULLED

FROM THE INSIDE OF
THE SUSPENSION LINES

KNOT

Figure 7-4. Making a gill net.

If you have another person with you, you can attach poles to the
ends of the net. The two of you can then work the net up and down
the stream. Be sure to pull up the net every few minutes and
remove the fish before they can escape.

Use fish traps and baskets. These can be used for either freshwater
or saltwater fish. They take a lot of time and effort to make,
however, and are difficult to carry when you move on. Shown in
figures 7-6 and 7-7 are some types of fish traps you can make.

Figure 7-5. Setting a gill net in the stream.

7-9
 NOTE: Can substitute a sack made of perforated parachute gores.

Figure 7-6. Setting a fish trap in a stream.

When setting traps for freshwater fish, keep in mind the habits
listed on page 7-5.
You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish as schools regularly
approach the shore with the incoming tide and often move parallel
to the shore. Pick a trap location at high tide and then build your
trap when the tide is low. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools.
On coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by block¬
ing the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use sand¬
bars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap as a low stone
wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle with
the shore.
Shoot fish. If you have a weapon and sufficient ammunition and
are not concerned about revealing your location, try shooting fish.
Aim slightly under the fish in water that is less than 3 feet deep.
Use explosive devices. You can also get fish by tossing a light ex¬
plosive device in a school of fish. Be prepared, however, to retrieve
the fish at once as their air bladders are usually ruptured by the
blast and they sink quickly. This will supply food for days. Dry
or preserve those you do not eat fresh (page 7-40).
Spear fish. If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where
the fish are large and plentiful, you can spear them. It is easy to
make a spear using materials at hand. For the shaft use a long
straight sapling or a length of bamboo. If the sapling has a solid
core, shape one end to a point. If not, tie a bayonet, a pointed piece
of metal, a sharpened bone, a knife, or thorns to it. With bamboo,
shape two points just below the joint.

7-10
 TIDAL FLAT
FISH TRAP

SHORE

BOX-TYPE
LOBSTER TRAP

DOOR RODS (SAPLING OR WIRE) ARE

HINGED SO THAT THEY SWING FREELY
AND WILL DROP BEHIND THE LOBSTER
AFTER IT ENTERS

Figure 7-7. Various types of fish traps.

7-11
 Figure 7-8. Types of spear points.

Find a rock or bank over a fish run and wait patiently and quietly
for fish to swim by. You may be more successful spearing fish at
night with the aid of a torch. Light attracts fish, highlights them,
and reflects from their eyes. It also lights the stream bottom so
that you can see and gather other aquatic life.
If you have to go in the water to a place where fish seem to gather—
• Wade very slowly to that place. All movement must be
slow to cut down on vibrations in the water.
• Put the spear in the water and wait a few minutes for the
fish to become accustomed to your presence.
• Move as close to your target as you can, keeping the spear
in the water.
• Position the spear over and as close to the fish as you can.
• Quickly spear the fish and hold it firmly on the bottom
until you can reach down and grasp it to lift it out of the
water.
Try poisoning fish. Another way to get fish is by using poison.
Poison works quickly, it allows you to remain undercover while
it takes effect, and it enables you to get a number of fish at one
time. Some plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain
rotenone, a product that will stun or kill cold-blooded animals but

7-12
 Figure 7-9. Anamirta cocculus.
will not affect persons who eat the animals. The best place to use
rotenone, or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or at the head¬
waters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone acts quickly on
fish in water 70® F or above, and the fish rise helpless to the sur¬
face. It works slowly in water 50® to 70® F and is ineffective in
water below 50® F. The following plants, used as indicated, will
stun or kill fish:
• Anamirta. This woody vine grows in southern Asia and
on islands of the South Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped
seeds and throw them in the water.
• Croton tiglium. This shrub or small tree grows in open
waste areas on islands of the South Pacific. It bears seeds
in three-angled capsules. Crush the seeds and throw them
into the water.

Figure 7-10. Croton tiglium.

7-13
 Figure 7-11. Barringtonia.
• Barringtonia. These large trees grow near the sea in
Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They bear a fleshy one-
seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark and throw them
into the water.

• Derris. This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines

is the main source of commercially produced rotenone.
Powder or macerate the roots and mix with water. Throw
a large quantity of the mixture into the water.

Figure 7-12. Derris eliptica.

7-14
• Duboisia. This shrub grows in Australia and bears white
clusters of flowers and berry like fruit. Crush the plants and
throw them into the water.

• Tephrosia. This species of small shrubs, which bears bean¬

like pods, grows throughout the tropics. Crush or bruise
bundles of leaves and stems and throw them into the water.

Figure 7-14. Tephrosia.

7-15
 • Lonchocarpus. This genus of plants grows chiefly in
tropical America and the West Indies as a tree or shrub.
It has feather-like leaves and its bloom may be white or
shades of red. Powder or macerate the roots and throw
into the water.
• Green husks from hickory nuts, butternuts, or black
walnuts. Crush and throw the husks into the water.
Lime will also poison fish. You can burn coral and seashells to get
lime. Throw the lime into the water.
Before putting fish poison in the water, devise a means of picking
up the stunned fish. Perhaps a dip net is all you will need. Or you
may need to build a blockade downstream to catch the fish.
Try chop fishing. If you are on a beach and light security is not
a factor, you can use the chop fishing technique to get fish at night
when the tide is low. You will need a torch, a means of lighting
the torch, and a machete.

With the lighted torch in one hand and the machete in the other—
• Wade into the water to a point where the water is about
2 feet deep. The light will attract the fish.
• Hit the fish with the back of the machete blade so they
are stunned and then pick them up.
Try ice fishing. You can obtain fish in the winter by fishing through
a hole in the ice. Keep the hole open by covering it with brush and
heaping loose snow over the cover.
CAUTION: Make sure the ice will hold your weight. Carry a pole 8
to 10 feet in length and 2 inches in diameter to help you get out of
the water should you break through the ice.
Fish tend to gather in shallow water in winter. So cut ice holes
where you feel the water is medium deep. Possible places are where
the shelf near the shore drops off to lake bottom, at the edge of
reeds, or close to some projecting rock formation.
Take a 3-foot pole and a string long enough to reach the bottom
of the place where you fish. Make a spoon-shaped spinner from
a piece of bright metal. Attach an improvised fishhook to the line
just above the hook. When fishing, move the rod in an up-and-down
motion in such a way that the bright metal object vibrates.
7-16
Another method is to place a rig similar to the one in figure 7-15
at several holes. When the flag moves to an upright position,
remove the fish and rebait the hook.
Eels. Eels are fish with a snakelike appearance found throughout
the world in freshwater and saltwater. They are smooth skinned
and swim underwater. (Snakes are scaled and usually swim on top.)
Eels are excellent eating. You can catch them during the day in
muddy water or at night using the same methods as for catching
fish at night. Eels are easily speared at night under a torchlight.
After catching an eel, strike a sharp blow to the head to stun it.
Eels, like catfish, should be skinned before cooking.
Poisonous Fish. Some fish are poisonous to eat due to alkaloids
in their flesh or to poisonous foods they have eaten. Cooking does
not destroy these toxins. There is no firm guide for identifying
poisonous fish. Some characteristics, however, are smooth skin,
rough skin, bristles, or spines rather than true scales; some puff
up or inflate when disturbed. Poisonous fish are seldom found in .
the open sea, but live around rocky or coral reefs and muddy or
sandy shores. Examples are the puffer, porcupine, cow, and
thorn fish (figure 7-16), which contain toxic substances in their
flesh. If there are natives in the area, observe what fish they eat.
No poisonous fish are known to live along the shores of the North
Pacific and Arctic Oceans. The eggs of the sculpin, however, are
deadly poisonous. Do not eat fish eggs found in clusters or clumps
on rocks, logs, or reefs.
7-17
COWFISH
(6-12 INCHES)

PORCUPINE FISH
(ABOUT 1 FOOT)

THORN FISH
(ABOUT 1 FOOT)

PUFFER FISH
(10-15 INCHES)

Figure 7-16. Fish with poisonous fiesh

7-18
--Small Amphibious Animals
Frogs, newts, and salamanders inhabit areas surrounding
freshwater in warm and temperate climates throughout the world.
Hunt frogs at night when you can locate them by their croaking.
Club them or snag the larger ones on a hook and line. Skin a frog,
cook and eat the entire body.
Newts and salamanders are found under rotten logs or under rocks
in areas where frogs are abundant. Skin and remove the innards
before cooking these amphibians.

-Reptiles
Many reptiles are a good food source and are available in many
parts of the world.
Snakes. All poisonous and nonpoisonous freshwater and land
snakes are edible.
CAUTION: Take extreme care in securing snakes as the bite of some
poisonous snakes can be fatal Even after a snake's head is cut off,
its reflex action can cause it to bite, injecting poison.)

The best times to capture snakes are in the early morning before
temperatures get too high and in the late afternoon and early even¬
ings before temperatures get too low. You can find snakes in any
place where there is cover. Hit the snake with a rock, swatch, or
club to kill it or use a long stick to pin down its head to capture
it. To pick up a snake, place your index finger on the top rear of
its head with your thumb and middle finger on either side of the
head behind the jaws. You must keep your finger on top of the
snake’s head to keep the snake from turning inside its skin and
biting you.
CAUTION: Take extreme care at all times.

Lizards. These reptiles are most abundant in the tropics and sub¬
tropics, but they can be found most everywhere. The meat of all
species is edible. The bite of two species, however, is poisonous.
These two species—the gila monster and the beaded lizard—are
found only in the American southwest. Central America, and
Mexico. You can club lizards or snare them by attaching a grass
or bark noose to the end of a stick. Skin large lizards and remove
the entrails, then broil, roast, boil, or fry the meat. Small lizards
may be impaled through the mouth on a stick and roasted without

7-19
removing the entrails. The meat is done when the skin bubbles
and cracks.
Turtles. Snapping turtles tend to hide or rest by crawling head
first into holes dug into the bank. To locate a turtle in the bank,
feel with your feet with your shoes on. When you locate the
turtle, reach down and feel for the top of the shell. Grasp the tail,
which is located under the serrated edge of shell, and pick up the
turtle.

CAUTION: Do not attempt to find turtles in areas where there are

water moccasins or poisonous water snakes.

CAUTION‘.Take extreme care when attempting to catch snapping

turtles. They can bite underwater as well as on land.

Crocodiles and Alligators. These reptiles can be found around

and in the lakes, rivers, and streams in tropical and warm temperate
zones. The best way to kill them is by shooting. To skin them,
heat them over a fire to loosen the plates. Broil or fry the meat.

- Birds and Mammals

In some areas, birds and mammals may be more abundant than
other forms of animal life. One important factor is all are edible.
Birds and mammals tend to congregate in their habitats. Places
to look for them are—
• At the edges of woods and jungles.
• On trails, in glades, and in openings in a forest or jungle.
• On banks of streams and rivers.
• On lakeshores and seashores.
Birds and mammals are easily seen, and their eating, sleeping,
drinking, and traveling activities are fairly regular. By observing
their habits and activities, you can anticipate their movements. This
will enable you to hunt or trap them successfully.
Birds. Birds lack a sense of smell, but they can see and hear
exceptionally well. So to catch birds, you need to know some of
their habits.
Nesting. The time when birds are least likely to flee from man is
7-20
 Types of Birds Frequent Nesting Places Nesting Periods

Inland birds Trees, woods, or fields Spring and early summer

in temperate and arctic
regions.
Year round in the tropics.

Cranes and Mangrove swamps or Spring and early summer.

herons high trees near water

Some species of High trees Late December through

owls March.

Ducks, geese, Tundra areas near Spring and early summer

and swans ponds, rivers, or lakes in arctic regions.

Some sea birds Sandbars or low Spring and early summer

sand islands in temperate and arctic
regions.

Gulls, auks, Steep rocky coasts Spring and early summer

murres, and in temperate and arctic
cormorants regions.

Figure 7-17. Bird nesting places.

when they are nesting. Knowing where and when the various birds
nest (figure 7-17) will make catching them easier.
During their nesting period, birds return often and regularly to their
nests if the surroundings are not greatly disturbed. If you are
patient, you can catch them during their nesting. You can actually
touch some birds while they are incubating eggs or brooding young.
You can catch some with a noosing wand (figure 7-18). Build a blind
of vegetation. Remain still and quiet in the blind and wait for the

Figure 7-18. Noosing wand.

7-21
birds to return. Drop the noose over the bird's head, quickly pull¬
ing the noose up and back. Be prepared to club owls defending
their nests. For birds that nest in hollow trees, block them in or
noose them as they go in or out.
Do not overlook bird eggs. They are edible when fresh, even with
embryos. Various species of ground-nesting birds, such as grouse,
turkey, pheasant, and waterfowl, do not begin incubating their eggs
until a full nest of eggs is laid. By carefully taking all but two or
three eggs from the nest every few days, you will have a supply
of fresh eggs for a week or two. Do not disturb the nest and do
not remove all the eggs as the female will desert the nest. Do not
kill the female during its nesting period if you want to keep your
egg source.
Flying to Roost and Roosting. At dusk watch for birds going to roost.
Some songbirds use the same flyway each day. Once you find their
flyway, you can place a survival or mist net in it to catch some
birds. Or you can locate the tree in which they roost, fix a net
between two poles on one side of the tree, and then scare the birds
from the other side of the tree so that they fly into and become
entangled in the net.

Figure 7-19.Catchmg birds in a net.

7-22
Larger birds, such as grouse, that roost in trees can be grabbed
by the feet, noosed, or clubbed. Quail, grouse, and pheasant fly
only a short distance when disturbed at roost, so if you fail to catch
one on your first try, follow them and try again.
Moving. Waterfowl, quail, pheasant, turkeys, pigeons, and gulls
tend to gather and move in flocks. Use a bola or an 18- to 24-inch
throw stick to hit birds in a flock.
Feeding. On the beach you can sometimes catch shorebirds, herons,
and fish-eating ducks by baiting a hook with a fish and placing the
fish on the beach or trolling it in the water. A gorge hook
(figure 7-1) placed inside the fish works well. Sometimes you can
catch birds on the beach using a leg noose or snare.
Inland birds are easily caught using an Ojibwa bird snare
(figure 7-20). To build this snare—
• Select a small tree or large sapling in an area inhabited
by birds. (Or you can drive a large limb securely in the
ground in an area in which birds swarm.)
• Cut the top off the sapling so that a stump 3 to 4 feet high
remains.
• Shape the top of the stump to a point so a bird cannot land
on it.
• Make a small hole through the stump near the top. Make
the hole square on the side where you plan to stick the
perch.
• Cut a stick 7 to 8 inches long for the perch. Square off one
end to fit loosely in the hole in the stump. Shape the other
end to a point to secure the bait.
• Cut a cord (suspension line, for example) 3 to 4 feet long
and make a noose at one end. The noose should be 6 to
7 inches in diameter.
• Tie a knot in the cord just beyond the noose. (This knot
is to hold the perch in position until a bird lands on the
perch.)
• Pull the running end of the cord through the hole in the
stump until the knot reaches the hole. Insert the baited
perch in the hole and use the knot in the cord to hold the
perch lightly.
• Drape the noose over the perch.
7-23
 Figure 7-20. Ojibwa bird snare.
• Tie a stone or small log to the other end of the cord. The
stone should be heavy enough to pull the noose when a
bird lands on and dislodges the perch, but not so heavy
that it jerks the noose tight. This might break off the bird’s
legs, allowing it to fly away.
You can also catch birds using perch snares (figure 7-21). Place
several light perch snares on a tree limb or any horizontal bar. Ar¬
range the perch snares so they overlap. Place bait on the limb or
horizontal bar so that when the bird lands, its feet will become
ensnared. Oftentimes one caught bird will attract others. This
works well with blackbirds.

Figure 7-21. Bird perch snares.

7-24
Mammals. Game animals detect danger through their senses of
sight, hearing, and smell. If you are unfamiliar with the game in
the area, you should assume that the animals are naturally wary
and their senses of sight, hearing, and smell are keen.
Many mammals travel on trails and runways. By observing their
tracks, feces, runways, trails, dens, and feeding marks, you can
tell the types of animals in the area and their relative abundance.
This knowledge will help you in hunting or trapping them.
To be sure you get meat to eat, you must know how to find, ap¬
proach, and shoot and trap game.

Finding and Approaching Game. Look for fresh signs, such as

tracks, beds, and warm or moist droppings, to indicate the recent
presence of game. Keep in mind that seeing your quarry before
it sees you is one of the prime factors in hunting.

Look cautiously over ridges, whether in the woods or in the open,

checking first the distant and then the closer ground.

Locate a water hole, feeding ground, or well traveled trail and wait
quietly for the game to come to you.

Move up or across wind, never downwind. This applies equally

to looking for and stalking game in either open or forested areas.

Move as silently as possible in densely forested areas that limit

your range of vision. Any noise you make, for example, treading
on dry sticks and leaves, will alert animals to your presence.

Keep undercover in areas where game can easily see you. If your
quarry sights you and does not flee, stop until it resumes feeding.
Then zigzag back and forth across your line of approach. Stop when
the animal looks up.

Get above mountain game if possible. They are less likely to

suspect danger from above.

Shooting Game. The vulnerable spots on many animals are the head,
neck, or just back of the shoulder. Aim for one of these. Take your
time to make the shot your very best. If you wound an animal and
it runs, slowly follow its blood trail. A severely wounded animal
will normally lie down soon if it is not followed. Give it time to
weaken so it cannot rise. Approach slowly and complete your kill.
7-25
Catching Small Animals. You can sometimes get the following
animals without the aid of a gun or a snare:
• Armadillos—Run down, catch by hand, or club.
• Rabbits/hares—Club or hit with a throw stick, rock, or bola.
Hares in northern areas when jumped may run only 4 to
5 feet and stop.
• MiceAemmings/moles—Step on or club. These animals are
often found under rocks or logs in summer and in snow
banks in winter.
• Squirrels—Use a squirrel pole (figure 7-22).

® Skunks—As the skunk is feeding or traveling, get within

its line of track so that it will pass within your reach. Ap¬
proach it carefully, grab its tail, and quickly lift it off the
ground. It cannot spray when its feet are off the ground,
and it seems unable to bend to bite when it is held by the
tip of its tail. Club it. If possible, submerge it in water to
cool before cleaning it, so that the glands will get hard.
This will make them easier to remove and cause less odor
emission.
• Opossums—Catch by tail; club when possible.

• Groundhogs/woodchucks/marmots—Place a doubled-wire
snare (figure 7-23) at the animal’s hole so that you can
snare it entering or leaving its hole. Or you can dig the
animal out of its hole and hit it with a club or rock. In dig¬
ging out, when you get close to the animal, you can
sometimes insert a belt with buckle or loop, which the
animal will bite and hold onto. You can then pull it out.
If you find the animal in the open, run it down; when it
turns to fight, club or drop-kick it.
• Porcupine—When it is on the ground, club it. When it is
in a tree, knock it down, hit it with a rock, or pin it down
with a forked stick and pick it up by the long hairs at the
end of the tail. Porcupines cannot throw quils. CAUTION:
Quills are barbed and will stick on contact
• Beaver—Wait for the beaver to come on land, then club
it, drop-kick it, hit it with a rock, or catch it by the tail.

7-26
1. Lean an 8- to 12-foot pole against a tree that squirrels use.
2. Using snare wire, make three or four nooses. Attach the nooses to the
pole.

Figure 7-22. Squirrel pole.

It is a sturdy animal, so if you catch it by the tail, swing

it in a pendulum motion until it begins to relax, then swing
it against a tree or the ground or use a noose to kill it.
Another way to get a beaver is to dig out the beaver dam
so the water drains. The beaver will come to inspect the

Figure 7-23. Doubled-wire snare.

7-27
 damage at which time you can straddle the channel and
grab the beaver by its tail as it swims through. Immediately
start to swing the beaver as above. CAUTIONiTake care
to keep it from biting you. Its bite will leave a large wound.

• Muskrat—Club it in the water or use the same procedure

as for a beaver. You can often extract long-haired animals
from their holes or dens with a sturdy forked stick. The
tines of the fork should be 2 to 3 inches apart, Tl/2 to 2-1/2
inches long, and 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter and sharpened.
Jam the forked stick into the animal, twisting tightly while
holding pressure. The stick will hold the hide so you can
pull out the animal. Be ready to club it immediately.
• Mongoose—Hit with a club or rock, or catch it with a hand-
activated snare. The animal’s lightweight may make it dif¬
ficult to trip the snare. CAUTION: These animals are quite
ferocious and can inflict a nasty bite.

You can also let predators hunt for you but you must be obser¬
vant. Watch for both flying and foot predators hunting, stalking,
or killing game. Oftentimes you can hear smaller animals being
killed. By rushing the predator, you may cause it to drop its prey,
which you can recover.

If a large predator, such as a bear or large cat, has been scared

away from a fresh kill, building a fire overnight should keep the
irate predator away. Most predators will avoid fires and humans.

Trapping Game. If you are without a gun, or if you are in an area

where you must keep quiet, you can build snares, traps, or dead¬
falls to catch game. But first, you must decide from the animal signs
you have seen what animal to catch and then how to catch it.
Successful trapping, same as successful hunting, depends on your
knowing the habits of the animals. Many rodents and carnivores,
for instance, are active only at night; hoofed animals forage both
day and night.

The type of game you decide to trap and the habits of that game
determine the type of snare or trap you should use. But regardless
of the type you use, you should cover up your scent. You can do
this by soaking the snare material in a stream, rubbing the material
with cold ashes, or spreading urine from an animal’s bladder on
7-28
the material to lure the same type of animal into the trap. Weather¬
ing (time and/or rain) or smoke will also cover your scent.
Although salt is not a scent killer, it is an effective lure in areas
away from the coast.
One means of capturing small game is with a snare. A snare is a
noose that will slip and strangle or hold any animal caught in it.
To make the noose, use material such as the inner core strands
of parachute shroud lines, hide strips from previously caught
animals, or the bark of small hardwood saplings. Or you can use
wire; booby trap wire works fine.
You can use a noosing wand (page 7-22) to snare an animal as it
comes out of its burrow. Use the same procedure as for snaring
a bird.
The drag noose snare, however, is usually more desirable in that
it allows you to move away from the site. It is also one of the easiest
to make and fastest to set. You can set it, then merely check it
periodically. It is especially suitable for catching rabbits. All you
have to do is find a game trail that indicates recent use. (You may
find it is easier to detect small game trails by lying on your stomach
and observing the terrain at ground level.) Find a spot along the
trail where there are bushes or brush on both sides of the trail.
Then make and set your snare. To make the snare (figure 7-24)
use a string or wire and a sturdy branch as follows:
• Make a loop in the string using a bowline knot. (When
using wire, secure the loop by intertwining the end of the
wire with the wire at the top of the loop.)
• Pull the other end of the string (or wire) through the loop
to form a noose that is large enough for the animahs head
but too small for its body.
• Tie the string (or attach the wire) to a sturdy branch. The
branch should be long enough to span the trail and rest
on the brush or other support you have selected.
Now set the drag noose. If there is no suitable spot with brush on
which to hang the drag branch, use two short forked sticks as a
stand. To hold the string noose open, cut small notches in the fork¬
ed sticks, or stick two small twigs in the ground.
A snared animal will dislodge the drag stick, pulling the stick along
7-29
until it becomes entangled in brush. The animal’s attempt to escape
will tighten the noose, strangling or at least holding the animal.
There are several versions of this type snare. One version is to—
• Place a sturdy stick or small log across the trail,
supporting one end with a forked stick.
• Tie a noose to the small log so that it hangs over the trail.
(Again, adjust the size of the noose according to the size
of the animal you want to catch.)
• Build a fence or place obstacles on either side of the noose
to channel the animal into it. Do not use green twigs or
branches as the animal may stop to eat them and bypass
the noose. This “channeling” or “tunneling” should look
as natural as possible to blend with the environment and
should extend approximately 6 inches on either side of the
snare.
Another version is to build a fence on opposite sides of the trail,
cutting notches on the sides of the two inner sticks. Spread open
the noose, and place the sides in the notches on the sticks. You
can balance the drag stick on top of the fence or lay it to the side.

Figure 7-24. Drag noose.

7-30
The snare loop, locking type,is a noose (figure 7-25) that will lock
when pulled tight, ensuring that the snared animal cannot escape.
To make it, use lightweight wire, such as wire from a vehicle or
aircraft electrical system or any light, woven electrical wire. If this
type wire is unavailable, you can use trip wire. To make this
snare—
• Cut a piece of wire twice the length of the desired snare
wire.
• Double the wire and attach the running ends to a securely
placed object, such as the branch of a tree.
• Place a stick about 1/2 inch in diameter through the loop
end of the wire.
• Hold the stick so the wire is taut and turn the stick in a
winding motion so that the doubled wire is twisted together
uniformly. You should have four to five twists per inch of
twisted wire.
• Detach the running ends of the wire from the branch and
remove the stick from the loop.
• Make a figure 8 in the 1/2-inch loop by twisting the loop
over itself, then fold the figure 8 so the small loops are
almost overlapping.
• Run the loose wire ends through these loops. This forms
a stiff noose that is strong, yet pliable enough to close easily
when pulled.
• Tie the loose ends of the wire to the stick or branch you
are using to complete your snare.
This is an excellent snare for catching large animals or for using
in extreme cold climates where the wire could become brittle.

Figure 7-25. Forming a locking-type snare loop.

7-31
Remember, it’s up to you to decide the type of snare to use based
on—
• Your situation.
• The type of game prevalent in the area and the habits of
that game.
• The type of material you have and the type of natural
material available in the area.
Following are other types of snares that you might decide to use.
The hanging snare is another means of catching small game. It
is one that lifts the caught animal off the ground so that the animal
strangles. There are several different versions of the hanging snare,
the differences being in the triggering devices used. One that is
sometimes referred to as a fixed snare is easily made. It requires
a sapling, a cord, and two small forked branches. To make it—
• Cut two small forked pieces of branch. Make sure that the
forks will hook together, NOTE: You can use two straight
pieces and cut notches in them. This, however, takes more
time.
• Find a sapling near the animal trail you have selected.
• Pull the top of the sapling down toward the trail, but do
not pull it so far that you destroy its tension.
• Mark the spot on the ground immediately below the point
on the sapling where you plan to tie the cord. Do not tie
the cord to the end of the sapling.
• Stick one small forked branch securely into the ground at
the marked spot.
• Put a noose in one end of the cord and place the noose on
the trail.
• From the noose, use your cord to measure the distance to
the forked branch you stuck in the ground.
• At this point on the cord, tie it to the second forked branch.
• Tie the trailing end of the cord to the point on the sapling
immediately above the forked stick.

Now you are ready to set the trap for the animal. You may have
to put two light sticks in the ground so you can hang the noose
if the brush along the trail is unsuitable for this purpose.
7-32
 NOTE: Ensure that loop does not pass through arch of the forked
stick.

Figure 7-26. Hanging snares using different triggering devices.

Another type triggering device for a hanging snare uses a forked
stick and two straight sticks. One point of the fork must be long
enough to stick securely in the ground. The other point need not,
but can, touch or stick in the ground. One straight stick must be
long enough to span and extend beyond the fork for attaching the
bait. The shorter stick serves as the release. To make this snare—
• Tie the cord to the bent sapling and to the release stick.
• Bait the long stick.
• Place the long stick between the forked stick and the
release stick, using the tension created by the bent
sapling to hold it in place.
Another type of hanging snare is referred to as the treadle spring
snare. Here again, there are different versions. The two versions
7-33
in figure 7-27 use a sapling. For one version you will need a
sapling near the animal trail, a cord, four pieces of wood for the
frame, one small piece of wood for the release, and some small
sticks and camouflage material for the treadle.

• Cut two forked pieces of wood for placing upright in the

ground.
• Cut two fairly straight pieces of wood to place parallel to
the ground and spanning the two upright pieces.
• Cut a short piece of wood for the release. This is also
used to hold the bait. NOTE: Always attach bait before
setting snare.
• Find a sapling near the animal trail you have selected.
• Pull the top of the sapling down toward the trail. Do not
pull it so far that you destroy its tension.
• Set up the snare immediately below the point on the bent
sapling where you plan to attach the cord.
• Make a noose in one end of the cord and tie the other end
to the sapling.
• Attach the cord to the release stick. You can adjust the
length of the cord by wrapping several times around the
release stick.
• Set the snare as shown.
• On one side of the frame, rest one end of dry twigs or bran¬
ches on the lower horizontal bar and the other end on the
ground.
• Place other small twigs or leaves crosswise on top to rein¬
force and camouflage the platform.
• Place the noose on this platform.

You can make another version of the treadle spring snare by

using a flexible branch. Bend the branch and stick each end in the
ground as shown. If the soil is soft, make sure the ends of the
branch stay securely in the ground. You can do so by placing heavy
rocks at either end of the branch. Or you can take two long-forked
branches and pound them securely in the ground over the ends
of the bent branch.

7-34
 SAPLING

TRAIL

Figure 7-27. A treadle spring snare.

When setting snares, keep in mind that animals moving along trails
normally have their noses slightly off the ground unless disturbed
or startled. Therefore, you should set the snare so the bottom of
the noose is no more than 2-1/2 to 3 inches above the ground for
small animals, and between 24 to 36 inches above the ground for
deer.
7-35
Another means of obtaining game is the deadfall. A deadfall is a
trap that is constructed so that a weight falls on game when the
game disturbs the triggering device.
Deadfalls can be used to capture many types of game, but those
large enough to capture medium to large animals require much
time, much effort, and usually more than one person to build.
Therefore, your situation and the sparsity of medium and large
game may prohibit a large deadfall.
One of the easiest triggering devices to make for a deadfall is the
figure 4. To make this you will need three strong sticks: one for
the upright, one for the release, and one for the bait. The lengths
of these sticks depend upon the type of deadfall you plan to make.
You can see in figure 7-28 the relative sizes of the sticks.

For the upright stick—

• Cut the top at an angle and square off tip so that it will
fit into notch in the release stick.
• Cut a square notch near the bottom to fit into a correspon¬
ding square notch in the bait stick. Flatten the sides of the
stick at this notch to ensure a good fit with the bait stick.
For the release stick—
• Cut the top so the deadfall (log or rock) will rest on it
securely until the triggering device is disturbed.
• Cut a notch near the top in which to fit the upright stick.
• Cut the bottom end at an angle to fit into the bait stick.
For the bait stick—
• Cut a notch near one end in which to place the end of the
release stick.
• Shape the other end to a point on which to secure the bait.
• Cut a square notch at the spot where it crosses the upright
stick. The notches in the upright stick and the bait stick
should fit firmly together.
• Get a stone or piece of wood on which to place the trig¬
gering device so that it will not sink into the ground from
the deadfall weight.
You are now ready to set up your deadfall.

7-36
 D

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

UPRIGHT STICK RELEASE STICK

TOP VIEW

BAIT STICK ASSEMBLED TRIGGER—FRONT VIEW

Figure 7-28. Figure 4 trigger.

7-37
Sites at which you will most likely have success in using a dead¬
fall are—
• At the entrance/exit of a hollow tree, or
• At the entrance/exit of a burrow.

Get a weight, such as a log or rock, for the deadfall. If possible,

use a log to get a larger kill zone. Bait the triggering device and
set the deadfall at the place you have selected.
Another type of triggering device for a deadfall uses a trip string.
You may be able to catch medium-sized game with this deadfall.
Set it up as shown below.

Figure 7-29. Trip-string deadfall trap.

7-38
-Preparing Fish and Game for Eating
You cannot afford not to know how to prepare fish and game for
cooking and/or storing when you are in a survival situation. Im¬
properly cleaning or storing can result in inedible fish and game.
Fish. On pages 7-18 and 7-19 you learned about poisonous fish
that you must avoid. But just as important, you must know how
to tell if fish are free of bacterial decomposition that makes the
fish dangerous to eat. Although cooking may destroy the toxin from
bacterial decomposition, do not eat fish that appear spoiled. Signs
of spoilage are—
• A peculiar odor.
• A suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales
should be a pronounced—not faded—shade of gray.)
• A dent remaining after pressing the thumb against the
flesh.
• A slimy rather than moist or wet body.
• A sharp or peppery taste.

Eating spoiled or poisoned fish may cause diarrhea, nausea,

cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic taste in the
mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly 1 to 6 hours after eating.
If you are near the sea, drink sea water immediately upon onset
of such symptoms and force yourself to vomit.
Fish spoil quickly after death, especially on a hot day, so prepare
fish for eating as soon as possible after you catch them.
Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie next to the
backbone. (You can leave the head on if you plan to cook the fish
on a spit.)
Gut fish that are more than 4 inches long. To do so, cut along the
abdomen and scrape out the intestines.
Scale or skin the fish.
You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open
fire. However, boiling the fish with the skin on is the best way to
get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin, and
by boiling the fish, you can save the juices for broth. Any of the
methods used for cooking plant food (page 6-6) can be used for
cooking fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off.
If you plan to keep the fish for eating later, smoke them using the
same procedure as for smoking game (pages 7-45 and 7-46) or dry
7-39
them in the sun. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the heads
and remove the backbones. Then spread the fish flat and skewer
in that position. For skewers, you can use thin willow branches
with the bark removed.
To dry fish in the sun, hang them from branches or spread them
on hot rocks. When the meat has dried, splash it with sea water,
if available, to salt the outside. Do not keep any seafood unless
it is well dried or salted.
Snakes. To prepare a snake for eating—
• Grip the snake firmly behind the head and cut off the head
with a knife.
• Slit the belly and remove the innards. (You can use the
innards for baiting traps and snares.)
• Skin the snake. (You can use the skin for improvising,
belts, straps, or similar items.)

1. Grip snake firmly behind the head. 2. Cut head off with a knife.

3. Slit belly and remove innards. 4. Skin.

Figure 7-30. Cleaning a snake.

7-40
Fowl. Your first step after killing a fowl for eating or preserving
is to pluck its feathers. If plucking is impractical, you can skin the
fowl. Keep in mind, however, that a fowl cooked with the skin on
retains more food value. Waterfowl are easier to pluck while dry,
but other fowl are easier to pluck after scalding. After you pluck
the fowl—
• Cut off its neck close to the body.
• Cut an incision in the abdominal cavity and clean out the
insides. Save the neck, liver, and heart for stew.
Thoroughly clean and dry the entrails to use for cordage.
• Wash out the abdominal cavity with fresh clean water.
You can boil fowl or cook it on a spit over a fire. You should boil
scavenger birds such as vultures and buzzards for at least 20
minutes to kill any parasites.
Use the feathers from fowl for insulating your shoes, clothing, or
bedding. You can also use feathers for fish lures.
Medium-sized Mammals. The game you trap or snare wiU general¬
ly be alive when you find it and therefore dangerous. Be careful
when you approach a trapped animal. Use a spear or club to kill
it so you can keep a safe distance from it.
After you kill an animal, immediately bleed it by cutting its throat.
If you must drag the carcass any distance, do so before you cut
off the hide so that the carcass is protected from dirt and debris
that might contaminate it. Clean the animal near a stream if possi¬
ble so that you can wash and cool the carcass and edible parts.
Fleas and parasites will leave a cooled body so if the situation
allows, wait until the animal cools before cleaning and dressing
the carcass.
To skin and dress the animal—
• Place carcass, belly up, on a slope if available. You can
use rocks or brush to support it.
• Remove genitals or udder by cutting circular area shown
in figure 7-31.
• Remove musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting
meat.
• Split hide from tail to throat. Make the cut shallow so that
you do not pierce the stomach.
7-41
• Insert your knife under the skin, taking care not to cut in¬
to the body cavity. Peel the hide back several inches on
each side to keep hair out of the meat.

Figure 7-31. Skinning and butchering large game.

Figure 7-32. Skinning small game.

