UNIT 6 WORLD WAR I1 : CAUSES AND

1 CONSEQUENCES (EMERGENCE
OF SUPER POWERS)

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Causes and Outbreak of World War I1
6.2.1 The War ~ k g i n s
6.2 2 USA and USSR become Allies
Consequences of World War I1
6.3.1 Defeat of Italy and Germany
6.3.2 Defeat of Japan
Peace-making after the Second World War
6.4.1 The Potsdam Conference
6.4.2 Treaties of Peace
Emergence of Super Powers
6.5.1 The United States became a Nuclear Power
6.5.2 Soviet Union's Challenge to the United States
Let Us Sum Up
~ e Words
;
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit discusses World War-I1 that started in September 1939 and ended only in
August 1945 after the drop of two atom bombs by the United States of America on
Japan. By studying' through this unit you should be able to :
idendify causes for World War 11;
describe how World War I1 began and how USA and USSR became allies;
discuss the outcome of the peace treaties signed at on the conclusion of the war;
and
understand the emergence of USA and USSR as Super Powers.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

World War-I1 began in 1939 with German a~gressionon Poland on September 1. Earlier,
two erstwhile enemies namely Germany and Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression
pact making way for Polish partition between two of them. All efforts to reach an
understanding between the Soviet Union on the one hand and Britain and France on the
other had proved fruitless. In fact, secret negotiations were being simultaneously carried
on between the Soviet Union and Germany and also between Britain and Gennany.
Britain and France took Soviet Union for granted and did not bother to conclude a
military alliance with the latter. This paved the way for Soviet-German non-aggtession
pact and German attack on Poland.

A few months before the outbreak of World War 11, both Britain and France and given
guarantees to Poland assuring that in case of an aggression on it, they would provide
her all possible assistance. When all attempts to avoid war and protect Poland had failed
and Germany invaded Poland, Britain and France declared a war on Germany on
September 3, 1939. Soon afterwards, many other countries too declared war on
Cold War Period Germany. Japan had launched aggression against China, but did not declare war either
on the Soviet Union or, for some time, on the USA, Italy remained neutral in the war
for some time, but finally joined the war on the side.of Germany in June 1940. After
Germany had won decisive victories against several countries in Europe, it waged a war
against the Soviet Union also on June 22, 1941. This brought USSR into the Allied
Camp. With the Japanese bombardment of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 the
United States finally entered the war. The War was fought between the Allies (Britain,
France, Soviet Union, USA and their friends) on the one side and the Axis Powers
(Germany, Italy and Japan) on the other.

The War ended in the unconditional^ surrender of Italy, Germany and Japan in that order

In this unit you will read about the circumstances under which World War I1 broke out
and the factors responsible for the war. You will also read about the consequences of
this most destructive war in the history of the world. Military activities and details of
various battles are not our concern in this Unit. We will conclude the unit with a
reference to the attempts made after the war for the conclusion of the peace treaties
with the defeated powers. We will also discuss how some of the erstwhile big powers
lost their power, and how the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two
Super Powers.

6.2 CAUSES AND OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I1

You have read about World War I1 that broke out in September 1939 after German
attack on Poland, and consequent declaration of war by Britain and France against
Germany. This gives the impression that the war was caused by the Polish dispute. This
is partly true. Polish problem was indeed the immediate cause of the war, but there were
many other reasons that created the situation in which war became unavoidable. Let us
briefly discuss all the distant as well as immediate causes of the War.

Treaty of Versailles
An attempt was made in Paris Peace Conference, held after the First World War, in
1919 to establish an ideal world order based on justice, peace and disarmament. But,
what finally emerged in the shape of treaty of Versailles was a dictated treaty of peace
imposed upon Germany. The victor participants lacked sincerity of purpose. France was
out to settle an old score-its 1871 defeat and humiliation at the hands of Germany.
Normal courtesies expected by the representatives of a sovereign country were not
extended to Germany. The peace conference had begun in January 1919. The treaty of
peace was drafted by Allies without any negotiation with the defeated Germany. On
May 7, 1919 Germany was given the draft treaty for its suggestions to be given in
writing within three weeks. The announcement of terms of the treaty resulted in a fierce
outburst of resentment in Germany. Germany denied that it alone was responsible for
the war. Germany raised many objections and suggested modifications but, except for
one madification, all the objections were brushed aside and finally, Germany was made
to sign the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Germans called it a "diktat", and
could not bear this insult and humiliation.
Germaqy was deprived of all her overseas colonies, and even in Europe her size stood
substantially reduced. Poland, France, Belgium had others gained at her cost. Her army
and navy were severely curtailed. She was told not to have any air force. Germany was
declared guilty of war crimes and made to promise to pay a massive amount of
reparation to the victors. Treaty of Versailles mutilated and humiliated Germany. Twenty
years later, it was the turn of Germany to take revenge. Hitler had came on the centre
stage, led his proud people to avenge their humiliation and thus paved the way for the
Stcond World War.

Failure of Collective Security System

Collective security system was a noteworthy ideal the world leaders had pledged at the
end of the First World War. Providing security collectively to the victim of an
international .aggression was its aim. Thus, Covcnant of the League of Nations provided
that in case of an aggression, members of the League, by their collective action, would World War I1 : Causes and
compel the aggressor to withdraw. This collective action could either he in the form of Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
economic sanctions against the aggressor, or military support to the victim of aggression
or both.
During the inter-war years it was, however, proved that the League was an ineffective
organisation in respect of a big power if the latter decided to wage of a war against, or
annex, a small country. In 1931, Japan committed an aggression against China and by
early 1932, managed to conquer Manchuria province of that country. Japan very cleverly
kept on telling the League that her action in Manchuria was in self-defence i.e.
(protecting life and property of the Japanese in Manchuria, and only a police action not
aggression). Japan, a permanent member of the League, forged ahead to establish a
puppet Manchukuo regime in Manchuria. When the League asked member nations not
to recognise Manchukuo, Japan left the League but retained control on the conquered
territory.
Later, in 1935 Italy waged a war against Abyssinia, defeated her, and in May 1936
formally annexed that country into Italian Empire. The League tried to enforce
collective security system, declared Italy an aggressor and clamped economic sanctions.
All this was of no avail as no military action was taken against Italy who was also a
big power and permanent member of the League Council. Similarly, no action was
taken by a weak League of Nations against Germany when she repudiated the military
clauses of the Versailles Treaty (1935) and the freely negotiated Locarno Pact
remilitarised Rhineland (1936), when annexed Austria (1938) and dismembered
Czechoslovakia (1938-39). Thus, failure of the collective security system turned out to
be a major cause of the World War-11.
Failure of Disarmament
It was agreed at the Paris Peace Conference that world peace could be ensured only if
nations reduced their armaments to a point consistent with their domestic safety or
defence. That means all weapons of offensive nature were to be destroyed. The task of
preparing a plan for reduction of armaments was entrusted to the League of Nations.
The League appointed Temporary Mixed Commission in 1920 which however could not
do any substantial work because France insisted on, security before disarmament. In
1925 Preparatory Commission was instituted. Due to divergent views of nations that
mattered, it could not identify offensive weapons. Finally, without much preparatory
work a Disarmament Conference met at Geneva in Februry 1932. Once against mutual
distrust and suspicion led to the failure of Conference, after protracted negotiations.
Germany had been disarmed by the Treaty of Versailles. Victor nations were to disarm
later. They, however, never really wanted to disarm. Therefore, in October 1933
Germany declared that she was leaving both the Disarmament Conference and the
League of Nations. Later in 1935 Germany formally declared that she was no more
bound by the military or disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Other
countries were already in possession of large quantities of armaments and big armed
forces. German decision heralded a massive armament race which led to an armed
conflict. The failure of disarmament became yet another major cause of Second World
war.
World Economic Crisis
World economic crisis began in1929 with sudden stoppage of loans by the American
financial houses to the European countries. Many of them, particularly Germany, were
making rapid industrial progress mostly with the borrowed American money. The crisis
had its sever impact during 1930-32. It adversely affected economies of most countries
either directly or indirectly. Germany proved to be the worst affected coun'try where
nearly 700,000 people were rendered jobless. It was forced to declare that it would not
make any more payment of reparation. Out of the economic crisis of Germany emerged
Nazi dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, but soon
destroyed democracy and established his dictatorship. Meanwhile, even England had to
take some harsh measures like abandoning the gold standard. Germarly, Japan and Italy
took advantage of this economic crisis and separately embarked upon aggressive
designs. They set up their Fascist Bloc which become largely responsible for the Second
World War.
Cold War Period Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis

On the eve of the First World War, Europe was divided into two hostile camps. The
same process was once again repeated with the formation of an alliance of Germany,
Japan and Italy. It was concluded through-the Anti-Comintern pact during 1936-37. This
combination of facist powers generally called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was aimed at
imperialist expansion. They glorified war, and openly denounced peaceful settlement of
disputes. They bullied western countries and victimised weaker nations like China,
Ausuia, Czechoslovakia, Albani and Poland. Their war-like acts and aggressions though
noticed, yet went unpunished. Alarmed at the conduct of Axis powers, England and
i
France came closer to each other and an unsuccessful attempt was made at the 1
formation of an Anglo-French-Soviet Front. Although France and Soviet Union had an
alliance, yet in their desire to appease Hitler, France and England ignored Soviet Union
and when Stalin wanted a military pact between three non-Fascist powers they took it
easy. Soviet Union became suspicious and suvrised the world by signing the non-
aggression pact with Germany. This directly cleared the way for German attack on
Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second World War. While Soviet Union also
invaded Poland, England and France declared war on Germany.

The Problem of National Minorities

Peaca settlement after the First World War had resulted in the formation of new nation-
states in Europe, with large national minorities left behind uncared for. President Wilson
of the United States had advocated the principle of self-determination. But on account
of various strategic considerations this principle could not be properly implemented.
Thus, for example, large German minorities found themselves in the company of non-
Germans in Poland and Czechoslovakia.

There were Russian minorities in Poland and Rumania; and even after the Minority
Treaties were concluded after the Paris Conference, about 750,000 Germans were under
foreigp rule. Hitler exploited the situation and in the name of denial of rights to German
minorities in ~zechosl6vakiaand Poland, and prepared for aggression. He annexed
Austria, destroyed and dismembered Czechoslovakia and finally invaded Poland. Thus,
the problem of minorities became an important issue and a major excuse for the war.
Appeasement by Britain and France

Foreign Policy based on appeasement of Nazi-Fascist dictators turned out to be a major

cause iof the Second World War. After the First World War there appeared a rift in the
policies of Britain and France. Balance of power had always been the cornerstone of the
British foreign policy. Britain feared that a very powerful France would disturb the
balance of power in Europe. Hence, it helped Germany against France in the inter-war
years. Once Hitler came to power in Germany and Italy became an ally of the Nazi
dictatar, Britain quickly moved closer to France who badly needed British assistance
against a hostile Germany. After 1933, French foreign policy virtually became an
extension of British foreign policy. Britain was worried about growing influence of
Commbnism. Not only the Soviet Union had to be effectively challenged, but so-called
populak Fronts in France and Spain had also to be destroyed. With this objective in
view, Britain adopted the policy of appeasement towards Hitler and Mussolini. France
soon followed suit. Appeasement was started by Baldwin but vigorously pursued by
Neville Chamberlain in 1938. Anglo-French desire to help Mussolini during the
Abyssinian War, while maintaining support of League efforts, their virtual surrender to
Hitler at the Munich Conference, and their inability to protect weaker nations like
Austria and Albania were clear evidence of Anglo-French weakness and this prepared
the grdund for the War.

German Attack on Poland

The apparent and immediate cause of the war was German attack on Poland on
September 1, 1939. Earlier, when all attempts at Anglo-French alliance with the Soviet
Union had faileJ, Hitler entered into a non-aggression pact with Stalin. This was most
unexpected, as for several years, only hatred had existed between Nazi Germany and
Soviet Russia. Now, keen to partition off Poland between themselves, Germany and
Soviet Uniori signed the pact not to wage war against each other. Yet, as events turned
 out, the pact was called by its critics as "simple aggression pact against Poland". In a World War I1 : Causes and
secret pact, which emerged only in 1945, the two countries had resolved to divide Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
Eastern Europe into their spheres on September 1, 1939. As you know, England and
France and already assured Poland of their help in case of an invasion. They kept their
word and declared war on Germany. While Germany invaded Poland in the west, Soviet
troops moved into Poland from the east on September 17-18, 1939. Poland was divided
between Germany and Soviet Union by the Soviet-German Frontier and Friendship
treaty of 28 September 1939. Meanwhile, many other countries had also declared war
I
v on Germany, though these were symbolic declarations as even France and Britain were
i still busy making preparations for war, while Poland was being destroyed.
rl 6.2.1 The War Begins
i Poland, as we have seen above, became the immediate cause of the War. On March 23,
I 1939 German troops had quietly occupied Memel (a German city under Lithuanian
i sovereignty) after Hitler had asked Lithuania to surrender it. On the same day German
Foreign Minister Ribbentrop called Polish Ambassador and dictated to him terms that
Germany would like to impose upon Poland. He demanded !hat Danzig (which had
already been Nazified) should be returned to Germany, and an east-west highway and
rail-link across the Polish corridor may be allowed so that East Prussia could be directly
linked with Germany. This virtually meant a corridor across a corridor. Hitler, however,
was calculating repeat of another Munich mistake by Britain which did not take place.
Prime Minister Chamberlain announced unequivocally British guarantees to Poland.
Later, when Italy invaded and annexed Albania (7 April), Britain gave similar guarantees
to Greece and Rumania. France followed Britain in announcing conscription. Hitler
retaliated on the next day and repudiated the Polish-German non-aggression pact of
1934 and Anglo-German Naval Treaty of 1935.

