Conjunctions

Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because:
They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.
Are there four or five people living in that house?
My shoes look great but are not very comfortable.

And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words, phrases,
clauses. The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer? Red or blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was [phrase]very expensive and [phrase]not very nice.

Connecting clauses

[clause]There are seats outside but [clause]some people don’t like sitting outdoors.

Connecting sentences

My grandmother’s name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she got married to my grandfather. (In
very formal writing, we don’t normally start a sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

[prefix]Pro- and [prefix]anti-government supporters waited outside the parliament.

Two-word conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either … or …, neither … nor …, both … and …:
You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.
Neither Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadn’t been to Italy before and Helena hadn’t
been to Italy before.)
Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what happened.)

Warning:
Apart from two-word conjunctions, we only use one conjunction to connect words or phrases:
Because my alarm didn’t go off, I was late for work.

After, although, as soon as, etc. (subordinating conjunctions)

Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, (al)though, as, before, if, since, that, until, when, whereas,
while, once, so, as soon as, provided that. When a clause follows these conjunctions, it becomes a
subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.

One-word conjunctions

[subordinate clause]After we had talked on the phone, [main clause]I wrote down what we had decided.
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the fishing trip [subordinate clause]although no one caught any fish!
[subordinate clause]Before we left at four o’clock, [main clause]we had something to eat.
When the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the end of the
clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a comma.

Conjunctions that can be modified by adverbs

Some subordinating conjunctions may be modified by adverbs (underlined). For example just when, ever
since, only if, just as, simply because, right before:
The phone rang just when I’d gone to bed.
I have been afraid to swim in the sea ever since I was young.

Position of subordinating conjunctions

Words and phrases such as above all, anyway, as a result, as
well, eventually, firstly, however, overall, rather, then, therefore, though, on the contrary (linking adjuncts)
can create similar meanings to conjunctions (e.g. adding, cause and effect). These words are adverb
phrases and can come in any position, which an adverb can occupy:
He left home late. (As a result) he (as a result) didn’t arrive until 8 pm (as a result).
We cannot do this with subordinating conjunctions, which must come at the beginning of the clause.
Subordinating conjunctions create a grammatical connection between two clauses, making one
dependent on the other.
Compare

These two sentences mean the same thing but they are
Subordinating
connected differently:
conjunction so:
• So makes a subordinating link between the cause/reason
He couldn’t get money from
(He couldn’t get money from the bank) and the result
the bank so he couldn’t buy
(he couldn’t buy a house). This is a grammatical link.
a house.
The position of so cannot change.

Linking adjunct as a result: • As a result creates a link between two clauses based on
He couldn’t get money from meaning. We can move as a result (He couldn’t get
the bank. As a result he money from the bank. He couldn’t buy a house as a
couldn’t buy a house. result).

If: conditions

We often use if to introduce possible or impossible situations or conditions and their results. The
situations or conditions can be real, imagined or uncertain:
I usually make a sandwich to take to work if I have enough time. (real)
If you don’t book now, you won’t get good tickets. (real)
They’d have got the job done quicker if they’d had more people working on it. (imagined)
Will you bring my glasses down if you go upstairs? (uncertain)

If possible, if necessary
We can sometimes leave words out after if to form fixed expressions:
Check the temperature of your meat with a meat thermometer if possible. (if it’s possible or if that’s
possible)
Interest rates would have to rise if necessary to protect the pound, Mr John Smith, Shadow Chancellor,
indicated yesterday on BBC TV’s Money Programme.
If so, if not
We use so or not after if when it is obvious what we are referring to:
[from a job advertisement]
Are you looking for part-time work? Do you want to work from home? If so, read on. (if you are looking for
part-time work or if you want to work from home)
You should all have received your booklist for the course by now. If not, please email the office. (if you
haven’t received your booklist for the course by now)
I’ll see you soon, definitely at the wedding, if not before. (if I don’t see you before the wedding)

Even if
We can use even if to mean if when talking about surprising or extreme situations:
You’re still going to be cold even if you put on two or three jumpers.
We use only if to express a strong condition, often: an order or command, to mean ‘on the condition
that’. It has an opposite meaning to ‘except if’:
Payment will be made only if the work is completed on time.
Alright, I’ll come but only if I can bring a friend with me.
We often separate only and if, using only in the main clause:
He’ll only take the job if they offer him more money.
We’ll only achieve our targets if everyone works together.