7-42
 • Open the chest cavity by splitting the sternum. You can
do this by cutting to one side of the sternum where the
ribs join.
• Reach inside and cut the windpipe and gullet as close to
the base of the skull as possible.
• With the forward end of the intestinal tract free, work your
way to the rear, lifting out internal organs and intestines.
Cut only where necessary to free them.
• Carefully cut the bladder away from the carcass so that
you do not puncture the bladder (urine can contaminate
meat). Pinch the urethra tightly and cut it beyond the point
you are pinching.
• Remove the bladder.
• From the outside of the carcass, cut a circle around the
anus.
• Pull the anus into the body cavity and out of the carcass.
• Lift or roll the carcass to drain all blood. NOTE: Try to
save as much blood as you can as it is a valuable source of
food and salt Boil the blood.
• Remove the hide: Make cuts along the inside of the legs
to just above the hoof or paw. Then peel the skin back,
using your knife in a slicing motion to cut the membrane
between the skin and meat. Continue this until the entire
skin is removed.

Most of the entrails are usable. The heart, liver, and kidneys are
edible. Cut open the heart and remove the blood from its chambers.
Slice the kidneys and if enough water is available, soak or rinse
them. In all animals except those of the deer family, the gall
bladder—a small, dark-colored, clear-textured sac—is attached to
the liver. Sometimes the sac looks like a blister on the liver. To
remove the sac, hold the top portion of it and cut the liver around
and behind the sac. If the gall bladder breaks and gall gets on the
meat, wash it off immediately so the meat will not become tainted.
Dispose of the gall.
Clean blood splattered on the meat will glaze over and help preserve
the meat for a short time. However, if an animal is not bled pro¬
perly, the blood will settle in the lowest part of its body and will
spoil in a short time. Cut out any meat that becomes contaminated.
7-43
When temperatures are below 40 degrees, you can leave meat
hanging for several days without danger of spoilage.

If maggots get on the meat, remove the maggots and cut out the
discolored meat. The remaining meat is edible. Maggots, which
are the larvae of insects, are also edible.
Blood, which contains salts and nutrients, is a good base for soups.
Although wild game has little fat, save all that you can and use
it for making soap (page 3-3).
Thoroughly clean the intestines and use them for storing or smok¬
ing food or for lashings for general use. Make sure they are com¬
pletely dry to preclude rotting.
The head of most animals contains a lot of meat, which is relative¬
ly easy to get. Skin the head, saving the skin for leather. Clean
the mouth thoroughly and cut out the tongue. Remove the outer
skin from the tongue after cooking. Cut or scrape the meat from
the head. If you prefer, you can roast the head over an open fire
before cutting off the meat. Eyes are edible. Cook them but discard
the retina (this is a plastic like disc). The brain is also edible; in
fact, some people consider it a delicacy. The brain is also used to
tan leather, the theory being that the brain of an animal is ade¬
quate to tan its hide.
Use the tendons and ligaments of the body of large animals for
lashings (page 4-7).
The marrow in bones is a rich food source. Crack the bones and
scrap out the marrow. See Chapter 4 for using bones to make
weapons.
If the situation and time allow, you should preserve the extra meat
for later use. If the air is cold enough, you can freeze the meat.
In warmer climates, however, you will need to use a drying or
smoking process to preserve it. One night of heavy smoking will
make meat edible for about 1 week. Two nights will make it re¬
main edible for 2 to 4 weeks.
To prepare meat for drying or smoking, cut it with the grain in
one-quarter inch strips.
To air dry the meat, hang it in the wind and hot sun out of the
reach of animals; cover it so that blowflies cannot land on it.
7-44
To smoke meat, you will need an enclosed area—for instance, a
teepee (figure 7-33) or a pit. You will also need wood from
deciduous trees, preferably green. Do not use conifer trees such
as pines, firs, spruces, or cedars as the smoke from these trees
give the meat a disagreeable taste.
When using the parateepee or other enclosed area with a vent at
the top, set the fire in the center and let it burn down to coals,
then stoke it with green wood. Place the strips of meat on a grate
or hang them from the top of the enclosure so that they are about
2 feet above the smoking coals.
To use the pit method of smoking meat, dig a hole about 3 feet
(1 meter) deep and IV2 feet (V2 meter) in diameter. Make a fire at
the bottom of the hole. After it starts burning well, add chipped
green wood or small branches of green wood to make it smoke.
Place a wooden grate about IV2 feet (V2 meter) above the fire and
lay the strips of meat on the grate. Cover the pit with poles, boughs,
leaves, or other material.

Figure 7*33. Smoking meat.

7-45
Properly smoked meat will look like a dark, brittle, curled stick.
It is tasty and nutritious.
If mold forms on the meat, brush or wash it off before eating the
meat. In damp weather, you will have to redry smoked or air-dried
meat to prevent molding.
You can also use saltwater to help preserve meat. Soak the meat
in saltwater, then dry it in the sun or over fire. The meat can spoil
if too little salt is used or if it is dried improperly.

Figure 7-34. Smoking meat over a pit.

7-46
 Chapter

Shelters

A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow,
hot or cold temperatures, and enemy observation. It can give you
a feeling of well being; it can heip you maintain your will to survive.
In some areas your need for shelter may take precedence over your
need for food, possibly even your need for water. For example, pro¬
longed exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and
weakness (exhaustion), and an exhausted person may develop a
“passive” outiook. To get rid of a passive outlook caused by pro¬
longed exposure to cold, you must have adequate shelter.
Therefore, shelter takes priority over other needs.

- Shelter Site
When you are in a strange environment, start looking for a shelter
site at least 2 hours before sunset. As you do so, keep in mind what
you will need at the site. Two requisites are:
• It must contain material to make the type shelter you need,
and
• It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie
down comfortably.
When you consider these requisites, however, you cannot ignore
your tactical situation or your safety. You must also consider whether
the site—
• Provides concealment from enemy observation.
• Has camouflaged routes of escape.
• Is suitable for signaling if necessary.
• Affords protection against wild animals, rockfalls, and dead
trees that might fall.
8-1
 • Is free from insects and other pests.
You must also keep in mind the problems that could arise in your
environment. For instance—
• In foothills, avoid flash flood areas.
• In mountainous terrain, avoid avalanche areas.
• Near bodies of water, avoid a site that is below the high
water mark.
In some areas the season of the year has a strong bearing on the
site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter differ in winter and sum¬
mer. During cold winter months you will want a site that will pro¬
tect you from the cold and wind but will have a source of fuel and
water. During summer months in the same area, you will want a
source of water, but you will want the site to be relatively free of
insects.

-Types of Shelters
As mentioned above, when you look for a shelter site, you have
to keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. But you
also have to consider other factors:
• How much time and effort are needed to build the shelter?
• Will the shelter adequately protect you from the elements
(rain, snow, wind, sun, etc.)?
• Do you have the tools to build it? If not, can you improvise
tools from materials in the area?
• Do you have the type and amount of man-made materials
needed to build it? If not, are there sufficient natural
materials in the area?
To answer these questions, you need to know how to make various
types of shelters and what material you need to make them.
Poncho Lean-to. It takes only a short time and minimal equip¬
ment to build this lean-to (figure 8-1). You need a poncho, 6 to 10
feet of rope, three stakes about 6 inches long, and two trees (or
two poles) 7 to 9 feet apart.
Before you select the trees you will use (or decide where to place
the poles), check the wind direction. Make sure the back of your
lean-to will be into the wind.

8-2
To make the lean-to
• Tie off the hood of the poncho. To do this, pull the
drawcord tight; roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds,
and tie it with the drawcord.
• Cut the rope in half; on one long side of the poncho, tie
half of the rope to one corner grommet and the other half
to the other corner grommet.
• Attach a dripstick (about a 4-inch stick) to each rope V4
to 3/4 inch away from the grommet. (These dripsticks will
keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-
to. Using driplines is another way to prevent dripping in¬
side the shelter. Tie lines or string about 4 inches long to
each grommet along the top edge of the shelter. This
allows water to run to and down the line without dripping
into the shelter.)
• Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use
a round turn and two half hitches with a quick-release
knot.
• Spread the poncho into the wind and anchor it to the
ground. To do this, put three sharpened sticks through the
grommets and into the ground.

Figure 8*1. Poncho used for lean-to.

8-3
If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or if you
expect rain, make a center support for the lean-to. You can do this
by stretching a rope between two upright poles or trees that are
in line with the center of the poncho. Tie another rope to the pon¬
cho hood, pull it upward so that it lifts the center of the poncho,
and tie it firmly to the rope stretched between the two uprights.
Another method is to cut a stick to place upright under the center
of the lean-to. This method, however, will restrict your space and
movements in the shelter.
To give additional protection from wind and rain, place boughs,
brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.
To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating
material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to.
NOTE: When at rest, as much as 80 percent of your body heat can
he lost to the ground.
To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the
silhouette of the lean-to by making two modifications: Secure the
support lines to the trees knee-high rather than waist-high, use two
knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to), and
angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks
as above.
Poncho tent. This tent (figure 8-2) provides a low silhouette, and
it gives protection from the elements on two sides. However, it
has less usable space and less observation area than a lean-to,
decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection.
For this tent, you will need a poncho, two 5- to 8-foot ropes, six
sharpened sticks about 6 inches long, and two trees 7 to 9 feet
apart.
To make the tent—
• Tie off the poncho hood in the same manner as for the pon¬
cho lean-to.
• At each end of the poncho tie a 5- to 8-foot rope to the
center grommet.
• Tie the other ends of these ropes about knee-high on two
trees that are 7 to 9 feet apart so that the poncho is tautly
stretched. Use a round turn, two half hitches, and a quick-
release knot.

8-4
 • Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the
ground with the three sharpened sticks stuck through the
grommets.
• Follow the same procedure on the other side.
If you need a center support because of rain, attach one end of
a line to the poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging
branch so that the line is taut. Another type of center support is
an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent (figure 8-3).
Use two 3-foot to 4-foot long sticks, one with a fork at one end
to form the A-frame. Tie the drawstring on the hood to the A-frame
so that the center of the tent is supported.

Figure 8-2. Poncho tent made using overhanging branch.

8-5
 Figure 8-3. Poncho tent with A-frame support.

Shelters From Parachutes. If you have a parachute and three

poles (and your tactical situation allows), you can make diparachute
tepee. This type shelter is easy to make, takes very little time to
make, provides protection from the elements, can act as a signal¬
ing device by enhancing a small amount of light from a fire or can¬
dle, and is large enough to hold several people and their equipment
and to allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood.
You can make this tepee (figure 8-4) using parts of or a whole
canopy of a personnel main or reserve parachute. If you are using
a standard personnel parachute, you will need three poles 10 to
15 feet long and about 2 inches in diameter.
To make the tepee—
• Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one
end.
• Stand the framework up and spread the poles apart to form
a tripod.
• If you need more support, cut additional poles and stand
them upright against the tripod. You need not lash them.
• Fold the parachute canopy in half. (If you are making a
large tepee, cut the canopy in half from the lower lateral
band to the upper lateral band.)
• Determine the wind direction and plan the location of your
entrance so that it will be 90® or more from the mean wind
direction.
• Attach the canopy to the framework. If you are alone—

8-6
 • Secure one edge of the folded canopy to the upper part
of the pole nearest the intended entrance.
• Encircle the tripod with the canopy and attach the other
edge to the upper part of the same pole.
If you have someone to help you, each of you should hold one edge
of the folded canopy. Then—
• Place the center of the folded canopy on the tripod leg
opposite the intended entrance.
• Walk in opposite directions around the tripod, meeting at
the intended entrance.
• Secure the edges of the folded canopy to the upper part
of the pole nearest the intended entrance.
If you intend to have a fire inside the tepee, you must leave a 12-
to 20-inch opening at the top of the tepee for ventilation.

SMOKE WING LOOP

/
MOVE WING POLES TO
CHANGE SIZE AND
DIRECTION OF OPENING

OVERLAP SHOULD BE
ARRANGED INSIDE TENT
IF WIND IS OPPOSITE
DIRECTION SHOWN

Figure 8-4. Parachute tepee.

8-7
Another type of parachute tepee requires a long pole and a sturdy
tree. Use 14 gores of the chute. Attach the apex to a pole approx¬
imately 20 feet long. Scribe a 12-foot circle on the ground under
a forked limb of the tree. Lay the pole in the fork of the limb. Stake
down the parachute skirt on the circle.

LEAVE BOTTOM 3’-4’

OPEN FOR ENTRANCE

LAST GORES ARE SEWN OR

TIED TO MAKE ROOM FOR DOOR

START STAKING DIRECTLY

OPPOSITE DOOR

Figure 8-5. Single-pole parachute tepee.

8-8
A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires
a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 15 feet long and
the other two about 10 feet long.
To make this shelter (figure 8-6)—
• Secure the 15-foot pole to the tree at a point about waist
high.
• Lay the two 10-foot poles on the ground on either side of
and in the same direction as the 15-foot pole.
• Lay the folded canopy over the 15-foot pole so that about
the same amount of material hangs on both sides.
• Tuck the excess material under the 10-foot poles, and
spread on the ground inside the shelter to serve as a floor.
• Stake down or put a spreader between the two 10-foot
poles at the shelter entrance so they will not slide inward.
• Use any excess material to cover the entrance.
The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the
shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle', used
carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable. This shelter
is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a light
snowfall will cave it in.

Figure 8-6. One-man shelter.

8-9
 Figure 8-7. Field expedient lean-to.

Field Expedient Lean-to. If you are in a wooded area and have

sufficient natural materials, you can make an expedient lean-to
(figure 8-7) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. You need
more time to make it than the shelters previously mentioned, but
it will protect you from most environmental elements.
You will need two trees (or two upright poles) about 6 feet apart;
one pole about 7 feet long and 1 inch in diameter; five to eight poles
about 10 feet long and 1 inch in diameter for beams; cord or vines
for securing the horizontal support to the trees; and other poles,
saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams.
To make this lean-to—

• Tie the 7-foot pole to the two trees at a point about waist
to chest high. This is your horizontal support. (If there is
a fork in the tree, you can rest the pole in it instead of
tying the pole in place.) If a standing tree is not available,
construct a bipod using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.
• Place one end of the beams (10-foot poles) on one side of
the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type shelters,
make sure the backside of the lean-to is placed into the
wind.
• Crisscross sapling or vines on the beams.
• Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or
grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like
shingling.
• Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the
shelter for bedding.

8-10
 Figure 8-8. Swamp bed.

In cold weather you can add to the comfort of your lean-to by

building a fire-reflector wall (figure 8-7). Drive four stakes about
4 feet long into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs
on top of one another between the support stakes. Bind the top
of the support stakes so the green logs will stay in place. Fill in
the spaces between the logs with twigs or small branches.

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack: cut a few
3/4-inch diameter poles (length depends on distance between the
lean-to support and the top of the fire-reflector wall). Lay one end
of the poles on the lean-to horizontal support and the other ends
on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks
across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or
fish.

Swamp Bed. At the beginning of the chapter we mentioned that

a shelter is something that protects you from the elements. In a
marsh or swamp, the swamp bed protects you from the wet ground.
Factors that you must consider when selecting a site are weather,
wind, tides, and available materials.

To make a swamp bed (figure 8-8)—

• Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four
poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them firmly in the ground
so they form a rectangle. They should be far enough apart
and strong enough for your height and weight.
• Cut two poles long enough to span the width of the rec¬
tangle. They, too, must be strong enough to support your
weight.

8-11
 • Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles) high enough
above the ground or water to allow for tides and high
water.
• Cut additional poles long enough to span the length of the
rectangle and lay them across the two short side poles.
• Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass
to form a soft sleeping surface.
Hammock. If you have a poncho, a parachute, or a shelter half,
you can make a hammock (figure 8-9). If you have a nylon pon¬
cho, fold it in thirds before tying it off. This will give it the strength
to support your weight. If you have a parachute, you can take four
sections of the canopy, fold them to form a triangle, and then tie
the triangle to trees.
Natural Shelters. Do not overlook natural formations that can give
you shelter. Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of bushes,
small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees
with low hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches. When
selecting a natural formation, however—

• Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow

valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold
air at night and are therefore colder than surrounding high
ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more
insects.

Figure 8*9. Hammock.

8-12
 • Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, sting¬
ing ants, loose rocks that might fall on your shelter, and
dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth that could
fall on you during a storm.

Tree-pit Snow Shelter. If you are in a cold, deeply snow-covered

area where evergreen trees grow and you have a digging tool, you
can make a tree-pit snow shelter (figure 8-10).
To make this shelter—

• Find a tree with bushy branches that will give you

overhead cover.
• Dig out the snow around the trunk of the tree until you
reach the depth and diameter you desire or until you reach
the ground.
• Pack the snow around the top and on the inside of the hole
to provide support.
• Find and cut other evergreen boughs and place them over
the top of the pit to give you additional overhead cover.

Figure 8-10. Tree-pit shelter.

8-13
Beach-shade Shelter. This shelter will protect you from the sun,
wind, rain, and heat, and it is easy to make using natural materials.

To make this shelter (figure 8-11)—

• Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use
as support beams and to use as a digging tool.
• Select a building site that is above the high-water mark.
• Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that
it receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench
long enough and wide enough for you to lie down com¬
fortably.
® Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher you
make the mound, the more space you will have in your
shelter.
• Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material)
on top of the mound spanning the trench to form the
framework for a roof.
• Cover the framework with palm branches or other suitable
material to form the roof.
• Enlarge the entrance to the shelter by digging out more
sand in front of it.
• Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a
bed inside the shelter.

Figure 8-11. Beach-shade shelter.

8-14
Desert Shelters. In an arid environment, you must consider time,
effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have material
such as canvas, parachute, poncho, or aircraft soundproofing, use
it and a terrain feature as follows:

Rock method:
• Find an outcropped rock.
• Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or
other material) on the edge of the outcropped rock using
rocks or other weights.
• Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it gives
you the best possible shade.

Mound method:
• Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for
one side of the shelter.
• Anchor one end of the material (poncho, canvas, parachute)
on top of the mound (or sand dune) using sand or other
weights.
• Extend and anchor the other end of the material so that
it gives you the best possible shade.

NOTE: If you have sufficient material, fold it in half and form a

12-inch to 18-inch airspace between the halves. This will reduce the
temperature below the shelter.

Below-ground method. This type shelter (figure 8T2) reduces the

midday heat as much as 30° to 40°. Building it, however, requires
more time and effort than building other type shelters. Since your
physical effort will make you sweat more, increasing dehydration,
you should wait until the cool of the night to make it.

To make this shelter—

• Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks, or

if necessary, dig a trench 18 to 24 inches deep and long
enough and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.
• Pile the sand you take from the trench around three sides
to form a mound.
• On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you
can get in and out of your shelter easily.

8-15
 • Cover the trench with material, such as parachute,
poncho, or canvas.
• Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other
weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday
temperature in the trench by securing the material 12 to 18 inches
above the other cover. This layering of material will reduce the
inside temperature 20® to 40®.

Figure 8*12. Desert shelter.

8-16
 Chapter

Firebuilding

A fire can fulfill several needs: It can keep you warm; It can keep
you dry; you can use It to cook food, to purify water, and to signal.
But it can also cause problems when you are In enemy territory:
It creates smoke, which can be smelled and seen from a long
distance; it causes light, which can be seen day or night; It leaves
signs of your presence.
Remember, you must always weigh your need fora fire against your
need to avoid enemy detection.
When you are to operate in a remote area, you should always take
a supply of matches in a waterproof case. Keep the matches on
your person. Before going on such an operation, practice shielding
a match flame In a fairly strong wind. Being able to keep a match
aflame long enough to start a fire means you can save your other
matches for future use.

-Selecting and Preparing the Site

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use for
firebuilding based on—

• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.

• The material and tools available.
• How much time you have.
• Why you need a fire.
• The nearness of the enemy.
Look for a dry spot—
• That is protected from the wind.
• That is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).

9-1
 • That will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
• Where a supply of wood or other fire-buring material is
available. (See page 9-4 for types of material you can use.)

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear brush away

and scrape the surface soil from the spot you selected. The cleared
circle should be at least 3 feet (1 meter) in diameter so that there
is little chance of the fire spreading.
If time allows, construct a fireplace wall using logs or rocks. This
wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where you want it (figure
9-1). It will also reduce flying sparks and will cut down on the
amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you will need
enough wind to keep the fire burning.
CAUTION: Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when
heated.

Figure 9-1. Types of firewalls.

9-2
In some situations you may find that an underground fireplace will
best meet your need. It conceals the fire to some extent and serves
well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota
fire hole (figure 9-2)—
• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke one large con¬
necting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.
If you are in a snow-covered area, you can use green logs to make
a dry base for your fire (figure 9-3). Trees with wrist-size trunks
are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs
and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more
layers, laying the top layer logs in a direction opposite those on
the layer below it.

Figure 9-3. Base for fire in snow-covered area.

9-3
 Selecting Fire Material
You will need three types of material (figure 9-4) to build a fire:
tinder, kindling, and fuel. Tinder is dry material that ignites with
little heat—just a spark. Kindling is readily combustible material
to add to the burning tinder to increase the temperature of the fire
so that it will ignite less combustible material. Fuel is less-
combustible material that will bum slowly and steadily once it is
well ignited.

Birch bark Small twigs Dry standing wood and

Shredded inner bark from Small strips of wood dry dead branches
cedar, chestnut, red elm Split wood Dry inside (heart) of fallen
trees Heavy cardboard tree trunks and large
Fine wood shavings Pieces of wood removed branches
Dead grass, ferns, moss, from the inside of larger Green wood that is finely
fungi pieces split
Straw Wood that has been Dry grasses twisted into
Sawdust soaked or doused with bunches
Very fine pitch-wood highly flammable Peat dry enough to burn
scrapings materials such as (this may be found at the
Dead evergreen needles gasoline, oil, or wax top of undercut banks)
Punk (the completely Dried animal dung
rotted portion of dead Animal fats
logs or trees) Coal, oil shale, or oil sand
Evergreen tree knots lying on the surface
Bird down (fine feathers)
Down seed heads
(milkweed, dry cattails,
bulrush, Canada thistle,
goldenrod, dandelion)
Fine, dried vegetable
fibers
Spongy threads of dead
puffball
Dead palm leaves
Skinlike membrane lining
bamboo
Lint from pocket and
seams
Charred cloth
Waxed paper
Outer bamboo shavings
Gunpowder
Cotton
Lint ‘Must be completely dry.

Figure 9-4. Materials for building fires.

9-4
-Building the Fire
There are several methods for laying a fire for quick firemaking.
Three easy methods are cone, lean-to, and cross-ditch.
Cone (figure 9-5). Arrange tinder and a few sticks of kindling in
the shape of a cone. Fire the center. As the core burns away, the
outside logs will fall inward, feeding the heart of the fire. This type
of fire burns well even with wet wood.

Lean-to (figure 9-5). Push a green stick into the ground at a 30°
angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction of the wind. Place
some tinder (at least a handful) deep inside this lean-to stick. Lean
pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As
the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

Cross-ditch (figure 9-5). Scratch a cross about 1 foot in size in the

ground. Dig the cross 3 inches deep. Put a large wad of tinder in
the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder.
The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the fire lay to provide
a draft.
Your situation and the material available in the area may make
another method more suitable:

Figure 9-5. Methods for laying a fire.

9-5
Pyramid. Place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground.
Place a solid layer of small logs or branches across the parallel logs.
Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, laying each layer
vertical to and making it smaller than the layer below it. Make a
starter fire of tinder and kindling atop the pyramid. As the starter
fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This will give you a fire
that burns downward, radiates heat evenly all around, and requires
no attention during the night.

Fire stick. Place two rocks on the ground about 10 inches apart.
(If no rocks are available, stick two thick sticks or forked sticks
in the ground.) Lay the fire stick cross the two rocks. Place a large
handful of tinder under the fire stick. Lean kindling on the lee side
of the fire stick.

Fire pit. Dig a 4- to 5-inch diameter hole 10 to 12 inches deep.

Dig another hole 18 to 24 inches from the first hole to serve as
the chimney. Dig a tunnel connecting the two holes. Use dry twigs
only for fuel, keeping the fire as small as possible. You can use
this method in a clandestine situation.

Keep in mind that good and sufficient tinder is essential in lighting

a fire. This is especially true when you are using means other than
a match or cigarette lighter to light the fire.

-Lighting the Fire

You should always light your fire lay from the upwind side. But
before you attempt to light it, make sure you have laid your tinder,
kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it.

To light your fire—

• Make a tinder bundle and place it near your fire lay.

• Light your match (cigarette lighter or pyrotechnic); quickly
grab the tinder, holding it slightly downward, and apply
the flame.
• As the tinder catches fire, turn the bundle in your hand
until it is burning well.
• Light the tinder/kindling in your fire lay.

Don’t waste your matches, your lighter fuel, or your pyrotechnics.

9-6
Light a candle if you have one, since it will burn longer. Save your
matches and lighter fuel for later use.

If you lack matches, a cigarette lighter, or pyrotechnics, you can

use other things (figure 9-6) to light a fire. Remember, though, you
need good tinder and a good fire lay.

Convex Lens. This method is limited to bright sunlight days, and

it takes time. The lens from your binoculars, camera, or telescopic
sight, or the magnifying glass from your compass are suitable for
this method. Angle the convex lens until the sun’s rays are con¬
centrated on the tinder. Hold the lens so that the sun rays stay
directed over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder.
Gently fan or blow the tinder into a flame, and proceed as above.

Metal Match. Arrange some tinder in the shape of a bird’s nest

and place a dry leaf, thin dry bark, or a piece of paper in the tinder
nest. Place the tinder near your fire lay. Holding your knife or
similar itemx in one hand and the metal match in the other, place
the metal match point on the dry leaf (bark, paper) in the center
of the tinder nest. Scrape your knife against the metal match as
if you are whittling. The sparks will hit the scrapings and tinder.

Battery. You may be able to strike a spark using a battery. The

technique, however, depends upon the type of battery you have.
With a vehicle battery attach a wire to each terminal. Set the bat¬
tery where the wires will reach the tinder. Touch the bare ends
of the wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Flint and Steel. If you have a piece of steel—a knife blade, for
instance—and a piece of flint, you can strike a spark to light tinder.
(You can substitute a piece of hard stone for flint.) Hold the flint
as near the tinder as possible. Strike the piece of steel downward
on the flint so the sparks will hit the center of the tinder.

Bow and Drill. This is a last-resort method to use to light a fire.

You will need—

• A piece of hardwood 2 to 3 feet long and 1 to IV2 inches

in diameter for the bow.
• A piece of dry hardwood 6 to 9 inches long and V2 to %
inch in diameter for the drill.

9-7
 • A piece of hardwood about 2” x 2” x 2” for the drill cap
(a shell or stone will also work).
• A piece of dry softwood about 6” x 18” x 1” (the width
and length can vary).
• A cord for the bowstring (a shoelace or thong will do).
To set up your bow and drill—

• String both ends of the bow loosely.

• Shape the drill so it is slightly tapered at the cap end and
gently rounded at the drilling end.
• Carve out the center of the cap so the tapered end of the
drill will fit inside it.
• Place the piece of softwood stably on the ground.
• Make a dent near the edge of the softwood to receive the
drill.
• Make a notch that connects with the dent in the softwood.
• Place tinder next to the notch.
• Vigorously spin the drill, maintaining pressure on the cap
so that there is friction between the softwood and drill.
This friction produces the coals to start your fire.
Fire Saw. This, too, is a last-resort method. It consists of rubbing
two pieces of wood vigorously against each other. Soft wood or
split bamboo makes a good fire saw. When using bamboo—

• Select bamboo that is 2 to 3 inches in diameter.

• Cut a piece 2 to 3 feet long and split it lengthwise.
• Cut a notch on each edge of one split piece of bamboo so
that the notches are aligned.
• Place tinder in the bamboo at the notches.
• Brace the bamboo, split side up, on the ground with a fork¬
ed stick.
• With the other piece of split bamboo, saw in the notches
until the tinder ignites.

...Helpful Hints
Collect good tinder whenever you find it; carry it with you in a
waterproof container.

9-8
 LENS METHOD

HAND HOLDING DRILL SOCKET

IS BRACED AGAINST LEFT SHIN
WOOD DUST PILES ON TINDER
AS DRILL SPINS.
TINDER AND
WOOD DUST

BOW AND DRILL

NOTE:
SPLIT BAMBOO OR SOFT WOOD

FIRE SAW

Figure 9-6. Fire making without matches.

9-9
Collect kindling along the trail before you make camp.

If you have insect repellent with you, add it to your tinder. It will
make the tinder more flammable.
Keep your firewood under a shelter so it will stay dry.

Place damp wood near the fire so it will dry for later use.

To make a fire last overnight, place large logs over it so that the
fire will burn into the heart of the logs. When you have a good
bed of coals, cover the coals lightly with ashes and then dry earth.
The fire will still be smoldering in the morning.

Whenever possible, carry lighted punk, smoldering coconut husk,

or slow-burning coals with you. This will enable you to start a fire
quickly at your next stop.
Before you leave your campsite, make sure your fire is complete¬
ly out.

9-10
 Chapter D®

Water Crossings

When you are in a survival situation in any area except the desert,
you are likely to encounter a water obstacle. It may be in the form
of a river, a stream, a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or muskeg.
Whatever it is, you need to know how to cross it safely.

-Rivers and Streams

A river or stream may be narrow or wide, shallow or deep, slow
moving or fast moving. It may be snow-fed or ice-fed. Your first
step is to find a place where the river is basically safe for crossing.
So look for a high place from which you can get a good view of
the river and find a place for crossing. If there is no high place,
climb a tree. Check the river carefully for the following:

• A level stretch where it breaks into a number of channels.

Two or three narrow channels are usually easier to cross
than a wide river.
• Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might
hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which travel-
will be the safest and easiest.
• A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates
dangerous rapids or canyons.
• A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never attempt
to ford a stream directly above or even close to such spots.
• Rocky places. Avoid these; you can be seriously injured
from falling on rocks. An occasional rock that breaks the
current, however, may assist you.

10-1
 • A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point
%

upstream from a shallow bank or sandbar so that the cur¬

rent will carry you to it if you lose your footing.
• A course across the river that leads downstream so that
you will cross the current at about a 45^ angle.

The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you can

keep your footing. In fact, deep water sometimes runs more slow¬
ly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You can
always dry your clothes later, or if you prefer, you can make a raft
to carry your clothing and equipment across the river.

---- Rapids
Crossing a deep, swift river or rapids is not as dangerous as it looks.
If you are swimming across, swim with the current—never fight
it—and try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will
reduce the danger of being pulled under.

In fast, shallow rapids, go on your back, feet first; fin your hands
alongside your hips to add buoyancy and to fend submerged rocks.
Keep your feet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.
In deep rapids, go on your belly, head first; angle toward shore
whenever you can. Breathe between wave troughs. Be careful of
backwater eddies and converging currents as they often contain
dangerous swirls. Avoid bubbly water under falls; it has little
buoyancy.
If you are going to ford a swift, treacherous stream, remove your
pants and underpants so that the water will have less grip on your
legs. Keep your shoes on to protect your feet and ankles from rocks
and to give you firmer footing.

Tie your pants and important articles securely to the top of your
pack. This way, if you have to release your pack, all your articles
will be together. It is easier to find one large pack than to find
several small items.

Carry your pack well up on your shoulders so you can release it

quickly if you are swept off your feet. Not being able to get a pack
off quickly enough can drag even the strongest of swimmers under.

Find a strong pole about 5 inches in diameter and 7 to 8 feet long

to help you ford the stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on
10-2
your upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly
with each step, and move the pole forward a little downstream from
its previous position, but still upstream from you. With your next
step, place your foot below the pole. Keep the pole well slanted
so that the force of the current keeps the pole against your shoulder
(figure 10-1).

If there are other people with you, cross the stream together (figure
10-2). Make sure that everyone has prepared their pack and
clothing as above. Have the heaviest person get on the downstream
end of the pole and the lightest person on the upstream end. This
way, the upstream person will break the current, and the persons
below can move with comparative ease in the eddy formed by the
upstream person. If the upstream person is temporarily swept off
his feet, the other persons can hold steady while he regains footing.
As in all fording, cross the stream so that you will cross the
downstream current at a 45^ angle. Currents too strong for one
person to stand against can usually be crossed safely in this manner.

Do not be concerned about the weight of your pack as the weight

will help rather than hinder you in fording the stream. Just make
sure you can release the pack quickly if necessary.

USE POLE ON
UPSTREAM SIDE

current!

Figure 10-1. One man crossing swift stream.

10-3
 LIGHTEST MAN IN HEAVIEST MAN ACTS AS
UPSTREAM POSITION DOWNSTREAM ANCHOR FOR

Figure 10-2. Several men crossing swift stream.

-Rafts
If you are with a buddy and each of you has a poncho, you can
construct a brush or Australian poncho raft. With this type raft,
you can safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream
or river.

Brush Raft. The brush raft (figure 10-3) will support about 250
pounds if properly constructed. To construct it, use ponchos; fresh,
green brush; two small saplings; and a rope or vines as follows:
• Tightly tie off the neck of each poncho with the neck
drawstring.
• Attach ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets of
each poncho. Be sure the ropes or vines are long enough
to cross to and tie with the rope or vine attached at the
opposite corner or side.
• Spread one poncho on the ground with the tied-off hood up.
• Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the poncho
until the brush stack is about 18 inches high.
• Pull the poncho neck drawstring up through the center of
the brush stack.
• Make an X-frame of two small saplings and place it on top
of the brush stack.
• Tie the X-frame securely in place with the poncho neck
drawstring.
• Pile another 18 inches of brush on top of the X-frame.

10-4
• Compress the brush slightly.
• Pull the poncho sides up around the brush, and using the
ropes or vines attached to the corner and side grommets,
tie diagonally from corner to corner and from side to side.
• Spread the second poncho, tied-off hood up, next to the
brush bundle.
• Roll the brush bundle onto the center of the second
poncho so that the tied side is down.
• Tie the second poncho around the brush bundle in the same
manner as you tied the first poncho around the brush.
• Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other
end to the raft. This will aid you in towing.

Figure 10-3. Brush raft.

10-5
Australian Poncho Raft. If you do not have time to gather brush
for a brush raft, you can make an Australian poncho raft (figure
10-4). This raft, although more waterproof than the poncho brush
raft, will only float about 80 pounds of equipment. To construct
this raft, use two ponchos, two 4-foot poles or branches, and ropes,
vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as follows:
• Tightly tie off the neck of each poncho with the neck
drawstring.
• Spread one poncho on the ground with the tied-off hood up.
• Place and center the two 4-foot poles about 18 inches apart
on the poncho.
• Place the rucksacks, packs, and/or other equipment
between the poles. You should also place other items, such
as your boots and outer garments, that you want to keep
dry between the poles.
At this point you will need your buddy’s help to complete the raft.
Proceed as follows:
• Snap the poncho sides together.
• Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll
it tightly down to the equipment. Make sure that you roll
the full width of the poncho.
• Twist each end of the roll to form pigtails in opposite
directions.
• Fold the pigtails over the bundle and tie them securely in
place using ropes, vines, or bootlaces.
• Spread the second poncho on the ground with the tied-off
hood up. If you need more buoyancy, place some fresh,
green brush on this poncho.
• Place the equipment bundle, pigtail side down, on the
center of the second poncho.
• Wrap the second poncho around the equipment bundle
following the same procedure you used for wrapping the
equipment in the first poncho.
• Tie ropes, vines, or other binding material around the raft
about 1 foot from the end of each pigtail.
• Place and secure weapons on top of the raft.
• Tie one end of a rope to a canteen and the other end to
the raft. This will help you in towing the raft.

10-6
 Figure 10-4. Australian poncho raft.
When launching or landing either the brush or Australian type pon¬
cho raft, take care not to puncture or tear it by dragging it on the
ground. Let the raft lay on the water a few minutes to ensure that
it floats before you start to cross the river or stream. If the river
is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you while swimming.

Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to cross a

river or water obstacles. If the water is extremely cold and you
are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not at¬
tempt to ford it. Devise other means for crossing. For instance,
you might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or
you might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equip¬
ment. For this, however, you will need an axe, a knife, and a rope
or vines. And you will need time.
Log Raft. You can make a raft using dry, dead, standing trees
for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar and subpolar regions
make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is to use
pressure bars lashed securely at each end to hold the logs together.

10-7
 FORCE CLOSED WITH
EVER TIGHTER LASHING
PRESSURE BARS

Figure 10-5. Use of pressure bars.

--Flotation Devices
If the temperature of a body of water is warm enough for swim¬
ming but you are unable to swim, make a flotation device to help
you. Some things you can use for flotation devices are—

• Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and button

the fly. With both hands grasp the waistband at the sides
and swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg.
Quickly press the sides of the waistband together and hold
it underwater so that the air will not escape. You now have
water wings to keep you afloat as you cross the body of
water.

NOTE: These “water wings'' may have to he reinflated several times

when crossing a large body of water.
• Empty containers. Lash together empty tins, gas cans, or
boxes and use as water wings. You should not use this type
flotation, however, except in a slow-moving river or
stream.
• Plastic bags. Air fill two or more plastic bags and secure¬
ly tie them together at the mouth.
• Poncho. Roll green vegetation tightly inside your poncho
so that you have a roll at least 8 inches in diameter. Tie
the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it around your
waist or across one shoulder and under the opposite arm.

10-8
 • Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available. Or find
a log near the water to use for flotation. Be sure to test
the log before starting to cross, however, as some tree logs,
palm for example, will sink even when the wood is dead.
• Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle
10 inches or more in diameter. The many air cells in each
stalk causes a stalk to float until it rots. Test the cattail
bundle to be sure it will support your weight before
attempting to cross a body of water.

-Other Water Obstacles

Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs, quagmire,
muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk across. Trying to lift your
feet while standing upright will make you sink deeper. Try to
bypass these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass them, you may
be able to bridge them using logs, branches, or foliage.

Another way to get across is to lie face downward with your arms
spread and swim or pull your way across. Be sure to keep your
body horizontal.
In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm enough
to support your weight. However, vegetation will usually not be
present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average swim¬
mer, however, you should have no problem swimming, crawling,
or pulling your way through miles of bog or swamp.
Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a shifting
mass. It 3delds easily to pressure and tends to suck down and engulf
objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is usually
localized. Quicksand generally occurs on flat shores, in silt-choked
rivers with shifting water courses, and near the mouths of large
rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area is quicksand, toss
a small stone on it. The stone will sink in quicksand.

Although quicksand has more suction than mud or muck, you can
cross it in the same way you do a bog; flatten out, face downward,
arms spread, and move slowly across.
You can give yourself more buoyancy by forming air pockets in
your clothing. Tie your pants at the ankles to form air pockets in
the legs. Blow your breath inside the front opening of your collar
to form air pockets over your shoulders.

10-9
Some water areas you must cross may have underwater and
floating plants that will make swimming difficult. However, you
can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you keep calm and
do not thrash about. Stay as near the surface as possible and use
the breast stroke with shallow leg and arm motion. Remove the
plants around you as you would clothing. When you get tired, float
or swim on your back until you are rested enough to continue with
the breast stroke.

The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that occurs along

tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees or shrubs throw out many prop
roots that form dense masses.
To get through a mangrove swamp, wait for low tide. If you are
on the inland side, look for a narrow grove of trees and work your
way seaward through these, or look for the bed of a waterway or
creek through the trees and follow it to the sea. If you are on the
seaward side, work inland along streams or channels.
Be on the lookout for crocodiles. They are often found along and
in the shallow water. If there are any near you, leave the water
and scramble over the mangrove roots.

A raft is the best means of crossing a large swamp area.

10-10
 Chapter

Field Expedient
Direction Finding

There are several methods by which you can determine direction

by using the sun and the stars. These methods, however, will give
you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly
true direction if you have knowledge of the terrain of the territory
or country. So it is up to you to learn ail you can about the terrain,
especially any prominent features or landmarks, of the country or
territory to which you or your unit may be sent. This knowledge
of the terrain together with the use of the methods explained below
will enable you to come up with fairly true directions.

-Using the Sun and Shadows

Two methods that are easy to use when there is sunlight are the
shadow-tip and the watch.

Shadow-tip method. Everywhere on earth the sun rises in the east

and sets in the west. Therefore, the following steps for the shadow-
tip method (figure ITl) are the same wherever you are:

• First, find a straight stick about 3 feet (1 meter) long and

a fairly level, brush-free spot so that the stick will cast a
definite shadow.
• Push the stick in the ground so it stands upright. It need
not be perfectly vertical to the ground.
• Mark the tip of the shadow cast by the stick.
• Wait until the shadow moves 1V2 to 2 inches (approximate¬
ly 10 to 15 minutes).
• Mark the tip of the second shadow.
• Draw a line from the first mark through and about a foot
beyond the second mark.

11-1
Stand with your left foot on the first mark and your right
foot on the end of the line you drew.

Figure 11-1. Shadow-tip method.

11-2
If you are in the northern temperate zone, you will be facing in
a northerly direction and you will know the other directions by
recalling their relation to north.

If you are in the southern temperate zone, you will be facing in

a southerly direction.

Watch method. You can also determine direction using a watch

(figure 11-2). The steps you take will depend on whether you are
in the northern temperate zone or in the southern temperate zone
and whether you have a conventional or digital watch. The nor¬
thern temperate zone is located between 23.4° north and 66.6°
north. The southern temperate zone is located between 23.4° south
and 66.6° south.

11-3
Procedures in the northern temperate zone using a conventional
watch are as follows:

• Place a small stick in the ground so that it casts a definite

shadow.
• Place your watch on the ground so that the hour hand
points toward and along the shadow of the stick.

• Find the point on the watch midway between the hour hand
and 12 o’clock and draw an imaginary line from that point
through and beyond the center of the watch. This im¬
aginary line is a north-south line. You can then tell the
other directions.

NOTE: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, then use the mid^
way point between the hour hand and 1 o'clock to draw your imaginary
line.

Procedures in the southern temperate zone using a conventional

watch are as follows:

• Place a small stick in the ground so that it casts a definite

shadow.
• Place your watch on the ground so that 12 o’clock points
to and along the shadow.
• Find the midway point between the hour hand and 12
o’clock and draw an imaginary line from the point through
and beyond the center of the watch. This is a north-south
line.

A hasty shortcut using a conventional watch is simply to point the

hour hand at the sun in the northern temperate zone (or point the
12 at the sun in the southern temperate zone) and then follow the
last step of the watch method above to find your directions. This
shortcut, of course, is not as accurate as the regular method, but
it is quicker. Your situation will dictate which method to use.

If you carry a digital watch, you follow the same steps as with a
conventional watch except you draw on the ground the face of a
conventional watch with the hands indicating the proper time (as
shown on your digital watch) and the hour hand pointing to and
along the shadow of the stick.

11-4
-Using the Stars
On a clear night many stars are visible, and if you walk toward
the North Star, you will be walking northward. The North Star,
however, is not the brightest star in the sky and is sometimes hard
to find. In order to locate the North Star, you should know that—

• All other stars revolve around the North Star.

• The North Star is the last star in the handle of the con¬
stellation Ursa Minor (Little Dipper), but the complete
Little Dipper is often difficult to see.
• The easiest way to locate the North Star is by using the
constellation Ursa Major (Big Dipper). A straight line
drawn between the two stars (pointers) at the end of the
Big Dipper’s bowl will point to the North Star. The
distance to the North Star is about five times the distance
between the pointers.
• Directly across from the Big Dipper is the constellation
Cassiopeia. It is made up of five stars and resembles a lop¬
sided “ M” or “W” depending on its position in the sky.
The North Star is straight out from the center star of
Cassiopeia. It is almost equidistant between the Big Dip¬
per and the Cassiopeia.

Figure 11-3. The Big Dipper.

11-5
South of the equator you can use the constellation Southern Cross
to help you determine the general direction of south. The Southern
Cross is a group of four bright stars in the shape of a cross that
is tilted to one side. The two stars forming the long axis, or stem,
of the cross are called pointers. To determine which direction is
south—

• Imagine the long axis extends from its foot five tim.es its
length. The point where this imaginary line ends is in the
general direction of south.
• Look straight down from this imaginary point to the
horizon and select a landmark.

SOUTHERN CROSS

IMAGINARY POINT

SOUTH LANDMARK

Figure 11-4. Southern Cross.

11-6
 . Chapte ,tI2
v;.

"A

3s
...

WMMS' Signaling
^ : A'"'' ^
siSSiS

^iSm'■iZ\

One of your first concerns when you find yourself in a survival

situation is to communicate with your friends/allies. In a survival-
evasion situation, you have the additional concern of avoiding the
enemy.
Generally, communication is defined as “giving and receiving in¬
formation." As a survivor, you must give signals in a manner that
will make it easy for a rescue crew to receive the signal.

-Prepare for Signaling

Your environment will have a bearing on the type of signals you
can use. Keep in mind that from the air a pilot has difficulty spot¬
ting one man or a small group, especially when visibility is limited.
So be prepared to use whatever signaling means will catch his
attention no matter how high and how fast he is flying. However,
be careful how you signal. In some circumstances the pilot could
mistake the flashes of your signaling device as enemy ground fire.

Some attention-getters are man-made geometric patterns such as

straight lines, circles, triangles, or XY in uninhabited areas; a large
fire or flash of light; a large, bright object moving slowly; large
signaling devices; or contrast, whether from color or shadows.

Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use, know how

to use it and be ready to use it on short notice. If possible, avoid
the use of signals or signaling techniques that can endanger you.
Keep in mind that signals to your friends/allies may alert the enemy
of your presence and location. Before signaling, carefully weigh
your chances of being rescued by friends against the danger of
being captured by the enemy.

12-1
A radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others know
where you are and to let you receive their messages. So become
familiar with the radios in your unit. Learn how to prepare them
for operation and how to send and receive miessages.

In the following paragraphs, you will find descriptions of other

techniques, devices, and articles you can use for signaling. Learn
how to use them. Think of ways in which you can adapt or modify
them for different environments. And practice using these signal¬
ing techniques, devices, and articles before you need them.

--Means for Signaling

There are several ways to signal. However, the means you use will
depend on your situation and the material you have available.

Fire. During darkness, fire is the most effective means for signal¬
ing. Build three fires in a triangle (the international distress signal)
or in a straight line with approximately 25 yards between the fires.
Build them as soon as time and the situation permit and protect
them until you need them. If you are alone, maintaining three fires
may be difficult. If so, maintain one signal fire.

When constructing signal fires, consider your geographic location.

For instance, if you are in the jungle, find a natural clearing or the
edge of a stream where you can build the fires so that the jungle
foliage will not hide them. You may even have to clear an area.
If you are in a snow-covered area, you may have to clear the ground
of snow or make a platform on which to build a fire so that melting
snow will not extinguish it.

A burning tree is another means of attracting attention. Pitch¬

bearing trees can be set afire even when green. For other type
trees, you can get the foliage to burn by placing dry wood in the
lower branches and igniting it so that flames flare up and ignite
the tree foliage. Cut and add more small green trees to the fire
before the primary tree is consumed in order to produce more
smoke. Always select a tree apart from other trees so that you do
not start a forest fire and endanger yourself.

12-2
Smoke. During daylight, smoke is an attention-getter. The inter¬
national distress signal is three columns of smoke. You should try
to create a color of smoke that will contrast with the background:
dark smoke against a light background and vice versa. If you prac¬
tically smother a large fire with green leaves, moss, or a little water,
the fire will produce white smoke. If you add rubber or oil-soaked
rags to a fire, you will get black smoke.
)

In a desert environment smoke hangs close to the ground, but a

pilot can spot it in open desert terrain.

Generally, smoke signals are effective only on comparatively calm,

clear days. High winds, rain, or snow disperse smoke, lessening
the chances of it being seen.

Smoke Grenades. If you have smoke grenades with you, you can
use them in the same pattern as for fires. Be sure to keep your
grenades dry so they will work when you need them. Take care
not to ignite vegetation in the area when you use them.

M186 Pen Flare. This is a survival device that is included in an

aviator’s survival vest. It consists of a gun with a flare attached
by means of a green nylon cord. When fired, the pen flare makes
a sound like a pistol shot. The flare goes about 500 feet high and
is about 10 feet in diameter.

To have the pen flare ready for immediate use, take it out of its
wrapper, partially screw it in, leave it uncocked, and wear it on
a cord or chain around your neck. Be ready to fire it in front of
the aircraft and be ready with a secondary signal. Also be ready
to take cover in case the pilot mistakes the flare for enemy fire.

Star Clusters. Red is the international distress color, so use a red

star cluster whenever possible. Any color, however, will let your
rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a height of 200
to 215 meters, burn on an average of 6 to 10 seconds, and descend
at a rate of 14 meters per second.

Star Parachute Flares. These flares reach a height of 200 to 215

12-3
meters and descend at a rate of 2.1 meters per second. The M126
(red) burns for about 50 seconds and the M127 (white) for about
25 seconds. At night these flares can be seen for a distance of 30
to 35 miles.
Mirrors or Shiny Objects. On a sunny day, a mirror is your best
signaling device. If you do not have a mirror, you can polish your
canteen cup, your belt buckle, or a similar object so that it will
reflect the sun’s rays. Concentrate the flashes in one area so that
they are secure from enemy observation. Practice using a mirror
or shiny object for signaling now; do not wait until you need it.
If you have an MK-3 signal mirror, follow the instructions on its
back.

Wear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your neck so that
you have it ready for immediate use. However, make sure the glass
side is against your body so that it will not flash and be seen by
the enemy.
CAUTION: Do not flash a signal mirror rapidly as a pilot may mistake
the flashes for enemy fire. Do not direct the beam on the cockpit of
an aircraft for more than a few seconds as it may blind the pilot.
Haze, ground fog, and mirages may make it hard for a pilot to spot
signals from a flashing object. So, if possible, get to the highest
point in your area when signaling. If you are unable to determine
the aircraft’s location, flash your signal in the direction of the air¬
craft noise.

NOTE: Mirror signals can be seen over 70 miles under normal condi¬
tions in most environments and over 100 miles in a desert environment.
Flashlight or Strobe Light. At night you can use a flashlight or
a strobe light to send an SOS to an aircraft. When you use a strobe
light, take care to prevent the pilot from mistaking it for incoming
rounds. The strobe light flashes 60 times per minute. Some strobe
lights have infrared covers and lenses.
VS-17 Panel. During daylight you can use a VS-17 panel to signal.
Place the orange side upward as it is easier to see from the air than
the violet side. Flashing the panel will make it easier for the pilot
to spot.

Clothing. Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree

is another way to signal. Select articles whose color will contrast

12-4
 HOW TO USE THE MK-3 SIGNAL MIRROR

1 . Reflect sunlight from mirror onto a nearby surface (raft,

hand, etc.).
2. Slowly bring mirror up to eye-level and look through
sighting hole. You will see a bright spot of light. This
is the aim indicator.
3. Hold mirror near the eye and slowly turn and manipulate
it so that the bright spot of light is on the target.
4. In friendly areas where only rescue by friendly forces
is anticipated, free use of the mirror is recommended.
Even though no aircraft or ships are in sight, continue
to sweep the horizon. Mirror flashes may be seen for many
miles, even in hazy weather. In hostile areas, the signal
mirror must be used as an aimed signal only.

Figure 12-1. Mirror signals.

12-5
with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric
pattern so that they are more likely to attract attention.
Natural Material. If you lack other means, you can use natural
materials to form a symbol or message that can be seen from the
air. Build mounds that will cast shadows; you can use brush, foliage
of any type, rocks, or snow blocks.

In snow-covered areas, tramp down the snow to form letters or

symbols and fill in with contrasting material such as twigs or
branches.

In sand, use boulders, vegetation, or seaweed to form a symbol

or message.
In brush-covered areas, cut out patterns in the vegetation or sear
the ground.

In tundra, dig trenches or turn the sod upside down.

In any terrain, use contrasting materials so that the symbols are

visible to aircraft crews.

Sea Dye Markers. An Army aircraft that is intended for opera¬

tions near or over water will normally carry a water survival kit
that contains sea dye markers. If you are in a water survival situa¬
tion, use sea markers during daylight to indicate your location.
These spots of dye stay conspicuous for about 3 hours except in
very rough seas, so you should use them only if you are in a friendly
area. Keep the markers wrapped until you are ready to use them.
Use them only when you hear or sight an aircraft. Sea dye markers
are also very effective on snow-covered ground using distress code
letters.

-- Codes/Signals
Now that you know how to let people know where you are, you
need to know how to give them more information. It is easier to
form one symbol than to spell out an entire message, so learn the
following codes and symbols, which all aircraft pilots understand.

Morse Code. You can use lights or flags to send an SOS—three

dots, three dashes, three dots—which is the internationally
recognized signal of distress in radio code. Keep repeating the
signal. When using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and
on the right side for dots.

12-6
 Message j Code
No.
.r' . - • 1 '
Symbol

1 Require Assistance V
2 Require Medical Assistance
X
3 No or Negative N
4 Yes or Affirmative Y
5 Proceeding In This Direction

Figure 12-2. Pattern signals.

Ground-to-Air Emergency Code. This code (figure 12-2) is ac¬
tually five definite, meaningful symbols.

Body Signals. When an aircraft is close enough for the pilot to

see you clearly, use body movements or positions (figure 12-3) to
convey a message.

Our receiver Affirmative Can proceed shortly, Need mechanical

is operating (Yes) wait if practicable help or parts,
long delay

Do not attempt Pick us up. Use drop All OK,

to land here aircraft message do not wait
abandoned

Land here (point Need medical

Negative in direction assistance
(No) of landing) URGENTLY

Figure 12-3. Close-in visual signals.

12-7
ON LAND AND AT SEA: ON LAND AND AT SEA: LAND AND SEA:
O.K. to land. Arrow Need medical attention. Do not attempt landing.
shows landing direction.

ON LAND AND AT SEA: ON LAND AND AT SEA: ON LAND: Need gas and
Need first aid supplies. Plane is flyable, need oil, plane is flyable.
tools.
r-T
I t

ON LAND: Need warm ON LAND: Indicate Have abandoned plane.

clothing. direction of nearest ON LAND: Walking in
AT SEA: Need exposure civilization. this direction.
suit or clothing indicated. AT SEA: Indicate AT SEA: Drifting.
direction of rescue
craft.

ON LAND AND AT SEA: ON LAND: Should we AT SEA: Need equip¬

Need food and water. wait for rescue plane? ment as indicated.
AT SEA: Notify rescue Signals follow.
agency of my position.

r-1

SURVIVORS USE
LIFERAFT SAILS
TO CONVEY SIGNALS

ON LAND: Need quinine

or atabrine. BLUE
AT SEA: Need sun cover.
YELLOW

Figure 12-4. Panel signals.

12-8
Panel. If you have a VS-17 panel or a suitable substitute, use the
symbols shown here (figure 12-4) to convey a message.

-Aircraft Acknowledgements
The pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft will indicate he has seen you by
moving the plane and flashing lights as shown in figure 12-5.

MESSAGE RECEIVED AND UNDERSTOOD

Aircraft will indicate that ground signals
have been seen and understood by —

DAY OR MOONLIGHT: Rocking from side to side

« « ' #:
NIGHT: Making green flashes with signal lamp

MESSAGE RECEIVED AND NOT UNDERSTOOD

Aircraft will indicate that ground signals have
been seen but NOT understood by—

DAY OR MOONLIGHT: Making a complete circle

# « 4^ « #
NIGHT: Making red flashes with signal lamp

Figure 12-5. Standard aircraft acknowledgements.

12-9
Be prepared to relay other messages to the pilot once he has
acknowledged that he has received and understood your first
message.

12-10
 Chapter

Desert Survival

Survival in an arid area (a desert), as in any area, depends upon

your knowledge of the terrain and the basic climatic elements, your
ability to cope with them, and your will to live.

--Terrain
Most arid areas have several types of terrain, each type seemingly
blending into another type. The five basic types are:

• Mountainous.
• Rocky plateau.
• Sand dune.
• Salt marsh.
• Highly dissected terrain (called “gebel”).

These types of terrain will not only affect your ability to procure
water, food, and shelter (Chapters 5-8), they will also—
• Make physical movement quite demanding.
• Make land navigation difficult.
• Limit cover and concealment.

Mountain deserts are characterized by scattered ranges or areas

of barren hills or mountains, separated by dry, flat basins. High
ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to a height
of several thousand feet above sea level.

Rainfall, although infrequent, occurs on high ground, runs off rapid¬

ly in the form of flash floods, erodes deep gullies and ravines, and
deposits sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Vegeta¬
tion may appear after rain, but the water evaporates rapidly, leav¬
ing the land barren as before. If more water than can evaporate

13-1
enters a basin, a shallow lake may develop. The Great Salt Lake
in Utah and the Dead Sea are examples of such lakes. The water
in such lakes has a high salt content and is undrinkable.

Mountain deserts at high altitudes have thin air and little or no

vegetation. Sunburn is a danger. Climbing at high altitudes requires
extra physical exertion and increases your need for water.

Movement on mountains during darkness is extremely dangerous.

Rocky plateau deserts are characterized by many solid or broken

rocks at or near the surface. There may be sand dunes around the
plateau. The extensive flat areas have relatively little relief, but
the rock outcroppings offer shade as well as cover and concealment.

The rocks often form natural cisterns that collect water after rains.
Look closely for these areas. Sometimes animal or bird indicators,
such as trails, droppings, or birds in flight, may point out water
sources.

Movement at night is dangerous.

Sand dune deserts are extensive areas covered with sand and
gravel. The word “flat” is somewhat misleading in that some areas
may have sand dunes over 1,000 feet (300 meters) high and 10 to
15 miles (16 to 24 kilometers) long. Other areas may be totally flat
for distances of 2 miles (3.22 kilometers) or more. The area may
be void of plant life or it may have scrub over 6 feet (1.82 meters)
high.

The Sahara Desert, the Sinai Desert, the empty quarter of the Ara¬
bian Desert, the California and New Mexico deserts, and the
Kalahari Desert in South Africa are examples of sand dune deserts.

You should avoid travel through sand dune deserts if possible.

Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with

clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in arid
areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large
deposits of alkali salts and/or water with a high concentration of
salts. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust, which may
be an inch to a foot thick, forms over the saltwater.

In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square.

These areas support large numbers of insects, most of which bite.

13-2
Avoid salt marshes. These types of terrain are highly corrosive
to boots, clothing, and skin.

Highly dissected terrain is found in all arid areas. This terrain (call¬
ed gebel or wadi) is formed by rainstorms that erode soft sand and
carve out miniature canyons. A wadi may range from 10 feet (3
meters) wide and 6 feet (2 meters) deep to several hundred meters
wide and deep. The direction it takes varies as much as its width
and depth, twisting and turning, forming a maze. You can easily
become lost because of this mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you
good cover and concealment, but you should not try to move
through it.

-Environmental Factors
To survive and to evade an enemy in an arid area, you must know
about and be prepared for the environmental conditions you face.
You must determine the equipment you will need, the tactics you
will use, and how the environment will impact on them and you.

In an arid area there are eight environmental factors that you must
consider:
• Low rainfall.
• Intense sunlight and heat.
• Wide temperature range.
• Sparse vegetation.
• High mineral content near ground surface.
• Sandstorms.
• Mirages.
• Light levels.

Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid

area. Some desert areas receive less than 4 inches of rain annual¬
ly, and this comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground
surface. With the high desert air temperatures you cannot survive
long without water. So in a desert survival situation, you must first
consider “How much water do I have?'’ and ’’Where are other
sources?” (See Chapter 5.)

Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air
temperature can rise as high as 140° during the day. Heat gain

13-3
results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat (the
sun’s rays bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct
contact with the desert sand and rock.

The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 30® to 40® more
than that of the air. For instance, when the air temperature is 110®,
the sand temperature may be 140®.

Intense sunlight and heat increase the body’s need for water. To
conserve your body sweat and energy, you need a shelter to reduce
your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to minimize
the use of water. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by
moonlight when there is little likelihood of mirage.

Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense

sunlight will malfunction.
Temperatures may get as high as 130® during the day and as low
as 50® during the night in arid areas. The drop in temperature at
night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing

HOT. BLOWING,
SAND-LADEN WINDS

DIRECT RAYS
\ FROM SUN

REFLECTIVE
HEAT GAIN

CONDUCTIVE HEAT GAIN

FROM SAND AND ROCKS

Figure13-1. Types of heat gain.

13-4
and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the
best times to work or travel. If you plan to rest at night, you will
find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap ex¬
tremely helpful.

Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have difficulty

finding shelter and camouflaging your movements. During daylight
hours large areas of terrain are visible and easily controlled by a
small opposing force.

As an evadee, you should follow the principles of desert

camouflage:

• Hide or seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker

growths of vegetation and cover from oblique observation.

• Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcroppings.

The temperature in shaded areas will be 20® to 30® cooler
than the air temperature.

• Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.

Prior to moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover and
concealment. A problem you will have is estimating distance. The
emptiness of a desert terrain causes most people to underestimate
distance by three: what appears to be 1 mile (1.61 kilometers) away
is really 3 miles (4.83 kilometers) away.

All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral
content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this
soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard
and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off
may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an
example of this type of mineral-ladened water and soil. There is
little or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these
areas if possible.

Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts.

The ’’Seistan” desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows constant¬
ly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 2 to
3 miles per hour (mph) and can reach 70 to 80 mph in early after¬
noon. Major sandstorms and dust storms can be expected at least
once a week.

13-5
The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. You
should wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth.
If natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie
down, and ride out the storm.

Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions.

Therefore, you should use other means for signaling, such as
pyrotechnics, if available.

Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light

through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface. They
occur in the interior of the desert about 6 miles (9.6 kilometers)
from the coast. They make objects that are 1 mile (1.6 kilometers)
or more away appear to move.

This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object

from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so much that
you feel as if you are surrounded by a sheet of water from which
elevations stand out as “islands.”

The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets,

estimate range, and spot personnel. However, if you can get to high
ground (10 feet or more above the desert floor), you can get above
the superheated air close to the ground, overcoming the murage
effect.

Mirages make land navigation difficult because they obscure

natural features.

Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other

geographic areas.

Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear; winds die down, haze and
glare disappear, and visibility is good. You can see lights, red
flashlights, and blackout lights great distances away. Noise car¬
ries far.

Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is ex¬

tremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous; you must take care
to avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy
positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you
have a compass and have spent the day in shelter, resting, observ¬
ing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.

13-6
--Need For Water
The subject of man and water in the desert has incited considerable
interest and confusion since the early days of World War II when
the US Army was preparing to fight in North Africa. At one time
the US Army and the Israeli Defense Forces thought they could
condition men to do with less water by progressively reducing their
water supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It
caused hundreds of heat casualties.

A key factor in arid area survival is understanding the relation¬

ship between physical activity, air temperature, and water con¬
sumption. The body requires a certain amount of water for a certain
level of activity at a certain temperature. For example, a man per¬
forming hard work in the sun at 110® F requires 5 gallons of water
a day. Lack of the required amount of water causes a rapid decline
in a person’s ability to make decisions and to perform tasks effi¬
ciently (Chapter 2).

Your body’s normal temperature is 98.6® F. Your body gets rid

of excess heat (cools off) by sweating. The warmer your body
becomes, whether caused by work, exercise, or air temperature,
the more you sweat. The more you sweat, the more moisture you
lose. Sweating is the principal cause of water loss. If a man stops
sweating during periods of high air temperature and heavy work
or exercise, he will have a heat stroke. This is an emergency that
requires immediate medical attention.

Understanding how the air temperature and your physical activi¬

ty affect your water requirements allows you to take measures to
get the most from your water supply. These measures are:

• Find shade! Get out of the sun! Place something between

you and the hot ground. Limit your movements!
• Conserve your sweat. Wear your complete fatigue uniform
to include T-shirt; roll the sleeves down, cover your head,
and protect your neck with a scarf or similar item. This
will protect your body from hot blowing, sand-laden winds
and the direct rays of the sun. Your clothing will absorb
your sweat, keeping it against your skin so that you gain
its full cooling effect. By staying in the shade quietly,
fully clothed, not talking, keeping your mouth closed and
breathing through your nose, your water requirement for
survival drops dramatically.
13-7
 • If water is scarce, do not eat. Food requires water for diges¬
tion; therefore, eating food will use water that you need
for cooling.

Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for water. A person who
uses thirst as a guide will drink only two-thirds of his daily require¬
ment. To prevent this “voluntary” dehydration, use this guide:

• At temperatures below 100° F, drink 1 pint of water every

hour.
• At temperatures above 100° F, drink 1 quart of water every
hour.

Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body to remain cool,

decreasing sweating. Even when your water supply is low, sip¬
ping water constantly will keep your body cooler and reduce water
loss through sweating. Conserve your sweat by reducing activity
during the heat of day. DO NOT ration your water. If you attempt
to ration water, you stand a good chance of becoming a heat
casualty.

- Heat Casualties
No matter how much instruction people receive on how to avoid
becoming overheated, some heat casualties will occur. Following
are the major types of heat casualties and their treatment when
little water and no medical assistance are available:

• Heat cramps. These are caused mainly by loss of salt due

to excessive sweating. Symptoms are moderate to severe
muscle cramps in legs, arms, or abdomen. These symp¬
toms may start as mild muscular discomfort. This is the
time when the person should stop all activity, get in the
shade, and drink water. If the person fails to recognize the
early symptoms and continues with physical activity, he
will have severe muscle cramps and pain. Treat the per¬
son the same as for heat exhaustion, below.
• Heat exhaustion. This is caused by a large loss of body
water and salt. Symptoms are headache; mental confusion;
irritability; excessive sweating; weakness; dizziness;
13-8
 cramps; and pale, moist, cold (clammy) skin. Take the
following steps immediately: Get the patient under shade,
make him lie on a stretcher or similar item approximately
18” off the ground, loosen his clothing, sprinkle him with
water, fan him, and have him drink small amounts of water
every 3 minutes. Ensure that he remains quiet and rests.

• Heat stroke. This is a severe heat injury caused by extreme

loss of water and salt and the body’s inability to cool itself.
The patient may die if not cooled immediately. Symptoms
are no sweating; hot, dry skin; headache; dizziness; fast
pulse; nausea and vomiting; and mental confusion leading
to unconsciousness. Take the following steps immediate¬
ly: Get the person to shade, lay him on a stretcher or similar
item approxim.ately 18” off the ground; loosen his clothing;
pour water on him (it does not matter if the water is
polluted or brackish); fan him; massage his arms, legs, and
body. If he regains consciousness, let him drink small
amounts of water every 3 minutes.

--Precautions
In a desert survival/evasion situation, it is unlikely that you will
have a medic or medical supplies with you to treat heat injuries,
so you should take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during
the day; do your work during the cool evenings and night. Use a
buddy system to watch for heat injury, and follow these guidelines:

• Make sure you tell your buddy where you are going and
when you will return.
• Watch your buddy for signs of heat injury. If he complains
of being tired or wanders away from the group, he may
be a heat casualty.
• Make sure your buddy drinks water at least once an hour.
• Get in the §hade when resting; do not let your buddy lie
directly on the ground.
• Do not let your buddy take off his shirt and work during
the day.
• Check the color of your urine; a light color means you are
13-9
 drinking enough water; a dark color means you need to
drink more.

By looking at figure 13-2, you can determine a man’s water needs

at three activity levels in relation to the daily mean air temperature.

-— Arid Area Hazards

There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These include
insects, snakes, thorned plants and cacti, contaminated water, sun¬
burn, eye irritation, climatic stress, and poor personal habits.

Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Lice, mites,

wasps, and flies, which are drawn to man as a source of moisture
and food, are extremely unpleasant and may carry disease. Old
buildings, ruins, and caves are favorite habitats of spiders, scor¬
pions, centipedes, lice and mites. These areas, which provide pro¬
tection from the elements, also attract other wildlife. Therefore,
take extra care when staying in these areas. Wear gloves at all
times in the desert. Do not place your hands anywhere without first
looking to see what is there. Visually inspect an area before sit¬
ting or lying down. When you get up, shake out and inspect your
boots and clothing.

Snakes are found in all arid areas. They inhabit ruins, native
villages, garbage dumps, caves, and natural rock outcroppings that
offer shade. Never go without boots or walk through these areas
without carefully inspecting them for snakes. Pay attention to
where you place your feet and hands. Most snakebites result from
stepping on or handling snakes. Avoid them. Once you spot them,
give them wide berth.

Water found in arid areas may be contaminated. You should always

assume so and treat it properly. Drinking untreated water will result
in dysentery, causing excessive water loss.

Sunburn results from overexposing your skin to the sun’s rays. So

keep your body completely clothed, including gloves on your hands
and a scarf around your neck. Use sunburn cream liberally on any

13-10
exposed areas of skin. Sun poisoning equals nausea and dehydra¬
tion. In addition, burns may become infected, causing more
problems.

Remember that—

• There is as much danger of sunburn on cloudy days as on

sunny days, especially at high altitudes.
I

• Sunburn ointment does not give complete protection

against excessive exposure.

• Sunbathing or dozing in the desert sun can be fatal.

The glare on the sand causes eyestrain, and wind-blown, fine sand
particles can irritate the eyes and cause inflamation. Wear gog¬
gles and use eye ointments to protect your eyes.

The combination of wind and sand or dust can cause your lips and
other exposed skin to chap. Use chapstick and skin ointments to
prevent or overcome this problem.

The sudden and extreme temperature shifts in arid areas can cause
chest colds. Wear warm clothes at night to prevent chills.

Desert environments can cause stress to the body and mind. Some
stress-rendering factors are:

• Extreme heat during the day with sudden temperature

drops in the evening.

• Constantly blowing, sand-laden winds.

• Extensive barren areas, which bring on depression.

Rest is essential in this environment: You need 20 minutes of rest

for each hour in the heat and you need 6 hours of sleep each day.

Proper disposal of human waste is essential. Bury feces and cover

urine to prevent attracting flies. If possible, wash hands after
defecating or urinating and before each meal. Clean eating and
cooking utensils. It is important that you follow good sanitation
procedures to lessen the danger of gastrointestinal disorders, which
lead to excessive moisture loss.

13-11
 c. ♦

B.

DAILY MEAN AIR TEMPERATURE, DEGREES F

This graph shows water needs, in quarts per day, for men at three ac¬
tivity levels in relation to the daily mean air temperature. For exam¬
ple, if one is doing 8 hours of hard work in the sun (curve C) when the
average temperature for the day is 100° F (horizontal scale), his water
requirement for the day will be approximately 15 quarts (vertical scale).

From Technical Report E-P118, * C. HARD WORK IN SUN

Southwest Asia: Environment and Its (creeping and crawling
Relationship to Military Activities, with equipment on) *
July 1959.
B. MODERATE WORK IN SUN
(cleaning weapons and
equipment)

A. REST IN SHADE

Figure 13-2. Daily water requirements for three levels of activity.

13-12
 Chapter

You may think of the tropics as a jungle where a person must hack
out a path and faces danger at every step. This is a misconcep¬
tion. Much of the land in the tropics is cultivated. Only a small por¬
tion is jungle (rain forest), and the greatest danger comes from
insects and steep terrain. Much of the land is covered with
secondary growth that has grown in the deserted farm fields.
The tropics are those areas of the world that lie between 23 1/2°
north and 23 1/2° south of the equator. In the tropics are rain for¬
ests, semievergreen seasonal forests, tropical scrub and thorn
forests, and tropical savannas.
You can enhance your chances of survival in these areas by—
• Knowing how to perform the field skills covered in this
manual.
• Having the ability to improvise.
• Being able to apply intelligently the principles presented
in this manual.
• Learning what types of climate, terrain, and plant and
animal life prevail in these areas.
• Learning about the hazards that exist and how to overcome
these hazards.
• Maintaining your will to survive (Chapter 1).