The Anti-Comintern Pact was signed by Germany and Japan in November 1936 and, a
year later, Italy too joined. Thus, Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis represented three countries
b determination to liquidate world communism. It was, in fact, an alliance against the

Ir
Soviet Union.

By August 1939 Hitler was prepared to settle the Polish issue on his own terms.
However, he was on the lookout for a plausible pretext. He got the arms of (an
otherwise determined) Britain diplomatically twisted when Hitler agreed to have direct
negotiations with Poland on Danzign issue. Hitler asked Britain, through its Ambassador
in Berlin on August 29, 1939 to arrange a Polish delegation, so as to reach Berlin the
next day, fully empowered to negotiate and conclude agreement with the Germans. This
was most unusual demand. Normally, international negotiations take a lot of time to
begin. In any case, formal proposals are first sent through diplomatic means before
inviting of foreign delegation. It is clear that Hitler had no desire for peaceful solution.
Since a Polish delegation could not obvioasly arrive on August 30, Germany closed all
doors for negotiation. This gave Hitler the much awaited pretext for the planned
invasion of Poland. The war broke out early in the morning of September 1, 1939 when
German troops invaded Poland. England and France delcared war on Germany on
September 3, 1939. On 18 September Soviet Union also invaded Poland, but neither
Italy nor the United States entered the war for sometime. Meanwhile England and other
allies were already on war, yet attempts were still on for some solution. But Germany
was determined for a full-fledged war.

I 6.2.2 USA and USSR become Allies

When the war began, Germany and Italy were political allies, but Soviet-German Non-
Aggression Pact disappointed Mussolini. Italy did not enter the war till June 1940. Then,
as France was on the verge of defeat and surrender, Italy joined the war on the side of
Germany against France and the Allies. Soviet Union did not join the war, but was
helping Germany by invading Poland. She later attacked Finland and was expelled from
the membership League of Nations. Stalin continued to trust Hitler until the Nazi
dictator had defeated most European neighbours and attacked Soviet Union on 22 June
1941. Meanwhile, Stalin had coerced three Baltic Nations, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia,
to join the Soviet Union as its Union Republics. They lost their independence as Stalin
told their leaders that if they refused to join USSR, they would be ruined by Germany.
Cold War Period Soviet Union had also dictated terms to Rumania and recovered Bessarabia and ''
Bukovina from it. Thus, by mid-1941 Soviet Union was busy collecting war gains
.without being in the war.

Hitler had secured French surrender in June 1940. But Hitler was not so lucky where
Spain was concerned. General Franco keeps his country out of war. Since it was being
fought by Hitler in association with Stalin, Spain remained neutral throughout the war.

Public opinion in the United States was overwhelmingly opposed to being drawn into
the war. In 1937, US Congress had passed the Neutrality Act which also prohibited sale
of armaments in a future war. When the war actually broke out and Germany started
bombing and destroying western democracies, Americans began weakening their
neutrality stance. Cash and Carry Act was passed in November 1939, permitting
countries at war to buy American weapons provided they paid cash and carried them in
their own ships. When the war reached a crucial stage, Lend-Lease Act was passed in
March 1941. It allowed the President to sell, exchange, end lease or otherwise dispose
off any defence article. Thus, US began supplying armaments to friendly countries such
as Britain and China. Three months later when Soviet Union was attacked by Germany
she was also covered by the Lend-Lease Act.

'The Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact signed in 1939 had been designed by Hitler to
keep Soviet Union in the dark about his actual intentions. As soon as Germany had
defeated her enemies on the European continent, it began preparing for invasion of the
Soviet Union itself. But, Stalin remained convinced that Hitler would not attack Soviet
Union. Everyone had warned Stalin of Nazi attack-Churchill, American Embassy and
Stalin's o:.n men in Tokyo. But Stalin refused to listen till 22 June 1941 when Germany
actually launb,.,d the attack on Soviet Union. Stalin was stunned at this and Soviet
Union sought allied assistance. Britain accepted Soviet Union into the Allied camp. In
July, London and Moscow signed a military pact.

When Soviet Union was facing a devastating war, United States was forced to enter the
war in December 1941, when Japan attacked its naval base in Pearl Harbour. American
relations with Japan were never cordial. Japanese assets in America were already frozen.
In August 1941 the United States had announced that any Japanese action against
Thailand would cause her grave concern. Unsuccessful attempts were made for a
meeting between us President Roosevelt and Japanese Prime Minister Kono in
September. In October Kono resigned and General Tojo became the Prime Minister of
Japan. He openly encouraged conflict. In November, Britain had promised to declare
war on Japan if United States became involved in a war with that country. Tension was
building up rapidly and war appeared imminent. On 6 December 1941 President
Roosevelt made a personal request to the Japanese Emperor for help in maintaining
peace. Rather than peace, America got Japanese bombardment next day. On December
7, 1941 early in the morning large American navel fleet based at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii
Islands) was heavily bombed by the Japanese. A few hours later, Japan declared war
"on the United Staes of America and the British Empire". On December 11, both
Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The war thus became global.
I

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers at the end of the unit.

1) Describe any two major causes of the Second World War.

...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2) Sum up the out break of World War 11. World War 11 : Causes and
Consequences (Emergence of
........................................................................................................................................... Super Powers)

6.3 CONSEQUENCES OF WORLD WAR I1

Since we are dealing with World War I1 as one unit, we may very briefly refer here to
the collapse and defeat of the Anxis powers-Italy, Germany and Japan. Details of
battles and victories and defeats are not our concern in this unit. But we may mention
in brief how the three Axis Powers were defeated and the Allies finally emerged
Victories.

6.3.1 Defeat of Italy and Germany

The two European Fascist Powers had conquered most of the countries on the
Continent. Britain was under constant attack, and large parts of the Soviet Union
including the three Baltic Republics had been overrun by the Germans. In 1943 the
Allies decided to launch offensive against the Axis by liquidating Italian Empire in
Africa. This objective was achieved by May 1943. The Italians were disturbed and
Fascist structure gave signs of cracking. The Allies decided on "Operation Hugky" to
start Italian invasion through Sicily. It was not an all-out effort because the idea was to
use Italy as a base to be able to bomb Germany and the Balkans. In July 1943,
following heavy air attacks, large number of Italians surrendered in Sicily. Germans
could not defend the island. A few days after first attack on Sicily, Mussolini visited
Hitler and asked for more German assistance, but was turned down. Mussolini
summoned a meeting of Fascist Grand Council which asked the King to take direct
command. Only July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel I11 dismissed Mussolini and
appointed Marshal Bodolio to head new government. Mussolini was arrested. Italy
finally surrendered unconditionally on September 3, 1943. On the same day, however,
Germans entered Rome and kept it under their occupation for several months. Allies
could capture Rome only on June 4, 1944.

The Allies decided to defeat Germany by opening two fronts against her. From the east,
Soviet Union was pushing her out: in the West England, America and their Allies
launched attack at Normandy to liberate France. By March 1944, the Axis forces were
expelled from most of Ukraine and other parts of the Soviet Union. Soviet soil was
cleared of German armies before the year ended. West Front against Germany was
opened on June 6, 1944. It began from English Channel, and for this purpose 150,000
American soldiers were transported every month.

Allied forces liberated France and entered Germany on September 11, 1944-ninety
seven days after their invasion. Immediately afterwards Hitler's air force began massive
bombardment of London which continued till early 1945. As Germans began to be
defeated, conspiracies were hatched to eliminate Hitler. The final assault on Germany
was planned at Yalta Conference in February 1945. All round offensive was begun
against Germany by the British, Canadian, French and the Americans. Meanwhile, the
Soviet Offensive was continuing unabated. The fighting was most fierce at the German
Chancellory in whose underground defences Hitler had set up his last headquarters.
When everything was lost, the Nazi dictator, who was once dreaming of ruling over the
entire world, committed suicide on April 30, 1945. Hitler had nominated Docnitz as his
successor, but he could do nothing to save the country. On May 5, 1945 German
commanders in North East Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark surrendered
unconditionally. Nazi forces in Austria surrendered next day. Finally on May 7, Docnitz
Government (of Germany) surrendered unconditionally "all land, sea and air forces of
the Reich". The war in Europe was over on May 8, 1945.
cold War Period '
6.3.2 Defeat of Japan
The Allies were fighting hard for victory against Japan in the Far East. Hence the main
responsibility fell on the United States, who was assisted by Britain, China, the
Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand. Allied invasion of Japan was organised with
China as the base. MacArther directed these operations. Two allied campaigns were
launched in the autumn of 1944. The' one under Lord Mountbatten was aimed at
reconquest of Burma. The other, under Gen. MacArther involved liberation of Philippine
Islands. Both thc mlssions were completed by June 1945. Details of these operations are
not our concern here. The Potsdam Conference which was meeting to decide the future
of the defeated Germany and other related issues gave a call to Japan in July 1945" to
proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces .... the alternative
for Japan is prompt and utter destruction". Since the Soviet Union was not yet at war
with Japan, she did not sign this declaration. The ultimatum was ignored by the
Japanese who continued to fight. At this stage America decided to use the atom bomb
and secure Japan's unconditional surrender. On August 6, 1945 American Air force
dropped the first ever atom bomb on the important Japanese city Hiroshima and wiped
out more than half of the target area. Two days later (August 8), the Soviet Union
declared war on JapalLand began offensive in Manchuria and Southern Sakhalin (both
were then under Japanese control). Progress of the Soviet troops was swift. On August
9, 1945 a second atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, unleashing unprecedent
destruction. The next day, Japan sued for peace. Fighting stopped but surrender
documents were signed only on September 2, 1945 on board the US battleship Missouri.
The Second World War finally ended with Japan'coming under the American
occupatib.

The consequences of the war, thus, was the total defeat of the three Axis powers and
victory of the Allies. This also meant Victory of democracy and defeat of Fascism and
dictatorship.

Check Your Progress 2

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.

1) How did the Nazi dictatorship ended in Germany

..............................................................................................................................................

2) Trace the events leading to unconditional surrender of Japan.

'
3) Sum up the main consequences of World War 11.
1 World War 11 : Causes and
6.4 PEACE-MAKING AFTER SECOND WORLD WAR Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
L
The conclusion of peace treaties after the Second World War proved to be a very
difficult task. After two years of the termination of hostilities, treaties were concluded
only with five of the defeated powers. They were Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and
Finland. The treaty of peace with Austria could be concluded only in 1955 and with
Japan in 1952. Germany could not be reunited. It remained divided between pro-west
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and Democratic German Republic under
the influence of the Soviet Union. Since Germany was not reunited no treaty with
Germany as such was ever concluded. Two Germanys were finally united in 1990 into
one Germany. We shall briefly deal with the Potsdam Conference and then the peace
treaties concluded with other defeated powers.

6.4.1 The Potsdarn Conference

The Potsdam (Berlin) Conference was held during July-August 1945. Germany had
unconditionally surrendered to the allies. Several decisions had been taken at different
war-time conferences regarding the future of Germany and of other east European
countries. A formal arrangement had now to be made in the light of these decisions.
The Potsdam Conference was attended by Stalin, Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek and the US
President Harry Truman. They were assisted by high powered delegations. The
Conference took important decisions regarding the future set up in Germany pending the
conclusion of a formal treaty of peace. Preparations were also begun for the signing of
peace treaties to be concluded with other defeated powers. Japan was yet to be defeated.

A number of guiding principles were drawn that were to be the bases of peace treaty
with Germany. These included 10 political principles, 9 economics principles, 10
principles to regulate the determination of reparation, 6 principles to govern the division
of the German navy, and 5 principles of the distribution of the German merchant naval
ships. A committee comprising the representatives of four big powers for military
control of German Zones was set up. It was also decided that Germany would be
disarmed, Nazi organisation and the Nazi laws would be liquidated. The war criminals
were to be tried and severely punished. Finally, a democratic government would be
established in Germany and rights and liberties of the people would be restored.
- Pending the final demarcation of the western borders of Poland, South-eastern Prussia
and the areas to the e;st Rivers order and Neisse would constitute the western parts of
that country. It was also agreed that as soon as possible, free and fair democratic
elections would be held in Poland.

Potsdam Conference decided that the Allied forces would be immediately withdrawn
from Iran. Tanjier was to be declared an international area. No reparation was to be
taken from Austria.