So as a conjunction
We use so as a subordinating conjunction to introduce clauses of result or decision:
I got here late. It was a long journey, so I’m really tired now.
You are right, of course, so I think we will accept what the bank offers.
It’s much cheaper with that airline, isn’t it, so I’ll get all the tickets for us with them.
So and that-clauses
We use so + that as a conjunction to introduce clauses of reason and explanation:
They both went on a diet so that they could play more football with their friends.
We also use so + adjective or adverb before that-clauses. We do not use very in this structure:
It was so hot that we didn’t leave the air-conditioned room all day.
They drove so fast that they escaped the police car that was chasing them.
Not: They drove very fast that …

That is a very common word in both writing and speaking. We use it as a determiner, a demonstrative
pronoun and a relative pronoun. We also use it as a conjunction to introduce that-clauses.

That: determiner and pronoun

That: relative pronoun

We use that to introduce defining relative clauses. We can use that instead of who, whom or which to
refer to people, animals and things. That is more informal than who or which:
She picked up the hairbrush that she had left on the bed.
He was the first director of the National Science Foundation, and he funded science research with an
annual budget that grew to 500 million dollars.

That-clauses

We also use that to introduce that-clauses after some verbs, adjectives and nouns:
I admit that I was wrong. (verb + that-clause)
Are you certain that the man in the car was Nick? (adjective + that-clause)
The name of the company illustrates my belief that sign language is a fascinating form of
communication. (noun + that-clause)

That: other uses

That’s + adjective

We use that’s + adjective (e.g. that’s lovely, that’s good, that’s great, that’s terrible, that’s awful) to
respond to something that someone is telling us, to show that we are listening:
A:
They got stuck in traffic on the way to the airport and missed the plane.
B:

Oh, that’s awful.

When as a conjunction

We use when as a conjunction meaning ‘at the time that’. The clause with when is a subordinate clause
(sc) and needs a main clause (mc) to complete its meaning. If the when-clause comes before the main
clause, we use a comma.

Talking about the past

[SC]When I was young, [MC]there were no houses here.

[MC]Nobody spoke [SC]when she came into the room.

Talking about the present

When you start the engine, there’s a strange noise.

Talking about the future

In references to the future with when, we use the present simple or the present perfect in the when-
clause, not the future with shall and will:
When the new park opens, I’ll go there every day.
Not: When the new park will open, I’ll go there every day.
When I’ve finished my homework, I’m going to phone Marita.
Not: When I’ll finish my homework, I’m going to phone Marita.
We can use when as a conjunction to mean ‘considering that’:
What’s the point in going out when we have to be home by eleven o’clock?

While or whilst?

While and whilst mean the same when we use them as conjunctions. They both mean ‘during the time
that something else happens’, or ‘in contrast with something else’. While is much more common
than whilst, and whilst sounds more formal:

Would you like something to eat while we’re waiting? (less common: … whilst we’re waiting?) (during the
time we’re waiting)

British English prefers an ‘s’ for words like realise, organise and industrialise, while American English
prefers ‘z’ (realize, organize, industrialize). (less common: … whilst American English prefers ‘z’ …)
(expressing a contrast between British and American English)

While or when?

While (or whilst) means ‘during the time when something else happens’. When can mean the same
as while, but when can also refer to a point in time.

Compare

during the time something happens a point in time

When the phone rang, she answered it

The phone rang while/when we were having immediately.
dinner.
Not: While the phone rang …

While as a noun

A while means ‘an unspecified period of time’:

We spent a while looking at the boats in the harbour before going for lunch.

I haven’t seen Andrew for a while. I wonder if he’s okay.

It’s a long while since anyone lived in that house – maybe ten years. It’s a ruin now.
Typical error

• While does not mean the same as when:

Always keep some change with you. It’s useful when buying a bus ticket.
Not: … while buying a bus ticket.
When I came home, I made some dinner, then watched TV.
Not: While I came home …