-Rain Forests
Locations. Tropical rain forests are found in America, Asia, and
Africa, and almost all are bisected by the equator (figure F-2).
These rain forests are sometimes interspersed with mountain
ranges and plateaus. They may even have some semidesert areas.

14-1
Characteristics. Following are some characteristics of tropical rain
forests:
• Yearly rainfall is high (100 inches or more) and is more
or less equally distributed throughout the year.
• There are five stories of vegetation (figure 14-1).
• Most of the trees are evergreen and many are large in girth
(10 feet in diameter) with thick leathery leaves.
• Tree bark is generally thin, green, and smooth and usual¬
ly lacks fissures.
• Vines and air plants abound.
• Herbs, grasses, and bushes are rare in the understory.
• There is generally uniformity in foliage in a well developed
rain forest.

5th STORY

4th STORY

3rd STORY

2nd STORY

1st STORY

Figure 14-1. Five stories of tropicai rain forest vegetation.

14-2
Trees are the principal vegetation in the rain forest. The tallest
trees average 150 to 180 feet in height, although occasionally you
may find one that reaches 300 feet. The trunks are usually straight
and slender with the branches near the top. Many trees have a base
of flangelike outgrowths. The majority of mature tropical trees
have large, leathery, dark green leaves that resemble laurel leaves
in shape, size, and texture.

The majority of other plants are woody with dimensions com¬

parable to the trees. These include the vines and air plants, which
grow on tree trunks and branches, and the bamboos, which are
really giant grasses. In some areas bamboo grows 20 to 80 feet
high and forms an impenetrable thicket.

There are many climbing plants, the majority having thick, long,
woody stems. Some vines cling closely to the trees that support
them, but most rise to the forest canopy like cables or hang down
in loops or festoons.

The undergrowth consists of woody plants—seedlings and sapl¬

ing trees, shrubs, and young woody climbers. Within old undisturb¬
ed forests, the undergrowth is usually thin enough to allow you
to walk any direction. However, on river banks or in clearings
where much light reaches the ground, the growth is dense and often
impenetrable.

It is rare to find stands of just one kind or a few kinds of trees

in the rain forest. Plants are often scattered, so you may have to
search to find those with edible parts.

With midsummerlike weather throughout the year, vegetation is

much the same year round. There are periods, however, when more
species bloom and more young leaves are produced than at any
other time. But for the most part, plant growth and reproduction
are continuous and some flowers can be found at any time.

The general aspect of the rain forest is monotonous since large

and strikingly colored flowers are uncommon. Most of the trees
and shrubs have inconspicuous flowers, often greenish or whitish.

Food Sources. Foraging for food in the center of a virgin rain forest
is difficult as fruits and nuts on trees are generally too high to reach
and other types of plant food are scarce. At the edge of the rain
forest, in clearings, and in areas around abandoned buildings.
14-3
however, edible plants abound. Some food plants found in the rain
forest are listed below:

bamboo tropical almond sugar palm

banana bael fruit Batoko plum
cattail goa bean pokeweed
nutsedge cashew nut air potato
water lily water chestnut rose apple
coconut palm wild fig tamarind
nipa palm wild grape taro
rice water lettuce ti plant
sweetsop buri palm tree fern
sugarcane tropical yam

Many animals living in the jungle are good food sources. Look on
the ground for hedgehogs, porcupines, anteaters, mice, wild pigs,
deer, and wild cattle. Look in the trees for bats, squirrels, rats,
and monkeys. Use the techniques described in Chapter 7 to cap¬
ture and prepare the game for eating.

If you are near a stream or river, catch fish or other water wildlife
(Chapter 7). Keep in mind that fish spoil quickly in the tropics; also,
that mussels in tropical zones are poisonous during the summer.
Jungle Travel. Usually the key to jungle survival is travel. A rescue
unit may be unable to pick you up immediately after contact, and
you may have to travel many miles to reach a suitable pickup point.

Before you decide to move from your location, however, you should
consider—
• Your chances of being found and recovered from your pre¬
sent location.
• Your physical condition.
• The availability of food and water. These usually abound
in most jungles.
• The navigation equipment you have and your ability to use
it.
• The personal equipment and clothing you have.

14-4
The most useful aids for jungle travel are:

• A machete to cut your way, to obtain food, and to make

a raft.
• A compass to maintain direction.
• Medications to treat fever and infection.
• Stout shoes to protect your feet and to make walking
easier.
• A hammock to lessen the time needed to prepare a bed
above the ground.
• Mosquito netting to protect you from insects.

In seeking a route out of the jungle, you should seek the one that
is the safest and offers the least resistance. Your situation, the
weather conditions, and the type of terrain are major factors you
must consider in selecting a route.

Often the route that offers the least resistance is a waterway. You
should avoid cross-country travel if possible. Find a stream and
travel downstream to a larger body of water. Set up camp, prepare
signals, and wait for search aircraft. If you fail to make contact
within a week, travel on downstream and set up another camp.

Following a stream requires fording, detouring, and penetrating

thick vegetation. In mountainous country, a stream may tend to
wind, the vegetation may be dense, observation points are rare,
and swamps are common. Nevertheless, following a stream offers
some advantages in strange country: It gives a definite course that
will likely lead to habitations. It is a source of food and water, and
possibly a means to travel by boat or raft.

If you are near a ridge, you will probably find travel easier on the
ridge than in the valley. A ridge usually has less vegetation and
less streams and swamps to cross than a valley. It can serve as
a guide and afford observation points from which you can pick out
landmarks. In addition, ridges generally have game trails along
their tops. Take care, however, to conceal yourself if there are
enemy personnel in the area.

Plan each day’s travel so you have enough time and energy left
to set up a secure and satisfactory campsite. Be sure to get enough
rest and sleep before you travel on. How fast you can travel will
depend on—

14-5
 • Climatic conditions (temperature, sun, wind, and rain).
• Your physical condition and that of your companions if any.
• Terrain (angle of slope and type of footing).
• The location, characteristics, and number of enemy per¬
sonnel in the area and whether they know your location.
• The amount of equipment you are carrying (carry only
what you need).
• Your food requirements (if possible, hunt and gather food
while traveling).

Check the weather signs before you decide to travel. Cloud for¬
mations are foretellers of weather.

Move through the jungle in daylight only unless your situation pro¬
hibits. Avoid thickets and swamps. Move in one direction, but not
in a straight line. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips, and bend
your body to work your way along. Shorten or lengthen your stride
and slow or speed up your pace to adjust to the type and density
of the vegetation.

Move slowly and steadily through dense vegetation, but stop

periodically to listen and take your bearings. Noise carries a long
distance in the jungle.

Use your bayonet or machete to cut through dense vegetation. An

upward cutting stroke makes less noise than a downward stroke.
To avoid leaving a distinct trail, cut only enough vegetation to get
through.

Use a stick or staff to part the vegetation to reduce the possibility

of dislodging fire ants.

Do not grab brush or vines to help you along on slopes or over

obstacles. They may have irritating spines or sharp thorns; also,
they may not hold your weight.

Do not climb over logs if you can walk around them. By walking
around them you save your strength and are less likely to be
injured.

Disregard the pattern of trees and bushes directly in front of you.

Focus your eyes beyond your immediate front. Rather than look¬
ing at the jungle, look through it. Stoop occasionally and look along

14-6
the jungle floor. By developing “jungle eyes” you will avoid
scratches, bruises, and loss of direction. You will also gain con¬
fidence.
Many jungle animals follow well established game trails. These
trails may wind and crisscross, but they often lead to water or clear¬
ings. Before traveling on these trails, check for enemy forces and
animals that can harm you. Enemy forces or native people can easi¬
ly watch and have ambush sites on trails, so avoid trails unless you
absolutely have no other choice for travel.
If you use the trails, check your bearings frequently to make sure
the trails go in the direction you want to go. Watch for disturbed
places—there may be a pitfall or trap.
Do not follow a trail that has an obvious barrier such as a rope or
a grass mat. The trail may lead to an animal trap.
Campsite. In the tropics twilight generally lasts less than 30
minutes and darkness sets in early, so pick your campsite and set
up camp before sunset.
In selecting your campsite—
• Do not camp too near a stream or pond, especially during
the rainy season. Heavy rainfall, locally or upstream, can
cause flashflooding without warning.
• Do not camp under dead trees or trees with dead limbs
that might fall on you.
• Do not camp on game trails or near waterholes. The traf¬
fic may be heavy.
Cut away a great deal of underbrush around your campsite to give
you room to move around and to allow your fire to ventilate. This
will minimize insects, eliminate hiding places for snakes, and make
you more visible to air searches.

-Semievergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests

Areas of the world having tropical semievergreen and monsoon
forests are—
• South America. Portions of Columbia and Venezuela and
the Amazon basin.

14-7
 • Africa. Portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and
Mozambique.
• Asia. Northeastern India, much of Burma, Thailand, In¬
dochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian Islands.
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen
seasonal forests correspond with those of the Asian monsoon
forests. These characteristics are as follows:
• There are two stories of tree strata. The trees in the up¬
per story average 60 to 80 feet in height; those in the lower
story average 20 to 45 feet.
• The trees average 2 feet in diameter.
• There is a seasonal drought during which leaves fall.
Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible
plants grow in these areas as in the tropical rain forests.

-Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests

Areas of the world having tropical scrub and thorn forests are—
• America. West coast of Mexico, Yucatan, Venezuela, and
Brazil.
• Africa. Coastal northwest Africa and south central
Africa—Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, and
Malawi.
• Asia. Turkestan and India.

The main characteristics of these forests are—

• There is a definite dry season and a wet season that varies
in length from year to year. The rains are mainly
downpours that come with thunderstorms.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season and average 20
to 30 feet in height. There is tangled undergrowth in
places.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants that grow
in bunches; grasses are rare.
• Predominate plants have thorns.
• Fires occur at intervals.

14-8
During the dry season in the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas,
a person will have difficulty obtaining food plants. The chief kinds
of food come from the following plant parts: tubers, rootstalks,
bulbs, corms, pith, gums and resins, nuts, seeds, and grains.

During the wet season, plant food is more abundant. You should
look for the plants listed below (see Chapter 18 for descriptions).

acacia, sweet wild chicory prickly pear

agave wild fig St. Johns bread
almond juniper tamarind
baobab sea orach water lily
wild caper cashew nut tropical yam

-Tropical Savanna
Areas of the world having savannas are—

• South America. Parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the

Guianas.
• Africa. Southern Sahara (north central Africa and
southern Sudan), northern Gold Coast, most of Nigeria,
northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western Kenya,
part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozam¬
bique, and western Madagascar.

Some characteristics of these savannas are—

• They lie wholly within the tropical zone in South

America and Africa.
• They look like broad, grassy meadows with trees spac¬
ed at wide intervals.
• The grasses are bunch grasses that often exceed 6
feet in height. There is a definite space between each
bunch.
• The scattered trees usually appear stunted and gnarled
like apple trees.
• The soil is frequently red.
For the most part, the savannas of South America have a long dry
season and, comparatively, a short wet season. Both high and short

14-9
grasses grow on these savannas, and during the rainy season, bright
colored flowers appear between the grass bunches. The grains of
these grasses and the underground parts of the seasonal plants that
appear with and following the rains are the primary plant food
sources.

There are two types of savannas in Africa: the high grass and the
bunch grass.
The high grass savanna, which surrounds the tropical rain forest,
contains coarse grasses that grow 5 to 15 feet high. Unless the
natives burn the grass during the dry season, the savanna becomes
almost impenetrable.

The bunch grass savanna comprises the greatest part of the African
savannas. The grasses average 3 feet in height.

Both dwarf and large trees grove on the savannas, the largest be¬
ing the monkeybread or baobab tree.

Some edible plants that are found on the savannas of South

America and Africa are listed below:

amaranth wild crabapple purslane

wild apple wild fig sorrel
baobab water plantain tamarind
wild chicory nutsedge water lily

-Dangers in the Tropics

Although some poisonous snakes and large animals live in the
tropics, they are only a small danger. The greatest danger is
from insects that transmit diseases or have poisonous bites or
stings. Infection in a wound, even as small as a scratch, is also
a great danger.

Mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, mites, leeches, spiders, scorpions, cen¬

tipedes, chiggers, wasps, wild bees, and ants live in the moist
tropics. Take the following steps to prevent bites or stings by these
insects:

• Avoid areas where they may be prevalent.

• Use standard issue insect repellent, if available, on all

14-10
 exposed areas of skin and on all clothing openings.
• Wear all clothing, especially at night.
• Tuck pant legs into boots, roll down and button
sleeves, and button collars.
• Wear gloves and a mosquito headnet if available.
• Camp away from swamps.
• Sleep under mosquito netting if you have it; otherwise,
smear mud on your face.

Ticks and fleas are blood-sucking parasites that attach themselves

to warm-blooded animals. Some are carriers of infectious diseases.
Ticks often abound in grassy places. They will get on your clothing
and body. Brush ticks off your clothing. Check your skin for ticks
at least once a day; fleck them off if possible. If they have attach¬
ed themselves to your skin, follow the procedure on page 3-20.

Fleas are common in dry, dusty buildings. The females will bur¬
row under your toenails or into your skin to lay their eggs. Remove
them with a sterilized knife. Keep the cut clean. In India and
Southern China, rats carry fleas that transmit bubonic plague.
Finding dead rats usually means a plague epidemic in the rat
population. Fleas may also transmit typhus fever.

In many parts of the tropics, especially Malaya and Indonesia, rats

carry other parasites that cause jaundice and other fevers.
In many Far East tropical areas, tiny red mites carry a type of
typhus fever. They live in the soil, burrowed a few inches into the
ground, and are common in tall grass, in cutover jungle, and on
stream banks. Do not lie or sit on the ground. Clear your camping
ground and burn it off. Treat your clothing with insect repellent.
Leeches are most common in wet underbrush. You may pick them
up from plants, from the ground, or in water. They will get through
your shoe eyelets or over your shoe tops.

Spiders, centipedes, and scorpions are often abundant. A few

spiders have poisonous bites. The large spiders called tarantulas
rarely bite but are covered with short hard hairs that will irritate
your skin if you touch them. Centipedes pinch and inject venom
through leg-like fangs at the base of their head. The pinch is similar
to a bad wasp sting. A scorpion has poison glands in its tail.
Although some species do have a fatal sting, the sting of most

14-11
species causes severe pain and sickness. Scorpions hide beneath
stones and the loose bark of dead trees. They also often hide in
shoes left on the ground during the night. Always shake out your
socks, shoes, and clothing before putting them on. Inspect your
bed for pests. A sting from any of them can cause swelling and pain.
Chiggers, wasps, wild bees, and ants are pests that may harm you.
Many biting ants live in the branches and foliage of tropical trees.
Hanging plants attached to mangrove branches are almost always
inhabited by biting ants. Do not camp near an ant hill or an ant trail.

Never walk barefoot. Your shoes guard against crawling mites,

ticks, and cuts, which can become infected.

Be alert for crocodiles or alligators in any tropical waters. They

prefer to lie on banks or float like logs with just their eyes above
the water. Take great care in fording deep streams, in bathing,
and in getting near any water body, especially where crocodiles
or alligators are evident. Avoid them at all times. If you must get
in the water, do not thrash about as this will attract them.

Rivers in northeastern South America are infested with piranha

fish. These small fish attack in schools and can devour a 300-pound
hog in a few minutes.

In saltwater estuaries, bays, or lagoons, sharks known to attack

man may swim close to shore. Many sharks in shallow water of
tropical seas have attacked. Sharks longer than 4 feet are poten¬
tially dangerous. Not all sharks show fins above the water (Chapter
16). Barracudas have also been known to attack in waters that are
murky or clouded.

The Portuguese man-of-war is another warm saltwater hazard.

These jellyfish-like creatures have stinging tentacles that may be
as long as 50 feet. Their sting is extremely painful and may even
disable a swimmer.

Pacific islands have fairly regular diurnal tides. However, storms

in the vicinity may interrupt the normal ebb and flow with pro¬
longed periods of high and low tides. During any change of tide,
a great volume of water passes through atoll inlets. Do not attempt
to swim or raft across the deeper channels until the tide reaches
a lull at peak or ebb. Do not get caught far out on a reef by incom¬
ing tides. These tides sweep over a reef with a current that makes
walking difficult and swimming dangerous.

14-12
Surf is not dangerous unless you are in a weakened condition or
unless storms have built the wave action above the normal 8-foot
height. Waves do not break until they are almost on the reef, and
they move shoreward in a definite cycle. If you must swim, take
advantage of the lull between series of large waves to get through
the surf. Head into the waves. If a large wave is ready to break
in front of you in shallow water, dive, grab hold of a rock and hang
on until the crest of the wave has passed. Let the declining force
of the wave carry you shoreward.

In Chapter 7 you read about edible seafood that you can catch.
But you should also be aware of some of the dangers on tropical
seashores.

The flesh of many species of reef fish (page 7-18) contains toxins
that are poisonous. Some fish that are considered edible, such as
red snapper and barracuda, are poisonous when taken from atolls
and reefs. Others have spines, stingers, or “teeth” that inject tox¬
ins into unwary persons.

Do not walk barefooted on coral reefs. Coral, dead or alive, can

cut your feet to ribbons. Fine needles of lime or silica from seem¬
ingly harmless sponges and sea urchins can get in your skin and
fester. The almost invisible stonefish will not move from your path.
Its poisonous spines will cause you agony and possible death. Treat
as for snakebite (page 3-22).

In tropical waters, use a stick to probe dark holes. Do not use your
hands. When walking over muddy or sandy bottoms of rivers and
seashores, do not step freely—slide your feet along the bottom to
avoid stepping on stingrays or other sharp-spined animals.

Cone snails and long, slender, pointed terebra snails have a toxic
sting. They live under rocks, in crevices of coral reefs, and along
rocky shores and protected bays. Avoid handling all cone shells.

Handle the big conches with caution. These snails have razor-sharp
trapdoors, which they may suddenly jab out, puncturing your skin
as they try to get away.

Do not use your hands to gather large abalones and clams. Pry
or wedge them loose with a stick or some such device. They will
hold you if they clamp down on your fingers.

If you must cross deeper portions of a reef, check the reef edge

14-13
for sharks, barracudas, and moray eels. Moray eels hide in dark
holes among the reefs and are vicious and aggressive when
disturbed.

14-14
 Chapter

Arctic and
Subarctic Survival

VJhen you think of the arctic and subarctic regions, you probably
think of extremely cold weather. And these regions do have long
periods of extremely cold weather. However, in terms of
temperature, these regions are best defined as follows:
Arctic—Those regions where the mean temperature of the warmest
month of the year does not exceed 50° F (10° C).
Subarctic—Those regions where the mean temperature of the
warmest four months of the year does not exceed 50° F (10° C).
Mountainous and high-elevation areas of temperate regions also
have extremely cold vveather, and cold weather survival informa¬
tion presented here also applies to these regions.

-Cold Environment Characteristics

Cold weather is a dynamic force and can become a formidable
adversary even though you recognize its hazards and take advan¬
tage of its peculiar characteristics. Ignoring or underestimating its
force can result in death.

Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. This is the effect

of moving air on exposed flesh. For instance, with a 15-knot wind
and a 15® F temperature, the equivalent chill temperature is
-10® F. Looking at figure 15-1, you can see that the greater the
wind speed, the lower the equivalent chill temperature.

Changes in weather and temperature occur rapidly in cold en¬

vironments. These changes can affect your speed and ease of
travel. For instance, rainfall, snowfall, or a rise in temperature may
make traveling impossible or extremely dangerous over fhe type
of terrain that you crossed easily and quickly the preceding day.

15-1
Obtaining your basic needs—food, water, and shelter—in a cold
environment is more difficult than in a warm environment. And
even if you have these basic needs, you must also have adequate
protective clothing and the will to live.

In a cold environment, as in any environment, your first priority

is taking care of any injuries or sickness you or your companions
have.

-Health Hazards
When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso
temperature) remains almost constant at 98.6° F. Since your limbs
and head have less protective body tissue than your torso, their
temperature varies and may not reach core temperature.

Your body has a control system that enables it to react in an effort

to maintain a temperature balance. There are three main factors
that affect this temperature balance: heat production, heat loss,
and evaporation. The rate of heat production is governed by the
difference between the body’s core temperature and the environ¬
ment’s temperature. Your body can get rid of heat better than it
can produce it. Sweating helps to control the heat balance. Max¬
imum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as maximum ex¬
ertion produces it.
Shivering causes the body to produce heat. But it also causes
fatigue, which in turn leads to a drop in body temperature. Air
movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been
calculated that a naked man exposed to still, cold air can maintain
a heat balance at about freezing point if he shivers as hard as he
can. But he can’t shiver forever.

It has also been calculated that a man at rest and wearing max¬
imum arctic clothing in a cold environment can keep his heat
balance well above freezing. To withstand really cold conditions
for any length of time, however, he will have to become active or
shiver.

Following are cold injuries that can occur:

Hypothermia. This occurs when a person’s body temperature

drops to between 95° and 77° F. It can even occur when air
temperatures are above freezing. To prevent hypothermia, avoid

15-2
 COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS “EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE

WIND SPEED TEMPERATURE (“F)

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ID
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CALM CALM 40 35 30 25 20 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60

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30 -20 -25 -30 -40 -50 -55 -65 -70 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140

Figure 15-1. Chill index

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WINDS
ABOVE 40 INCREASING DANGER GREAT DANGER
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LITTLE DANGER (Flesh may freeze within (Flesh may freeze within 30 S£
ADDITIONAL
EFFECTS. 1 minute)

DANGER OF FREEZING EXPOSED FLESH FOR PROPERLY CLOTHED PERSONS

actions that can cause rapid or uncontrolled loss of body heat.

Symptoms of hypothermia are sluggish movement, reduced coor¬

dination, and impaired judgment. If the victim’s core temperature
drops below 77° F, death is almost certain.
To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are means
available, re warm the person by first immersing the trunk area only
in warm water 100° to 110° F.

CAUTION: Rewarming of the total body in a warm water bath should

be done only in a hospital environment because of increased risk of
cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.

One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to give
warm water enemas. Another method is to wrap the victim in a
warmed sleeping bag with another person who is already warm;
both should be naked. If the person is conscious, give him hot
sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of calories is honey or
dextrose; if unavailable, use sugar, cocoa, or a similar soluble
sweetener.

CAUTION: Do not force an unconscious person to drink.

There are two dangers in treating hypothermia: too rapid re¬
warming and “after drop.’’ Too rapid warming can cause the vic¬
tim to have circulatory problems, resulting in heart failure. After
drop is the sharp temperature drop that occurs when the victim
is taken from the warm water. This is probably caused by previous¬
ly stagnant limb blood being returned to the core (inner torso) area
as recirculation occurs. Concentrating on warming the core area
without stimulating peripheral circulation will lessen the effects
of after drop. Immersing the torso in a hot bath, if possible, is the
best treatment.

Frostbite. This is an injury resulting from frozen tissues. Light

frostbite involves only the skin, which takes on a dull whitish pallor.
Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues
become solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial
areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
The best prevention for frostbite when you are with others is to
use the buddy system. Check your buddy’s face often and make
sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your
nose and lower part of your face with your mittened hand.

15-4
A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is an indication of frostbite.
If you have had only a short period of time without feeling, the
frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is deep.

Figure 15-2 lists some do’s and don’ts regarding frostbite.

A deep frostbite injury once thawed and refrozen will cause more
damage than a nonmedically trained person can handle.

Trench Foot and Immersion Foot. These conditions result from

many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a
temperature just above freezing. The feet become cold, swollen,
and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the
feet feel heavy and numb. The nerve and muscles sustain the main
damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies
and it may becom.e necessary to have the foot or leg amputated.
The best preventive is to keep the feet dry. Carry extra socks with
you in a waterproof packet. Wet socks can be dried against the
body. Wash your feet daily and put on dry socks.
Dehydration. In cold weather, bundled up in many layers of
clothing, you may be unaware that you are losing body moisture.
Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture, which evaporates in the
air. You must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need
for water is as great in a cold environment as it is in a warm en¬
vironment (Chapter 3). One way to tell if you are becoming
dehydrated is to check the color of your urine on snow. If your
urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated
and need to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow
to no color, your body fluids have a more normal balance.
■ j,

DO'S DON'TS

Periodically check for frostbite. Don’t rub Injury with snow.

Rewarm light frostbite. Don’t drink alcoholic beverages.
Keep Injured areas from Don’t smoke.
refreezIng. Don’t try to thaw out a deep
frostbite Injury if you are away
from definitive medical care.

Figure 15-2. Frostbite do’s and don’ts.

15-5
Cold Diuresis. This is an increased output of urine caused by ex¬
posure to cold. It also decreases the body fluids, which must be
replaced.

Sunburn. Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air
temperature is below freezing. The sun’s rays reflect at all angles
from snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin: the lips,
nostrils, and eyelids. More sunburn results at high altitudes than
at low altitudes for the same time exposed to the sun. Apply sun¬
burn cream or lip salve to your face when you are exposed to the
sun’s rays.
Snow Blindness. This is caused by the reflection of ultraviolet rays
caused by the sun shining brightly on a snow-covered area. The
symptoms of snow blindness are the feeling of grit in the eyes, pain
in and over the eyes that increases with eyeball movement, eyes
watering and becoming red, and a headache, which intensifies with
continued exposure to light. Prolonged exposure to these rays can
result in permanent eye damage. To treat snow blindness, ban¬
dage the eyes until the symptoms disappear.

You can prevent snow blindness by wearing your sunglasses. If

you don’t have sunglasses, improvise: Cut slits in a piece of card¬
board, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material (figure 15-3).
Putting soot under your eyes will help reduce shine and glare.

Figure 15-3. Improvised sunglasses.

15-6
Constipation. Putting off relieving yourself because of the cold,
eating dehydrated foods, drinking too small amount of liquid, and
irregular eating habits can cause you to become constipated.
Although not disabling, constipation can cause some discomfort.
Increase your fluid intake to at least two quarts per day and eat
fruits, if available, and other foods that will loosen the stools.

- Hygiene
Although washing yourself may be impractical and uncomfortable
in a cold environment, you must do so. Washing helps to prevent
skin rashes that can develop into more serious problems.

In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath. Take

a handful of snow and wash your body where sweat and moisture
accumulate, such as under the arms and between the legs, front
and rear, and then wipe yourself dry. If you cannot bathe,
periodically wipe yourself dry in these areas. If possible, wash your
feet daily and put on clean dry socks. Change your underwear at
least twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take
it off, shake it, and let it air out for an hour or two.

If you are with natives or are using a shelter that has been used
before, check your body and clothing each night for lice. If your
clothing has become infested, use insecticide powder if you have
any. Otherwise, hang your clothes in the cold, then beat and brush
them. This will help get rid of the lice but not the eggs.

-Clothing and Equipment

You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the
cold, you must also know how to get the most warmth from it. For
instance, you should keep your head covered. You can lose a lot
of body heat from an unprotected head, neck, wrists, and ankles.

There are four basic principles you should follow to keep warm.
These are:
• Wear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing too tight
clothing and footgear restricts the circulation of the blood
and invites cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air
trapped between the layers, reducing its insulating value.

15-7
 Several layers of lightweight clothing are better than one
equally thick layer of clothing, because the layers have
dead air space between them. The dead air space provides
extra insulation. In addition, layers of clothing allow you
to take off or add clothing layers to prevent excessive
sweating or to increase warmth.
• Avoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and
your clothing absorbs the moisture. This affects your
warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulating
quality of clothing, and as sweat evaporates your body
cools. Adjust your clothing so you do not sweat. You can
do this by partially opening your parka or jacket, by remov¬
ing an inner layer of clothing, by removing heavy mittens,
or by throwing back your parka hood or changing to lighter
head cover. The head and hands act as efficient heat
dissipators when overheated.

• Keep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers

of clothing can become wet from sweat and your outer
layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow
and frost melted by body heat. Wear water repellent outer
clothing, if available. It will shed most of the v/ater col¬
lected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a
heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost. Despite the
precautions you take, there will be times when you can¬
not keep from getting wet. At such times, drying your
clothing may become a major problem. On the march, hang
your damp mittens and socks on your pack. Sometimes
in freezing temperatures, the wind and sun will dry this
clothing. Or you can put damp socks or mittens, unfold¬
ed, near your body so that your body heat can dry them.
In bivouac, hang damp clothing inside the tent near the
top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even
be able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire.
Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are available
for drying your boots, put them between the sleeping bag
shell and liner. Your body heat will help to dry the leather.

• Keep clothing clean. This is always important from the

standpoint of sanitation and comfort. In winter, it is also
important from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted
with dirt and grease lose much of their insulation quality.

15-8
 If the air pockets in clothing are crushed or filled up, heat
can escape from the body more readily.

A heavy down-lined mummy bag is one of the most valuable pieces

of survival gear in cold weather. Make sure the down remains dry.
If wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a
sleeping bag, you can make one out of parachute cloth or similar
material and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or
moss. Place the dry material between two layers of parachute cloth.

Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof matches

in a waterproof container, preferably one with a flint attached; a
durable compass; map; watch; waterproof groundcloth and cover;
flashlight; binoculars; dark glasses; fatty emergency foods; food¬
gathering gear; and signaling items. (See Chapter 2 for additional
information on survival equipment.)
-Shelter
The equipment you carry with you and your environment will deter¬
mine the type of shelter you can build.

NOTE: In extreme cold do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage,

for shelter. The metal will conduct what little heat you can generate
away from the shelter.
The tree-pit shelter described in Chapter 8 may be the easiest to
build and most effective for some situations. Figures 15-4, 15-5,
and 15-6 show other shelters that you can make, depending on the
materials and tools you have.

Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice
axes or saws. They also require a lot of time and energy to make.

Be sure to ventilate your shelter if you intend to build a fire in it.

Always make sure the entrance is clear of snow and free of

obstacles that might prevent a fast exit.
Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs,
grass, or other insulating material to keep the ground from
absorbing your body heat.

Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon
monoxide is a great danger. It is colorless and odorless. It is free¬
ly generated by a yellow flame, so if you see a yellow flame, check
your ventilation.

15-9
 PACKED ANDLE
AIR VENT
SNOWDRIFT
PARACHUTE
FOR SLEEPING
CANDLE DOOR
FOR
SNOWBLOCK
DOOR
WITH VENTHOLE
MAT
SIDE VIEW TOP VIEW
-SNOW CAVE SHELTER

Suspension line tie-downs go through hole,

SNOW TRENCH are watered down,and freeze in place.

SHELTER SNOWBLOCK AND PARACHUTE SHELTER
SLEEPING
LEVEL

COOKING
LEVEL

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

KING BLOCK Q

SNOWHOUSE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Figure 15-4. Types of arctic shelters.

15-10
Figure 15-6. Fallen tree as shelter.
15-11
Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a fire burning in an
unventilated shelter. Even in a ventilated shelter, incomplete com¬
bustion can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually there are
no symptoms; unconsciousness and death can occur without
warning. Sometimes, however, pressure at the temples, burning
of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may
occur. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these symptoms.

-- Fire
Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only provides
a means for preparing food, but for getting warm and for melting
snow or ice for water.
Use the techniques described in Chapter 9 for building and lighting
your fire. If you are in enemy territory, however, keep in mind
that the smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your
location. Light reflects from surrounding trees or rocks, making
even indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight
up in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day but
helping to conceal the smell at night. In warmer weather, especially
in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less
visible in the day but making its odor spread.

If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs for firewood
rather than the entire tree. Fallen trees are easily seen from the air.

All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more smoke
than others. For instance, coniferous trees, which contain resin and
tar, create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.
There are few materials to use for fuel in the high mountainous
regions of the arctic. You may find some grasses and moss, but
very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You
may find some scrub willow and small, stunted spruce trees above
the tree line.

Within the tree line, fuels are abundant:

• Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. Being a
coniferous tree, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burn¬
ed in the spring and summer months. However, it burns
almost smoke-free in late fall and winter.
• The tamarack tree is also coniferous. It is the only tree
of the pine family that loses its needles in the fall. Without

15-12
 its needles it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many
knobby buds and cones on its bare branches. When burn¬
ed, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is therefore
good for signaling purposes.
• Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast,
much like it has been soaked with oil or kerosene. Most
trees grow near streams and lakes, but occasionally a few
will be found on higher ground and away from water.
• Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh
areas or near lakes and streams. These woods burn hot
and fast without much smoke.

Dried.moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can
use for fuel. These are usually plentiful near streams in tundra
(open, treeless plains) areas. By bundling or twisting grasses or
other scrub vegetation to form a large, solid mass, you will have
a slower burning, more productive fuel.

If there is fuel or oil available from a wrecked vehicle or downed

aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the tank for storage, draw¬
ing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extreme cold
temperature, so drain it from the vehicle or aircraft while still warm
if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If you have no container,
let the oil drain onto the snow or ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need
it.
CAUTION: Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants (POL)
in extreme cold temperatures. The liquid state of these products is decep¬
tive in that it can cause frostbite.

Some plastic spoons, helmet visors, visor housings, and foam rub¬
ber will ignite quickly from a burning match and will burn long
enough to aid in starting a fire. For example, a plastic spoon will
burn for about 10 minutes.

In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in the use of fires,
whether for keeping warm or for cooking.

Fires have been known to burn underground resurfacing close by.

Therefore, do not build a fire too close to a shelter.

In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating layer of

snow.
A fire inside a shelter that lacks adequate ventilation can result

15-13
in carbon monoxide poisoning.

A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become careless

and burn or scorch his clothing and equipment.
A small fire about the size of a man’s hand is ideal for an evader.
It requires very little fuel, yet it generates considerable warmth
and is hot enough to warm liquids.

A single candle provides enough heat to warm an enclosed shelter.

A small fire and some type of stove is best for cooking purposes.
A hobo stove (figure 15-7) is particularly suited to the arctic. It
is easy to make out of a tin can, and it conserves fuel.

A simple crane propped on a forked stick will hold a cooking con¬

tainer over a fire.

A bed of hot coals provides the best cooking heat. Coals from a
crisscross fire will settle uniformly. This type fire is made by plac¬
ing the firewood crisscross.

HOBO STOVE

CRANE HOLDING POT

Figure 15-7. Cooking fire/stove.

15-14
 - Water
There are many sources of water in the arctic and subarctic. Your
location and the season of the year will determine where and how
you obtain water.

Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more sanitary

than in other regions due to the climatic and environmental condi¬
tions. However, you should always purify the water before drink¬
ing it (Chapter 5).

During the summer months, the best natural sources of water are
freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and springs. Water from
ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant, but still usable. Running
water in streams, rivers, and bubbling springs is usually fresh and
suitable for drinking.

The brownish surface water found in tundra during the summer

is a good source of water. However, you may have to filter the
water before purifying it.
Freshwater ice and snow can be melted for water. Be sure they
are completely melted before putting into your mouth. Trying to
melt ice or snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may
cause internal cold injuries.

You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a water
bag and place the bag between your layers of clothing. This is a
slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you have
no fire.

NOTE: Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable water
is available from other sources.

When ice is available, melt it rather than snow because one cup
of ice yields more water than one cup of snow. Ice also takes less
time to melt.

You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, ration can, or improvised
container by placing the container near a fire. Begin with a small
amount of ice or snow in the container and, as it turns to water,
add more ice or snow.

Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag made

of porous material and suspending the bag near the fire. Place a
container under the bag to catch the water.
During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before going

15-15
to bed. Crawling out of a warm sleeping bag at night to relieve
yourself means less rest and more exposure to the cold.