The conference took decisions regarding the bases of surrender by Japan. Imperialistic
elements would be eliminated and Japan would be disarmed. The war criminals of Japan
would be punished. Immediately after her surrender Allied Military Control would be
established in Japan and eventually a democratic government would be set up. The
sovereigntyof Japan would be limited to her four major and a few smaller islands. All
foreign territories occupied by Japan before or during the Second World War would be
liberated and transferred to the countries where they lawfully belonged.
4

The conditions spelt out at the Potsdam Conference for the Japanese surrender were not
accepted by that country. The United States of America, without taking the Soviet
Union into confidence, dropped atom bombs on two of the Japanese cities early in
August 1945 compelling her to surrender unconditionally on August 10, 1945. Thus, the
Second World War came to an end. The fact that the United States developed and used
the atom bomb without the knowledge of the Soviet Union became one the causes that
gave birth to the cold war immediately after the hostilities ended the Second World War.
Cold War Period 6.4.2 Treaties of Peace
Unlike the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, only a Foreign Ministers meeting took place
in London from September 11 to October 3, 1945. By that time serious differences had
developed between the western powers on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the
other. Very little progress could be made in the London conference, nor could any
progress be achieved the subsequent three meetings. The draft-treaties were prepared in
these meetings, to be concluded with five powers-Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary
and Finland. Thereafter, a 12-nation Paris Conference was held from July 29 to October
15, 1946. This was followed by other meetings of the Foreign Ministers Committee and
the treaties were finally approved by the Committee at New York on December 12,
1946. Finally, these treaties were signed by the Allies on the one side and the five
above mentioned defeated powers on the other. Separate treaties were concluded with
each of them.

The main provisions of these peace treaties may be briefly mentioned here. The Treaty
concluded with Italy deprived her of a number of territories. France, Greece and
Yugoslavia gained territories at the cost of Italy. Trieste became an independent port
under the charge of a over nor appointed by the Security Council of the United
Nations. Albania and Ethiopia regained their independence. Once again they became
sovereign states. Italy was deprived of the colonies of Lybia, Somaliland and Eritrea.
Italian defence forces were considerably reduced and she was required to pay big
amount of money as reparation within seven years.

The Rumania Treaty provided for transfer of the provinces of Bessarabia, and Bukovina
from Roumania to the Soviet Union and Doubruja to Bulgaria. She was to pay
reparation to the Soviet Union and limits were imposed on the strength of its military
forces.

Hungary was made to return to Czechoslova~iasome of the villages situated to the

south of River Dandube which she had occupied in 1938. The Province of Transylvania
was returned by Hungary to Roumania. She was also required to pay reparation and was
disarmed.

Bulgaria did not loose any territory. It,actually gained the territory of Doubruja from
Roumania. But like others, Bulgaria was also asked to pay reparation and her armed
forces were curtailed.

Finland was deprived of several small territories which all went to the Soviet Union.
The area of Salla, the province of Petsamo and the Naval Base of Porkkala Udd were
given by her to the Soviet Union. Like other defeated powers, reparation was imposed
upon Finland also. Its armed forces were considerably curtailed and limited.

These five treaties gave maximum advantage to the Soviet Union. Another country who
gained sufficient territory, power and prestige was Yugoslavia who became the most
powerful nation in the Balkans and a rival of Italy.

Austria : Austria had been occupied by the German army in 1938 and ever since
continued as an occupied part of defeated Germany. Austria was treated as a "liberated
territory". This Moscow Conference of 1943 had pledged to create a sovereign state of
Austria. But, soon after the war, serious differences developed among the Allies. Soviet
Union wanted to impose severe economic restrictions on Austria. This was not
acceptable to the western powers. The deadlock remained for nearly 10 years. Finally,
Austria agreed to declare itself a "neutral" country and to pay some compensation to the
Soviet Union. Thereupon, the Soviet Union agreed to separate the Austrian question
from the problem of Germany. A peace treaty was signed by Austria on May 15, 1955
whereby it became a "neutral" country.

Japan : The cold war and differences between the United States and the Soviet Union
delayed the conclusion of peace treaty with Japan. But, unlike Germany and Austria,
Japan was under occupation of only the American forces. After the Japanese surrender
on August 10, 1945 an interim military administration had been set up by the
Americans. The entire authority was vested in the hands of the Supreme Commander of
the Allied Powers. General MacArthur was appointed as a Supreme Commander and
I
Japanese Administrator. A meeting to draw up a peace treaty was convened by the World War 11 : Causes and
United States at San Francisco in 1951. The meeting was attended by 5 2 countries, It Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
was attended by the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, but India and Burma
refused to attend it. Some of the proposed terms of peace were not acceptable to India.
Even the Soviet Union found it impossible to sign the draft treaty. The treaty drafted
under US influence was signed with Japan by 4 9 countries, on April 28, 1952. A
separate peace treaty was signed by India with Japan in June 1952.

The Peace Treaty signed by Japan with the United States and 4 8 other countries had 27
articles. It recognised the independence of Korea. It may be remembered that Korea had
been divlded after the war between North Korea (Communist) and South Korea (Liberal
Democracy). Japan surrendered her rights over the Islands of Formossa, Sakhalin and
Kurile. The Islands of Bonin and Ryukyu (Okinawa) were placed under the American
Trusteeship. The Japanese sovereignty was limited to her four principal and a few small
~slands.Secondly, Japan agreed to give up all her rights to China. Thirdly, Japan
accepted responsibility for the war and liability to pay preparation but in view of
economic conditions, it was exempted from the payment of reparation. This was done
because the Treaty was concluded much after the heat of the war had subsided and
because it was now a close ally of the United States. Lastly, it was agreed in.principle
that the foreign armed forces would be withdrawn from Japan. Nevertheless, in the
event of a bilateral agreement between Japan and the United States the American forces
could continue to stay-but under a new and voluntary agreement. No limit was
imposed on Japan in regard to her armaments.

Germany : We have said that Germany was divided into four occupation zones
immediately after its surrender. The western powers alleged that, in violation of the
understanding earlier reached, Soviet Union was converting its zone of Eastern Germany
into a communist state. This hampered not only the unification of Germany but also
conclusion of a peace treaty. Nevertheless, both Soviet Union and the Western Powers
took a number of unilateral decisions regarding Germany. The first such decision was
taken by Britain, and the United States who merged their zones into one on January 1,
1947. Later, France also allowed the merger of her zone with the Unified western zone.
Subsequently the three powers decided to set up a free, independent and democratic
government in West Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), comprising
erstwhile western zones, was formally established on September 21, 1949. The Western
Powers formally terminated the 'state of war' with the Federal Republic of Germany in
1951.

Soon after the setting up of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Soviet Union
proceeded to create an independent state of East Germany. It was designated as the
German Democratic Republic (GDR) and was organised on the Socialist pattern of the
USSR. Full sovereignty was granted to the GDR by the Soviet Union by a treaty
concluded between them in September 1955-one year after the sovereignty of West
Germany was recognised by the western powers. Thus, Germany remained divided into
two hostile countries till 1990-one was aligned with the west and had capitalist order
and had made very rapid industrial progress, and the other was aligned to the Soviet
Union and had her economy based on socialism and her political system patterned on
the Soviet Union. The two Germanies-West Germany and East Germany began process
of unification in 1989. The United Germany was born only in October 1990.

Check Your Progress 3

4
Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model'answers given at the end of the unit.
( j Mention briefly provisions of peace treaty concluded between victors and Italy in
1946.
Cold War Period 2) Evaluate the provisions of peace treaty signed by Japan in 1952.

6.5 EMERGENCE OF SUPER POWERS

Tlic concept of Super Power developed only after the Second World War when some of
the cr4twhile big powers were overtaken in respect of power (capacity to influence the
minds and actions of other states) by two countries, namely the United States of
America and the Soviet Union. On the eve of the Second World War, British Empire,
France, Italy and Japan were among the recognised big powers. When the war ended
not only Germany but Italy and Japan were also defeated. As we have seen above,
Germany was occupied by four powers and Japan was ruined after the atom bombs
attacks. The defeated countries became militarily weak, politically insignificant and
economically impoverished. Among the victors, Britain had become so weak that by
1947 it was unable to maintain her troops even in Greece and Turkey for their defence
against communism. British Empire could not be sustained. Once I..dia became
independent in 1947, the process of decolonisation was accelerated. Britain was still
recognised as a big power and occupied a permanent seat in the U.N. Security Council,
but its strength had considerably diminished. France had been a victim of German
occupation until a second front was opened and it was liberated in August, 1944.
Although France emerged victorious, and was given a permanent seat in the Security
Council, yet for several years after the war, it was far from being a powerful nation.
That left only two of the principal victors i.e. the United States and the Soviet Union
who gained in military power and political status. Thus, an important consequence of
the Second World War was the emergence of these two victors as Super Powers. Even
after Britain, France and China became nulcear powers they could not challenge the
Super Power status of US and USSR.

6.5.1 The United States became a Nuclear Power

Towards the end of the war there was just one country which possessed the potential
that no oither state had. In July 1945, the Americans exploded, experimentally, the first
nuclear device in the history of mankind. In August, they dropped two atom bombs at
Hiroshima and Nagasaki which broke the resistance of Japan and brought about her
unconditional surrender. The World was shocked, and the Soviet Union was disgusted
because w e n when the two were allies in the war, the United States gave no indication
of the fact that she was developing an atom bomb. Even when the US decided to use
the atom bomb in Japan, the other Allies were kept in the dark till the actual use of it.
Japan surrendered unconditionally and the consequent American victory deprived the
USSR of "all but a token share in the post-war settlement in the Far East." The Soviet
Union was an inferior and weak power for next five years till she developed her own
nuclear device in 1949. The Soviet position was quite insecure because the Cold war
had began, for which the West was openly blaming the USSR.

In the growing intensity of the Cold War, nobody knew whether America had a third
bomb or not. If the US had a third bomb, or if she could produce one in a short period
of time, the Americans could drop it on Moscow and ruin the Soviet Union. This
created a strange situation, and as Peter Calvocoressi says: "The USSR no less than the
most trivial state, was at the merdy of the Americans if they should be willing to do to
Moscow and Leningard what they had done to Hiroshima and Nagasaki : The
Americans perhaps never intended to do any such thing, but it certainly made her more
powerful than anyone else. She was the 'Supreme Power' for at least five years.

Besides its nuclear weapons, what had helped America become a Super Power was the
fact that no battle ever took place on her territory throughout the period of war. After
the Pearl Harbour, Americans were engaged in an unpredented war, but the civilian lives World War II : Causes and
and property were left untouched. This gave an added advantage to the Americans Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
because their other Allies in the war had suffered heavy civilian losses also. Britain was
heavily bombarded, France was under occupation for four years and the Soviet Union
had been target of German invasion till the sccond front was opened against her.

Until the Soviet Union experimented her nuclear device in 1949, America had the
monopoly of nuclear power. Even after 1949, the United States continued to have
considerable technological leadership over the USSR both in military and political
spheres till 1953. America had world's strongest airforce and a leading navy. The United
States and USSR both had about 12 million men each in armed force by the end of the
war.

6.5.2 Soviet Union's Challenge to the United States

The power base of the Soviet Union was not comparable to that of the United States.
The USSR had succeeded in establishing communist regimes In Poland and several
other East European countries, which were liberated by its army from the Nazi control.
But it did not posses nuclear weapons until testing of first such device in 1949. The
USSR had suffered enormous losses during the war. Not only its troops were killed and
wounded in large numbers but it had suffered civilian losses also. The Soviet population
was reduced by about 20 million people. While steel production in America had
increased by 50 pcr cent during the war, Soviet Steel production had been cut by half.
Similar was the situation in agriculture and industry. For example, while the US was
producing seven million cars a year, the Soviet production was limited to 65,000 cars a
year.

Inspite of differences in economic situation of the US and the USSR, the Soviet Union
had become number two world power at the end of Second World War. Soviet influence
was firmly established in several strategic areas. As Geir Lundestad says, "the country
increased its territory considerably: the Baltic countries, Eastern Karelia, and Petsamo,
thc eastern parts of pre-war Poland and the northern part of East Prussia, Carpathian,
Ukraine, Bessarabia, and northern Bukovina, Southern Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands".

Thc Soviet Union became a nuclear power in 1949 although until 1953 the US
ma~ntainedclear superiority in areas like delivery system. But, once the USSR became a
nuclear weapon state her status improved and she was recognised as a Super Power. The
cornmunlst revolution in China in 1949 and signing of a 30 year treaty between two
communist giants gave a shot in the arm to the Soviet Union.

Immediately after the Second World War, Soviet Union had made an all out effort to
overtake the United States in science and technology. It subordinated everything
including post-war reconstruction to catching up with the Americans in military
tcchnology. Once Soviet Union developed its nuclear power, it became a rival of the
United States and the two came to be recognised as the Super Powers. Both led a power
block each.

After the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union faced each other
directly in different parts of the world. According to Lundestad, "They were the two
niain actors in the international area; the geographic distance separating them was gone,
but the political distance would soon be greater than it had ever been".

Check Your Progress 3

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
I) Describe emergence of the United States as most powerful nation after the Second
World War.
Cold War Period

2) In what ways did the USSR challenge the US supremacy after 1945?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

3) Analyse briefly the emergence of Super Powers after the Second World War.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

6.6 LET US SLIM UP

World War I1 broke out when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on 1st September, 1939.
Two day, later, England and France declared war on Germany. Earlier two arch rivals,
Germany and Soviet Union had concluded a Non-Aggression Pact. Critics called it a
pact to divide Poland between the two countries. Major causes of the Second World War
were the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War, humiliated Germany and
was regarded by Germans as a 'diktat', and unjust; failure of disarmament which was
thought to be sure guarantee of avoiding war; the world economic crisis which
encouraged military and aggressive actions in countries like Japan; the creation of
Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, an alliance of three fascist powers determined to destroy
existing world order; problem of dissatisfaction of minorities; the policy of appeasement
pursued by Britain and supported by France to win over the Fascist and Nazi dictators;
and finally German attack on Poland that became the immediate cause of the war.