- Food Sources
There are several sources of food in the arctic and subarctic
regions. The type of food—fish, animal, fowl, or plant—and the
ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and your location.

Fish. During the summer months, fish and other waterlife are easi¬
ly obtained from coastal waters, streams, rivers, and lakes. Use
the techniques described in Chapter 7 to catch them.

The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are rich in
seafood. You can easily find crawfish, snails, clams, oysters, and
king crab. During low tide in areas where there is a great difference
between the high-tide and low-tide water levels, you can easily find
shellfish. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in tidal pools and
on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small difference
between the high-tide and low-tide water levels, storm waves often
wash shellfish onto the beaches.

The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters around
the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska are excellent food. Look
for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by placing it
between two stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.

Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are the
meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of the sculpins.
The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are generally more
palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such as snails.

CAUTION: The black mussel, which is one of the most common

mollusks of the far north, may be poisonous in any season. Toxins
sometimes found in the musseVs tissue are as dangerous as strychnine.
The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its body
are five long white muscles that taste much like clam meat.

In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf. Sometimes you

can scoop them up with your hands.

Kelp, the long ribbon-like seaweed, and other smaller seaweed that
grow among offshore rocks are edible. You can often find herring
eggs on the seaweed in midsummer.

15-16
Sea Ice Animals. Polar bears are found in practically all arctic
coastal regions, but are rarely found inland. Avoid them if possi¬
ble. They are the most dangerous of all bears. They are tireless,
clever hunters with good sight and an extraordinary sense of smell.
If you must kill one for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the
brain; a bullet elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar
bear meat before eating it.

CAUTION: Do not eat the liver as it contains a dangerom concentra¬

tion of vitamin A.

Earless seal meat is one of the best. You need considerable skill,
however, to get close enough to an earless seal to kill it. In spring,
seals often bask on the ice beside their breathing holes. They raise
their heads about every 30 seconds, however, to look for their
enemy, the polar bear.

To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do: Stay downwind from

it, cautiously moving closer while it sleeps. If it moves, stop and
imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your head
up and down, and wriggling your body slightly. Approach the seal
with your body sideways to it and your arms close to your body
so that you look as much like another seal as possible. The ice at
the edge of the breathing hole is usually smooth and at an incline,
so the least movement of the seal may cause it to slide into the
water. Therefore, try to get within 25 to 50 yards of the seal and
kill it instantly (aim for the brain). Try to reach the seal before
it slips into the water. In winter a dead seal will usually float, but
it is difficult to retrieve from the water.

Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with any
scratch or broken skin you may have. You could get what is called
“spekk-finger,” which causes the hands to become badly swollen.

Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually polar
bears, and polar bears have been known to stalk and kill seal
hunters.
Bearded seal and walrus stay on floe ice. A seal is curious and you
can sometimes attract it to gunshot range. Walrus are indolent,
but extremely dangerous at close quarters. It is best to approach
them by boat. Kill the walrus and seal on the ice rather than in
the water so that you can get to the carcasses easily. Shoot walrus
through the neck just below the head. You can sometimes get milk

15-17
as well as meat from a dead walrus. You can milk a dead walrus,
which will often yield as much as 16 quarts of milk. This same
walrus, when milked an hour later, will give almost the same
volume of milk.

CAUTION: Do not eat liver of bearded seal It, like the polar hear liver,
contains a high concentration of vitamin A.

Land Animals. Moose, caribou, mountain goats and sheep, musk

ox, and bear are found in some arctic and subarctic regions.
Moose are more often found in heavy brush and may charge a per¬
son. In the winter you can sometimes spot moose by climbing a
hill or tree and looking for the animal’s “smoke” (condensed body
vapor that rises like the smoke of a small fire).

Caribou migrate throughout northern arctic areas. They can be

found in Alaska, northern Canada, western Greenland, and Siberia.
In winter they feed on the tundra. In summer, they move close
to the sea or into the high mountains.

In winter, mountain sheep descend to lower elevations and to valley

feeding grounds. They are wary and hard to approach. By staying
on higher ground than they are on and approaching them from their
downwind side while they are eating, you can sometimes get close
enough to shoot them.

Musk oxen are found in northern Greenland and the islands of the
Canadian archipelago. Their tracks and droppings are similar to
those of cattle. When alarmed, musk oxen group together. If ap¬
proached, one or more bulls may charge.

Bears are dangerous, especially so if startled, wounded, or with

young. If you find a large area of torn-up sod, it is likely that a
bear has been digging for roots or ground squirrels. Do not shoot
a bear unless you are sure you can kill it. Aim at the base of the
ear, the neck, or just behind the shoulder. Bears hibernate during
the winter.

Foxes, rabbits, ground squirrels, lemmings, and mice live on the

tundra. Marmots live in the mountains, among rocks, usually near
the edge of a meadow, or in deep soil. Ground squirrels and mar¬
mots hibernate during the winter.

Wolves are also found in arctic and subarctic regions.

15-18
Porcupine can be found in southern subarctic regions where there
are trees. Porcupine feed on bark, so if you find tree limbs strip¬
ped bare, you are likely to find a porcupine in the area.

Ptarmigan, owls, and ravens are the only birds that remain in the
arctic during the winter, and they are scarce north of the tree line.
Ptarmigan and owl are as good for food as any game bird. Ravens
are too thin to be worth the effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigan,
which change color to blend with their surroundings, are hard to
spot. Rock ptarmigans travel in pairs and are easily approached.
Willow ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottom lands.
They gather in large flocks and are easily snared. During the sum¬
mer months all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week moulting period
during which they are flightless and easily caught. Use one of the
techniques described in Chapter 7 to catch them.

Skin and butcher game (see Chapter 7) while it is still warm. If

you do not have time to skin the game, at least remove its entrails,
musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows, cut the
meat into usable pieces and freeze each separately so you can use
the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all animals except seals.
During the winter, game freezes quickly left in the open. During
the summer, you can store it in ground ice holes.

Plants. Although treeless, tundra has a great variety of plants that

grow during the warm months. All are small, however, when com¬
pared to plants in warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow
and birch are shrubs rather than trees.

Some food plants found in arctic and subarctic regions are listed
below:
salmonberry
cranberry
crowberry
bilberry
bearberry
spadderdock
Eskimo potato
woolly lousewort
bistort

15-19
 dandelion
marsh marigold
arctic willow
fireweed
coltsfoot
lichens
There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic regions that
are poisonous if eaten. Stick to plants that you know are edible.
When in doubt, follow the Universal Edibility Test (page 6-4).

-- Travel
As a survivor or an evader in an arctic or subarctic region, you
will face many obstacles. Your location and the time of the year
will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent dangers. You
should—

• Avoid traveling during a blizzard.

• Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight
by lying flat and crawling.
• Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal
freezing and thawing action may cause a stream level to
vary as much as 6V2 to 8 feet (2 to 2V2 meters) per day.
This may occur any time during the day, depending on the
distance from a glacier, the temperature, and the terrain.
You should also consider this variation in water level when
selecting a campsite near a stream.
• Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance
difficult. Distances are more frequently underestimated
than overestimated.
• Avoid traveling in “whiteout"’ conditions. The lack of con¬
trasting colors makes it impossible to judge the nature of
the terrain.
• Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle
it crosses. Find the strongest part of the bridge by poking
ahead with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight by
crawling or by wearing snowshoes or skis.

15-20
 • Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build
a shelter before dark,
• Consider rivers, frozen or unfrozen, as avenues of travel.
Frozen rivers are frequently clear of loose snow, making
travel on them easier than on the land.
• Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered ter¬
rain. Snow 12 or more inches deep makes traveling dif¬
ficult and can lead to trenchfoot or frostbite if footwear
becomes wet. If you do not have snowshoes, make a pair
using willow, strips of cloth, leather, or other suitable
material.

It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without snowshoes

or skis. And traveling by foot leaves a well marked trail for any
pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid snow-
covered streams. The snow, which acts as an insulator, may have
prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly terrain, avoid
areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the early
morning in areas where there is danger of avalanches. On ridges,
snow accumulates on the lee side in overhanging piles, called cor¬
nices. These often extend far out from the ridge and may break
loose if stepped on.

--Weather Signs
There are a number of good indicators of climatic changes.

Wind. You can determine wind direction by dropping a few leaves

or grass or by watching the tops of trees. Once you determine the
wind direction, you can predict the type of weather that is immi¬
nent. Rapidly shifting winds indicate an unsettled atmosphere and
a likely change in the weather.

Clouds. See Chapter 20.

Smoke. Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair
weather. Low rising or “flattened out” smoke indicates stormy
weather.

Birds and Insects. Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than
normal in heavy, moisture-laden air. This indicates that rain is like¬
ly. Most insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity
increases before fair weather.

15-21
Low Pressure. Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy,
humid air often indicate a low pressure front. This is a promise
of bad weather that will probably linger for several days. You can
“smell” and “hear” low pressure: The sluggish, humid air makes
wilderness odors more pronounced than during high pressure. In
addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in low pressure than
high pressure.

15-22
 Chapter

Sea Survival

About 75 percent of the earth's surface is covered by water, about

70 percent being oceans and seas. You can assume, therefore, that
as a soldier you will sometime cross vast expanses of water. And
there is always the possibility that the plane or ship you are on
will become crippled, requiring everyone to take to life rafts or
lifeboats.

- Precautionary Measures
As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind. You
may also face extreme heat or extreme cold. To keep these en¬
vironmental hazards from becoming serious problems, you must
take precautionary measures as soon as possible. Use the resources
available to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or
extreme cold and humidity.
But protecting yourself from the elements is meeting only one of
your basic needs. You must also be able to obtain water and food.
Having these three basic needs will help prevent serious physical
and psychological problems; however, you must know how to treat
health problems that may result from your situation.
Your survival at sea depends upon—

• Your knowledge of and ability to use the survival equip¬

ment that is available.
• Your special skills and ability to apply them to cope with
the hazards you face.
• Your will to live.

When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival equip¬
ment is on board, where it is located, and what it consists of. For

16-1
instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are on
board? Where are they located? What type of survival equipment
do they contain? How much food, water, and medicine do they
contain?

If you are responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you
know where they are and make sure they know where you are.

- Down At Sea
If you are in an aircraft that goes down at sea, take the following
actions once you clear the aircraft.

Whether you are in the water or in a raft—

• Get clear of and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possi¬
ble, but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft sinks.
• Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel becomes
ignited.
• Try to find other survivors.
If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts are
available, try to find a large piece of floating debris to cling to.
Relax. A person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very
little danger of drowning. The body’s natural buoyancy will keep
at least the top of the head above water, but some movement is
needed to keep the face above water.

Floating on the back takes the least energy. Lie on your back in
the water, place your arms along the sides of your body, and fin
with your hands. Your head will be partially submerged but your
face will be above water.

Another method for staying afloat is to float face down on the sur¬
face with the arms outstretched and the legs pointed toward the
bottom. To breathe, push down on the water with your hands and
raise your head above the water. Take a breath, then lower your
head and return your arms to the outstretched position.
The following types of swimming strokes are recommended for
a survival situation:

• Dog paddle. This is an excellent stroke when clothed or

wearing a lifejacket. Although slow in speed, it requires
very little energy.

16-2
 • Breast stroke. This stroke should be used for swimming
underwater, through oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is
probably the best stroke for long range swimming in that
it allows the swimmer to conserve his energy, yet main¬
tain a reasonable speed.
• Side stroke. This is a good relief stroke in that only one
arm is required to maintain momentum and buoyancy.
• Back stroke. This is an excellent relief stroke. It relieves
the muscles that are used for other strokes. Use it if an
underwater explosion is likely.
If you are in an area where surface oil is burning—
• Discard your shoes and buoyant life jacket.
NOTE: If you have an uninflated CO^ life jacket, keep it.
• Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go
underwater.
• Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to
breathe.
• To surface to breathe, force the upper part of your body
above the surface. Make wide sweeping movements with
your hands to splash water to disperse the flames as you
surface. Try to face downwind before inhaling.
• Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of
the flames.

If the water is oil covered but free of fire, hold your head high to
keep the oil out of your eyes. Attach your life preserver to your
wrist and then use it as a raft.
If you should get a cramp in your legs or in your stomach, stretch
and massage the cramped muscle until the cramp is gone. If
cramping is severe, however, you may be unable to stretch the
muscle.
If you are in a raft—
• Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid
if necessary. Take seasickness pills if available. Vomiting,
whether from seasickness or other causes, increases the
danger of dehydration.
• Try to salvage all floating equipment: rations, canteens,
thermos jugs, other containers, clothing, seat cushions.

16-3
 parachutes, and anything else that will aid you. Secure the
salvaged items in or to your raft. Make sure the items have
no sharp edges that can puncture the raft.
• If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together but so they
are about 25 feet apart. Be prepared to draw them closer
together if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for an
aircrew to spot rafts close together than scattered.
• Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation.
Operating directions are on it. Use the emergency
transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in
the area.
• Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you
are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling device that
will alert the enemy.
• Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible
chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy chambers are firm
(well rounded but not drum tight). Regularly check infla¬
tion. Hot air expands, so on hot days release some air. Add
air when the weather cools.
• Throw out the sea anchor or improvise a drag from the
raft case, bailing bucket, or roll of clothing. A sea anchor
will help you stay close to your ditching site, making it
easier for a searcher to find you if you have relayed your
location. Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth so it will not
chafe the raft. The anchor will also help to keep the raft
headed into the wind and waves.
• In stormy weather, rig the spray and windshield at once.
In a 20-man raft, keep the canopy erected at all times. Keep
your raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All
men should stay seated, the heaviest men in the center.
If you are in a cold climate—

• Put on an antiexposure suit. If none are available, put on

extra clothing if available. Keep clothes loose and com¬
fortable.
• Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects.
Keep the repair kit where you can readily reach it.
• Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.

16-4
 • Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas
or cloth for insulation.
• Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep
the blood circulating. Spread an extra tarpaulin, sail, or
parachute over the group.
• Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from ex¬
posure to cold.

If you are in a hot climate—

• Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for ven¬

tilation.
• Cover your skin where possible to protect it from sunburn.
Use sunburn cream, if available, on all exposed skin. Your
eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin under your chin
sunburn easily.

Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and determine what

you and your companions must do to survive.

Inventory all equipment, food, and water. Waterproof items that

are affected by saltwater. These include compasses, watches, sex¬
tant, matches, and lighters.

Ration water and food.

Assign duties to each person; for example, water collector, food

collector, lookout, radio operator, signaler, and water bailers. Keep
in mind—and remind others—that cooperation is one of the keys
to survival.

Keep a log. Record the navigator’s last fix, the time of ditching,
the names and physical condition of personnel, ration schedule,
winds, weather, direction of swells, times of sunrise and sunset,
and other navigational data.

If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security

measures to avoid detection. Generally, it is best not to travel in
the day time. Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before
paddling or hoisting sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered with
the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a passing ship
or aircraft is friendly or neutral before you try to attract its atten¬
tion. If you are detected by the enemy, destroy log book, radio.

16-5
navigation equipment, maps, signaling equipment, and firearms.
Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts strafing.

-Food and Water

Obtaining food and potable water at sea may pose more problems
than on land, but you can use some of the same techniques.

Food. Most fish in the open sea are edible (see page 7-18 for fish
with poisonous flesh). By improvising hooks (page 7-3) and lines
you can catch all the fish you need. You can use shoelaces,
parachute suspension lines, or thread from clothes for a line. Small
fish gather underneath the shadow of the raft. Catch them to use
for bait to catch larger fish. Make a dip net to scoop up fish, crabs,
and shrimp. At night some fish, especially flying fish, may land
in your raft. Use the fish for food. At night shine a flashlight on
the water to attract fish. Moonlight reflected on the water using
a mirror will also attract fish. (Read Chapter 7 on catching and
preparing fish.)

Birds are sometimes attracted to a raft for a possible perching place.

If a bird lands on the raft, wait until it folds its wings before you
try to grab it. Sometimes you can catch a bird with a baited hook.

Seaweed can sometimes be found floating many miles fromi shore.

It is a rich source of minerals, but can act as a violent laxative if
your stomach is not conditioned to it. Eat only small amounts at
a time.

Water. If your raft contains a still, read the instructions and set
it up immediately. If more than one still is available, set up as many
as you need to take care of all the people in the rafts. Secure the
stills to the raft with a stout line.

If desalting kits are also available, use them only for immediate
water needs when stills cannot be used.

Keep a tarpaulin ready for catching rainwater. If the tarpaulin is

encrusted with dried salt, wash it in sea water. There will not be
enough salt left on it to harm you. At night, secure the tarpaulin
like a sunshade and turn up its edges so it will collect dew. When
there is rain, catch and drink as much rainwater as you can hold.

When your water supply is limited, use it efficiently.

16-6
-At-Sea Medical Problems and Their Treatment
At sea you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or face some
of the same medical problems that occur on land, such as dehydra¬
tion or sunburn. These problems can become critical if left un¬
treated.

Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the motion of

the raft. It can result in—

• Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.

• Loss of will to survive.
• Others becoming seasick.
• Attracting sharks to the raft.
• Unclean conditions.

To treat seasickness—

• Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and
odor of vomitus.
• Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.
• Have the patient lie down and rest.
• Give the patient seasickness pills if available.

NOTE: Some survivors have said that erecting a canopy or using the
horizon as a focal point helped overcome seasickness. Others have said
that swimming along side the raft for short periods helped, but ex¬
treme care must be taken if swimming.

Saltwater sores result from a break in the skin when exposed to

saltwater for an extended period of time. The sores may form scabs
and pus. Do not open or drain. Flush the sores with freshwater
if available and allow them to dry. Apply an antiseptic if available.

Dehydration is caused by vomiting, diarrhea, reduced water intake,

sweating, and drinking alcohol, blood, urine, or seawater. Drink
water at regular intervals and conserve energy.

Constipation is a common problem on a raft. Do not take a lax¬

ative, however, as this will further dehydration. Exercise as much
as possible and drink an adequate amount of water if available.

Eye injuries may occur during the aircraft emergency and ditching
or when you are in the water. If a foreign object becomes imbedd-

16-7
ed in an eye, bandage both eyes since movement of one eye af¬
fects the other. Do not try to remove the object.
If flame, smoke, or other contaminates get in the eyes, flush the
eyes immediately with saltwater, then with freshwater if available.
Apply ophthalmic ointment if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to
24 hours or longer if damage is severe. If the glare from the sky
and water causes your eyes to become bloodshot and inflamed, ban¬
dage your eyes lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing
sunglasses. Improvise sunglasses from a cloth or bandage (figure
15-3) if necessary.

Sunburn is one of the most serious problems of ocean survival. Try

to prevent this problem by following the procedures on page 16-5.
If you do become sunburned, treat the sunburn as any other burn

Hypothermia can occur when a person is in water that is cooler

than the body temperature for long periods of time. It can also oc¬
cur to a person on a raft who becomes chilled. The symptoms and
treatment are described on pages 15-2 and 15-4.

Frostbite and immersion foot can also occur on a raft. Symptoms

and treatment are described on pages 15-4 and 15-5.

---- Sea Life

Whether you are in the water or in a boat, you may see many types
of sea life around you. Some may concern you more than others.

Sharks. One concern you may have is sharks. Although there are
more than 325 species of sharks, only 20 or so are known to at¬
tack man. Four of the most dangerous are the great white, the
mako, the tiger, and the hammerhead. Other sharks that have been
known to attack man are the grey, the blue, the lemon, sand, nurse,
bull, and oceanic white tip.

Some of the largest sharks—the whale shark and the basking shark,
for example—are plankton feeders and of little danger. However,
any shark more than 3 or 4 feet in length should be considered
dangerous.

Sharks are found in all oceans and seas. Many species live and feed
at considerable depths while others live and hunt near the surface.

16-8
It is the sharks that live near the surface that you are most likely
to spot because of the high dorsal fins that frequently project above
the water. Sharks often enter relatively shallow waters and may
even enter river mouths, but are most commonly found in the open
ocean or sea.

There are several kinds of sharks in the Arctic and Antarctic

Oceans; however, those living in oceans and seas between 40° north
and 40° south latitude are the ones most likely to be dangerous
to man. Evidence shows the sharks in tropic and subtropic seas
are far more aggressive than those in temperate waters.

The normal diet of most sharks is living animals. All sharks have
voracious appetites. They are guided to their food by sight, scent,
or sound. They will investigate floating objects and are prone to
strike at injured or helpless animals, although their normal food
is healthy animals. They have a highly developed sense of smell,
and blood in the water excites them. They are extremely sensitive
to vibrations transmitted through the water. A fish fighting against
a hook and line; the struggles of an injured or dying animal; the
movements of a poorly coordinated swimmer; even the rapid, ex¬
cited movement of another shark approaching food will draw sharks
from a greater distance than the scent of blood. They are also
drawn by unusual noises such as underwater explosions.

When a shark opens its mouth and dashes forward to strike, it can
bite from almost any position. It does not have to turn on its side
to bite. The jaws of the great white shark and several other species
are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily without
twisting to their sides.

Sharks are more apt to tear off pieces small enough to swallow
easily rather than to bite off a man’s leg or arm. They can and will
tear great gashes in a man’s torso, removing large chunks of flesh
at a snap.

Most shark-inflicted injuries are half-moon incisions, often with

good impressions of the smaller teeth left in the untorn flesh.

Sharks may hunt and attack singly, but most reported attacks speak
of more than one present. Small sharks are likely to travel in schools
and attack in numbers. A shark that finds a victim is joined at once
by all sharks in the vicinity. Most sharks are cannibalistic and will
attack and eat their disabled kin as readily as their prey.

16-9
Sharks are known to feed at all hours of the day and night. A review
of survival accounts indicates that most shark contacts and attacks
are made during daylight, a high percentage being in late after¬
noon. There are protective measures that you can take against
sharks.

If you are in the water—

• Get near other swimmers. Several swimmers grouped

together can maintain a 360® watch for sharks, can ward
off sharks better than a lone swimmer, and have greater
striking strength should a shark attack.
• Stay alert for sharks. Keep your clothing on, including your
shoes. Evidence shows that among groups of men, those
partly unclad were attacked first, and usually in the feet.
In addition, clothing will protect your skin from abrasions
should a shark brush against you.
• Urinate in short spurts, allowing the urine to dissipate
between spurts. Pass small amounts of fecal matter at a
time and throw it as far away as possible.
• If you have to vomit, vomit in your hand and throw it as
far away as possible.

If you are in the water and a shark attack appears imminent—

• Make just enough commotion to keep the shark at bay.

This way you conserve your strength to repulse the shark
should it attack.
• Roar or yell underwater. Some divers report this will
sometimes scare a shark away.
• Slap the water surface repeatedly with cupped hands. The
loud sounds may scare the shark away.
• Kick and thrash at the shark. Strike the shark on the gills
or eyes if you can. Hitting the shark on the nose can cause
injury to your hand by glancing off the shark’s nose and
hitting its teeth.

If you are in a raft and you sight sharks—

• Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish before seeing the

shark, let the fish go.
• Do not clean fish in the water.

16-10
 • Do not throw waste overboard.
• Do not trail arms or legs in the water.
• Keep still and quiet.
• Keep hands, feet, legs, arms, and equipment inside the raft.
• Conduct all burials as soon as possible. Wait until night
if'sharks are numerous.
If you are in a raft and a shark attack appears imminent—

• Shoot to kill if possible.

• Fire shots at the water near the shark. The concussion may
scare the shark away.
• Hit the shark with anything you have. If you use an oar,
be careful not to break it. Using your hands will damage
you more than the shark.

Figure 16-1. Porpoise and shark comparison.

16-11
Porpoises. Learning to tell the difference between sharks and por¬
poises will help to calm your fears. The porpoise may swim with
its curved back or dorsal fin just above the surface. It will repeated¬
ly dive and resurface to breathe. The shark will stay on a more
continuous plane near the surface. The jumping form of the shark
and porpoise also differ (figure 16-1). Observers have noted that
when the porpoises appear, sharks disappear. Porpoises seem to
enjoy butting rafts, but they are small enough that survivors need
not be alarmed. You can drive them off by striking them with
paddles.

Rays. You might also mistake the fins of the giant rays or mantas
living in tropical waters for the fins of two sharks swimming side
by side. If both fins periodically disappear at the same time, the
fins are those of a ray (figure 16-2). In deep water all rays are
harmless to swimmers. Some are dangerous, however, if stepped
on in shallow water.

Figure 16-2. Manta ray.

16-12
Whales. The presence of whales may be disturbing because of their
size. But the experience of men on rafts indicates that there is lit¬
tle to fear from whale attacks. Whales move leisurely when not
alarmed, but their playful habit of nosing or nudging a raft may
be disquieting. Thadeep, long drawn-out sound of their breathing
and the loud sounds made by their tails slapping the water are also
startling. .

-- Raftmanship
Put out your sea anchor immediately. Do not attempt to navigate
your raft unless within sight of shore or in unfriendly waters.
Remember that the majority of successful rescues are made within
7 days of ditching. You can’t go very far on a raft in 7 days.

Lookouts. Keep at least one lookout posted at all times to watch

for signs of land, passing vessels or aircraft, wreckage, seaweed,
schools of fish, birds, and signs that the raft may be chafing or
leaking. Rotate the lookouts at least every 2 hours.
Traveling. Your raft will move regardless of what you do. The
course it will take depends on the wind, the ocean current, and
your use of oars or paddles, tiller, sea anchor, and sails.

When ocean currents are moving toward your destination, but the
winds are unfavorable, put out a sea anchor. Huddle in the raft
to offer as little wind resistance as possible. In the open ocean,
currents seldom move more than 6 to 8 miles a day.

A raft lacks a keel, so you can’t sail it into the wind. However,
you can sail it downwind. Multiplace rafts (except 20-man) can be
successfully sailed 10° from the wind direction. Don’t try to sail
your raft unless you know that land is near.

When the wind is blowing directly toward your destination, fully

inflate the raft, sit high, take in the sea anchor, rig a sail, and use
an oar as a rudder.
In a multiplace raft (except a 20-man), rig a square sail in the bow,
using oars with their extensions as mast and crossbar.

If no regular sail is available, use the waterproof tarpaulin or one

or two thicknesses of parachute cloth.
If the raft has no regular mast socket and step, erect the mast by

16-13
tying it securely to the front cross seat; provide braces. Pad the
bottom of the mast to prevent it from chafing or punching a hole
through the floor. Improvise a mast step with a shoe by wedging
the toe under the seat and using the heel as the mast step.
Do not secure the comer of the lower edge of the sail. Hold the
lines attached to the corners in your hands so that a sudden storm
or gust of wind will not rip the sail, break the mast, or capsize the
raft.

Take care to prevent your raft from turning over. In rough weather,
keep the sea anchor out from the bow. All passengers should sit
low in the raft with their weight distributed to hold the weather
side down. Do not sit on the sides or stand up. Never make sud¬
den movements without warning the other men. Do not tie a fishline
to yourself or to the raft; a large fish may capsize the raft.
In rough seas, tie stern of first raft to bow of second and rig a sea
anchor to stern of second raft. Use approximately a 25-foot line
between rafts; adjust the length of the line to suit the sea. Keep
the sea anchor line long. Adjust its length so that when the raft
is at the crest of a wave, the sea anchor will stay in a trough. In
very rough weather, keep a spare sea anchor rigged for instant
use in case the one in use breaks loose.
When the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the raft and stow it
so that it will hold immediately if the raft capsizes.

To right multiplace rafts (except a 20-man), use the righting handles

on the bottom of the raft. Work from the bottom side of the raft.
Try to maneuver so you and the bottom side are downwind. Grasp
the righting handle and lift the far side of the raft up and over
(figure 16-3). Both bottom and top of a 20-man raft are identical
and, therefore, the raft requires no righting.
If several men are in the water, one man should hold down the
far side of the multiplace raft (4- to 7-man) while the rest climb
in singly from the other side. Grasp the seat to haul yourself in,
or use a boarding ladder if available. Without help, the best place
to board the raft is over the end. If the wind is blowing, board the
raft with the wind at your back. The 20-man raft is provided with
an inflated boarding station.

To board the Tman raft, climb in from the narrow end; slide up
as nearly horizontal as possible.

16-14
 Figure 16-3. Righting a raft correctly.

-Signs of Land
The lookout should watch carefully for signs of land.

A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all other clouds
are moving often hovers over or slightly downwind from an island.

In the tropics, a greenish tint in the sky is often caused by the reflec¬
tion of sunlight from shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs.

In the arctic, ice fields or snow-covered land are often indicated

by light-colored reflections on clouds. These reflections are quite
different from the darkish gray ones caused by open water.

16-15
 Figure 16*4. Wave patterns about an island.

Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color indicates

shallow water, which may mean land is near.
In fog, mist, or rain, or at night you may detect land by odors and
sounds. The musty odor of mangrove swamps and mud flats and
the smell of burning wood carry a long way. The roar of surf is
heard long before the surf is seen. Continued cries of sea birds from
one direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.
Usually more birds are found near land than over the open sea.
The direction from which flocks fly at dawn and to which they fly
at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the day, birds
are searching for food and the direction of flight has no significance.

In the tropics, mirages may be seen, especially during the middle

of the day. Be careful not to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A
mirage disappears or its appearance and elevation change when
it is viewed from slightly different heights.

You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves, which
are refracted as they approach land (figure 16-4). By traveling with
the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked “X”
on the illustration, you should reach land.

To swim ashore—

• Wear your shoes and at least one thickness of clothing.

Use the side or breast stroke to conserve strength.
• If surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small wave
by swimming forward with it. Shallow dive to end your
ride just before the wave breaks.

16-16
 • In high surf, swim shoreward in the trough between waves.
When the seaward wave approaches, face it and submerge.
After it passes, work shoreward in the next trough.
• If you are caught in the undertow of a large wave, push
off the bottom or swim to the surface and proceed
shoreward as above.
• If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where
the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid places where the
waves explode with a high white spray. Swim slowly in
making your approach—you will need your strength to hold
on to the rocks.
• After selecting your landing point, advance behind a large
wave into the breakers. Face shoreward and take a sitting
position with your feet in front, 2 or 3 feet lower than your
head, so that your feet will absorb shocks when you land
or strike submerged boulders or reefs.
• If you don’t reach shore behind the wave you have pick¬
ed, swim with hands only. As the next wave approaches,
take a sitting position with feet forward. Repeat procedure
until you land.
• Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed.
Take advantage of such growth. Don’t swim through the
seaweed; crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation
with overhand movements.
• Cross a rocky reef just as you would land on a rocky shore.
Keep your feet close together and your knees slightly bent
in a relaxed sitting posture to cushion blows against coral.
To raft ashore—

• You can use the 1-man raft without danger in most cases.
However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take
your time. Select your landing point carefully. Try not to
land when the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try
to land on the lee side of an island or of a point of land.
Keep your eyes open for gaps in the surf line, and head
for them. Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. Coral reefs
do not occur near the mouths of freshwater streams. Avoid
rip currents or strong tidal currents which may carry you
far out to sea. Either signal shore for help or sail around
and look for a sloping beach where the surf is gentle.

16-17
• If you have to go through surf to reach shore, take down
the raft mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on to avoid
severe cuts. Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea
anchor over the stern with as much line as you have. Use
the oars or paddles and constantly adjust the sea anchor
to keep a strain on the anchor line. This will keep your
raft pointed toward shore and prevent the sea from throw¬
ing the stern around and capsizing you. Use the oars or
paddles to help ride in on the seaward side of a large wave.
• Surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify
your procedure as conditions demand. A good method of
getting through surf is to have half the men sit on one side
of the raft, half on the other, facing each other. When a
heavy sea bears down, half should row (pull) toward the
sea until the crest passes; then the other half should row
(pull) toward the shore until the next heavy sea comes
along.
• Against strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have
all possible speed to pass rapidly through the oncoming
crest in order to avoid being turned broadside or thrown
end over end. If possible, avoid meeting a large wave at
the moment it breaks.
• In medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep raft
from passing over a wave so rapidly that it drops sudden¬
ly after topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf,
try to grab hold.
• As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large
wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in onto the beach as
far as you can. Don’t jump out of the raft until it has
grounded, then quickly get out and beach it.
• If you have a choice, don’t land at night. If you have reason
to believe that the shore is inhabited, lay away from the
beach, signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and
bring you in.
• If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes.
Avoid icebergs, which may capsize, and small floes or
those obviously disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep
raft from rubbing on ice edge. Take raft out of the water
and store well back from ice edge. Keep raft inflated and
ready for use. Any floe may break up.

16-18
 Chapter

Knots

In a survival situation, you need to know how to tie different knots

and what knot to use to meet a particular need. For instance, mak¬
ing snares, field expedient weapons, and shelters requires the use
of knots.

-Square Knot

Use a square knot (figurel7-l) to tie the ends of two ropes of equal
diameter together. A square knot tightens under strain, but is
easy to untie by grasping the ends of the two bights and pulling the
knot apart.

NOTE: A square knot made using wet rope or ropes of different diameters
will not hold.

-Prusik Knot

Use a prusik knot (figurel7-2) for tying a sling rope to a climbing

rope. The knot will hold the sling in place when tension is put on it,
but will slide up or down the climbing rope when you release the
tension. You can also use this knot when weaving a fishnet.

-Clove Hitch
Use the clove hitch (figurel7-3) to fasten a rope to a pole, post, or
similar object. You can make the knot at any point on the rope;
however, to make the knot hold, you must either keep tension on it
or run an extra loop around the anchor object and under the center
of the clove hitch.

17-1
 Round Turn With Two Half Hitches

Use a round turn with two half hitches (figure 17-4) to tie the end of
a rope around an object such as a pipe, post, or tree.

-Bowline Knot

The bowline knot (figure 17-5) has many uses. It is one of the best
knots for forming a single loop that will not become smaller when
tension is placed on it.

-Double Sheet Bend

Use a double sheet bend (figure 17-6) to join two ropes of unequal
diameter, two ropes that are wet, two tubular nylon cords, or two
straps.

Figure 17-1. Square knot.

17-2
 1

STEP 1

Figure 17-2. Prusik knot.

17-3
 Figure 17-3. Clove hitch.

STEP 2

Figure 17-4. Round turn with two half hitches.

17-4
 STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

Figure 17-5. Bowline knot.

17-5
 STEP 1

STEP 2

Figure 17-6. Double sheet bend knot.

17-6
If you fear snakes, it is probably because you are unfamiliar with
them or you have wrong information about them. There is no need
for you to fear snakes if you know—
• their habits,
• how to identify the dangerous kinds,
• precautions to take to prevent snakebite, and

• what actions to take in case of snakebite (Chapter 2).

For a man wearing shoes and trousers and living in a camp, the
danger of being bitten by a poisonous snake is small compared
to the hazards of malaria, cholera, dysentery, or other diseases.
Nearly all snakes avoid man if possible. Reportedly, however, a
few—the king cobra of southeast Asia, the bushmaster of South
America, the tropical rattlesnake of South America, and the
mamba of Africa—sometimes aggressively attack man, but even
these snakes do so only occasionally. Most snakes get out of the
way and are seldom seen.

-Ways to Avoid Snakebite

Most bites occur when a person accidentally steps on a snake, so
keep your eyes open. Wear shoes and trousers when you are in
areas where poisonous snakes are found.

Take the following precautions to avoid snakebite:

• Avoid areas where snakes are abundant if possible.
• Use a snake stick or walking stick if in a snake-infested
area.

A-1
 • Probe before entering an area.
• Don’t chase snakes or tease them.
• Don’t put your hands in a place you cannot see, such as
in a hole, in bushes, or under a river bank.
• Don’t handle a snake unless its head is cut off or unless
you are sure it has been dead for some time.
• Watch for snakes.
• Learn as much as possible about snakes in your area (types,
habits, size, shape, color, and so forth).

--- Snake Groups

Snakes dangerous to man generally fall into two groups: pro-
teroglypha and solenoglypha. These two groups are best describ¬
ed in terms of their fangs and their venom.

Fangs. The proteroglypha have in front of the upper jaw and

preceding the ordinary teeth permanently erect fangs. These fangs
are referred to as fixed fangs.

The solenoglypha have erectile fangs; that is, the fangs are capable
of being raised to an erect position. These fangs are referred to
as folded fangs.
Venom. The fixed-fang snakes (proteroglypha) usually have
neurotoxic venoms. These venoms affect the nervous system, mak¬
ing the victim unable to breathe.

The folded-fang snakes (solenoglypha) usually have hemotoxic

venoms. These venoms affect the circulatory system, destroying
blood cells, damaging skin tissues, and causing internal hemor¬
rhaging.

It is important to note, however, that most poisonous snakes have

both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom. But usually one type of
venom in the snake is dominant and the other is weak.
Poisonous versus nonpoisonous snakes. No single characteristic
distinguishes a poisonous snake from a harmless one except the
presence of poison fangs and glands. And only in dead specimens
can you determine the presence of these fangs and glands without
danger.

A-2
 Viperidae or true vipers
European long nosed viper • •
Gaboon viper • • •
Puff adder • •
Rhinoceros viper • •
Russell's viper • •
Sand viper • •
Crotalids or pit vipers
- r .s'

Annerican copperhead • •
Bushmaster • •
Cottonmouth • •
Eastern diamondback rattlesnake • •
Fer-de-lance • •
Green tree pit viper • •
Habu pit viper • •
Jumping pit viper • •
Malayan pit viper • •
Tropical rattlesnake • • •
Wagler’s pit viper • •
Western diamondback rattlesnake • •
Mojave rattlesnake • • •

Common cobra • •
Common krait • •

Coral snake • •
Death adder • •
Egyptian cobra • •
King cobra • •
Tiger snake • •

Australian copperhead • •
Mamba • •
Hydrophids

Sea snakes

Figure A-1. Families of poisonous snakes.

 Descriptions of Poisonous Snakes

There are many different poisonous snakes throughout the world,

and it’s unlikely you will see many except in a zoo. Only a few
poisonous snakes are described in this manual.

Viperidae (True Vipers). The viperidae or true vipers generally

have thick bodies and heads that are much wider than their necks.
However, there are many different sizes, markings, and colorations.

Crotalids (Pit Vipers). The crotalids or pit vipers may be either

slender or thick-bodied. Their heads are usually much wider than
their necks. These snakes take their name from the deep pit located
between the eye and the nostril. They are commonly brown with
dark blotches, though some kinds are green.

NARROW NECK

Figure A-2. Positive identification of vipers.

A-4
India has about 12 species of these snakes. They can be found in
trees or on the ground in all types of terrain. The tree snakes are
slender; the ground snakes are heavy-bodied. All are dangerous.
China has a pit viper similar to the moccasin found in North
America. It is found in the rocky areas of the remote mountains
of South China. It reaches a length of 4-1/2 feet, but is not vicious
unless irritated. A small pit viper, about Tl/2 feet long, is found
on the plains of eastern China. It is too small to be dangerous to
a man wearing shoes.
There are about 27 species of rattlesnakes in the United States
and Mexico. They vary in color and may or may not have spots
or blotches. Some are small while others, such as the diamond-
backs, may grow to 8 feet long.
There are five kinds of rattlesnakes in Central and South America,
but only the tropical rattlesnake is widely distributed. The rattle
on the tip of the tail is sufficient identification for a rattlesnake.
Most will try to escape without a fight when approached, but there
is always a chance one will strike at a passerby. They do not always
give a warning; they may strike first and rattle afterwards or not
at all.

Elapids. Only by examining a dead snake can you positively

determine if it is a cobra or a near relative (figureA-4). On cobras,
kraits, and coral snakes, the third scale on the upper lip touches
both the nostril scale and the eye. The krait also has a row of
enlarged scales down the ridged back.

Figure A-3. Positive identification of pit vipers.

A-5
The cobras of Africa and the near East can be found in almost any
habitat. One kind may live in or near water, another may be found
in trees. Some are reported to be aggressive and savage. The
distance a cobra can strike in a forward direction is equal to the
distance its head is raised above the ground. Some cobras, however,
can spit venom a distance of 10 to 12 feet. This venom is harmless
unless it gets into your eyes; then it may cause blindness if not
washed out immediately.
Hydrophids. There are many species of sea snakes. They vary
greatly in the color and shape but all have flat tails. Their scales
distinguish them from eels, which have no scales.
Sea snakes occur in saltwater along the coasts throughout the Pacific.
There are also sea snakes on the east coast of Africa and in the Persian
Gulf. None are found in the Atlantic Ocean.
There is no need to fear sea snakes. They have not been known to
attack a man swimming. Fishermen occasionally get bit by a sea
snake caught in a net. The bite is dangerous.

NOSTRIL SCALE

ENLARGED SCALE
DOWN RIDGE OF BACK

KRAIT
TOP VIEW

NOSTRIL SCALE

Figure A-4. Positive identification of cobras, kraits,

and coral snakes
A6
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

European long nosed viper (Vipera ammodytes)

Description: Coloration is gray with a zigzag pattern running the length of

the back. A few snakes are solid black. This is a small viper, usually about
1-1/2 to 2 feet. The venom is hemotoxic. The bite is very painful, causing
considerable tissue damage. Although the bite is serious, it is rarely fatal.
Bites should be medically treated.

Characteristics: Has a short temper and readily strikes.

Habitat: Many terrains, including swamps, open fields, hillsides, and

farming regions. It can be found above 9,000 feet elevation in mountainous
regions.

Distribution: Throughout northern Europe to northern Korea.

Figure A-5. European long nosed viper.

A-7
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)

Description: Coloration is striking with geometric patterns of blacks, tans,

and blues. Colors are so complex that these vipers are difficult to see among
the forest flora This is the largest and heaviest of all the vipers. Adults average
4 to 5 feet, but have been known to reach over 6 feet. These vipers usually
have horns on the tip of the nose; however, the horns may be absent on some
specimens. Their fangs are enormous—over 2 inches long in large vipers.
Their venom contains both hemotoxin and neurotoxin. Without prompt
medical treatment, bites are usually lethal.

Characteristics: When approached, will coil and strike quickly.

Habitat: Heavy forests.

D/sfr/bwf/on; Tropical rain forests of Sierra Leone, Sudan, Angola, and Natal.

Figure A-6. Gaboon viper.

A-8
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Puff adder (Bitis arietans)

Description: Coloration is variable, usually light or dark brown with white

or yellow chevrons. Adults average 3 to 4 feet, but occasionally reach 5 feet.
The body appears heavy, often giving the impression of sluggishness. Adult
puff adders have long hollow fangs. Their venom is very hemotoxic. Without
proper medical treatment, death can occur.
Characteristics: When approached, this snake is quick to react, coiling and
hissing loudly. It strikes with lightning speed.
Habitat: Open forests or grasslands near streams.

Distribution: Most of Africa, except the arid hot region of the desert and the
tropical rain forest.

Figure A-7. Puff adder.

A-9
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Rhinoceros viper (also called river jack) (Bitis nasicornis)

Description: Coloration is variable with many hues of pinks, blues, greens,

and purples. The pattern is quite striking. These are fairly large, heavy bodied
vipers with long horns on the nose. Adults average 2 to 3 feet in length, but
have been known to reach 4 feet. The venom contains two toxins:
hemotoxin and neurotoxin.
Characteristics: \Nhen approached, it is quick to react, coiling, and hissing
loudly, and striking with lightning speed.

Hab/faf: Tropical rain forest.

Distribution: Liberia, Uganda, and Zaire.

Figure A-8. Rhinoceros viper.

A-10
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Russeirs viper (Vipera russellii)

Description: Coloration is tan or brownish yellow with oval spots ringed with
black. Average size is 3-1/2 to 5 feet. This is a very common and dangerous
snake over much of its range. It is responsible for many snakebites and
deaths. Its venom is a very strong hemotoxin.
Characteristics: Bold disposition; hisses loudly and is ready to strike with
great speed.
Habitat: Varies from farm lands to prairies to swamps. Prefers open, sunny
spots, but can be found almost anywhere except in thick jungle.
Distribution: West Pakistan, all of India, Burma, Thailand, and southwest
China.

Figure A-9. Russell’s viper.

A-11
 True Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)

Description: Coloration is yellow or pinkish to match the sand. These snakes
are ordinarily 2 feet or less in length. The venom is hemotoxic.

Characteristics: The body is capable of flattening out and burrowing into the
sand. These snakes have a gliding gait, similar to the sidewinder rattlesnake,
enabling them to move swiftly across the desert sands.

Habitat: Dry, sandy desert areas.

Distribution: Northern Africa from Algeria to Egypt.

Figure A-10. Sand viper.

A-12
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

American copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)

Description: Usually pale brown with darker crossbands narrowing at the

midline of the back. The markings may be few and inconspicuous on large
snakes. The head is usually coppery-red in color. The belly is light colored
and somewhat mottled. The venom is hemotoxic, but is weak and not
particularly dangerous to adults.
Characteristics: Is timid and will usually stay hidden; will try to escape when
discovered. If cornered, may vibrate tail and produce a distinct buzzing sound.
Habitat: Prefers high, dry ground. May be found in the fields or woods.

Distribution: Southern and southeastern United States.

Figure A*11. American copperhead.

A-13
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Bushmaster (Lachesis muta)

Description: Coloration is tan or dark brown with some pink hues and with
black blotches along the back. The scales are extremely keeled. This is the
largest of all pit vipers, averaging 6-1/2 to 7 feet, with some recorded up to
12 feet. It has long hollow fangs and hemotoxic venom. Snakebite of humans
seldom occurs with this species, but a bite is serious.

Characteristics: May remain motionless until touched; may attempt to escape

when cornered and may strike viciously. It has no rattle but its tail vibrating
against dry leaves produces a rattling sound.

Habitat: Mostly in forests at low altitudes; however, may be found in cool

areas. Prefers moist to dry ground and often hides in animal burrows.

Distribution: Southern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil,

and Paraguay.

Figure A-12. Bushmaster.

A-1 4
 Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)

Description: Coloration is variable. The young are brilliantly colored with

bands of copper and light and dark browns. In adults, the bands may be faint
to total black. Adults average 3 to 4 feet, but occasionally reach 6 feet. It
has hemotoxic venom. Deaths are rare but do occur.

Characteristics: A good swimmer. Often basks on logs or leaning trees in

swamps, bayous, or along sluggish streams. Usually will retreat when
disturbed but may hold its ground.

Habitat: Swampy areas, lakes, rivers, or streams.

D/sfr/buf/on; Throughout southern United States, southern Illinois, Missouri,

southeast Kansas, central Texas, Virginia, the Carolinas, and all of Florida.

Figure A-13. Cottonmouth.

A-1 5
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)

Description: Coloration is olive green with dark diamond-shaped markings
with white or yellow edgings. This is the largest venomous snake in the United
States, averaging 3-1/2 to 5 feet in length; maximum length recorded is over
7 feet. It has large venom glands and long hollow fangs. The venom is
hemotoxic.

Characteristics: Bold. Will readily defend itself by coiling, inflating its body
with air making a low pronounced hiss; rattle will usually vibrate.

Habitat: Prefers open, sandy places or rocky ledges, but may be found in
practically any type of terrain.

Distribution: North Carolina southward to Florida and west to Louisiana.

Figure A-14. Eastern diamondback rattlesnake.

A-16
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Fer-de lance (Brothrops lanceolatus)

There are several closely related species in this group. All are very dangerous
to man.
Description: Coloration is variable, but usually brown or olive with faint
hourglass markings along the back. Adult snakes average 3-1/2 to 5 feet, but
7-foot specimens have been recorded. The venom is strongly hemotoxic. This
species is responsible for many snakebite fatalities.

Characteristics: May coil its body before striking; however, can strike from
any position.
Habitat: The large kinds are ground snakes, and are often found in cane fields
or around dwellings. Some of the small kind live in trees, especially at the
base of palm trees.

Distribution: Throughout Central and South America, except Chile.

Figure A-15. Fer-de-lance.

A-17
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Green tree pit vipers (Trimeresurus sp.)

Description: These are small snakes, brilliant green in color. Bites are
common but seldom fatal. The venom is hemotoxic. Bites from these snakes
cause considerable pain and local tissue damage. Bites usually occur on
the upper extremities, neck, head or shoulders.
Characteristics: Lives primarily in shrubs or trees.

Habitat: Commonly found on tea plantations in thick brush.

D/str/i)uf/on; Cambodia, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnami, India, Sunda

Islands, and S.E. China.

Figure A-16. Green tree pit viper.

A-18
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)

Description: Coloration is light brown with long dark brown to greenish

blotches edged with yellow. Adults average 4 to 5 feet in length; maximum
length is 7 feet. Venom is hemotoxic of low toxicity; deaths have been
recorded.

NOTE: The high incidence of snakebite by this species makes it important.

It often enters human dwellings in search of rodents.

Characteristics: Irritable disposition, striking readily.

Habitat: Found in many environments.

Distribution: Okinawa, Amami.

Figure A-17. Habu pit viper.

A-19
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Jumping pit viper (Bothrops nummifera)

Description: This is a robust snake, short and husky. Average length is 2V2
to 3 feet. The coloration is from a rich brown to black. The venom is hemotox¬
ic, though death is rare. The bites are painful and local tissue destruction
is extensive. The appearance of this snake is similar to the
dreaded bushmaster, having exceedingly rough scales.

Characteristics: Strikes with such force that its body will at times leave the
ground.

Habitat: Found in many different environments.

Distribution: Southern Mexico through Central America.

Figure A-18. Jumping pit viper.

A-20
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)

Description: A small snake, 2 to 3 feet long. Coloration is a reddish brown

back with dark brown crossbands, narrow at the backbone, pinkish brown
on the sides. The venom is hemotoxic and very painful and damaging to
tissue. Hundreds of bites a year are attributed to this species, but the death
rate is low.
Characteristics: Has a calm disposition, but will bite if stepped on.

Habitat: It’s common on rubber plantations.

Distribution: Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, and Vietnam.

Figure A-19. Malayan pit viper.

A-2 1
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Tropical rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus)

Description: Coloration is dark brown with darker diamond-shaped markings

along the back. Long dark stripes run along the neck. These snakes average
4 to 5 feet in length, but some may reach 6 feet. The venom contains
considerable neurotoxic elements, causing systemic problems, but very
little local tissue damage. Symptoms include dizziness, blindness, difficult
breathing, and paralyzed neck muscles.

Characteristics: Seldom uses its rattle for warning. When approached, this
snake will usually coil and elevate its head high above the coil; it may use
the rattle to sound a few “clicks.”

Habitat: Found in dry, hilly country.

Distribution: Dry areas of southern Mexico and all of Central and South
America except Chile.

Figure A-20. Tropical rattlesnake.

A-22
 Pit Vipers

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Wagler's pit viper (also called temple viper) (Trimeresurus wagleri)

Description: Coloration is green with scattered black-edged scales. It has
a rather stout body; adults average 2 to 3 feet in length. It has hemotoxic
venom, which is fairly toxic and considered dangerous.
Characteristics: Rather placid disposition; will bite if molested.
Habitat: Rain forest environment. Often found around human settlements.
NOTE: In some villages, natives consider finding this species close to home
is a good omen.
Distribution: Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Borneo, and Philippines.

Figure A-21. Wagler’s pit viper.

A-23
 Pit Vipers

Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox)

Description: Coloration is light brown with darker brown diamond-shaped
markings; tail is cream to white, heavily barred with black rings. This is the
second largest venomous rattlesnake in the United States, averaging 3 to
5 feet; maximum length recorded is 7 feet. The venom is hemotoxic,
causing considerable pain and tissue damage.

Characteristics: Bold. Will readily defend itself.

Habitat: Prefers open, sandy places or rocky ledges, but may be found in
practically any type of terrain.

Distribution: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, southeast California, northern

Mexico.

Figure A-22. Western diamondback rattiesnake

- Pit Vipers
Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus)

Description: Coloration is greenish or olive, similar to the western diamond-

back rattlesnake. Adults average 2-1/2 to 3 feet; maximum length is 4 feet.
It has both hemotoxic and neurotoxic venom. This is an important species
due to its highly toxic venom, which has a more marked effect on respira¬
tion than any other North American rattlesnake. Bites have little local tissue
damage or reaction and may not look serious until respiratory difficulty
begins.

Characteristics: Does not always give a warning. May strike first and rattle
afterwards or not at all.

Habitat: Arid desert and prairie desert environments.

Distribution: West Texas, Mojave Desert in California into the Mexican

highlands.

Figure A-23. Mojave rattlesnake.

A-24
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Common cobra (Naja naja)

Description: Coloration of adults is brown or black with bicolor scales. There

is often a “spectacle” mark on the back of the hood. Average length is 4
to 5 feet; maximum is 6-1/2 feet. Venom is neurotoxic.

Characteristics: Ready to defend itself at all times. Raises the forward part
of the body one-half to two-thirds off the ground, spreading a wide hood.
It strikes forward and downward.

Habitat Lives in many environments, often entering human settlements in

search of rodents.

Distribution: All of India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia,

Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Celebes.

Figure A-24. Common cobra.

A-25
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus)

Description: Coloration is grayish to black with narrow white crossbands.
Belly is white. Average length is 3 to 6 feet. The venom is a potent
neurotoxin. Death rate from snakebite is very high.

Characteristics: Nocturnal. Is not aggressive. When alarmed, the body will

jerk in different directions, raising the tail off the ground.
Habitat: Open country. Often found near inhabited areas. Many have been
found in poor settlement buildings.

Distribution: India and West Pakistan.

Figure A-25. Common krait.

A-26
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)

Description: Coloration is vivid blacks, yellows, and reds. The head is small,
the body cylindrical. Average length is 1-1/2 to 3 feet. Coral snakes have two
tiny fixed fangs. They do not strike, but will often bite when touched or
stepped on. Chewing is not required to release the venom. The venom is a
very potent neurotoxin, Symptoms may not appear for several hours after
the bite. Take the victim to a medical facility, observe, and start medical
treatment. Antivenin is available for this species.

Characteristics: Secretive habits. Not aggressive; will not bite unless

picked up or stepped on. Active in early morning and evening hours.

Habitat: Moist wooded areas. Also found in suburban areas looking for food.

Distribution: Southern United States (coastal North Carolina to west Texas).

Figure A-26. Coral snake.

A-27
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)

Although the name implies that this snake is an adder, it is not a viperidae;
it belongs to the cobra family (elapidae).

Description: Coloration is light brown, reddish with darker crossbands. Its

tail is yellow and short. This species is small, averaging 18 inches, seldom
reaching 3 feet. It has a short, thick body, a head much wider than its neck,
and a short, thin tail. Its venom is extremely neurotoxic. There is about a
50% mortality rate if bites are not medically treated.

Characteristics: Short temper. Bites quickly with little provocation.

Habitat: Sandy localities.

Distribution: New Guinea, Ceram, Tanimbar, Islands of the Bismark Ar¬

chipelago, Australia, Schouten.

Figure A-27. Death adder.

A-28
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Egyptian cobra (Naja haje)

Description: Coloration is variable. Adults may be black, brown, or yellowish; some

are light brown with darker brown wide crossbands. Average length is 5 to 6 feet;
maximum is 8 feet. This species is rather heavy bodied and has a very wide long
hood, which it displays when alarmed. Its venom is a very potent neurotoxin.

Characteristics: When molested, is ready to defend itself and may be

aggressive.

Hab/fat; Cultivated lands, rocky hillsides, old ruins, and rural villages in arid
regions.

Distribution: Most of northern Africa and southwestern Arabian Peninsula.

Figure A-28. Egyptian cobra.

A-29
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)

Description: Coloration is olive, light brown; some may have faint darker cross
bands. This is the largest of all venomous snakes. The average length is 7
to 9 feet, but a few have been recorded to 18 feet. Large cobras can stand
3 to 4 feet off the ground with the hood extended, hissing loudly, almost
like a growl. The venom is a powerful neurotoxin. Without immediate medical
aid, death is certain.

Characteristics: May attack deliberately, especially if guarding eggs.

Habitat: Primarily jungle, but can be found near inhabited areas.

D/sfr/buf/on; Thailand, India, southeast China, Philippines, Malaya, Burma,

Pakistan, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes.

Figure A-29. King cobra.

A-3 0
 Elapids

Courtesy of Andy Koukoulis, Florida Cypress Gardens

Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)

Description: Coloration is variable from greenish gray to yello\A/ish to total

black. Most have narrow dark bands across the back. Adult snakes average
3-1/2 to 5 feet; a few have been recorded to 7 feet. This is one of the most
deadly snakes in the world. The venom is neurotoxic. Death usually occurs
swiftly if victim is not treated.

Characteristics: Aggressive when molested. Spreads its neck when angry.

Quick to bite, lunging with a flashing stroke so vigorous that body sometimes
moves forward. Active at night. Humans fall victim to the bite by stepping
on the snake while walking along roads.

Habitat: Dry country.

D/sfr/fcuf/on: Tasmania, southern Australia to Queensland, Bass Straits Island.

Figure A-30. Tiger snake.

A-3 1
 Hydrophids

Courtesy of Waikiki Aquarium, Honolulu, Hawaii

Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)

Description: Coloration is black to dark brown on top; bright yellow on the
sides and belly. Averages 25 to 30 inches in length. Tail is flattened like an
oar. Venom is neurotoxic. Fatalities have been recorded.

Distribution: Many of the Pacific Islands to Hawaii and to the coast of Costa
Rica, and Panama.

Figure A-33. Yellow-bellied sea snake.

A-32
 Appendix

Clouds—
Foretellers
of Weather

About 200 years ago an Englishman classified clouds according

to what they looked like to a person seeing them from the ground.
He grouped them into three classes and gave them Latin names:
cirrus, cumulus, and stratus. These three names, alone and com¬
bined with other Latin words, are still used to identify different
cloud formations.
By being familiar with the different cloud formations and what
weather they portend, you can take appropriate action for your pro¬
tection.

- Cirrus Clouds

Cirrus clouds (figure B-1) are the very high clouds that look like
thin streaks or curls. They are usually 4 miles or more above the
earth and are usually a sign of fair weather. In cold climates,
however, cirrus clouds that begin to multiply and are accompanied
by increasing winds blowing steadily from a northerly direction
indicate an oncoming blizzard.

-Cumulus Clouds
Cumulus clouds (figure B-2) are fluffy, white, heaped-up clouds.
These clouds, which are much lower than cirrus clouds, are often
fair weather clouds. They are apt to appear around midday on a
sunny day, looking like large cotton balls with flat bottoms. As the
day advances, they may become bigger and push higher into the
atmosphere, piling up to appear like a mountain of clouds. These
can turn into storm clouds.

B-1
 Stratus Clouds

Stratus clouds (figure B-3) are very low gray clouds, often making
an even gray layer over the whole sky. These clouds generally
mean rain.

- Nimbus Clouds

A nimbus (figure B-4) is a rain cloud of uniform greyness that ex¬

tends over the entire sky.

--Cumulonimbus Clouds

Cumulonimbus (figure B-5) is the cloud formation resulting from

a cumulus cloud building up, extending to great heights, and for¬
ming in the shape of an anvil. You can expect a thunderstorm if
this cloud is moving in your direction.

- Cirrostratus Clouds

Cirrostratus is a fairly uniform layer of high stratus clouds (figure

B-6) that are darker than cirrus. Cirrocumulus is a small, white,
round cloud at a high altitude. Cirrostratus and cirrocumulus clouds
indicate good weather.

-Scuds
A loose, vapory cloud (scud) driven before the wind is a sign of
continuing bad weather.

B-2
 wm
Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Figure B-1. Cirrus clouds.

Figure B-2. Cumulus clouds.

 mms
mm m

mm
«

Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Figure B-3. Stratus clouds.

Figure B-4. Nimbus clouds.

B4
 Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Figure B-5. Cumulonimbus clouds.

Figure B-6. Cirrostratus clouds.

 Appendix

If you are in a situation where you must find edible plants for food,
you must know where to look for them and how to identify them.

-Habitats and Climatic Zones

Knowing what edible plants grow in your area and climatic zone
will help you in your search for plant food. In this appendix the
terms temperate, tropical, and arctic are used to describe the
climatic zones (in terms of temperature range). Keep in mind,
however, that the temperate and tropical zones have mountainous
and desert areas. At high elevations in the mountains of temperate
and tropical zones, the temperature range is comparable to that
in the arctic. And in desert areas in these zones, the temperature
range is comparable to that of the tropics.

In this appendix, the following terms are used to describe the

habitats and climatic zones in which plants grow:

• Tundra—a treeless area in arctic regions (or at high eleva¬

tions in mountains in temperate or tropical regions) often
with frost only a few feet below the soil.
• Aquatic area—a water-covered or marshy area.
• Forest—a dense growth of trees and underbrush.
• Grassland—a treeless plain or prairie dominated by
grasses.
• Disturbed area—an area where the natural vegetation has
been removed or altered.
• Cultivated area—an area used for growing crops.
• Savanna—an area with drought-resistant grasses and a few
scattered trees.

C-1
 • Desert scrub—a desert area that is dominated by shrubs.
• Human settlement—an area around a village, a house, or
houses or structures in which people live.

If you know where to look for edible plants and can identify them
you should be able to “live off the land” in a survival situation.

-Identifying Plants
]

As you look at the pictures and read the descriptions of plants in

this appendix, keep in mind their leaf margins, shapes, and ar¬
rangements and their root structures. This will help you to iden¬
tify plants wherever you are.

Leaf Characteristics

The leaf margins may be toothed, entire (toothless), or lobed (figure

C-1). Toothed leaves may be fine toothed, coarse toothed, single
toothed, or double toothed. Entire leaves have no divisions, lobes,
or teeth. Some leaves may have wavy edges.

I-

TOOTHED TOOTHLESS LOBED

Figure C-1. Leaf margins.

C-2
Leaves may be lance -shaped, elliptic, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-
shaped, triangular, long pointed, or top-shaped (figure C-2).

LANCE-SHAPED ELLIPTIC EGG-SHAPED

OBLONG WEDGE-SHAPED TRIANGULAR

LONG POINTED TOP-SHAPED

Figure C-2. Leaf shapes.

C-3
The basic types of leaf arrangements are opposite, alternate, com¬
pound, simple, and basal rosette (figure C-3).

Figure C-3. Leaf arrangements.

C-4
Root Structures. The four basic types of root structures are bulb,
taproot, tuber, and rhizome (figure C-4).

Figure C-4. Root structures.

-Selecting and Preparing Plants

In addition to the information in Chapter 5 on edibility and prepara¬

tion, you should keep the following in mind when you are looking
for plant food:

• There are no known poisonous grasses, so you should con¬

sider wild grains as an important emergency food source.
Grains are edible raw, but roasting or boiling improves the
food quality.

C-5
CAUTION: Many grasses are infected by the ergot fungus, which is
extremely toxic. Ergot forms a dark black hornlike growth on the grain.
This growth is about I inch long and persists through winter. Do not
eat any plant that has this fungus on it.

• Some cacti are not edible. If the cactus grows close to the
ground (not more than 5 inches tall) and does not have
padlike segments, avoid it.
• The young leaves of all ferns uncoil from a fiddleheadlike
structure, and it is at this stage that ferns are best for
eating.

CAUTION: Limit the amount offern leaves you eat as some species
contain a material that may destroy vitamins in the body.

• Eating large quantities of some moss (lichen) may cause

sickness.
• Water lilies, cattails, and water fern—although edible
raw—should be washed in water suitable for drinking since
the water they grow in may be contaminated.
• The roots of some root crops (taro, arrowroot, malanga,
yam) should not be eaten raw as most contain mildly
poisonous compounds. Boiling or baking destroys these
compounds. It also destroys harmful bacteria that may be
present on the root surface.
• Many trees have edible leaves, flowers, and roots, as well
as edible fruit. Some trees may be a source of water. Most
are an excellent resource for building materials.
• If you are unsure of the edibility of a plant, apply the
Universal Edibility Test.

-Photographs and Descriptions

There are many wild plants that have edible parts. A few of these
plants are shown/described in figures C-5 through C-78. Plants with
both photographs and descriptions are placed in alphabetical order
so that you can quickly flip to them. Plants with descriptions only
are listed in figure C-79.

As you look at the figures, note the habitats and distributions of

these plants to find out if they grow in your area. Learn to spot
and identify them immediately. Keep in mind, however, that in
another area the same plants, certainly different species of the
same plants, may vary in size and structure.

C-6
 Edible Plants

Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)

Description: This is a spreading, usually short tree with spines and alternate
compound leaves. The individual leaflets are small. The flowers are ball¬
shaped, bright yellow, and very fragrant. The bark is a whitish grey color. The
fruits are dark brown and podlike.

Habitat and distribution: Acacia grows in open, sunny areas. It is found

throughout all tropical regions.

NOTE: There are about 500 kinds of acacia. These plants are especially
prevalent in Africa, southern Asia, and Australia, but many kinds occur in
the warmer and drier parts of America.

Edible parts: The young leaves, flowers, and pods are edible raw or cooked.

Figure C-5. Acacia.

C-7
 Edible Plants

Agave (Agave species)

Description: These plants have large clusters of thick, fleshy leaves borne
close to the ground and surrounding a central stalk. The plants flower only
once, then die. They produce a massive flower stalk.

Habitat and distribution: Agaves prefer dry, open areas. They are found
throughout Central America, the Caribbean, and parts of the western deserts
of the United States and Mexico.

Edibie parts: The flowers and flower buds are edible. Boil before eating.

CAUTION: The juice of some species causes dermatitis.

Other uses: Cut the huge flower stalk and collect the juice for drinking. Some
species have very fibrous leaves. Pound the leaves and remove the fibers
to use for ropes and weaving. Most species have thick, sharp needles at the
tips of the leaves. These can be used for sewing or making hooks. The sap
of some species contains a chemical that makes it suitable for use as a soap.

Figure C-6. Agave

C-8
 Edible Plants

Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea)

Description: This plant grows up to 5 foot tall. Its leaves are 1 foot long and
4 inches wide. The leaves fold at night.

Habitat and distribution: This plant is a native of South America but is now
grown on a wide scale in the humid tropics. Look for it in open sunny areas.

Edible parts: The rootstock is a rich source of high quality starch. Boil the
rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.

Figure C-7. Arrowroot.

C-9
 Edible Plants

Bamboo (various genera including Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys)

Description: Bamboos are woody grasses that grow up to 50 feet tall. The
leaves are grasslike and the stems are the familiar bamboo used in furniture
and fishing poles.

Habitat and distribution: Look for bamboo in warm, moist regions in open
or jungle country, in lowland, or on mountains. Bamboos are native to the
Far East, both temperate and tropical zones, but have been widely planted
around the world.

Edible parts: The young shoots of almost all species are edible raw or cook¬
ed. Raw shoots have a slightly bitter taste that is removed by boiling. To
prepare, remove the tough protective sheath, which is coated with tawny or
red hairs. The seed grain of the flowering bamboo is also edible. Boil the
seeds like rice or pulverize them, mix with water, and make into cakes.

Other uses: Use the mature bamboo to build structures or to make containers,
ladles, spoons, and various other cooking utensils.
Bamboo can also be used to make tools and weapons (see Chapter 4). You
can make a strong bow by splitting the bamboo and putting several pieces
together.

Figure C-8. Bamboo.

C-10
 Edible Plants

Bananas and plantains (Musa species)

Description: These are treelike plants with several large leaves at the top.
The flowers are borne in dense hanging clusters.
Habitat and distribution: Look for bananas in open fields or margins of forests
where they are grown as a crop. They grow in the humid tropics.
Edible parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. They may be boiled or bak¬
ed. The flowers can be boiled and eaten like a vegetable. The rootstalks and
leaf sheaths of many species can be cooked and eaten. The center or "heart”
of the plant is edible year round, cooked or raw.
Other uses: Layers of the lower third of the plant can be used to cover coals
to roast food. The stump of the plant can be used to obtain water (page 5-7).

Figure C-9. Bananas.

C-11
 Edible Plants

Baobab (Adansonia digitata)

Description: Baobab trees may grow as high as 60 feet and may have a trunk
30 feet in diameter. They have short stubby branches and a grey, thick bark.
The leaves are compound and the segments are arranged like the palm of
a hand. The flowers, which are white and several inches across, hang from
the higher branches. The fruits are shaped like a football, up to 1 Vz feet long,
and covered with short dense hair.

Habitat and distribution: These trees grow in savannas. They are found in
Africa, in parts of Australia, and on the island of Madagascar.

Edibie parts: The young leaves can be used as a soup vegetable. The tender
root of the young baobab tree is edible. The pulp and seeds of the fruit are
also edible. Use one handful of pulp to about one cup of water for a refreshing
drink. To obtain flour, roast the seeds, then grind them.

Other uses: Drinking a mixture of pulp and water will help cure diarrhea.
Often the hollow trunks are good sources of freshwater.
The bark can be cut into strips and pounded to obtain a strong fiber for rope.

Figure C-10. Baobab.

C-12
 Edible Plants

Batoko plum (Flacourtia inermis)

Description: Th\s shrub or small tree has dark green, alternate, simple leaves.
Its fruits are bright red and contain six or more seeds.

Habitat and description: This plant is a native of the Philippines but is wide¬
ly cultivated for the fruits. It can be found in clearings and at the edges of
the tropical rain forests of Africa and Asia.

Edible parts: Eat the fruits raw or cooked.

Figure C-11. Batoko plum.

C-13
 Edible Plants

Bearberry, sometimes called Kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uvaursi)

Description: This is a common evergreen shrub with reddish, scaly bark and
thick, leathery leaves 1V2 inches long and V2 inch wide. It has white flowers
and bright red fruits.

Habitat and distribution: This plant is found in arctic and subarctic regions
most often in sandy or rocky soil.

Edible parts: The berries are edible raw or cooked. The young leaves can be
used to make a refreshing tea.

Figure C-12. Bearberry.

C-14
 Edible Plants

Blackberries, raspberries, and dewberries (Rubus)

Description: These plants have prickly stenns (canes) that grow upward, ar¬
ching back toward the ground. They have alternate, usually compound leaves.
The fruits may be red, black, yellow, or orange in color.

Habitat and distribution: These plants grow in open sunny areas at the margin
of woods, lakes, streams, and roads throughout temperate regions.

Edible parts: The fruits and peeled young shoots are edible.

Other uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea made
by brewing the dried root bark of the blackberry bush.

Figure C-13. Blackberry.

C-15
 Edible Plants

Blueberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium species and Gaylussacia species)

Description: These shrubs vary in size from 1 foot to 12 feet tall. All have
alternate, simple leaves. The fruits may be dark blue, black, or red with many
small seeds.

Habitat and distribution: These plants prefer open, sunny areas. They are
found throughout much of the North Temperate regions and at higher eleva¬
tions in Central America.

Figure C-14. Blueberry.

C-16
 Edible Plants

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum)

Description: This fern has coarse, compound leaves about 3 feet long that
rise from a tough, wiry rhizome.

Habitat and distribution: Bracken is found throughout most of the temperate

and tropical regions of the world in open sunny areas at the margins of forests
and in burned or cut forests.

Edibie parts: Young leaves may be boiled and eaten as greens. Limit the
amount of bracken you eat as it may contain a substance that will interfere
with enzymes.

Figure C-15. Bracken.

C-17
 Edible Plants

f
Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa) ,
Description: This tree may grow up to 30 feet tall. It has dark green, deeply
divided leaves that are 2-1/2 feet long and 1 foot wide. The fruits are large,
green, ball-like structures up to 1 foot across when mature.

Habitat and distribution: Look for this tree at the margins of forests and
homesites in the humid tropics. It is native to the South Pacific region but
has been widely planted in the West Indies and parts of Polynesia.

Edible parts: The fruit pulp is edible raw. The fruit can be sliced, dried, and
ground into flour for later used. The seeds are edible cooked.