The begin with, a number of countries joined the war on the side of Britain and her
allies, but America kept out of it till outstanding disputes led Japan to attack Pearl
harbour which forced the United States entry into War as an Ally in December 1941.
Soviet Union had invaded Poland and Finland and was expelled from League of
Nations. But, ignoring the Non-Aggression Pact, Germany attacked Soviet Union in June
1941. Soviet Union immediately aligned itself with Britain. Meanwhile, Italy had
entered the War in June 1940 by declaring War on France and siding with Germany.
The Axis suffered their first setback when Italy was attacked in 1943. Mussolini was
dismissed by the king and later Italy surrendered unconditionally, although for somtime
Rome was occupied by Germans. Soviet Union was fighting against Germany to liberate
Eastern Europe. After a second front was opened by UK and USA, Germany not only
lost France but was forced to surrender in May 1.945. Japan continued to fight in the
Pacific till two atom bombs were dropped by American in August 1945 forcing Japan to
surrender. Thus the War ended with the defeat of the three fascist powers; and victory
of the Allies.

Peace-making efforts after the war proved to be a very difficult task. The Allies had
convened the Potsdam Conference (1945) for drawing up peace treaty with Germany.
No peace treaty could be concluded with any of the defeated countries immediately after
the war. But after prolonged diplomatic activities, peace treaties were concluded with
Italy, Rumania, Hungary and Finland; and later with Austria and Japan. Germany
remained occupied for several years and naturally no peace treaty could be concluded
for several years.

The most significant outcome of the war was the partiti~nof Germany into four
occupation zones. Later three Western Zones became one sovereign country, and in the
east a Soviet-backed government was established. As east European countries were World War I1 : Causes and
liberated by the Soviet army, they were given communist governments. The cold war Consequences (Emergence of
Super Powers)
began between two power blocs into which the world was divided.

The United States was lucky that no battle was fought on her territory and her civilian
losses were negligible. It was the first country to develop and use the atom bomb.
Soviet Union acquired this power five years later. As other big Powers had lost much of
their capability, the US and USSR emerged as Super Powers and led the two power
blocs.

6.7 KEY WORDS

Reparation : The fine imposed on defeated countries to compensate for

the damage done to civilian population and property.
Sanctions : Coercive measures taken against an aggressor or a country
defying international law; sanctions may be economic or
military.
Axis : Term used for three Fascist Powers viz. Germany, Italy and
Japan who had come together on the eve of the Second
World War.
Non-Aggression Pact : An agreement binding two countries not to wage war against
each other for a specific period of time.
Cold War A situation of acute tension between two power blocs; but no
weapons were used against each other.

6.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Langsam, W.C. and Mitchell, The World Since 1919, New York, The Macmillan
Publishing Co.
Albrecht Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe, since the Congress of Vienna, New
York, Marper and Row.
Johnson, Paul, A History of Modern World from 1917 to the 1980s, London,
Weidenfield and Nicolson.
Dhar, S.N., International Relations a n d World Politics, Since 1919, New Delhi,
Kalyani Publisher.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1

1) Dictated, unfair and unjust Treaty of Versailles; failure of collective security;

appeasement by Britain; attack on Poland.
2) Failure of Anglo-Soviet negotiations and signing of Soviet German non-aggression
Pact paved the way for German attack on Poland in September 1939. Britain and
France fulfilled their guarantee given to Poland and declared war on Germany.
Soviet Union (June 1941) and U.S.A. (December 1941) were attacked by Axis
Powers and they also joined the war.

Check Your Progress 2

1) U.S. entry in the war strengthened the Allies. Germany was unable to fight on two
fronts; USSR liberated east European countries, and Western Europe freed by
'Britain and U.S.A. Faced with defeat, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945.
Cold War Period 2) Allied Victory in Europe left them free to fight and defeat Japan; America dropped
two Atom Bombs in August 1945 forcing Japan for unconditional surrender.

3) Total defeat of the three Axis Powers and Victory of the Allies, which also meant
defeat of fascism and dictatorship and victory of democracy.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Territorial gains for France, Greece and Yugoslavia; Trieste became independent,
Albania and Ethiopia (Abyssina) regained independence, Armed forced reduced.

2) Independence of Korea recognised; Japanese rights in Formosa, Sakhalin and

Kulrile Island surrendered; all Chinese territory liberated; Japan accepted her
responsibility for the war, but was not required to pay any reparation.

Check Your Progress 4

1) The United States was the first country to have manufactured and used atom
bomb; it secured Japanese surrender; earlier U.S. role was largely responsible for
defeat of Germany and Italy. No battle was fought in US territory. In 1945, USA
had the world's strungest airforce and a leading navy.

2) U.S.S.R. even before acquiring nuclear weapons, had become second most
powerful country. Its army established communist regimes in Poland and other
East European countries. Its ideological thrust was a challenge of U.S.A.

3) The T.S.A. and U.S.S.R. both were much better placed than other victors. US
suffered negligible civilian losses, USSR's vast territory and ideological
commitment gave it advantage. US led capitalist world, and the USSR became the
rallying point of world communism.
 UNIT 7 COLD WAR : MEANING,
PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Meaning
7.3 Origin
7.4 Spread of the Cold War
7.5 Cold War in the Far East
7.6 Relaxation of the Cold War
7.7 The Rebirth of the Cold War
7.8 Patterns and Dimensions
7.9 End of the Cold War
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Key Words
7.12 Some Useful Books
7.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 'OBJECTIVES
This unit discusses the Cold War, its meaning and dimensions. After going through the
Unit you will be able to:
define the concept of the Cold War;
trace the origin of this non-military conflict;
a understand the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War;
a identify the causes for the demise of the Cold War; and
a assess the impact and aftermath of the Cold War.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The First World War (1914-18) ended with the birth of a new system, the socialist
system in the world. The war also sowed the seeds of another world war. These two
developments have conditioned the subsequent decades in a big way. In 1939 the
Second World War broke out. The Second World War was fought between the two
blocs-the Allied powers and the Axis powers. The socialist bloc joined the Allies. The
Allies won the war. The war ended with the destruction of the old capitalist imperialist
dominated world. The world now was divided into two blocs-Western or capitalist
bloc, headed by the neo-colonialist power, the United States of America (USA) and the
Socialist bloc headed by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The USA and
the USSR emerged as the two super powers. n o blocs represented two contradictory
systems. Conflict between them was inevitable. The conflict was turned into Cold War
because the world meanwhile experienced a qualitative change.
I
At the end of the Second World War, a world body named United Organisation (UN)
II was founded to make the world safe for peace. The~twosuperpowers acquired highly
sophisticated destructive weapons. Europe became dependent upon the USA.
Decolonialization became the reality. Above all world public opinion disfavoured any
world wide holocaust. But these developments failed to stop the local or civil wars in
different countries and to refrain the two superpowers from tension ridden competition
for establishing supremacy over the world. The hostile competition turned into Cold
war
Cold War Period >

7.2 MEANING
The term "Cold War" is of recent origin. It has been in use since the Second World War
for denoting the non-military hostility between the United States of America (USA) and
the former Soviet Union. In course of time it has been used as a concept in
international relations. The term Cold War means a state of hostility between nations
without actual fighting (i.e. non-military hostility). The concept stands for struggle for
supremacy waged by the nations or states through propaganda, economic measures,
political manoeuvres, etc. Nations or states, engaged in Cold War do not go for actual
war (military action). It is a state of cut-throat competition, but the competing parties
remain far away from armed conflict between them. It was a conflict between two
ideologies : Capitalism vs. Socialism.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) What do you mean by the term of ColdWar?

7.3 ORIGIN
The origin of the Cold War may be traced back to the 1917 Russian Revolution, which
gave birth to a new system. The system came to be known as socialist system, opposed
to exploitative capitalist system. Whole of the capitalist world got terror stricken and
rallied to crush the new state of the USSR, failing to destroy it they encouraged the
emergence of the Nazi power in Germany, so that it might be used against the USSR.
The USSR made serious efforts to get the Western powers involved in checking the
rapid rise of Nazi Germany. But the Western powers did not respond to the USSR's call.
Meanwhile the Second World War broke out in 1939. Germany attacked the USSR
violating the non-aggression pact between them. The USSR joined the Allied powers
and made great contribution to defeat the Axis powers. Despite its sincere efforts to
crush the Axis powers, the West always looked at the USSR with deep suspicion. The
West is alleged to have desired the end of the USSR in the process of fighting against
the Nazi led Axis powers. That is why perhaps the Allies did not respond to the USSR's
repeated appeal for opening second front in the Eastern Europe against Germany. After
the war the Allies did not hide their fear and hatred towards the USSR which now
emerged as one of the superpowers in the world. The USA emerged as another
superpower at the end of the Second World War. the Wartime Allies including the USSR
founded the world body the United Nations (UN) to make the planet safe for peace. But
they failed to forestall the local wars because the UN does not have the necessary
powers to compel1 the super or major powers to keep away from encouraging conflicts.
As a result they went on their own ways. They have organised their rival defense
organisations, and have gone on reacting to each crisis as per their respective interests.
They either have used the world body or have ignored it. The world thus drifted
towards the Cold War in the wake of the Second World War.
Check Your Progress 2 Cold War : Meaning, Patterns
and Dimer~sions
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Critically discuss the circumstances leading to the beginning of the Cold War.

7.4 SPREAD OF THE COLD WAR

Russia (USSR) assumed a sum of $ 10 billion indemnity from Germany following the
Second World War. The USA and Britain violating the decision of the July 1945
Potsdam Conference stopped the delivery of the reparations to Russia. It created a crisis
which has come to be known as German Crisis. In order to overcome the crisis the big
four powers, Russia, France, Britain and the USA met in a Conference in early 1947.
The USA and Britain insisted the economic Unification of Germany. France and Russia
opposed the proposal. The Conference ended without resolving the crisis. Meanwhile
the USA violating all norms intervened the Greek Civil War in March 1947. President
Truman of the USA delivered a speech to the US Congress on 12th March, 1947 to
justify the intervention in Greece and asked the Congress to provide authority for
financial assistance to Greece ar,d Turkey for suppressing the Communist led Civil War
in those countries. The principles which Truman elaborated in the Congress have come
to be known as Truman Doctrine, the essence of which is that the USA has the right to
intervene anywhere to check the spread of the Communism. The Truman Doctrine is the
naked manifestation of Cold War. The Cold War further was deepened in early 1950s. In
December 1951 the USA came forward with European recovery programme, which is
commonly known as the Marshall plan and is often interpreted as the economic
counterpart of the Truman Doctrine which was basically political. Though, the USA
declared that the plan aimed at reconstructing the War-torn Europe, it was generally
called an attempt to protect Europe from being taken over by the Commmunists.
Because throughout Europe there was a surge of Communist movements immediately
after the Second World War. All West European states readily accepted the US assistance
under Marshall Plan. The East European nations are alleged to have refused to accept
the assistance because of the USSR machinations. The USSR immediately founded the
Council for. Mutural Economic Assistance (CMEA), commonly known as Molotov Plan.
Thus Europe got divided into two blocs which were further formalised when the
defensive treaties were signed.
4

The surge of Communist movements throughout Europe, coupled with the growing
tension between the USA and the USSR led the USA to propose a defensive alliance
with the Western powers. Thus, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed in April, 1949 to
found North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The signatories of the Treaty were
the USA, Canada, France, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy,
Portugal, Denmark, Iceland and Norway. Subsequently Greece, Turkcy and West
Germany joined the treaty which provided that an armed attack against one or more of
the signatories in Europe, and North America would be considered an attack against the
all signatories. In response to the NATO, USSR got together the former East European
socialist states into Warsaw Pact. Its terms and conditions were similar to that of the
NATO. These developments (i.e. division of Europe into two economic and military
blocs) deepened the Cold War.
Cold War Period Check Your Progress 3

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Write short notes on :
a) German Crisis
b) Truman Doctrine
c) The Marshall Plan
d) NATO

7.5 COLD WAR IN THE FAR EAST

The Cold War, although originated in Europe, did not remain confined there. Cold War
spread over the Far East immediately after Europe. In China Communist Revolution
became successful in 1949. Chiang Kai Shek though got full support from the USA,
failed to withstand the Communist attack. The Communists inflicted a crushing defeat to
Chiang's unpopular nationalist forces and drove them away from the mainland China.
The success of the Communists in China was a great set back for the USA which had
been following the policy of containment of communism world over. The USA along
with its Western allies signed the peace treaty with Japan, much to the chargrin of the
USSR. The treaty reduced Japan to almost a dependent of the USA, and made Japan the
main US base in the Far East. The US military base in Japan is maintained by a
massive financial support provided by the Japanese government: Japan meets almost
70% of the expenses incurred in the maintenance of the U.S. military bases and Korea
was liberated by the Allies from Japan's occupation. The communist led army
consolidated its position in North Korea and the anti-communist, pro-west forces,
captured South Korea. In 1950, a civil war between North Korea (supported by China)
and South Korea (supported by the U.S.) broke out. The country was divided along the
38th parallel and reached to the Yalu river which separates China from Korea. Now
China backed by the USSR joined the fray in support of the communists. Immediately
the North Korean army drove away the invaders. The war, however, continued for
another two years. In July 1953 an armistice agreement was signed and the war ended
but the tension over the Korean issue between the two superpowers continues even now.