Other uses: The thick sap can be used for glue and caulking material. It can
also be used for birdlime (entrap small birds by smearing the sap on twigs
where the birds usually perch).

Figure C-16. Breadfruit.

C-18
 Edible Plants

British soldier’s lichen (Cladonia rangiferina)

Description: This is a low-growing, grey-green plant only a few inches tall.

It does not flower but does produce bright red reproductive structures.
Habitat and distribution: Look for this lichen in open dry areas. It is very com¬
mon in much of North America.

Edible parts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy brittle texture. Soak
the plant in water with some wood ashes to remove bitterness, then dry, crush,
and add to milk or to other food.

Figure C-17. British soidier’s iichen.

C-19
 Edible Plants

Broad leaf lawn plantain (Plantago major, P. rugelii)

Description:T\r\ese plants have broad leaves, over 1 inch across, that are borne
close to the ground. The flowers are on a spike that arises from the middle
of the cluster of leaves.

Habitat and distribution: Look for these plants in lawns and along roads in
North Temperate regions.

Edible parts: The young leaves are edible raw or boiled.

Other uses: To relieve pain from wounds and sores, wash and soak the en¬
tire plant for a short while and apply it to the injured area. To treat diarrhea,
drink tea made from 1 ounce of the plant boiled in 1 pint of water.

Figure C-18. Broad leaf plantain.

C-20
 Edible Plants

Buri palm (Corypha elata)

Description: This tree may reach 60 feet in height. It has large fan-shaped
leaves up to 10 feet in length and split into about 100 narrow segments.
Flowers are borne in huge clusters at the top of the tree. Following flower¬
ing, the tree dies.

Habitat and distribution: This tree grows in coastal areas of the East Indies.

Edible parts: The trunk contains starch, which is edible raw. The very tip of
the trunk is also edible raw or cooked. Large quantities of liquid can be ob¬
tained by bruising the flowering stalk. The kernels of the nuts are edible.

CAUTION: The seed covering may cause dermatitis in some individuals.

Other uses: The leaves can be used for weaving.

Figure C-19. Buri palm.

C-21
Cattail (Typha latifolia)

Description: Cattails are grasslike plants with strap-shaped Ieavesy2 inch

to 2 inches wide and growing up to 6 feet tall. There are several species,
but all are recognized as cattails. The male flowers are borne in a dense mass
above the female flowers. These last only a short time, leaving the female
flowers that develop into the brown cattail. Pollen from the male flowers is
often abundant and bright yellow.

Habitat and distribution: Cattails are found throughout most of the world.
Look for them in full sun at the margins of lakes, streams, canals, rivers, and
brackish water.

Edible parts: The young tender shoots are edible raw or cooked. The rhizome
is often very tough but is a rich source of starch. Pound the rhizome to remove
the starch and use as a flour. The pollen is also an abundant source of starch.
When the cattail is immature and still green, the female portion may be boil¬
ed and eaten like corn on the cob.

Other uses: The dried leaves are an excellent source of weaving material and
can be used to make floats and rafts. The cottony seeds make good pillow
stuffing and insulation. The pollen makes excellent tinder.

Figure C-20. Cattail.

C-22
 Edible Plants

Cereus cactus (Cereus species)

Description: These cacti are tall and narrow with angled stems and numerous
spines.

Habitat and distribution: They may be found in true deserts and other dry,
open, sunny areas throughout the Caribbean region. Central America, and
western United States.

Edible parts: The fruits are edible, but some may have a laxative effect.

Other uses: The pulp of the cactus is a good source of water. Break open
the stem and scoop out the pulp.

Figure C-21. Cereus cactus.

C-23
 Edible Plants

Chickory (Cichorium intybus)

Description: This plant grows up to 6 feet tall. It has leaves clustered at the
base of the stem and some leaves on the stem. The base leaves resemble
those of the dandelion. The flowers are sky blue but remain open only on
sunny days. Chickory has milky juice.
Habitat and distribution: Look for chickory in old fields, waste places, weedy
lots, and along roads. It is a native of Europe and Asia but is found in Africa
and most of North America where it grows as a weed.

Edible parts: All parts are edible. Eat the young leaves raw as a salad or boil
to eat as a vegetable. Cook the roots as a vegetable. For a coffee substitute,
roast the roots until they are dark brown and then pulverize.

Figure C-22. Chickory.

C-24
 Edible Plants

Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

Description: This tree has a single, narrow, tall trunk with a cluster of very
large leaves at the top. Each leave may be over 20 feet long with over 100
pairs of leaflets.

Habitat and distribution: Coconut palms are found throughout the tropics.
They are most abundant near coastal regions.
Edibie parts: The nut is a valuable source of food. The milk of the young
coconut is rich in sugar and vitamins and is an excellent source of liquid.
The nut meat is also nutritious, but is rich in oil. To preserve the meat, spread
it in the sun until completely dry.

Other uses: Use coconut oil for cooking; for protecting metal objects from
corrosion; for treating saltwater sores, sunburn, and dry skin; and for improvis¬
ing torches. Use the tree trunk for building material and the leaves for that¬
ching. Hollow out the large stump to use as a food container. The coconut
husks are good for flotation and the husk fibers for weaving ropes and other
items. Use the gauzelike fibers at the leaf bases as strainers or use them
to weave a bug net or to make a pad to use on wounds. Husk makes a good
abrasive. Dried husk fiber is an excellent tinder. A smoldering husk helps
to repel mosquitoes. Smoke caused by dripping coconut oil in a fire also
repels mosquitoes. To render coconut oil, put the coconut meat in the sun,
heat it over a slow fire, or boil it in a pot of water. Coconuts washed out to
sea are a good source of freshllquid for the sea survivor.

Figure C-23. Coconut.

C-25
 Edible Plants

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

Description: This plant has tiny leaves arranged alternately. The stem creeps
along the ground. The fruits are red berries.

Habitat and distribution: It only grows in open, sunny, wet areas in the col¬
der regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible parts: The berries are very tart when eaten raw. Cook in a small amount
of water and add sugar if available to make a jelly.

Other uses: Cranberries may act as a diuretic.

Figure C-24. Cranberry.

C-26
 Edible Plants

Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum)

Description: This is a dwarf evergreen shrub with short needlelike leaves.

It has small, shiny black berries that remain on the bush throughout the winter.

Habitat and distribution: Look for this plant in tundra throughout arctic
regions of North America and Eurasia.

Edible parts: The fruits are edible fresh or can be dried for later use.

Figure C-25. Cowberry.

C-27
 Edible Plants

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinal)

Description: The leaves have a jagged edge, grow close to the ground, and
are seldom more than 8 inches long. The flowers are bright yellow. There
are several species of dandelions.

Habitat and distribution: Dandelions grow in open sunny locations throughout

the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible parts: AW parts are edible. Eat the leaves raw or cooked. Boil the roots.
Roots roasted and ground are a good coffee substitute.

Other uses: The white juice in the flower stems can be used as glue.

Figure C-26. Dandelion.

C-28
 - Edible Plants

Date palm (Phoenix dactyl if era)

Description: This is a tall, unbranched tree with a crown of huge compound
leaves. Its fruit is yellow when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: This tree grows in arid semitropical regions. It is

native to North Africa and Arabia but has been planted in the arid semitropics
in other parts of the world.

Edible parts: The fruits are edible fresh, but are very bitter if eaten before
they are ripe. The fruits can be dried in the sun and preserved for a long period
of time.

Other uses: The trunks provide valuable building material in desert regions
where few other treelike plants are found. The leaves are durable and can
be used for thatching and weaving. The base of the leaves resembles coarse
cloth and can be used for scrubbing and cleaning.

Figure C-27. Date palm.

C-29
 Edible Plants

Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis)

Description: This is a many-stemmed shrub with opposite, compound leaves.

It grows to a height of 20 feet. Its flowers are fragrant, white, and borne in
large flat-topped clusters up to a foot across. Its berrylike fruits are dark blue
or black when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: This plant is found in open, usually wet, areas at
the margins of marshes, rivers, ditches, and lakes. It grows throughout much
of eastern North America and Canada.

Edible parts: The flowers and fruits are edible. A drink can be made by soak¬
ing the flower heads for 8 hours, discarding the flowers, and drinking the
liquid.

CAUTION: All other parts of the plant are poisonous and dangerous if
ingested.

Figure C-28. Elderberry.

C-30
 C^IiKIa Dlort^g

Wild figs (Ficus species)

Description: These trees have alternate, simple leaves with entire margins.
Often, the leaves are dark green and shiny. All figs have a milky, sticky juice.
The fruits vary in size depending on the species, but are usually yellow-brown
when ripe.
Habitat and distribution: Figs are plants of the tropics and semitropics. They
grow in several different habitats, including dense forests, margins of forests,
and around human settlements.

Edible parts: The fruits are edible raw or cooked. Some figs have little flavor.

Figure C-29. Figs.

C-31
 Edible Plants

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium)

Description: This plant grows up to 6 feet tall. It has large, showy, pink flowers
and lance-shaped leaves. Its relative, dwarf fireweed (Epilobium latifolium),
grows 1 to 2 feet tall.

Habitat and distribution: JaW fireweed is found in open woods, on hillsides,

on stream banks, and near seashores in arctic regions. It is especially abun¬
dant in burned-over areas. Dwarf fireweed is found along streams, sandbars,
and lakeshores and on alpine and arctic slopes.

Edible parts: The leaves, stems, and flowers are edible in the spring but
become tough in summer. The stems of old plants can be split open and
the pith eaten raw.

Figure C-30. Fireweed.

C-32
 Edible Plants

Foxtail grasses (Setaria species)

Description: These are weedy grasses readily recognized by the narrow, cylin¬
drical head containing long hairs. The grains are small, less than 1/4-inch
long. The dense heads of grain often droop when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: Look for foxtail grasses in open sunny areas, along
roads, and at the margins of fields. Some species occur in wet marshy areas.
Species of Setaria are found throughout the United States, Europe, western
Asia, and tropical Africa. In some parts of the world foxtail grasses are grown
as a food crop.

Edible parts: The grains are edible raw, but are very hard and sometimes bit¬
ter. Boiling removes some of the bitterness and makes them easier to eat.

Figure C-31. Foxtail.

C-33
 Edible Plants

Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica)

Description: This moss grows only a few incfies high; its color may be grey,
white, or even reddish.

Habitat and distribution: Look for it in open areas. It is found only in the arctic.

Edible parts: All parts of the Iceland moss are edible. During the winter or
dry season, it is dry and crunchy but softens when soaked. Boil the moss
to remove bitterness. After boiling, eat or add to milk or grains as a thicken¬
ing agent. Dried plants store well.

Figure C-32. Iceland moss.

C-34
 Edible Plants

Indian almond (terminalia catappa)

Description: This tree grows up to 30 feet tall. Its leaves are evergreen,
leathery, 18 inches long, 6 inches wide, and very shiny. It has small, yellowish-
green flowers. The fruits are flat, 4 inches long, and not quite as wide. They
are green when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: This tree is usually found growing near the ocean.
It is a common and often abundant tree in the Caribbean and Central and
South America. It can also be found in tropical rain forests of southeastern
Asia, northern Australia, and Polynesia.

Edible parts: The seed is a good source of food. Remove the fleshy green
covering and eat the seed raw or cooked.

Figure C-33. Indian almond.

C-35
Indian potato (Eskimo potato) (Claytonia species)
Description: All species of Claytonia are somewhat fleshy plants only a few
inches tall with showy flowers about an inch across.
Habitat and distribution: Some species occur in rich forests where they are
conspicuous before the leaves develop. Western species are found
throughout most of northern United States and in Canada.
Edible parts: The tubers are edible but should be boiled before eating.

Figure C-34. Indian potato.

C-36
 Edible Plants

Juniper (Juniperus species)

Descr/pt/on; Junipers, sometimes called cedars, are trees or shrubs with very
small scalelike leaves densely crowded around the branches. Each leaf is
less than Vz inch long. All species have a distinct aroma resembling the well
known cedar. The berrylike cones are usually blue and covered with a whitish
wax.

Habitat and distribution: Look for junipers in open, dry, sunny areas
throughout North America and northern Europe. Some species are found in
southeastern Europe, across Asia to Japan, and in the mountains of North
Africa.

Edible parts: The berries and twigs are edible. Eat the berries raw or roast
the seeds to use as a coffee substitute. Use dried and crushed berries as
a seasoning for meat. Gather young twigs to make a tea.

CAUTION: There are many plants that may be called cedars but be no rela¬
tion to junipers and may be harmful. Always look for the berrylike structures,
needle leaves, and resinous, fragrant sap to be sure the plant you have is
a juniper.

Figure C-35. Juniper.

C-37
 Edible Plants

Lotus (Nelumbo)

Description: There are two species of lotus; one has yellow flowers and the
other pink flowers. The flowers are large and showy. The leaves, which may
float on or rise above the surface of the water, often reach 5 feet in radius.
The fruit has a distinctive flattened shape and contains up to 20 hard seeds.

Habitat and distribution: The yellow-flowered lotus is native to North America.

The pink-flowered species, which is widespread in the Orient, is planted in
many other areas of the world. Lotuses are found in quiet freshwater.

Edible parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked. The underwater
parts contain large quantities of starch. Dig the fleshy portions from the mud
and bake or boil them. Boil the young leaves and eat as a vegetable. The seeds
have a pleasant flavor and are nutritious. Eat them raw or parch and grind
into flour.

Figure C-36. Lotus.

C-38
 Edible Plants

Malanga (Xanthosoma caracu)

Description: This plant has soft, arrow-shaped leaves, up to 2 feet long. The
leaves have no above-ground stems.

Habitat and distribution: This plant grows widely in the Caribbean region.
Look for it in open, sunny fields.

Edible parts: The tubers are rich in starch. Cook them before eating. This
will destroy a chemical that is contained in all parts of the plant.

Figure C-37. Malanga.

C-39
 - Edible Plants

Mango (Mangifera indica)

Description: This tree may reach 100 feet in height. It has alternate, simple,
shiny, dark green leaves. The flo\A/ers are small and inconspicuous. The fruits
have a large single seed. There are many cultivated varieties of mango. Some
have red flesh, others yellow or orange.

Habitat and distribution: This tree grows in warm, moist regions. It is native to
northern India, Burma, and West Malaysia, but is now grown throughout the
tropics.

Edibie parts: The fruits are a nutritious source of food. The flesh can be eaten
green by shredding and eating like a salad. The ripe fruit can be peeled and
eaten raw.

CAUTION: If you are sensitive to poison ivy, you should avoid eating mangos
as they cause a severe reaction in sensitive individuals.

Figure C-38. Mango.

C-40
 Edible Plants

Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris)

Description: This plant has rounded, dark green leaves arising from a short
stem. It has bright yellow flowers.

Habitat and distribution: T\r\\s plant is found in bogs, lakes, and slow-moving
streams. It is abundant in arctic and subarctic regions and in much of the
eastern region of the northern United States.

Edible parts: All parts are edible if boiled.

CAUTION: Do not eat raw.

Figure C-39. Marsh marigold.

C-41
 Edible Plants

Mulberry (Morus species)

Description: This tree has alternate, simple, often lobed leaves with rough
surfaces. The fruits are blue or black and many seeded.

Habitat and distribution: Mulberry trees are found in forests, along roadsides,
and in abandoned fields in temperate and tropical zones of North America,
South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Edible parts: The fruit is edible raw or cooked. It can be dried for eating later.

CAUTION: When eaten in quantity, it acts as a laxative.

Other uses: The inner bark of the tree can be shredded and used to make
twine or cord.

Figure C-40. Mulberry.

C-42
 Edible Plants

Narrow leaf lawn plantain (Plantago lanceolata)

Description: This plant has leaves up to 5 inches long and 1 inch wide covered
with hairs. The leaves form a rosette. The flowers are small and in¬
conspicuous.

Habitat and distribution: This plant is a common weed throughout much of

North American and Europe.

Edible parts: The young, tender leaves are edible raw. Older leaves should
be cooked.

Figure C-41. Narrow leaf plantain.

C-43
 Edible Plants

Nettle (Urtica and Laportea species)

Description: These plants grow several feet high. They have small, in¬
conspicuous flowers. Fine hairlike bristles coverthe stems, leafstalks, and
undersides of leaves. The bristles cause a stinging sensation when they touch
the skin.

Habitat and distribution: Nettles prefer moist areas along streams or at the
margins of forests. They are found throughout North America, Central
America, the Caribbean, and northern Europe.

Edible parts: Young shoots and young leaves are edible. Boiling the plant
destroys the stinging element of the bristles.

Other uses: Mature stems have a fibrous layer that can be divided into in¬
dividual fibers and used to weave string or twine.

Figure C-42. Nettle.

C-44
 Edible Plants

Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans)

Description: This palm has a short trunk, which is mainly underground, and
very large, erect leaves up to 20 feet tall. The leaves are divided into leaflets.
A flowering head forms on a short erect stem that rises among the palm
leaves. The fruiting (seed) head is dark brown and may be a foot in diameter.

Habitat and distribution: This palm is common on muddy shores in coastal

regions throughout eastern Asia.

Edible parts: The young flower stalk and the seeds provide a good source
of water and food. Cut the flower stalk and collect the juice. The juice is rich
in sugar. The seeds are hard, but edible.

Other uses: The leaves are excellent for thatching and coarse weaving.

Figure C-43. Nipa paim.

C-45
 - Edible Plants

Nodding onion (Allium cernuum)

Description: Allium cernuum is an example of the many species of wild onions

and garlics, all of which are easily recognized by their distinctive odor.

Habitat and distribution: Wild onions and garlics can be found in open sun¬
ny areas throughout the temperate regions. Cultivated varieties may be found
anywhere in the world.

Edible parts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible.

CAUTION: There are several plants with onionlike bulbs that are extremely
poisonous. Be certain that the plant you are using is a true onion or garlic.

Other uses: Eating large quantities of onions will give your body an odor that
will help to repel insects.

Figure C-44. Nodding onion.

C-46
Nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus)

Description: This very common plant has a triangular stem and grasslike
leaves. It grows to a height of 8 to 24 inches. The mature plant has a soft
burrlike bloom that extends from a whorl of leaves. Tubers Vi to 1 inch in
diameter grow at the ends of the roots.

Habitat and distribution: Nutsedge grows in moist sand areas throughout

the world. It is often an abundant weed in cultivated fields.

Edible parts: The tubers are edible raw, boiled, or baked. They can also be
ground and used as a coffee substitute.

Figure C-45. Nutsedge

C-47
Oaks (Quercus species)

Description: Oak trees have alternate leaves and acorn fruits. There are two
main groups of oaks; red and white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles
and smooth bark in the upper part of the tree; red oak acorns take 2 years
to mature. The white oak group has leaves without bristles and rough bark
in the upper portion of the tree; white oak acorns mature in 1 year.

Habitat and distribution: Oak trees are found in many habitats throughout
North America, Central America, and parts of Europe and Asia.

Edible parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter
substances. White oak acorns generally have a better flavor than the red oak
acorns. Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water for 1 to
2 days to remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by
putting wood ashes in the water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns
or grind them into flour and use the flour for baking. Acorns baked until very
dark can be used as a coffee substitute.

Other uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. Small oaks can
be split and cut into long thin strips 1/8 to 1/4-inch thick and 1/2-inch wide
and used for weaving mats, baskets, or frameworks for packs, sleds, furniture,
and so forth. Oak bark soaked in water produces a tanning solution for preser¬
ving leather.

Figure C-46. Oak.

C-48
 Edible Plants

Orach (Atrip!ex species)

Description: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead-shaped leaves
up to 2 inches long.

Habitat and distribution: Orach species are entirely restricted to salty soils.
They are found along North America coasts and on the shores of alkaline
lakes inland. They are also found along seashores from the Mediterranean
countries to inland areas in North Africa and eastward to Asia Minor and cen¬
tral Siberia.

Edible parts: The plant is edible raw or boiled.

Figure C-47. Orach.

C-49
 Edible Plants

Palmetto palm (Sapal palmetto)

Description: These are tall unbranched trees with persistent leaf bases for
most of the trunk. The leaves are large, simple, and palmately lobed. Fruits
are dark blue or black with a hard seed.

Habitat and distribution: The palmetto palm is found throughout the coastal
regions of southeastern United States.

Edible parts: The fruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into
flour. The heart of the palm is a nutritious food source at any season. Cut
off the top of the tree to obtain the palm heart.

J
Figure C-48. Palmetto palm.
C-50
 Edible Plants

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana and other species)

Description: These trees have alternate, dark green, elliptic-shaped leaves

with entire margins. The flowers are inconspicuous. The fruits are orange,
have a sticky consistency, and have several seeds.

Habitat and distribution: The persimmon is a common forest margin tree.

It is widespread in Africa, eastern North America, and the Far East.

Edible parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible
raw or baked. To make tea, dry the leaves and soak them in hot water.

CAUTION: Some persons are unable to digest persimmon pulp.

Figure C-49. Persimmon.

C-51
 Edible Plants

Pigweed (Amaranthus)

Description: These plants, which grow 3 to 5 feet tall, are abundant weeds
in many parts of the world. All amaranthus have alternate simple leaves; they
may have some red color present on the stems. They bear minute flowers
in dense clusters at the top of the plants. Seeds may be brown or black.

Habitat and distribution: Look for amaranthus along roadsides, in disturbed

waste areas, or as weeds in crops throughout the world. Some species of
amaranthus have been grown as a grain crop in South America.

Edibie parts: All parts are edible, but some may have sharp spines that should
be removed before eating. The young plants or growing tips of older plants
are an excellent vegetable. Simply boil the young plants or eat them raw.
The seeds are very nutritious. Shake the tops of older plants to get the seeds.
Eat the seeds raw, boiled, or ground into flour.

Figure C-50. Pigweed.

C-52
 Edible Plants

Pincushion cactus (Mammalaria species)

Description: Members of this cactus group are round, short, and barrel-shaped
without leaves. The entire plant is covered with sharp spines.

Habitat and distribution: These cacti are found throughout much of the desert
regions of western United States and parts of Central America.

Use: They are a good source of v^/ater in the desert.

Figure C-51. Pincushion cactus.

C-53
 Edible Plants

Pines (Pinus species)

Description: Pine trees are easily recognized by their needlelike leaves

grouped in bundles. Each bundle may contain one to five needles, the number
varying among species. The odor and sticky sap of the tree provide a simple
\A/ay to distinguish pines from similar looking trees with needlelike leaves.

Habitat and distribution: Pines prefer open, sunny areas. They are found
throughout North America, Central America and much of the Caribbean
region. North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and some places in Asia.

Edible parts: The seeds of all species are edible. The young male cones, borne
only in the spring of the year, can be collected as a survival food. The bark
of young twigs is edible. Boil or bake the young cones. Peel off the bark of
thin twigs. The juicy inner bark can be chewed; it is rich in sugar and vitamins,
especially in the spring when the sap is rising.

Other uses: The resin can be used to waterproof articles. It can also be used
as glue. Collect the resin from the tree. If there is not enough on the tree,
cut a V notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a con¬
tainer and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is, or add a small amount
of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it immediately.

Figure C-52. Pine.

C-54
Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)
Description: This plant may grow as high as 10 feet. Its leaves are elliptic
and up to 3 feet in length. Pokeweed produces many large clusters of pur¬
ple fruits late in the season.

Habitat and distribution: Look for this plant in open, sunny areas in forest
clearings, in fields, and along roadsides in eastern North America, Central
America, and the Caribbean.

Edible parts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked; boil them twice,
discarding the water from the first boiling. The fruits are edible if cooked.

CAUTION: All parts of this plant are poisonous if eaten raw. Never eat the
underground portions of the plant as these contain the highest concentra¬
tions of the poisons.
Other uses: Use the juice of fresh berries as a dye.

Figure C-53. Pokeweed.

C-55
 Edible Plants

Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia)

Description: This cactus has flat, padlike stems that are green and covered
with many round furry dots that contain sharp-pointed hairs.

Habitat and distribution: It is found throughout most of the United States

and Central and South America in arid and semiarid regions and in dry san¬
dy areas of wetter regions. Some species are planted in arid and semiarid
regions of other parts of the world.

Edible parts: All parts of the plant are edible. Peel the fruits and eat fresh
or crush to prepare a refreshing drink. Take care to avoid the tiny pointed hairs.

Other uses: The pads are a good source of water. Peel them carefully to
remove all sharp hairs before putting in your mouth.
The pads can also be used to promote healing. Split them and apply the pulp
to wounds.

Figure C-54. Prickiey pear cactus.

C-56
 Edible Plants

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)

Description: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a few
inches tall. Its stems and leaves are fleshy and often tinged with red. It has
paddle-shaped leaves, 1 inch or less long, clustered at the tips of the stems.
The flowers are yellow or pink. The seeds are tiny and black.

Habitat and distribution: It grows in full sun in cultivated fields, field margins,
and other weedy areas throughout the world.

Edible parts: All parts are edible. Wash and boil the plants for a tasty vegetable
or eat the plants raw. Use the seeds as a flour substitute or eat them raw.

Figure C-55. Purslane.

C-57
 ■ Edible Plants

Reed (Phragmites australis)

Description: This tall coarse grass grows to 12 feet tall and has grey-green
leaves about 1-1/2 inches wide. It has large masses of brown flower bran¬
ches in early summer. These rarely produce grain. By late in the season these
become fluffy gray masses.

Habitat and distribution: Look for reed in any open, wet area, especially one
that has been disturbed through dredging. Reed is found throughout the
temperate regions of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Edible parts: All parts of the plant are edible raw or cooked at any season.
Harvest the stems as they emerge from the soil and boil them. Or harvest
them just before they produce flowers, then dry and beat them into flour.
The underground stems can be dug and boiled, but they are often tough.
Seeds can be eaten raw or boiled, but they are rarely found.

Figure C-56. Reed.

C-58
 Edible Plants

Rock polypody (Polypodium virginianum)

Description: This fern and related species have small leaves about 5 inches
long and 2 inches wide and a hairy, creeping rhizome. Some of the leaves
will have small round dots on their undersurface.

Habitat snd distribution: This fern is common on rocky, shady slopes. It and
related species are widespread in eastern North and Central America.

Edible parts: The young leaves are edible.

Figure 0-57. Rock polypody.

C-59
 Edible Plants

Rock tripe (Umbelicaria species)

Description: This plant forms large patches with curling edges. The top of
the plant is usually black. The underside is lighter in color.

Habitat and distribution: Look on rocks and boulders for this plant. It is com¬
mon throughout North America.

Edibie parts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it off the rock and wash it
to remove grit. The plant may be dry and crunchy; soak it in water until soft.
Rock tripes may contain large quantities of bitter substances; soaking or
boiling in several changes of water will remove the bitterness.

CAUTION: There are some reports of poisoning from rock tripe, so appiy the
Universai Edibility Test.

Figure C-58. Rock tripe.

C-60
 Edible Plants

Rose apple (Eugenia jambos)

Description: Jh\s tree grows 10 to 30 feet high. It has opposite, simple, dark
green, shiny leaves. It has fluffy, yellowish-green flowers and egg-shaped
fruit, red to purple when fresh.
Habitat and distribution: This tree is widely planted in all of the tropics, where
it may also be found in the semiwild state. It usually occurs in thickets, waste
places, and secondary forests.
Edible parts: The fruit is edible raw or cooked.

Figure C-59. Rose apple.

C-61
 Edible Plants

St. John’s bread (Ceratonia siliqua)

Description: This is a large tree with a spreading crown. Its leaves are com¬
pound and alternate. Its seed pods are up to 1 V2 feet long and are filled with
round, hard seeds and a thick pulp.

Habitat and distribution: This tree is found throughout the Mediterranean,

the Middle East, and parts of North Africa.

Edibie parts: The young tender pods are edible raw or boiled. The seeds pro¬
duced in mature pods can be pulverized and cooked as porridge.

Figure C-60. St. John’s bread.

C-62
 Edible Plants

Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)

Description: This shrub or small tree has different leaves borne on the same
plant. Some leaves will have one lobe, some two lobes, and some no lobes.
The flowers, which appear in early spring, are small and yellow. The fruits
are dark blue.

Habitat and distribution: SassaUas grows at the margins of roads and forests,
usually in open sunny areas. It is a common tree throughout Eastern North
America.

Edible parts: The young twigs and leaves can be eaten fresh or dried. The
dried young twigs and leaves can be added to soups. Dig the underground
portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare
sassafras tea.

Figure C-61. Sassafras.

C-63
 Edible Plants

Sorghum (Sorghum species)

Description: There are many different kinds of sorghum, all of which have
grains borne in heads at the top of the plants. The grains are brown, white,
red, or black. Sorghum is the main food crop in many parts of the world.

Habitat and distribution: Sorghum is found worldwide, usually in warmer

climates. All species occur in open, sunny areas.

Edibie parts: The grains are edible at any stage of development. When young,
the grains are milky and can be eaten raw. When older, the grains should
be boiled. Sorghum is a nutritious food.

Other uses: The stems of tall sorghums can be used for building.

Figure C-62. Sorghum.

C-64
 Edible Plants

Sorrel (Rumex acetosella)

Description: These plants are seldom more than a foot tall. They have alter¬
nate leaves often with arrowlike bases, very small flowers, and frequently
reddish stems.

Habitat and distribution: Look for these plants in old fields and other disturbed
areas in North America and Europe.

Edible parts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.

CAUTION: These plants contain oxalates that can be damaging if too many
plants are eaten raw. Cooking seems to destroy the oxalates.

Figure C-63. Sorrel.

C-65
 Edible Plants

Spatterdock, yellow water lily (Nuphar)

Description: This plant has leaves up to 2 feet long \A/ith a triangular notch
at the base; the shape of the leaves is some\A/hat variable. The yellow flowers
are 1 inch across and develop into bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green
when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North

America. They are found in quiet, fresh, shallow water (never deeper than
6 feet).

Edible parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark
brown seeds that can be parched or roasted then ground into flour. The large
rootstock is filled with starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the outside,
and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a
very bitter compound. Boiling in several changes of water may remove this.

Figure C-64. Spatterdock, yellow water lily.

C-66
 Edible Plants

Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)

Description: This tree grows about 50 feet high and has huge leaves up to
20 feet long. Needlelike structures stick out of the bases of the leaves.
Flowers grow below the leaves and form large conspicuous clusters from
which the fruits arise.

Habitat and distribution: Jh\s palm is native to the East Indies but has been
planted in many parts of the tropics. It can be found at the margins of forests.

Edible parts: The chief use of this palm is for sugar. However, the seeds and
the tip of the stem may be used as survival food. Bruise a young flower stalk
with a stone or similar object; collect the juice as it comes out. It is an ex¬
cellent source of sugar. Boil the seeds. Use the tip of the stem as a vegetable.

CAUTION: The flesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.

Other uses: The shaggy material at the base of the leaves makes an excellent
rope as it is strong and resists decay.

Figure C-65. Sugar palm.

C-67
 Edible Plants

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Description: This plant grows up to 15 feet tall. It is a grass and has grasslike
leaves. The stems, which are green or reddish, are swollen where the leaves
arise. Cultivated sugarcane seldom flowers.

Habitat and distribution: Look for sugarcane in fields. It grows only in tropical
areas, but is found in the tropics throughout the world. Because it is a crop,
it is often found in large numbers.

Edible parts: The stem is an excellent source of sugar and is very nutritious.
Peel the outer portion off with your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. You
can also squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.

Figure C-66. Sugarcane.

C-68
 Edible Plants

Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)

Description: This tree is small, seldom more than 20 feet tall, and much bran¬
ched. It has alternate, simple, elongate leaves that are dark green in color.
The fruit is green when ripe, round in shape, and covered with protruding
bumps on the surface. The flesh is white and creamy.

Habitat and distribution: Look for sweetsop at margins of fields, near villages,
and around homesites in tropical regions.

Edible parts: The fruit flesh is edible raw.

Other uses: The seeds, when ground fine, can be used as an insecticide.

CAUTION: The ground seeds are extremely dangerous to the eyes.

Figure C-67. Sweetsop.

C-69
 Edible Plants

Taro, cocoyam, elephant ears, eddo, dasheen (Colocasia and Alocasia

species)

Description: All plants in these groups have large leaves, sometimes up to

6 feet tall, that arise from a very short stem. The rootstock is thick and fleshy
and filled with starch.

Habitat and distribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look for
them in fields and near homesites and villages.

Edible parts: All parts of the plant are edible when boiled.
CAUTION: If eaten raw, these plants will cause a serious inflammation of
the mouth and throat.

Figure C-68. Taro.

C-70
 Edible Plants

Ti (Cordyline terminalis)

Description: The ti plant has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often
clustered at the tip of the stem. The leaves vary in color and may be green
or reddish. Flowers are borne at the apex of the plant in large plumelike
clusters. The ti plant may grow up to 15 feet tali.

Habitat and distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near
homesites in tropical areas. It is native to the Far East but is now widely
planted in tropical areas worldwide.

Edible parts: The roots and very young leaves are good survival food. Boil
or bake the short, stout roots at the base of the plant. They are a valuable
source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat. Leaves may be used to
wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.

Other uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the
leaves into liners for shoes; this works especially well if you have a blister.
Fashion temporary sandles from the ti leaves. The terminal leaf, if not com¬
pletely unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage.
Cut the leaves into strips, then braid or weave the strips into rope. Make a
sling-type basket from six leaves: Split the tip of each leaf in several places
and tie the tips of two leaves together. Fit the three pairs of tied leaves
together to form the basket.

Figure C-69. Ti plant.

C-71
 Edible Plants

Tree ferns (various genera)

Description: These are tall trees with long slender trunks that often have a
very rough barklike covering. Large lacy leaves uncoil from the top of the trunk.

Habitat and distribution: Tree ferns are found in wet tropical forests.

Edibie parts: The young leaves and the soft inner portion of the trunk are
edible. Boil the young leaves and eat as a green. Eat the inner portion of the
trunk raw or bake it.

Figure C-70. Tree fern.

C-72
Water chestnut (Trapa natans)
Description: This is an aquatic plant that roots in the mud and has under¬
water leaves that are finely divided. The floating leaves are much larger and
coarsely toothed. The fruits, borne underwater, have four sharp spines on
them.

Habitat and distribution: Look for these plants in freshwater only. They are
a native of Asia, but have spread to many parts of the world in both temperate
and tropical areas.

Edible parts: The fruits can be eaten raw or cooked. The seeds are also a
source of food.

Figure C-71. Water chestnut.

C-73
Water fern (Ceratopteris thalictroides)

Description: These are spongy, soft ferns 2 to 3 feet tall with smooth leaves.

Habitat and distribution: They are found throughout the tropics, floating in
water or growing at the edge of small streams and lakes.

Edible parts: The entire plant is edible when boiled.

Figure C-72. Water fern.

C-74
 Edible Plants

Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)

Description: These plants have large triangular leaves that float on the sur¬
face of the water, large flowers that are usually white or red and fragrant,
and thick, fleshy rhizomes that grow in the mud.

Habitat and distribution: Water lilies are found throughout much of the
temperate and subtropical regions.

Edible parts: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes are edible raw or cooked. To
prepare rhizomes for eating, peel off the corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly,
allow to dry, and then grind into flour. Dry, parch, and grind the seeds into
flour.

Other uses: The liquid that results from boiling the thickened root in water
is recommended as a medicine for diarrhea and as a gargle for sore throats.

Figure C-73. Water lily.

C-75
 • Edible Plants

Water plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica)

Description: This plant has small, white flowers and heart-shaped leaves with
pointed tips. The leaves are clustered at the base of the plant.

Habitat and distribution: Look for this plant in freshwater and in wet areas
in full sun in temperate and tropical zones.

Edible parts: The rootstocks are a good source of starch. Boil or soak them
in water to remove the bitter taste.