Check Your Progress 4

Note : i) Use the space giGen below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Critically discuss how the Cold War spread over the Far East.
 ............................................................................................................................................. Cold War : Meaning, Patterns
and Dimensions

7.6 RELAXATION OF THE COLD WAR

In 1952 Dwight Eisenhower was installed in power replacing Harry S. Truman in the
USA. Disregarding the Truman Doctrine, he adopted necessary effective steps to end the
Korean war. In April 1953 Joseph Stalin died. He was succeeded by more liberal and
young leaders in the USSR. To some extent they liberalised both domestic and foreign
policies of the USSR. Meanwhile the USSR gained the capability of making the
hydrogen bomb which was nearly 800 times more powerful than the atomic bomb used
on Hiroshima. With the gaining of the capability of H-bomb, the USSR obtained parity
with the USA. Now the world leaders got frightened and started feeling more
comfortable in peace than in war.

Many analysts feel that had there been no H-bomb with the two superpowers, some of
the explosive situations that arose in subsequent years, would have exploded into actual
wars between the superpowers. They cite the Cuban crisis as an example. In early 1960s
a crisis situation developed in Cuba after the installation of the communists in power. A
communist Cuba was considered to be the sword of Damocles pointed at the heart of
the USA. The US wanted to crush the infant communist state at its door step. But the
prompt action, taken by the USSR by sending missiles for the protection of Cuba,
softened the aggressive mood of the USA. The crisis brought the two powers on the
brink of war but the war. however, did not break out. The US rejaxed its attitude
towards Cuba, the USSR withdrew the missiles. Thus the Cuban crisis ended in peace.

Following the end of the Cuban crisis both superpowers entered into several pacts for
limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons. In 1963 an agreement was signed for
controlling the tests of nuclear weapons known as Parsial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT). In
1967 test of nuclear weapons in the space was prohibited, and also Latin America was
declared a nuclear weapons beyond the nations already possessing them was signed in
1968. One agreement of prohibiting emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed and
another, prohibiting the use of biological weapons were signed in 1971. JJI 1972, SALT-I
was signed between the U.S. and USSR. It was followed by an interim arms control
agreement signed in between the two Moscow in 1974, which subsequently y a s
converted into SALT-I1 in 1978. These agreements collectively decreased the tension of
the Cold War.

iI Meanwhile Europe has restored itself from the Wartime destruction. The resurgent
Europe began to compete with the US economy. France under Charles De-Gaulle
1 declined to remain dependent upon the USA. Germany also recovered quickly. The
monolithic international communist movement faced split. China and the USSR plunged
into a kind of Cold War. these developments also greatly aided to relax the Cold War.

Check Your Progress 5

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Mention the factors responsible for the relaxation of the Cold War.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
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I
.............................................................................................................................................
f
Cold War Period
7.7 THE REBIRTH OF THE COLD WAR

In late 1970s Afghanistan experienced a sort of revolution. A communist government

was installed in power. But anti-communist force in collaboration with the religious
fundamentalist forces opposed the new government. As a result Afghanistan soon
plunged into an ending civil War. In this civil war the USA supported the anti-
communists and the fundamentalists via Pakistan. The communist government in order
to stem the tide of the civil war sought military and economic aid from the USSR who
promptly sent a large contingent of armed forces and other military and economic aid in
December 1979. The USA termed the presence of USSR army in Afghanistan as an
invasion. The US attitude thus sensitized the already strained USA-USSR relations. The
new conflict between the two super powers has been termed as the rebirth or the
beginning of the new Cold War. The Cold War further deepened when in Poland martial
law was imposed in 1981 to quell the pro-democracy unrest. The USA termed the
action as the USSR intervention in Poland. The relation between the USA and the
USSR reached already a breaking point in 1983 when the USSR shot down a South
Korean civilian airliner which was alleged to be on the spy mission. The US condemned
the shooting down o i the airliner and immediately 8eployed new intermediate-range
missiles in Europe, in retaliation the USSR broke off arms talks with the USA. The
USA meanwhile invaded Grenada in 1983, launched invisible was against the popular
Sandista government in Nicaragua and pushed ahead the development of the Strategic
Defensive Initiatives (SDI) or star wars. Thus spread the new Cold War through out the
world. President Ronald Reagan of the USA adopted a strategy of rolling back of the
expand~~,t. 'evil empire' of the Soviet Union.

. Check Your Progress 6

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the incidents responsible for the beginning of the new or second Cold
War?

7.8 PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS

World was divided into two blocs during the Cold War period, basically on ideological
grounds. Since the Russian Revolution in 1917 which had given birth to a new system
in the world, the capitalist and imperialist forces declared invisible war against the new
state of the USSR. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, the Cold War
took birth on the issue of expansion of the communist powers in Europe and other parts
of the world. The Communist movement and the national liberation struggle against the
age old imperialist rule in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America joincd
together in many areas. The USA and other imperialist states found it difficult ro \tcln
the tide of the emerging liberation struggle duly supported by the international
communist movement. They, therefore, developed alliances, encircling the commuliih~
world with the aim of containing communism world over.

However, communism was not the lone issue. National interests of the warring states
also played significant role in the spreading of Cold War. In the case of China-USSR
conflict national interest played significant role. Religion also was an issue. Shina-Sunny
I
issues, Hindu-Muslim issues contributed to develop tension and cold war between Iran-
Iraq and India-Pakistan respectively. The Cold War that spread in South Asia between
India and Pakistan, has been due to the issues of secularism, democracy and
 -
nationalism. There has almost been an unending conflict between India and Pakistan Cold War : Meaning, Pattcrns
over Kashmir Issue. India claims to be a secular democratic state where followers of and Dimensions
different relig~onscan live together. Kashmir is considered to be the test ground of
Indian secularism.

The Cold War did not remaln confined to the superpowers alone. There are several
dimensions of the Cold War. In the international arena it was between the two
superpowers. In the regional areas, there were also Cold Wars between the regional
powers. Thcrc was Cold War in 1970s between Iran and Iraq, Cold War burst out
between the USSR and China over the border issues. There has been Cold War between
Indla and Pakistan over the issue of Kashmir. Pakistan tried military solution of the
problem but failed. Then the Cold War has engulfed the region.

Though the period from the end of the Second World War to the disintegration of the
USSR is termed as the Cold War era, it was not a continuous phenomenon and the
Issues were not the same. Cold War disturbed the peace in phases and periodically. The
issues were also not the same. First the German crisis was the issue, then the Korean
war, the Afghan crisls, US declslon to go ahead wlth the star war programme etc.
augmented the process of Cold War.

Thus the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War are varied and multiple.

Check Your Progress 7

Note : i ) Use the space given below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Disscuss the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War.

7.8 END OF THE COLD WAR

The depth of the Cold War started to decline in late 1980s. Mikhail Gorbachev's
policies of 'Perestroika' and 'glasnost' were primarily responsible for the end of the
Cold War. The USA and the USSR agreed to dismantle a whole category of nuclear
weapons. An agreement known as the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
was slgned to that effect. Though the treaty was not fully implemented, it reduced
strategic weapons by about 30 per cent. Meanwhile the world began to the less tense.
Decade old Iran-Iraq war ended in 1988. The USSR under Gorbachev reversed the old
Brezenev system. It pulled the troops out from Afghanistan. Vietnam, which had been
helping Cambodian government to quell the civil war since late 1970s, withdrew its
soldiers from Cambodia. Cuba which had sent army to Angola, brought back the forces.
South Africa was forced to accord independence to Namibia. All these developments
were positive signs for establishing peace in the world.

But situation started changing with the turn of 1980s and beginning of 1990s. In Central
America the popular Sandinista government fell. The economic crisis that had engulfed
the Eastern Europe and the USSR in mid 1980s was sought to be overcome by adopting
the policies of political liberalization and market economy. The USSR put into effect
Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika and Glasnost. Both domestic and foreign
policies of the USSR were drastically changed. Consequently communist regimes in
Eastern Europe fell one by one. The State of East Germany was eliminated and whole
of Germany was united. The infamous Berlin Wall was demolished. And the USSR got
disintegrated. The Cold War thus ended with the demise of a superpower. With the
distintegration of the USSR, Russia came out losing the status and position of a
superpower.
Cold War Period At the ruins of the Cold War the unbridled supremacy of the USA has been established.
The world now has become a unipolar one. The Cold War which had continued for
more than four decades in one or another form, though kept the world free from any
world wide conflict directly involving the two superpowers, failed to stop protracted
civil wars or regional wars. During the period of Cold War most of the local or civil
wars were the national liberations struggles. The Cold War period saw the
decolonization of the world. Afro-Asian and Latin American nations who had so long
been suffering from the European colonial rule, achieved independence during the
period of Cold War. The end of Cold War has not eliminated the civil or local wars. But
now the civil or local wars are no longer national liberation movements. They are
mostly fratricidal battles which are being fought for parochial gains.

Check Your Progress 8

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Account for the causes of the Cold War.

.............................................................................................................................................

2) What are the characteristics of the post Cold War world?

LET US SUM UP
Cold War means the non-military conflict. Though it had orginated in the wake of the
first World War (with the emergence of the socialist system) the fury of the Cold War
was being experienced in the post Second World War period. The Cold War having
orginated in Europe in the late 1940s. spread over other parts of the world in the
subsequent decades. Although the ideology remained the basic issue, the non~ideological
issues crept over periodically. The Cold War had begun with the foundation of the
USSR and declined with the disintegration of the USSR. The Cold War period
experienced the decolonization process i& the world. The Cold War has now been
replaced by a single power domination over the world and rise of certain regions into
province. The post COld War period has been experiencing the civil or local wars over
the parochial and ethnic issues where as such wars in Cold War period were over the
questions of decolonisation and liberation of the depressed people.

7 . 1 KEY WORDS

Allied Powers : The states who came together the fight the Fascist Axis
powers. The major allied powers were the USA, USSR,
Britain, France and China. There were fifty states in this
groups.

Axis powers : The fascist powers-Germany, Italy and Japan-constituted the

Bloc in which a very few smaller states joined.
Glasnost : Open politics and multi-party democracy. It is a Russian word. Cold War : Meaning, Patterns
and Dimensions
Perestroika : It is the Russian term which denotes market economy. It has
given greater role to market forces in the Russian economy
which had hitherto been planned or controlled economy.

Star wars It is a system to prevent nuclear war by providing the

technological inputs and means to knock incoming missiles out
of the air before they hit their targets.

7.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

L.S. Stavrianous, 1983, A Global History, The Human Heritage, New Jersey.
James Lee Ray, 1992, Global Politics, New Jersey.
D.F. Fleming, 1961, The Cold War and Its Origin, 1917-1960, 2 Vols, Doubleday.
W. La Feber, 1968, America, Russia and the Cold War, John Wiley.

- - - - -

7.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
(Here points have been identified. For details the student should consult the lesson and
the suggested books.)

Check Your Progress 1

1) Cold War means non-military conflict. Aggressive competition for supremacy.

Check Your Progress 2

1) 1917 Russian Revolution.

Second World War
German Crisis
Greek Civil War
Emergence of USSR-led Socialist Bloc
Emergence of neo-colonialism led by the USA.

Check Your Progress 3

a) Struggle for ,the control of Germany by the Superpowers.

b) US pledge to support anti-communist inovements.
C) Economic aid to keep away the countries from falling to communist rule
d) Aggressive defensive organisation to contain the forces of communism.

Check Your Progress 4

1) Take over of China by the Communists.

US base in Japan
Korean War
Cold War Period Check Your Progress 5

1) New leaderships in the USA and USSR. USSR's success in H-bomb. Resurrection
of Europe. Split in the monolithic communist market.

Check Your Progress 6

1) Afghan crisis, shooting down of the Korean civil airliner

US invisible war in Nicaragua.
Star war programme of the USA.

Check Your Progress 7

1) Ideology, periodical Cold Wars, International Cold War.

Regional Cold War.

Check Your Progress 8

1) Economic crisis in the Socialist Bloc-liberalization in the USSR-Distintegration

of the USSR.
2) Single Power (USA) supremacy, civil and local wars over the parochial and ethnic
issues.
UNIT NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

Objectives
Introduction
Context and Imperatives
The Concept of Non-Alignment
Evolution of the Non-Aligned Movement
Goals and Achievement of the Non-Aligned Movement
Non-Aligned Movement Today
8.6.1 The Debate
8.6.2 The Relevance of Non-alignment
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

explain the concept of non-alignment and analyse the factors that led to its
emergence;
trade the evolution and functioning of the Non-Aligned Movement; and
examine the relevance of both non-alignment and the non-aligned movement in a
Post Cold War as well as a post Soviet world.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The term 'non-alignment' is used to describe the foreign policies of those states that
refused to align with either of the two blocs led by the two Superpowers i.e. the U.S.
and the U.S.S.R., and instead, opted to pursue an independent course of action in
international politics. The Non-Aligned Movement (N.A.M.) emerged when individual
non-aligned states came together and coordinated their efforts on a common platform. It
changed the nature of inter-state relations by enabling the newly independent developing
countries to play a significant role in world affairs.

8.2 CONTEXT AND IMPERATIVES

Non-alignment emerged within the context of two simultaneous global developments -

Afro-Asian resurgence and bipolar world politics.

The reawakening of the nations of Africa and Asia kindled in them the urge for freedom
from colonial rule and infused a determination to shape their destinies on their own.
This led to the development of a distinct idea of active and independent involvement'in
world affairs based on one's own perspectives of national and international interests.
Therein evolved an independent stand on national and ihternational issues amongst the
newly emergent nations.
This Afro-Asian resurgence occurred at a time when the world was divided into two
hostile camps, each representing two different ideologies and two socio-economic as
well as political systems, and led by the U.S. and erstwhile U.S.S.R. respectively. Each
aspired for greater spheres of influence through military alliances with other states. In
this context, the independent position of the newly emergent states came to be viewed I,

as non-alignment, as they refused to be allied with either bloc.

Cold War Period The iinpetus for the non-aligned approach stemmed from many sources. One of the
foremost objectives of these states was economic development for which they needed
resources in the form of economic assistance as well as increased trade. Non-alignment
enabled them to have economic relations with all countries. The second imperative was
the need for peace without which there could not be real development. A third source
was that their need be secure from global threat perceptions emanating from Cold war
politics. Other domestic imperatives also existed which varied from country to country.
For example, in the case of India, its internal political plurality, its political processes,
its historical role and geographical position were important contributing factors for the
emergence of non-alignment.

8.3 THE CONCEPT OF NON-ALIGNMENT

Non-alignment means the refusal of states to take sides with one or the other of the two
principal opposed groups of powers such as existed at the time of the cold war. Non-
alignment can be defined as not entering into military alliances with any country, either
of the Western bloc led by the U.S. or the communist bloc led by the U.S.S.R. It is an
assertion of independence in foreign policy.

Some Western scholars have persistently confused non-alignment "with isolationism, non-
commitment, neutrality, neutralism and non-involvement. Non-alignment is not
neutrality. Non-alignment is a political concept, whereas, neutrality is a legal concept.
Unlike neutrality, non-alignment is not a law written into the Constitution of the state.
Neutrality is a permanent feature of state policy, while non-alignment is not. Further,
unlike neutrality, non-alignment is not negative, but is a positive concept. It stands for
(a) an active role in world affairs and (b) friendship and cooperation with all countries.
It consists of taking an independent position based on the merits of each issue, and, on
the requirements of national interest. It is not directed against any ideology but seeks to
promote peace and friendship in the world, irrespective of ideological differences.

Non-aligned nations continuously opposed the politics of Cold War confrontations. They
underlined the necessity of building peace and "peace areas" in a world of clear
bipolarism. Non-alignment was also not a policy based on opportunism which tried to
gain advantage by playing one power against another.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What kind of historical situation led to the development of non-alignment?

2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong. Mark ( J ) or (x).

a) The newly independent states chose the path of non-alignment because the
consequences of world war-alliance building and armament production
threatened these backward economy states with neo-imperialist control. ( )
b] The attitude of non-alignment is anti-imperialist in nature because it does not
allow domination or control of any state from outside. ( )
c) Yugoslavia did not choose the path of non-alignment because it did not feel
threatened by the hegemonic role being played by the Soviet Union. ( )
d) Non-alignment does not mean equidistance from the two power blocs and it is
an attitude which asserts independence in world politics. ( )
 e) Neutralism can be another name for non-alignment. ( ) Non-Aligned Movement

f) Non-aligned group cannot be called a third bloc. ( )

8.4 EVOLUTION OF THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

The non-aligned movement evolved out of the concerted efforts of individual non-
aligned states to build a common front against the superpower and neo-imperialist
domination. Jawaharlal Nehru from India, Gamal Abdal Nassar from Egypt and Josip
Broz Tito from Yugoslavia took the first step in building this movement. Among thckt3
first architects Nehru would be specially remembered. His early perception about the
rise of neo-imperialism and the consequent insecurity that would bc faced by the smaller
states, made a major contribution towards building this movement. Nehru believed that
the countries of Asia and Africa, should build up an alliance of solidarity to fight neo-
imperialism. As a first step he tried to organise an Asian front in the forties. In 1947 he
called an Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi. In the fifties as the states of Africa
started gaining independence from colonial rule it became necessary to expand the base
of this front. In April 1955, therefore, Nehru together with leaders of Indonesia, Burma,
Sri Lanka and Pakistan convened an Afro-Asian Conference at Bandung in Indonesia.
Both these Conferences highlight the political and economic insecurity that was
threatening the newly independent states at the time. However, Bandung Conference
failed to build a homogenous Asian and African front as a number of these States did
not agree to conduct their foreign relations under the banner of anti-imperialism. 'They
had either already joined the various Western military alliances or had closely identified
their interests with that of the Western Powers. The rift between the two groups was
visible at Bandung itself. In the post-Bandung years, thus, it became necessary to build
up an identity for the non-aligned states on the basis of principles and not on the basis
of region. The effort united these states with Yugoslavia which was similarly looking for
a political identity in international affairs. The embryo of the later non-aligned
conferences first came into being a Brioni, in Yugoslavia, in June 1956, where Tito
conferred with Nehru and Nassar on the possibility of making real the unspoken alliance
which bound them together. The efforts finally resulted in the convening of the first
non-aligned conference at Belgrade in 1961.

Five basis were determined and applied, for countries to be members of the Non-aligned
Movement. Only such countries as fulfilled these conditions were actually invited to the
conference. There were :

a) independent foreign policy, particularly in the context of Cold War politics;

i b) opposition to colonialism in all its forms and manifestations;

'
! c)

d)
should not be a member o f any of the military blocs;

should not have concluded any bilateral treaty with any of the two superpowers;

should not have allowed military bases on its territory to a superpower, qualified
e)
for attendance at the Belgrade summit.

The NAM summit conferences from time to time, have discussed several issues and
problems. At the first summit (Belgrade, 1961) 25 countries, who attended it, discussed
the situation in Berlin, question of representation of People's Republic of China in the
United Nations, the Congo Crisis, imperialism as potential threat to world peace, and
Apartheid. The Conference expressed full faith in the policy of peaceful co-existence.
India was represented by Nehru.

The Cairo summit, held in 1964 was attended by 46 countries. The Indian delegation
was led by La1 Bahadur Shastri. The conference emphasised the urgent need for
disarmament, pleaded for peaceful settlement of all international disputes, urged
member-governments not to recognise the white minority government in Rhodesia and
reiterated the earlier stand of NAM against apartheid and colonialism. The demand for
representation of People's China in the United Nations was also reiterated.
Cold War Period The third summit at Lusaka in 1970 (attended by 52 countries) called for withdrawal of
foreign forces from Vietnam and urged the member-states to boycott Israel which was in
occupation of certain neighbouring Arab countries territories. It requested governments
of member-nations to intensify their struggle against Apartheid and as a part of the
struggle, not to allow the fly over facility to the South African aircrafts. The summit
resolved to increase economic cooperation. It rejected thc proposal to establish a
permanent secretariat of the Movement. The Indian delegation was led by Indira Gandhi.

There were signs of detente in Cold War Politics by the time the next summit met at
Algiers (1973 attended by 75 countries). It welcomed easing of international tens~on,
supported detente, and repeated NAM's known stand against imperialism and apartheid,
and resolved to encourage economic, trade and technical cooperation amongst member-
states. The conference demanded a change in the existing international economic order
which violated the principle of equality and justice.

In 1976, the Colombo summit was attended by 85 countries. The U.N General
Assembly had given a call for a New International Economic Order In 1974. The NAM
at Colombo not only gave whole-hearted support to this demand, but asked for a
fundamental change in the world monetary system an3 form. It was proposed that the
Indian ocean be declared a zone of peace.

As there was a caretaker government in India, the then Prime Minister Charan Singh
decided to send his foreign minister to represent the country at the sixth summit at
Havana (1979). The number of participant rose to 92. Pakistan was admitted to the
Movement and Burma (a former member) left the NAM. The Cuban President Fidel .a
Castro described the former U.S.S.R. as a natural friend of the Movement The summlt
reiterted the well known position against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism and
apartheid. The summit resolved to support freedom struggle in South Africa and to stop
oil supply to that country. As Egypt had resolved her differences with Israel, some of
the anti-Israel countries sought suspension of Egypt. The summit merely discussed the'
proposal.
t

The Seventh Summit (due in 1982 at Baghdad) could not be held in time due to Iran-
Iraq War. It was held at New Delhi in 1983 and attended by 101 countries. The New
Delhi declaration sought to reiterate the known position of NAM on various issues. It
hoped for any early end to the Iran-Iraq War and for liberation of Nam~bia.However,
the conference failed to take any stand on Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. The Soviet
occupation was openly supported by Vietnam, S. Yemen, Syria and E t h ~ o p ~ It
a . was
strongly opposed by Singapore, Nepal, Pakstan. Egypt and Zaire.

The Harare Conference (1986) adopted the Harare declaration and sought greater
economic cooperation among its members and North-South cooperation for faster 1
development in the South. The summit gave a call for new International Information
and Communication Order to end the western monopoly over news disbursement. In
view of likely retaliation by the apartheid regime of South Africa against Frontline
1
countries who were applying sanctions, the NAM decided to set up a fund called Action
for Resistance against Imperialism, Colonialism and Apartheid. In abbreviated form it
came to be known as the AFRICA Fund.

The 1989 Belgrade Summit was the last one to be held before Yugoslavia disintegrated
and at a time when Cold War was just ending. It gave a call against international
terrorism, smuggling and drug trafficking. The principle of self-determination was
reiterated particularly in the context of South Africa and her continued rule over
Namibia.

The tenth conference at Djakarata in 1992 was the first assembly of NAM after the end
of Cold War. The summit was at pains to explain that even after the collapse of Soviet
Union and end of Cold War, there was utility of the movement as a forum of
developing countries struggling against neo-colonialism and all forms of big-power .

interference. The main issue was preservation of NAM and strengthening its identity as
an agency of rapid development for its members in a tension-free world.

The eleventh NAM Summit was held at Cartagena (Colombia) in October, 1995. India
was represented by a high-power delegation led by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao
 The summit, second after the end of the Cold War, tried to find its role in the changed Non-Aligned Movement
circumstances of a world without blocs. An effort was made by Pakistan, at the foreign
ministers level, to persuade NAM to evolve a system in which bilateral disputes may be
sought to be settled by the movement. This was a clever way of bringing Kashmir on
the agenda of NAM. Pakistan did not succeed in its design. An important decision taken
by the 113-member NAM summit was to give a call for general and universal
disarmament. India won a spectacular victory in its lone battle against the monopoly of
the nuclear power countries over atomic weapons. The NAM resolved to take the issue
to the United Nations by moving a resolution for the complete elimination of all
weapons of mass destruction. This endorsement of India's position gave encouragement
to India's consistent stand against signing the discriminatory Non-proliferation Treaty
(NPT). The endorsement of India's position on NPT by NAM was all the more
significant because 111 out of 113 members of NAM have already signed the NPT.
They had earlier in 1995, voted at New York for indefinite extension of. the NPT.
Pakistan continued to favour a regional nuclear arrangement and did not share India's
concern about discriminatory nature of the NPT. Pakistan's view was also
, acco~nmodatedin the final communique which urged states to conclude agreements for
creation of nuclear weapon free zones, wherever they did not exist. Pending creation of
such zones, Israel was called upon to renounce possession of nuclear weapons, to
accede to NPT, and to promptly place all its nuclear abilities under full scope of
International Atomic Energy safeguards. This summit also called for total and complete
prohibition of the transfer of all nuclear-related equipment, information, material and
facilities.

Check Your Progress 2

Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) How did Jawaharlal Nehru contribute to the development of the Non-aligned
Movement?

8.5 GOALS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NAM

A major goal of .the Non-aligned Movement was to end colonialism. The conferences of
the NAM continuously supported the national liberation movements and the
organisations that led those movements were given the status of full members in these
conferences. This support greatly facilitated the Qecolonization process in Asia and
Africa.

It also condemned racial discrimination and injustice and lent full support to the anti-
apartheid movement in South Africa and Namibia. Today in both countries this
obnoxious policy has ended with independence and majority rule.

A third area in which the NAM made a significant contribution was towards the
preservation of peace and disarmament. Its espousal of peace, of peaceful co-existence
and of human brotherhood, opposition to wars of any kind contributed to the lowering
of Cold War tensions and expanded areas of peace in the world with less states joining
military blocs. It also continuously strove for disarmament and for an end to the arms
race stating that universal peace and security can be assumed only by general and
complete disarmament, under effective international control. It underlined that the arms
Cold War Period race blocked scarce resources which ought to be used for socio-economic development.
They first.called for a permanent moratorium or nuclear testing and later for the
conclusion of a treaty banning the development, production stockpiling and use of all
chemical weapons.

Fourthly, the non-aligned states succeeded in altering the composition of the U.N. and
consequently in changing the tenor of the interstate relation conducted through its
organs. In the forties and fifties delibralions in the U.N. organs were entirely dominated
by the super power and their associate states. The emergence of non-alignment has
changed this situation. It has created not only a new voting majority in the General
Assembly but also common platform from where the third world can espouse its cause.
It is no longer possible to ignore this platform. Thus we see that non-alignment has
facilitated third world's participation in world politics and in the process has
democratized the international relations.