Figure C-74. Water plantain

C-76
 Edible Plants

Wild caper (Capparis aphylla)

Description: Th\s is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season.
Its stems are grey green in color and its flowers are pink.

Habitat and distribution: These shrubs form large stands in scrub and thorn
forests and in desert scrub and waste. They are common throughout North
Africa and the Middle East.

Edible parts: The fruits and the buds of young shoots are edible raw.

Figure 075. Wild caper.

C-77
 Edible Plants

Wild rice (Zizania aquatica)

Description: Wild rice is a tall grass that averages 3 to 5 feet in height, but
may reach 15 feet. The grain is borne in very loose heads at the top of the
plant. It is dark brown or blackish when ripe.

Habitat and distribution: Wild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical
and temperate regions.

Edible parts: During the spring and summer, the central portion of the lower
stems and root shoots are edible. Remove the tough covering before eating.
During the late summer and fall, collect the straw-covered husks. Dry and
parch the husks, break them, and remove the rice. Boil the rice, or roast it
and then beat it into flour.

Figure C-76. Wild rice.

C-78
 Edible Plants

Wild rose (Rosa species)

Description: This shrub grows 2 to 8 feet high. It has alternate leaves and
sharp prickles. The flowers may be red, pink, or yellow. The fruits, called rose
hips, remain on the shrub year round.

Habitat and distribution: Look for wild roses in dry fields and open woods
throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Edible parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergen¬
cy, the young shoots can be peeled and eaten. Fresh, young leaves can be
boiled in water to make tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the rose hips;
the pulp is highly nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or
grind dried rose hips to make flour.

CAUTION: Eat only the outer portion of the fruit as the seeds of some species
are quite prickly and can cause internal distress.

Figure C-77. Wild rose.

C-79
 Edible Plants

Yam (Dioscorea species)

Description: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have
alternate, heart- or arrow-shaped leaves. Their rootstock may be very large
and weigh many pounds.

Habitat and distribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where
they are an important food crop. Look for yams in fields.

Edibie parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.

Figure C-78. Yam.

C-80
 ^*1' ■ - '

Common and Description Location

scientific name
Almond A mature almond tree looks like a peach Tropics
(Prun us tree and sometimes grows 40 feet tall. The
amygdalus) fruits resemble gnarled unripe peaches Temperate
and grow in clusters. The mature fruit
splits open down the side, exposing the
ripe almond nut.
This tree is found in tropical scrub and
thorn forests, in temperate zone evergreen
scrub forests, and in desert scrub and
waste areas of southern Europe, the
eastern Mediterranean countries, Iran,
Arabia, China, Madeira, the Azores, and
the Canary Islands.
Crack the almond nut to get to the edible
kernel.

Arctic willow This small shrub grows 1 to 2 feet high in Arctic

(Salix arctica) clumps that form dense mats on the
tundra.
This shrub is common in all tundra areas
in North America, Europe, and Asia.
The young leaves and stems are tasty
when cooked.

Bael fruit This tree is 8 to 15 feet tall with a dense, Tropics

(Aegle marmelos) spiny growth. It has elliptic-shaped, tooth¬
ed leaves and a greenish white flower
when in bloom. The fruit is 2 to 4 inches
in diameter, gray or yellowish, and full of
seeds.
This tree is found in tropical rain forests
and semievergreen seasonal forests in
central and southern India bordering the
Himalaya mountains and in Burma.
The fresh fruit is sour but refreshing.

Bistort This plant has small white or pink flowers Arctic

(Knotweed) that form on slender spikes. It has long
(Polygonum) pointed, toothless leaves that grow from
the stem near the soil level.
It grows in dry tundra.
The root is rich in starch but slightly acid
tasting if eaten raw. Soak the root several
hours in water and then roast it.

Figure C-79. Edible wild plants.

C-81
 * #

Common and
scientific name Description Location

Burdock This plant has wavy-edged leaves and Temperate

(Arctium lappa) flower heads in bristly receptacles.
It is found growing in open wasteland dur¬
ing spring and summer.
Peel the tender leaf stalks and eat them
raw or cook them like greens. The roots
are also edible.
Other uses: A liquid made from the roots
' will help to produce sweating and in¬
crease urination. Dry the root, simmer it
in water, strain the liquid, and then drink
the strained liquid.
Fiber from the dried stock can be used to
weave cordage.

Cashew nut This spreading evergreen tree grows up Tropics

(Anacardium ac- to 40 feet high. It has toothless leaves 8
cidentale) inches long and 4 inches wide, yellowish-
pink flowers, and thick, pear-shaped fruit
that may be red or yellow when ripe. At
the tip of the fruit is a hard kidney-shaped
nut, green or brown depending on its
stage of maturity.
This tree is found in tropica) rain forests,
semievergreen seasonal forests, and
scrub and thorn forests of northern South
America, West Indies, Africa, and India.
The fruit is edible. The nut encloses one
seed, which is edible when roasted.
CAUTION: The green hull contains a
resinous poison that will blister lips and
tongue. Roasting the nuts will destroy the
poison.

Coltsfoot This plant has a scaley, fleshy stalk about Arctic

(Petasites) a foot high topped by a cluster of creamy
flowers. Its leaves are thick, large,
somewhat rounded, 3 to 10 inches long,
dark green on top, and fuzzy white
underneath.
This plant is found in moist woods and
wet tundra during the spring and summer.
The leaves and flowering shoots are
edible.

Figure C-79. Edible wild plants. (Continued)

C-82
 Common and Location
scientific name
Goa bean This climbing plant may cover small Tropics
(Psophocarpus shrubs and trees. It has toothless, egg-
tetragonolobus) shaped leaves 6 inches long, bright blue
flowers, and bean pods 9 inches long. The
mature pods are four-angled with jagged
winglike edges.
This plant is found in clearings and around
abandoned garden sites in tropical rain
forests and semijevergreen seasonal
forests of Africa, Asia, the East Indies, the
Philippines, and Formosa.
Young pods, mature seeds, thick roots,
young leaves, and bean sprouts are edi¬
ble. Prepare the young pods like green
beans. Parch or roast the mature seeds
over hot coals, or place them in damp
moss to germinate and then eat the resul¬
tant bean sprout. Eat the roots raw. Steam
the leaves or eat them raw.

Salmonberry This is an erect plant that seldom grows Arctic

(Cl ou(j berry) over 1 foot in height. It has a few large,
(Rubus wide, five-lobed leaves. The flowers are
chameamorus) white, and the berries, which ripen in Ju¬
ly or August, are amber or salmon-colored.
This plant grows in tundra areas and often
covers many acres of ground.
The berries are edible.

Thistle This plant may grow as high as 5 feet. Its Worldwide

(Carduacea) leaves are long pointed, deeply lobed, and
prickly.

It grows worldwide in dry woods and

fields.
Peel the stalks, cut them into short sec¬
tions, and boil them to eat. The roots are
edible raw or cooked.
(CAUTION: The juice of the thistle is a
powerful laxative.)
Other uses: Twist the tough fibers of the
stems to make a strong twine.
Woolly lousewort This plant has thick, strong, rose-colored Arctic
(Pedicularis) stems that are often visible above the
snow.
It grows mostly in dry tundra.
The root is edible raw or cooked.

Figure C-79. Edible wiid plants. (Continued)

C-83
 Common and
Scientific Name Description Location

Wild desert gourd This ground-trailing vine grows 8 to 10 feet

(Citrullus long. It is a member of the watermelon
colocynthis) family and its leaves resemble those of
the watermelon. Its round gourds grow the
size of an orange and are yellow in color
when ripe.
This plant is found in desert scrub and
waste and in any climatic zone in the
Sahara, in Arabia, on the southeastern
coast of India, and on some islands in the
Aegean Sea. It will grow in the hottest
localities.
The flowers are edible. The seeds inside
the ripe gourd are edible roasted or boil¬
ed. Completely separate them from the
bitter pulp before cooking.
CAUTION: The pulp inside the gourd is a
violent purgative. Some seeds are
reported to be poisonous so use the
edibility test
Other uses: The stem tips are full of water
and may be chewed.

Figure C-79. Edible wild plants. (Continued)

Seaweed. One plant that should never be overlooked is seaweed

(figure C-81). It is a form of marine algae found on or
near ocean shores. There is also one edible freshwater variety.
Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine, other minerals, and vitamin
C. It can, however, have a strong laxative effect if eaten in large
quantities when the stomach is not conditioned to it.

In gathering seaweeds for food, find plants attached to rocks or

floating free. Seaweed stranded on the beach for any length of time
may be spoiled or decayed.

Preparation for eating depends on the type of seaweed. Thin,

tender varieties can be dried in the sun or over a fire until crisp,
then crushed and used in soup or broth. Thick, leathery seaweeds
should be washed, boiled for a short time to soften, and eaten with
other foods. Although some kinds can be eaten raw, first test them
for edibility.
C-84
 Green seaweed Common green seaweed, often called sea lettuce,
(Ulva lactuca) occurs abundantly on both sides of the Pacific and
North Atlantic oceans. Wash it in clean water and
use it like garden lettuce.

Sugar wrack This seaweed is found on both sides of the Atlan¬

tic Ocean and on the coasts of China and Japan.
(Laminaria saccharina)
It is brown in color.
Edible kelp This seaweed is found in both the Atlantic and
(A lari a esculenta) Pacific Oceans, usually below the high-tide line on
submerged ledges and rocky bottoms. It has a short
cylindrical stem and thin, wavy olive-green or brown
fronds 1 foot to several feet in length. Boil the kelp
to soften it, then mix it with vegetables or soup.

Irish moss This seaweed is found on both sides of the Atlan¬

(Chondrus crispus) tic Ocean, usually just below the high-tide line. It
is often cast up on the shore. It is brown and has
a tough, elastic, leathery texture. When dried, it
shrinks and becomes crisp. Boil it for eating.

Dulse This seaweed is found on both sides of the Atlan¬

(Rhodymenia tic Ocean and on the coasts of the Mediterranean
Sea. It is found attached to rocks or coarser
palmata)
seaweeds, usually at the low-tide level. It has a very
short stem that quickly broadens to a thin, broad,
fan-shaped, dark red expanse that is divided by
clefts into several short, round-tipped lobes. Dulse
is leathery in consistency but has a sweet taste. If
dried and rolled, it can substitute for chewing
tobacco.

Laver This seaweed is common to both the Atlantic and

Pacific areas. It is usually found on the beach at the
(Porphyra)
low-tide level. It is red, dark purple, purplish-brown
in color and has a satiny sheen or a filmy luster.
Clean the seaweed and use as a relish or boil gent¬
ly until tender. Another way to prepare it for eating
is to pulverize it, add to crushed grains, and fry the
mixture like flatcakes. It also has thirst-quenching
value when chewed.
Red warm- A great variety of red seaweed is found in the South
water seaweed Pacific area and accounts for a large portion of the
native diet.
Freshwater algae A freshwater variety of seaweed common in China,
(Nostoc America, and Europe is the marine alga known as
common Nostoc. It forms green, round jellylike
commune)
lobules about the size of marbles. Dry it and use
it in soups.

Figure C-81. Descriptions of seaweeds.

C-85
f
Appendix ®
V. V

* ,* '■

^r. ■ 1
■.
1 V, ■
'1 ■ Poisonous Plants

_
\ ^ - ■ -f)
There are two general types of poisonous plants—those that cause
dermatitis and those that cause internal poisoning. There are also
plants that if ingested cause the person to have a serious reac¬
tion when exposed to sun, and plants that have poison nectar,
which produces poison honey.

-External Poisoning
Avoid the plants that cause dermatitis, such as poison ivy, poison
oak, and poison sumac (figures D-1 and D-2). These three plants,
which are common in the United States, have counterparts in other
regions of the world. If you come in contact with this type plant,
wash the poisonous oil away with soap and water and apply a ban¬
dage to prevent spreading.

-Internal Poisoning
Even more serious than dermatitis-causing plants are the plants
that cause internal poisoning. Many of these contain some of the
most poisonous materials known to man. Only a few of the more
widespread and dangerous plants (figures D-3 through D-11) are
included in this manual.
Remember, if you don’t know the plant, don’t eat it unless you have
applied the Universal Edibility Test (Chapter 5) and found it safe.

-Descriptions of Plants
Figures D-1 through D-11 are pictures and descriptions of a few
plants that can cause external poisoning and/or internal poisoning.

D-1
 Poisonous Plants

Poison ivy and poison oak (Rhus radicans and Rhus toxicodendron).
Description: These two woody plants are quite similar in appearance and are
often confused. Both have alternate, compound leaves with three leaflets,
are deciduous, and have berrylike fruits. The stem may be a rusty brown in
color.
Poison ivy is a vine that can grow high in trees. The individual leaflets are
only slightly lobed and the grey fruits are not hairy.
Poison oak is often shrubby but can climb. The leaflets of poison oak are
usually lobed and resemble oak leaves. The fruits are hairy.
CAUTION: Remember that all parts of poison ivy and poison oak can cause
serious dermatitis, especially in sensitive individuals. The fact that various
birds and animals feed on these plants does not mean that they are not
dangerous for humans.
Habitat and distribution: Look for poison ivy and poison oak in almost any
habitat. They are restricted to North America.

Figure 0-1. Poison ivy and poison oak.

D-2
 Poisonous Plants

Poison sumac (Rhus vernix).

Description: This is a shrub that grows up to 12 feet tall. It has alternate,
pinnately compound leaves; the leaflets are dark green in color and have an
entire margin. Flowers are greenish-yellow and inconspicuous. The fruits hang
in clusters and are a grey-brown in color.

CAUTION: All parts of the plant should be considered poisonous at all

seasons. Contact with this plant can cause severe dermatitis.
Habitat and distribution: Poison sumac grows only in wet acid swamps and
is found only in North America.

Figure D-2. Poison sumac.

D-3
 Poisonous Plants

Castor bean (Ricinus communis).

Description: This is a semiwoody plant with large, alternate fan-shaped leaves.
The flowers are very small and inconspicuous. The fruits are borne in clusters
at the tops of the plants.

CAUTION: All parts of the plants are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are
large and may be mistaken for a beanlike food.
Habitat and distribution: This plant is found in all tropical regions.

Figure D-3. Castor bean.

D-4
 Poisonous Plants

Chinaberry (Metis azedarach).

Description: This tree has a spreading crown and grows to a height of 30

feet. It has alternate, compound leaves with toothed leaflets. Its flowers are
light purple with a dark center and are borne in ball-like masses. It has marble-
size fruit that is light orange when first formed, but lighter in color as it
becomes older.

CAUTION: All parts of the tree should be considered dangerous if eaten.

Habitat and distribution: Chinaberry is native to Africa but is now widely
planted as an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and subtropical regions.
In some areas it has religious significance so may be planted near houses
and villages. Otherwise, look for it as a commonly planted street tree.

Uses: The leaves are a natural insecticide and will repel insects from stored
fruits and grains. Take care not to ingest leaves mixed with the stored food,
however.
The bark can be powdered and used as a fish poison.

Figure D-4. Chinaberry.

D-5
 Poisonous Plants

Death lily (Zygadenus).

Description: This plant arises from a bulb and may be mistaken for an
onionlike plant. Its leaves are grasslike. The flowers are six-parted and the
petals have a green heart-shaped structure on them. The flowers grow on
showy stalks above the leaves.

CAUTION: All parts of this plant are very poisonous.

Habitat and distribution: You will find death lilies in wet, open, sunny habitats
although some species favor dry rocky slopes. They are common in parts
of the western United States. Some species occur in eastern United States
and in parts of western subarctic North America and eastern Siberia.

Figure D-5. Death lily.

D-6
 Poisonous Plants

Florida poison free (Metopium toxiferum).

Description: This tree grows up to 40 feet high. It has alternate, compound

leaves. Each leaf consists of an odd number (3, 5, or 7) of leaflets. The young
leaves are dark green and shiny.

CAUTION: This is a dermatitis-causing plant. Contact with it may produce

blisters. Smoke from the plant will annoy or injure the eyes.

Habitat and distribution: This tree grows in open, dry woodlands. It is one
of the most common trees in the Florida Keys and is found elsewhere in the
Caribbean.

Figure D-6. Florida poison tree.

D-7
Lantana (Lantana camara).

Description: This is a shrublike plant that may grow up to 5 feet high. It has
opposite, round leaves and flowers borne in flat-topped clusters. The flower
color, which varies in different areas, may be white, yellow, or orange. It has
dark-blue or black berrylike fruit. A distinctive feature of all parts of this plant
is its strong scent.

CAUTION: All parts of this plant are poisonous if ingested and can be fatal.
This plant causes dermatitis in some individuals.
Habitat and distribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental plant throughout
the tropics, but in some areas it has escaped from cultivation and is a weed
along roads and in old fields.

Figure D-7. Lantana.

D-8
 Poisonous Plants

Manchineel (Hippomane manchineel).

Description: This is a tree with alternate, shiny green leaves. Its fruits are
green or greenish-yellow when ripe.

CAUTION: This tree is extremely toxic. It causes severe dermatitis in most

individuals after only one-half hour. The smoke irritates the eyes. No part
of this plant should be considered as a source of food.

Habitat and distribution: This tree prefers coastal regions. It is found in south
Florida, the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America.

Figure D-8. Manchineel.

D-9
 Poisonous Plants

Oleander (Nerium oleander).

Description: This shrub has alternate, very straight, dark green leaves. Its
flowers may be white, red, pink, or intermediate colors. Its fruit is a brown
podlike structure with many small seeds.

CAUTION: All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Do not use the wood
for cooking.

Habitat and distribution: This native of the Mediterranean area is now wide¬
ly planted as an ornamental throughout the tropical and subtropical regions
of the world. It is planted in open sunny areas.

Figure D-9. Oleander.

D-10
 Poisonous Plants

Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis).

Description: This is a small annual plant only a few inches high with opposite
leaves. Its flowers are five parted and may be crimson or blue in color. It
resembles the edible common chickweed when it is not flowering and could
be accidentally collected with that plant.

CAUTION: All parts of the plant are poisonous.

Habitat and distribution: This weed can be found in grain fields, along fields
and roads, and in other weedy areas. It is native to Europe but has been in¬
troduced into the United States. It is also found in the Middle East and North
Africa.

Figure D-10. Pimpernel.

D-11
 Poisonous Plants

Rosary pea (Abrus praecatorius).

Description: Th\s plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves, light pur¬
ple flowers, and beautiful seeds which are red and black. One seed may con¬
tain enough poison to kiii an adult.

CAUTION: This is one of the most dangerous of all poisonous plants. All
parts should be considered poisonous to ingest.
Habitat and distribution: This is a common weed in parts of Africa, southern
Florida, and Central and South America.

Figure D-11. Rosary pea.

D-12
 Index

A
air plants 5-8
alligators 7-20, 14-12
amphibians 7-19
frogs 7-19
newts 7-19
salamanders 7-19
animal bites 3-20
animals
amphibious 7-19
anteaters 14-4
armadillo 7-26
bear 15-17, 15-18
beaver 7-26
butchering 7-39 thru 7-44
caribou 15-18
fox 15-18
goats 15-18
groundhog 7-26
hares (see rabbits)
hedgehogs 14-4
lemmings 7-26, 15-18
marmots 7-26, 15-18
mice 14-4. 15-18
moles 7-26
monkeys 14-4
mongoose 7-28
moose 15-18
musk ox 15-18
muskrat 7-28
opossums 7-26
porcupine 7-26, 14-4, 15-19
rabbit 7-26, 7-29, 15-18
rats 3-4, 14-4
seal 15-17
Index-1
 sheep 15-18
skunk 7-26
squirrel 14-4, 15-18
trapping 7-28 thru 7-38
walrus 15-17
wild eattle 14-4
wild pigs 14-4
wolf 15-18
woodehuck 7-26
ants 3-20, 5-6, 14-10
arctic 15-1 thru 15-22
regions 15-1
plants 15-19, App. C
arid areas 13-1 thru 13-6
attitude 1-2, 1-3, 1-5, 1-6, 1-9

B
bait 7-4, 7-34, 16-6
baking 6-5, 6-6
bamboo 5-6, 5-7, 5-9, C-10
knife 4-4
water from 5-6, 5-7, 5-9
banana tree 5-7, 5-8, C-11
barracudas 14-12
bed 8-10, 8-11, 8-12
hammock 8-12
swamp 8-11
bees 3-20, 5-6
bee stings 3-20
birds 7-20 thru 7-24
at sea 16-6
catching 7-21, 7-22, 7-23, 7-24
cleaning 7-41
eggs 7-22
nesting 7-21
owls 15-19
ptarmigan 15-19

Index-2
 ravens 15-19
water signs 5-5, 5-6
bleeding 3-5, 3-10 thru 3-14
arterial 3-11
capillary 3-12
external 3-11, 3-12
venous 3-11
bola 4-6
bone knife 4-4
bow and drill 4-8, 9-7, 9-8, 9-9
burns 3-27

C
campsite 14-5
carbon monoxide poisoning 15-9, 15-12
centipedes 3-20, 13-10, 14-10, 14-11
clams 7-2, 14-13, 15-16
clothing
care of 3-4, 15-8
cold area 15-7, 15-8
clouds 15-21,16-15, App. B
clubs 4-1 thru 4-3
coconut 5-8, 5-9, C-25
constipation 15-7
cooking methods 6-5 thru 6-8
crabs 7-2
crocodiles 7-20, 14-12
crustaceans 7-1, 15-16
crabs 7-2, 15-16
crayfish 7-2, 15-16
lobster 7-2
shrimp 7-2

D
deadfalls 7-36, 7-37, 7-38
dehydration 1-3, 1-4, 3-1, 3-2, 15-5
depression (see attitude)

Index-3
desert 13-1 thru 13-12
hazards 13-10, 13-11
terrain 13-1, 13-2
vegetation 13-5
water proeurement 5-1 thru 5-5
diarrhea 3-26, 3-27, 5-13
causes 3-26, 5-13
treatment 3-27
direction finding 11-1 thru 11-6
shadow-tip method 11-1
star method 11-5, 11-6
watch method 11-3, 11-4
diseases
cholera 3-19, 5-13
dengue 3-19
malaria 3-19
plague 3-19, 14-11
sleeping sickness 3-19
Rocky Mountain spotted fever 3-19
typhoid 3-19, 5-13
drill (see bow and drill)
dysentery 3-19, 5-13

E
edibility test 6-4
eels 7-17, 14-14
emergencies, medical 3-5 thru 3-19
eye injuries 13-11, 15-6

F
fatigue
mental 1-5
physical 1-2, 1-3, 1-5
fear 1-8
fire
base 9-2, 9-3
building 9-5

Index-4
 cooking 6-6, 6-8, 13-11
hazards 15-11
laying 9-5, 9-6
lighting 9-6
material 9-4
need for 9-1. 15-12
fireplace 9-2, 9-3
firewall 9-2
fish 7-3 thru 7-16
catching 7-6 thru 7-16
cleaning 7-39
eggs 7-17, 15-14
in tropics 14-13
poisonous 7-17
spoiled 7-39
fishhooks 7-3, 7-4
fishing methods 7-6 thru 7-16, 16-6
chopping 7-16
hand 7-7
ice 7-16
Jigging 7-7
poisoning 7-12 thru 7-16
shooting 7-10
spearing 7-10
stakeout 7-6
traps 7-9, 7-11
with lines 7-6, 16-6
with nets 7-7, 7-8
fishlines 7-4, 16-6
fleas 3-3, 3-4, 3-19, 14-10, 14-11
flotation devices 10-8
food
need for 1-4, 3-2
plant 6-1 thru 6-5, 14-4, 14-9, 14-10,
15-19, 15-20, App. C
preserving 6-2, 7-44, 7-45, 7-46
seafood 7-2, 7-3, 15-16, 16-6

Index-5
 sources 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-17
wildlife 7-1 thru 7-28
forests 14-1 thru 14-8
monsoon 14-7, 14-8
rain 14-1 thru 14-7
scrub and thorn 14-8
semievergreen 14-7, 14-8
fowls, cleaning 7-41
frostbite 15-4, 15-5, 16-8
fuel 9-4, 15-13

G
game (see animals, mammals, fish)
glue C-18, C-28, C-54
grasshoppers 7-1
grubs 7-1

H
health 3-1 thru 3-4, 3-19
health hazards 3-19, 6-3, 13-7, 13-8, 13-9
heat problems 1-4
avoiding 13-7 thru 13-10
cramps 13-8
exhaustion 13-8
stress 13-11
stroke 13-9
sunburn 13-10, 15-6, 16-5, 16-8
herbal medicine 3-27
hygiene 3-3, 3-4, 15-7
hypothermia 15-2, 16-8

I
ice fishing 7-16
infections
avoiding 3-3, 3-4, 3-26
skin 3-25, 3-26, 16-7
treatment of 3-24, 3-25, 3-26

Index-6
 wound 3-21, 3-23, 3-24, 14-10
insects/pests
ants 3-20, 5-6, 14-10
bees 3-19, 5-6
bites 3-19, 3-20
centipedes 3-20, 13-10, 14-10, 14-12
chiggers 3-20, 14-10, 14-12
edible 7-1
fleas 3-3, 3-4, 3-19,14-10, 14-11
flies 3-19, 3-25
leeches 14-10, 14-11
lice 3-4, 3-19, 13-10
mites 13-10, 14-10
mosquitoes 3-19, 14-10
parasites 3-3, 3-4
scorpions 3-20, 13-10, 14-10
stings 3-19, 3-20
ticks 3-20, 14-10, 14-11
wasps 3-20, 14-10

J
jungle
characteristics 14-1 thru 14-3
travel 14-4 thru 14-7
vegetation 14-2

K
kindling 9-4
knives
making 4-3 thru 4-5
metal 4-4
stone 4-4
bamboo 4-4
wooden 4-3
knots 17-1 thru 17-6
land, sign of 16-15
lashings 4-7, 7-44

Index-7
lean-to
field expedient 8-10
poncho 8-2
leeches 5-13, 14-11
lice 3-4, 3-19, 13-10
lizards 7-19
locusts 7-1

M
maggot
on meat 7-44
therapy 3-25
mangrove swamp 10-10
mammals 7-25 thm 7-28
catching 7-26
cleaning 7-41
hunting 7-25
shooting 7-25
trapping 7-28
map, use of 1-8
meat preserving 7-43 thru 7-46
medical emergencies 3-5, 3-10, 3-15
at sea 16-7
heat exhaustion 13-8
heat stroke 13-9
in cold regions 15-2 thru 15-6
milkweed 7-4
mirage 13-6, 16-16
mollusks 7-1, 7-2, 14-13, 15-16
mosquitoes 3-19, 14-10
mussels 7-2, 14-4

N
nets 7-7, 7-8, 7-22
nooses 7-21, 7-23, 7-24, 7-29
noosing wand 7-21, 7-29

Index-8
o
ocean currents 16-13
ocean tides 14-12

P
palm trees 5-9, 14-4, App. C
parachute tepee 8-6, 8-7, 8-8
parasites
fleas 3-3, 3-4, 3-19, 14-10, 14-11
flukes 5-13
intestinal 3-26
leeches 5-13, 14-11
lice 3-4, 3-19, 13-10
ticks 3-19, 3-20, 14-10, 14-11
physical condition 1-3, 1-7
plants, edible App. C
amaranth (see pigweed)
acacia 14-9
agave 14-9, C-8
almond 14-9, C-81
arctic willow 15-20, C-81
arrowroot C-9
bael fruit 14-4, C-81
bamboo 14-4, C-10
bananas 14-4, C-11
baobab 14-10, C-12
bearbeny 15-19, C-14
bilberry 15-19
bistort 15-19, C-81
blackberry C-15
blueberry C-16
breadfruit C-18
cashew nut 14-4, 14-19, C-82
cattail 14-4, C-22
chestnut, water C-73
chicoiy 14-10, C-24
coconut 5-8, 5-9, C-25

Index-9
coltsfoot 15-20, C-82
crabapple 14-10
cranberry 15-19, C-26
crowberiy 15-19, C-27
dandelion C-28
desert gourd C-84
elderberry C-30
ferns C-17, C-59, C-72, C-74
fig 14-19, C-31
fireweed 15-20, C-32
foxtail grasses C-33
goa bean C-83
juniper C-37
liehen 15-20, C-19, C-34, C-60
lotus C-38
malanga C-39
mango C-40
marsh marigold C-41
moss (see liehen)
mulberry C-42
nettle C-44
nutsedge 14-4, C-47
oaks C-48
onion C-46
orach 14-9, C-49
palms C-21, C-29, C-45. C-50, C-67
persimmon C-51
pigweed (amaranth) 14-10, C-52
pines C-54
plantain (Plantago) C-20, C-43
plaintain, water C-76
plum, Batoko C-13
pokeweed C-55
potato, Indian C-36
purslane C-57
raspberry C-15
reed C-58

Index-10
 rice, wild C-78
rose apple C-61
rose, wild C-79
salmonbeny 15-19, C-83
sassafras c-63
seaweed 15-14, C-84, C-85, C-86
sorghum C-64
sorrel C-65
spatterdock 15-9, C-66
St. John's bread C-62
sugarcane C-68
sweetsop C-69
taro C-70
thistle C-83
ti plant 14-4, C-71
water lily 14-9, 14-10, C-66, C-75
wild caper C-77
yam C-80
woolly lousewort C-83
plants, poisonous App. D
castorbean D-3
chinaberry D-5
death lily D-6
Florida poison tree D-7
lantana D-8
manchineel D-9
oleander D-10
pimpernel D-11
poison ivy D-2
poison oak D-2
poison sumac D-3
rosaiy pea D-11
poncho lean-to 8-2
poncho tent 8-4, 8-5
Portuguese man-of-war 14-12
preventive medicine 3-4

Index-11
9
quicksand 10-9

R
rabbit stick 4-7
rafts
brush 10-4
life 16-4, 16-13 thru 16-15
log 10-7
poncho 10-6
rats 3-4, 14-11
reptiles
alligators 7-20, 14-12
crocodiles 7-20, 14-12
lizards 7-19
snakes 7-19, 7-40, App. A
turtles 7-20
rest 1-1, 1-5, 3-4, 13-11

S
sandstorms 13-5
sanitation 13-11
savanna 14-9
scorpions 3-20, 13-10, 14-10, 14-11
sea life
abalones 14-13
clams 7-2, 14-13
coral 14-13
crustaceans 7-2
eels 14-14
fish 14-13, 16-6
porpoises 16-12
rays 16-12
sea snakes 17-7
sea urchins 14-13
sharks 14-12, 16-8, 16-10, 16-12
shellfish 7-2

Index-12
 snails 7-2
whales 16-13
seasickness 16-7
seaweed 15-16, 16-6, 16-17, App. C
sharks 14-12, 16-8, 16-10
shelter
arctic 8-13, 15-9
at sea 16-5
beach shade 8-14
desert 8-15
lean-to 8-2, 8-10
natural 8-12
parachute tepee 8-6
site 8-1
tree-pit 8-13
shock 3-5, 3-15
complications 3-17
signs/symptoms 3-15
treatment 3-17, 3-18, 3-19
sickness
cholera 3-19
dengue 3-19
diarrhea 3-26
dysentery 3-19, 5-13
malaria 3-19
plague 3-19, 14-11
Rocky Mountain spotted fever 3-19
sleeping sickness 3-19
typhoid 3-19, 5-13
signals 12-1, 12-6 thru 12-9
acknowledgements 12-9
at sea 12-8, 16-4
body 12-7
codes 12-6, 12-7, 12-8
fire 12-2
flares 12-3
geometric patterns 12-1

Index-13
 panel 12-4, 12-8
smoke 12-3
types 12-6, 12-7, 12-8
skin infections 3-25, 3-26
snails 7-2, 7-3, 14-13, 15-16
snakebite 3-21 thru 3-23, 13-10
antivenom 3-22
do’s & don’ts 3-23
signs/symptoms 3-21
treatment 3-22, 3-23
snakes 3-21, 13-10
cleaning 7-40
poisonous App. A
snares
bird 7-23, 7-24
drag noose 7-29, 7-30
hanging 7-32, 7-33, 7-34
noosing wand 7-21
snare loop 7-31
squirrel pole 7-27
treadle spring 7-34, 7-35
snow blindness 15-6
soap making 3-3, C-8
spear making 4-6
spiders 3-20, 13-10, 14-10
stills 5-9 thru 5-12, 16-6
stings 3-19, 3-20
stresses 1-2 thru 1-5, 13-11
subarctic regions 15-1
sunburn 13-10, 13-11, 15-6
survival
actions 1-6 thru 1-10
basic skills 1-10
dangers 1-3
key word 1-6
kits 2-2 thru 2-4
medicine 3-1 thru 3-28

Index-14
 pattern 1-10
planning 2-1 thru 2-4
stresses 1-2 thru 1-5
survival kits 2-2
contents 2-3, 2-4
preparing 2-3
swamps 10-9, 10-10, 14-5, 14-6
swamp bed 8-11
swimming 16-2, 16-3

T
termites 7-1
thirst 1-4, 13-8
tinder 9-4
tourniquet 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 3-23
training 1-1, 1-10
travel
arctic 15-20
desert 13-2, 13-3
jungle 14-4 thru 14-7
trees
tropical 14-2, 14-3, 14-4, 14-8, 14-9, 14-10, App. C
arctic 15-3, 15-12, App. C
trench foot 15-5
tropical/tropics Chapter 14
areas 14-1
dangers 14-10 thru 14-13
food sources 14-3, 14-4, 14-9, 14-10
rain forests 14-1 thru 14-7
savannas 14-9
scrub and thorn forest 14-8
semievergreen seasonal forest 14-7
turtles 7-20

W
waste disposal 13-11

Index-15
water 5-1 thru 5-14
crossings 10-2, 10-3
filter 5-14
need for 3-1, 3-2, 6-1
potable 5-12
purifying 5-13
sources 5-2 thru 5-9
stills 5-9 thru 5-12
waterways 14-5
weapons 4-1 thru 4-6
bola 4-6
clubs 4-1 thru 4-3
knives 4-3
rabbit stick 4-7
spear 4-6
weather 14-3, 15-1, 15-21
affects of 15-1, 15-2
signs 14-6, 15-21
whales 16-13
will/willpower 1-1, 2-1,14-1, 16-1
wounds 3-21, 3-24, 3-25

Index 16
 U.S. ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL
Describes and clearly illustrates a vast array of topics, including...
• The Will to Survive • Survival Planning • Survival Medicine
• Weapons and Tools • Water Procurement • Wild Plants for Food
• Wildlife for Food • Shelter • Firebuilding • Water Crossings
• Direction Finding • Signaling • Desert Survival • Tropical Survival
• Arctic and Subarctic Survival • Sea Survival • Poisonous Snakes
• Knots • Climate • Weather

Teaches you how to...

•Overcome the desire for comfort •Build a stakeout for fishing
•Recognize the onset of a secretly
dangerous passive outlook •Make spear points
•Tolerate pain •Capture amphibians and reptiles
•Use the word “survival” as a •Catch birds in a net
pneumonic device •Make an Ojibwa bird snare
•Plan ahead for survival •Make a squirrel pole
•Administer the Heimlich Hug •Make a trip-string deadfall trap
•Treat insect and snake bites •Clean a snake
•Make wooden and stone knives •Skin and butcher small and
•Make a rabbit stick large game
•Start a fire with a bow and drill •Build a parachute tepee
•Procure water in nearly any •Construct a swamp bed
environment •Build a shelter in the desert
•Construct a solar water still sand
•Make polluted water potable •Make a Dakota fire hole
•Conduct the Universal Plant •Cross a swift stream
Edibility Test •Make an Australian poncho raft
•Improvise containers for boiling •Find direction using the sun
food and stars
•Catch and eat insects •Signal to aircraft with your body
•Make fishhooks and fishing lines •AND MUCH MORE!

BG - History
ISBN 978-1-56619-022-0
5 0 8 9 8

9 781566 190 220