The fifty important contribution was with regard to economic equality. It was the NAM
that called for the establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO).
Despite their political sovereignty, the newly independent states remained economically
unequal. They remained the same raw materials producing countries, which sold their
commodities to the developed world at a lower price, and bought manufactured good
from them at a higher price. The tragedy was that they were and continue to be part of
an oppressive economic system and that have to function within it. This makes them
perpetually dependent on the developed North for capital goods, finance and technology.
In order to end this economic exploitation, termed as neocolonialism, the NAM called
for a restructuring of the international economic and monetary systems on the basis of
equality, non-discrimination and cooperation.

Non-aligned Movement's struggle for economic justice has demonstrated how realistic I ,
is to divide the world between the North and the South rather than between the East
and the West. It has proved that what concerns the majority of humanity is not the
choice between capitalism and communism but a choice between poverty and prosperity.
Preachings of non-alignment has made the developed world realize, to some extent, that
deprivation of the third world would some day affect adversely their prosperity too. This
has, to a large extent, forced them to come to the negotiating table. Besides the general
success in making third world's economic demands negotiable, non-alignment has won
its battle for some specific issues also. For example, economic sovereignty over natural
resources is now an accepted principle. Non-alignment has also succeeded in
legitimizing the interventionist trade policy that the developing countries want to pursue.
It has successfully turned world attention to the problem created by the role as played
by multinationals, specially in the context of transfer of technology. It has also
succeeded in pursuing the IMF to establish system of compensatory finance which help
the developing states in overcoming their balance of payments difficulties.

In the cultural field the establishment of the Pool of News Agencies needs to be
considered as an achievement. This is the first time in history that politically and
economically weaker nations have been able to gather information and communicate
with the outside world without the aid of the western communication system.

The most significant achievement of non-aligned movement lies in the fact that it has
taught the developing world how to pursue independent economic development in spite
of being a part of the world capitalist ecwomic order which makes them dependent on
the developed states for capital and technology.

Check Your Progress 3

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Which one of the following is not a pre-condition for the maintenance of peace that
non-aligned movement emphasizes?
a) Dissolution of the military blocs.
b) Armament
 /, C) Avoidance of conflict between the super powers. Non-Aligned Movement
-4 1
d) Democratisation of interstate relations.
2) Which of the following statements are correct?
a) Political liberation is a kind of self-determination supported by Non-aligned
Movement.
b) The non-aligned states ask for restructuring of the existing international
economic order because colonial exploitation had made them unequal economic
partners.
c) The Non-aligned Movement does not emphasize of the economic sovereignty of
the developing countries.
d) Better deal in international trade is an economic demand put forward by the
Non-aligned Movement.

8.6 NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT TODAY

8.6.1 The Debate

According to some scholars, Non-aligned Movement was the product of Cold War and
bipolarism. Since the Cold War has ended and the Soviet Union has disintegrated, the
NAM has lost its relevance. Whereas some others consider, NAM's work programme
which was charted out earlier, has been accomplished. For instance, colonies have
gained independence, apartheid has been dismantled, foreign bases have lost their
significance, a modest beginning has been made in the nuclear arms reduction and more
particularly when alliances have been distintegrating where is the importance for non-
alignment? Still there are some others who think that Non-aligned Movement has to be
disbanded because of its ineffective performance which became particularly evident after
the recent Gulf Crisis.

These critics of non-alignment need to remember that although NAM had emerged as a
new additional foreign policy choice in the years of Cold War and the bipolar world, its
continued relevance had little to do with either of contexts. It is a mere coincidence that
the policy originated and evolved at the time it did. While decolonisation was the
central basis of the Non-aligned Movement, the Cold War-or rather the aversion of
Cold War bipolarity-only helped the course that the ~ o v e m e n would
t take in the years
to come.

It also needs to be remembered that the end of the Cold War has not made the essence
of non-alignment irrelevant. The essence is the right to consider every issue on merit
and the right to take whatever action is considered feasible, against what is regarded as
a wrong, irrespective of whether that wrong is perpetuated by one power bloc in a
unipolar world or by one or both the superpowers in a bipolar world. As Nehru stated
in his address to the United Nations in New York "where freedom is menaced or justice
, threatened or where aggression takes place, we cannot and shall not be neutral". To say
it in another way, "taking the essence of non-alignment as the assertion of independence
in foreign affairs, non-alignment does not become irrelevant at any time. What is
perhaps being objected to is the name."

8.6.2 The Relevance of Non-alignment

Today the world is no longer bipolar. But t h e ~ eis also no consensus about the nature of
its configuration. Some writers feel that it is unipolar with the U.S. being the sole Super
Power. Other writers argue that it is multipolar with the European Union, Japan, Russia
and China being important centres of power together with the U.S. Still others have
referred to it as "uni-cum-multipolar. Whatever the terminology, that may be used, there
is no doubt that the U.S. and the G-7 powers together are in a position to work in
concert and manage the rest of the world. There has arisen what has been called the
new Northern concert of Powers. Within this global scenario, the practice of non-
alignment becomes difficult because there is no longer the space for manoeuvering nor
Cold War Period does there exist the intermediatory role. Nevertheless, there is a vital need for its
practice, precisely because the developing countries of the South need to assert their
independence and act together, if they are not to be totally overwhelmed by the North.

The imperatives for a revitalized Non-aligned Movement springs from many sources.

For the developing countries this multipolarity presents an uncertain, complex and
gloomy environment in which there may not be many new opportunities, but increased
vulnerability. At present there seems to be no change of the developing countries being
able to exploit the differences that are seen among the major economic powers. Of
course, the situation may change in the medium or long-term.

The Third World countries are also being pressurised to agree to all the demand of the
developed world on the question of opening of markets and intellectual property rights,
even though the fact of the matter is that trends towards protectionism are rising in the
developed countries at the time when most of the developing countries are seriously
reforming their economies and providing for market deregulation. So also is the
impression being fostered that the Third World is somehow responsible for
environmental pollution when actually it is the wanton wastage of resources by the
Northern when actually it is the wanton wastage of resources by the Northern countries
that has been the chief source of environmental degradation. The Northern governments
are bent upon maintaining their unsustainable production and consumption systems. At
the same time, they expect the Southern governments to make all the adjustments and
sacrifices necessary to keep the environment safe for the North. Now the prospects of
the North imposing sanctions and other punitive measures on the South in the name of
environmental protection looms large before us.

Thirdly, there is a tendency on the part of the developed countries to impose stringent
restrictions on the transfer of technology to the developing countries. The ever-growing
list of items subjected to the so-called dual use restrictions effectively threatens to
deprive the developing countries of the fruits of technological progress in many key
areas. Such restrictions have come to cover everything from computers to machine tools,
to specialised alloys to chemicals and even to medical equipment. They are imposed in
the name of preventing proliferation even though the major responsibility for
proliferation often rests with the very countries that are imposing the restrictions. This is
extremely unfair.

Fourthly, the world continues to be divided into the nuclear 'haves' and 'have-nots'. The
nuclear 'haves' seem to be determined to retain their arsenals of the nuclear weapons,
albeit on a reduced scale and to prevent others from acquiring such weapons. The irony
is that the targets of nuclear weapons are now the countries of the Third World as these
are being looked upon as the main threat to the security of the nuclear-weapons powers.
Instead of being discarded after the end of the Cold War, deterrence is being retained
and honed for being used discriminately against the countries of the Third World. The
countries of the Third World are now under tremendous pressure to desist from
developing weapons of mass destruction and to reduce their alleged excessive military
expenditure.

Fifthly, instead of revitalising multilaterialism under the United ~ a t i o k the

, new alliance
headed by the United States has successfully mounted an all out campaign to destroy
the multilateral character of the world body to alter its agenda and to undermine its
functioning to certain areas. Hard-core economic issues like the removal of poverty,
developmental plans, trade, money, finance and debt have been taken off the agenda of
the United Nations and transferred to the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank
and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, over which they have greater control
and which permit them to use cross-conditionalities and cross-relation. Organisation
forming part of the UN family are being held in leash through denial of the finances
due to them. And in the UN Security Council, it is the permanent members which,
acting in close cooperation, take all the decisions affecting world peace and security.

There are a number of ad hoc discriminatory regimes aimed at preventing the

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. These include regimes for chemical
weapons (the 'Australian Club), nuclear weapons "London Supplier Group" (LSG) and
Missiles (the Missile Technology Control Regimes, or MTCR). The lists of dual purpose
 technologies, substances and equipment which cannot be exported to the countries of Non-Aligned Movement
the Third World under these regimes are so extcnsive as to have the effect of freezing
the technological and industrial development of the developing countries in those vital
areas. It is also very difficult to judge whether the restrictions applied in any particular
case are motivated by the commercial considerai.ion of preventing the country concerned
from developing competitive capacity or by the consideration of ensuring non-
proliferation. These regimes have no sanction of intcrnational law. As they are outside
the United Nations and their membership is restricted, they have the effect of
undermining multilateralism.
C
I
All the Third World countries are facing today the threat of the disintegration-of nation-
states. The examples are Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia, the former Soviet Union and
I Yugoslavia. Being sure of their own national integrity, which is underpinned by their
military power or that of their allies and in view of their own relative political stability
i
i and economic prosperity, the countries of the new alliances have started espousing
causes and championing principles aimed to encourage fissiparous tendencies in those
countries of the Third World where the economic and political situation is far from
stable. This may lead to further disintegration of nation-states'; recently discovered
enthusiasm of the new alliance for self determination use its political and economic
leverage to interfere in the affairs of other states in the name of human rights and good
governance and the sanctions that it has successfully sought for intervention in other
countries on humanitarian grounds-are all pointers in this direction. Sovereignty, of
late, has never been absolute, but now it is being subjected to further curtailment and
abridgement.
Then, there is a trend at present in the field of trade to resort increasingly to unilateral
and bilateral coercive measures as exemplified in the application of the Special and
i Super 301 of the US Trade and Competitiveness Act, to negotiate reciprocal access to
markets and to use cross-retaliation. This practice has not been stopped even after
signing the GAIT Treaty at Marrakesh by 115 countries including America in April,
1994. Moreover, the attempt by the developed countries to raise new issues not directly
, linked to trade, such as labour standards, social conditions and environment at the
recently concluded GAIT Treaty clearly proves that the newly formed world trading
system is not likely to serve any better the interests of the developing countries.

The above analysis shows that with the end of the Cold War, the threat to and pressure
. on the independence of the non-aligned countries have assumed new forms. The present
negative trends in the world are contrary to the aims and objectives of the Non-aligned
Movements for a just, equitable and democratic world order. None of the NAM
countries or group of countries, however, big or rich they may be, can face these new
realities alone. Hence, the countries of NAM must continue to stay and act together for
common thought and action. But question is how to bell the cat? The answer is: the
I
non-aligned countries can reverse the above negative trends by three important ways:

a) reforming and strengthening the United Nations;

b
b) encouraging South-South Cooperation; and

1 C) consolidating the Movement through necessary reforms.

Thus the realities of current global politics make non-alignment equally relevant today
for the developing'countries of the world as it was during the Cold War period.

However, while Non-alignment continues to be relevant, the role of the Non-aligned

Movement in current global affairs has been somewhat declining. The NAM could not
first prevent the conflict between two of its members-Iraq and Kuwait and neither
could it play an effective role in the subsequent Gulf crises. Nor could it halt the civil
war in Yugoslavia, itself an important member.
i
One of the reasons for its inefficiency is that today the NAM is faced with serious
internal problems. Some of these include the membership criteria which is too liberal
and often violated, the lack of self discipline amongst its members, the weaknesses in
I
the method of consensus and the absence of any mechanism for monitoring of global
I events.
Cold War Period Check Your Progress 4

Note : i) Use the space below for your answers.

ii) check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Discuss the achievement of the Non-aligned Movement.

2) Can the Non-aligned Movement serve an useful purpose in future?

8.7 LET US SUM UP

Non-alignment emerged in the context of two global developments: the national

liberation struggles of colonies and the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.
leading to two military blocs and alliances. Despite political independence, the new
states were economically underdeveloped and vulnerable to new imperialist pressures.

The term non-alignment denotes the perspective of states that wanted to remain outside
this system of alliances in order to follow an independent course of action in external
policy and relations. The imperatives for non-alignment sprang from economic, political,
strategic and indigenous sources.

These states came together on a common platform and formed the Non-aligned
Movement. It provided an important forum for the discussion of common problems
facing the developing countries of the South and for arriving at Concerted Action to
achieve common aims. It upholds principles which seek to promote political and
economic justice in the international system. Its achievement were significant. There is
debate about the relevance of non-alignment in a world without Cold War or bipolarism.
But while the context of Cold War may have changed, the world remains divided into
the rich and the poor nations. The developing countries which constitute three-fourth of
the worlds population remain only on the periphery of the international system. The
policy of non-aligned will remain valid until the system operates on the basis of genuine
equality and reciprocity. There is an urgent need to reactivate the Non-aligned
Movement in order to work concertedly for a more egalitarian world order.

8.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Willettes, Peter, 1978: The Non-Alignment Movement: The Origin of a Third World
Alliance, Popular Prakashan: Bombay.
40
 Rana, A.P., 1976: The Imperatives of Non-alignment. Non-Aligned Movement

A. Appadorai & Rajan M.S., 1985: India's Foreign Policy and Relations.

Bandopadhyaya, J., 1970 : The Making of India's Foreign Policy: Determinants,

Institutions, Processes, Personalities.

Rajan, M.S., 1990: Non-alignment and Non-aligned Movement.

Rajan, M.S., 1990: The Future of Non-alignment and Non-aligned Movement.

8.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1

1) a) Cold War rivalry encouraged United States to launch a world-wide battle

against communism.

b) In this pursuit it tried to make the Asian states its political allies.

c) This threatened the freedom of those states.

d) To protect their freedom these states decided to become non-aligned.

Check Your Progress 2

1) a) First Nehru tried to form an Asian-African front by convening the Asian

Relations Conference and the Asian-African Conference.

b) Later he endeavoured to make this a world-wide front by joining hands with

the like-mined countries like Yugoslavia and others.

Check Your Progress 3

2) a) b) d) %* .
5, .'
Check Your Progress 4 .1

a
1) The movement'has facilitated decolonisation, increased the chances of securing
peace, helped in democratising international relations, made the world recognise the
problem of economic justice and has partially won the battle for economic rights;
C
and subverted the cultural imperialism of the West.

2) Yes. Since economic division is, and will remain in'future, as the most significant
division among states, non-aligned movement would be required to perfom the
important task of fighting for the economic demands of the third world.
UNIT 9 ARMS RACE AND THE
NUCLEAR THREAT
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Background to the Nuclear Arms Race
9.2.1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race
9.2.2 The Manhatten Project
9.2.3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period
The Nuclear Arms Race : How it is different from all the
Previous Arms Races in History
9.3.1 The Trinity Test
9.3.2. Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings
9.3.3. 'New York Times' and the Trinity Test
Different Phases of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Post-War Period
9.4.1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism
9.4.2 1945 to 1953 : Period of US Monopoly
9.4.3 1957 to 1968 : Period of 'Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race
9.4.4 1968 to late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race
9.4.5 1981 : Reagan's Strategic Modernization Plan
9.4.6 1983 : Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star War Programme
9.4.7 1984-1991 : Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the last days of
collapsing Soviet Union.
9.4.8 1991 to 1997 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union
Nuclear Arms Race in the Third World and South Asia
9.5.1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia
9.5.2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race
95.3 'Domino Theory' in South Asia
9.5.4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

9.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit deals with Arms Race and the Nuclear Threat in the present day world. After
studying this unit, you will be in a position to:
understand the background to the nuclear arms race;
explain how the nuclear arms race is different from all the previous arms races;
*
discuss the different phases of the nuclear arms race in the post-war period; and
emarnine the nuclear arms race in the Third World and especially in South Asia.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit on 'Arms Race and Nuclear Threat' is part of Block 3 which deals with what
is called the 'Cold War Period'; i.e., after the Second World War and the emergence of
what is termed as Superpower Dominance. In Unit &'World War 11: Causes and
Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)' you have read about how the USA and
the USSR emerged as Superpowers in international politics after the end of the Second
World War.

In Unit 7 : 'Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions', you have learnt how the
collapse of Germany and its allies in 1945 led to the emergence of what has been
termed as 'Cold War' between the-two main powers of the post-1945 international order
i.e. USA and USSR. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was dealt with in Unit Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
8 of this block was a consequence of the cold war power bloc politics.
One thing common to the post-1945 international order as well as the pre-1945 world
was the arms race. When studying about World War I and 11, you would have surely
read about the arms race which was both quantitative and qualitative in character. It
would also have been noticed that the arms race in its qualitative dimension in both the
world wars was itself one of the greatest causes of the two wars. From the invention of
dynamite by Sir Alfred Nobel of the Novel Industries in the First World War period, to
the invention of rockets by Germany in the Second World War, it is the search for the
ultimate weapon which could win all wars that constituted the greatest push for the arms
race. In this madness scientists, nations, people, soldiers, politicians all fell prey and
ended up only killing greater and greater number of civilians.
In the present unit, we will concentrate on the arms race in the post-1945 international
order. As has been stated before, this quest for a qualitatively more destructive weapon
was the greatest motivating factor in bringing the world a step closer to war, be it the
First or the Second World War. The key difference in the arms race before 1945 (i.e. in
the interwar period) and after 1945 was the nuclear dimension. Prior to 1945, all the
arms races in human history never confronted what is now popularly known as the
'Nuclear Threat'. After 1945, the arms race that humanity got engaged in became the
greatest living threat to life itself as known on this planet. The difference lies in one
single qualitative step in the arms race, and that step was the creation of the Atomic or
Nuclear bomb in 1945. Thus, from 1945 the arms race we discuss in this Unit,
remained no longer 'conventional' but acquired a nuclear character and from then till
today, man is engaged in an arms race that puts both parties who engage in it, under a
perpetual 'Nuclear Threat'.

9.2 BACKGROUNDTOTHENUCLEARARMSRACE

9.2.1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclear arms race between the superpowers began initially in the pre-second world
war period between the Germans and the Allied Powers. It was in the context of this
conflict prior to the Second World War that in 1938, at the Kaiser William Institute in
Germany, Otto Hann and Dr. Fritz Steersman first split the atom. Lise Meitner and Otto
Hann later declared this successful splitting of the atom amounting to a nuclear fission.
It was a matter of coincidence that at this juncture in history, the greatest minds
working on the 'atomic problem' were Jews and that too, German.
Hitler's rapid anti-Semitism during the period sent most of these great minds in
Germany rushing to the USA where they were welcomed. These fleeing scientists
informed the American military who were closely monitoring events in Europe. There
was widespread apprehension that Germany might be the first to produce the nuclear
bomb as the knowledge of splitting the atom was already available to it. Albert Einstein
too was one of the refugees and he knew fully the significance of this discovery, for it
was he who first unlocked the secret power of the atom to the modern world. He
warned the President of the United States about it.

9.2.2 The Manhatten Project

The Americans under President Roosevelt were fully aware of the international
implications and so began the race to build the bomb first. Roosevelt commissioned
what was the top secret 'Man Hatten Project', the biggest scientific effort ever made
costing 2 billion dollars under Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves to construct the atomic bomb in
a record time. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Herbert York, Edward Teller, Hans
Beth and a host of other scientific luminaries were involved in the production of the
first three nuclear bombs.
The interesting aspect of this bomb construction was that though the initial enemy was
Germany, slowly the real enemy for whom the bomb was constructed turned out to be
the Soviet Union. In fact, Gen. Leslie Groves stated that he had no illusions that Soviets
were the real enemy.-This fact is critical to an understanding of the post 1945 world.
1 Cold War Period 9.2.3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period
Germany, the first nation with whom the US engaged in the N-Arms race surrendered in
May 1945 and all its nuclear facilities were destroyed, thus ending the first phase of an
incipient nuclear arms race. Despite this the arms race had to continue once the
weapons had been built. A new enemy across the horizon was discovered Communist
Soviet Union. The fear of communism was ideologically fueling the furious pace of the
A-Bomb construction. In that sense the emerging U.S. military-industrial complex was
not wrong.

Communist USSR was definitely the biggest power confronting USA and its western
allies once Germany collapsed. The world was definitely getting divided into two
camps, the capitalist and the socialist and Europe including Germany was its first
victims. The Allies could not do anything about it. Something had to be found, a new
ultimate weapon which could stop and possibly destroy the march of communism. That
something designed initially for fascist Germany and used for experimentation in Japan
was to be probably used later against the Socialist Soviet union. This was the
underlying ideological war cry in the American establishment and the subtle reason for
continuing the arms race into the post-Second World War world era.

The discovery of the split atom gave confidence to the United States that it could fight
the 'cold war' or 'iron-curtain' that Winston Churchill said had descended over Europe.
It was an indication that the new war after 1945 would be fought against the USSR.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Examine the background to the nuclear arms race.

2) What are the rationale for the arms race in the post-war period?
.............................................................................................................................................
 Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
9.3 THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE : HOW IT IS
DIFFERENT FROM ALL PREVIOUS ARMS RACES
IN HISTORY

9.3.1 The 'Ikinity Test

Of the three bombs constructed, the first was tested on July 16, 1945 at Alamagordo,
New Mexico. It is known as the Trinity Test. The successful Trinity Test heralded the
birth of the Nuclear-Bomb in human history and the dawn of the nuclear age. Neils
Bohr, the famous Danish Physicist, prophetically observed the insetting arms race and its
qualitative difference. In a letter to Resident Roosevelt on 3 July 1944 he mentioned
that a weapon of unparalleled power was being created which would completely change
all future conditions of warfare. Some scientists anticipating the arms race between the
US and the USSR urged the American Government to share the nuclear secrets with
Soviet Union and thus prevent an arms race.
However, it is obvious that the scientists were too naive of the game of politics as well
as the intensity of international politics. Such advice was never heard, and the race was
continued in the hope of victory. To the military desperately looking for a way to deal
with the Germans, the Japanese qnd finally the Soviets, the Trinity Test held out hope
that they could win.

9.3.2 Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings

Two more historical events, however, finally sealed the destiny of mankind. They were
the dropping of the two remaining untested nuclear devices, i.e., the 5 ton uranium
bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and on Nagasaki on August 8, 1945. Over 250,000
people died in both the cities and the 'living corpses' who survived bled incessantly and
were blackened with their skins hanging in shreds, their hair scorched to the roots.
Most were totally naked, their clothes burnt from their bodies. George Bernard Shaw
observed in 'Man and Superman' about the art of killing that man, "out does nature
herself ... when he goes out to slay, he carries a marvel of mechanism that lets loose at
the touch of his finger all the hidden molecular energies and leaves the javelin, the
arrow and blow pipe of his fathers far behind". Hiroshima and Nagasaki exemplified
that.

9.3.3 'New York Times' and the 'Ikinity Test

It would be easier to comprehend the qualitative significance of nuclear arms race if we
take note of two observations made at the time of the Trinity Test. The 'New York
s Times' reporter who witnessed the test observed "... a light not of this world, the light
of many suns in one. It was a surprise such as the world had never seen, a great green
super can climbing in a fraction of a second to a height of more than 8,000 ft, rising
even higher until it touched the clouds, lighting earth and sky all round with a dazzling
{uminosity. Up it went, a great ball ,of fire about a mile in diameter, changing colours,
as it kept shooting upward, from deep purple to orange, expanding, growing bigger,
rising as it was expanding, an elemental force freed from its bonds after being chained
for billions of years. For a fleeting instant the colour was unearthly green, such as one
only sees in the corona of the sun during a total eclipse. It was as though one had been
privileged to witness the birth of the world to be present at the moment of creation
when the Lord said: "Let There Be Light".
Robert Oppenheimer perhaps summarized in one line the destiny of modern man's
predicament vis-a-vis his own creation, when he quoted the Gita to exclaim "I have
become death, destroyer of worlds". The roar created by the explosion at Alamagordo
could be heard 50 miles afar and the pillar of fire that the New York Times reporter
talked about rose 6 miles into the sky. These observations of the Trinity Test and the
dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki sum up why the arms race mankind
got caught in after 1945 is totally different in its complexion from all the previous arms
races in human history. The sad part, however, for any idealist scholar of international
relations is that despite these evidences of destruction, the arms race continued with
greater vigour and vengeance.
Cold War Period Check Your Progress 2

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the Trinity Test?

9.4 DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS

RACE IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD

9.4.1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism

It was the Trinity Test on July 16, 1945 that truly sparked off the nuclear arms race
between the US and the Soviet Union. Despite the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
the race never stopped. 'The second fact that fuelled the nuclear arms race was the
Soviet Communist enemy. This was, in fact, testified to by Gen. Leslie Groves who said
he had no illusions as to whom the bomb was really being built for, i.e., the Soviets.
The ideological, political and military threat to capitalism by rising communism had to
be dealt with. The discovery of the nuclear bomb was truly the biggest boost to the
arms race. United Kingdom followed US-Soviet acquisition of the bomb in 1952, France
in 1960 and China in 1964. The nuclear arms race passed through the following phases,
they cannot be clearly distinguished from each other.

9.4.2 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly

During this period, the United States first enjoyed a total monopoly until 1953 and then,
nuclear superiority. In this phase, the US territory was regarded as a sanctuary because
the Soviets did not have any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the American targets
from USSR. The United States, on the other hand, could attack the Soviet targets from
American bases in Western Europe.

9.4.3 1957 to 1968 : Period of 'Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race
The monopoly enjoyed the US during the first phase was broken when the Soviets
successfully tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has been called the 'Missile Crisis'
in America. The advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the nuclear arms race to strategic
weapons; i.e. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic
Missiles (SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental bombers which provided the
strategic tripod. In 1967, USSR tested what is called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment
System. This accelerated the qualitative dimension of the nuclear arms race further into
space.

9.4.4 1968 to Late 1970's : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race

The third phase in the nuclear arms race began when the American delivery technology
took a gigantic leap by introducitfg what is called the Multiple Independently Targetable
Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968. This meant that now one
single lCBM could carry many small nuclear warhead fitted missiles which on re-
entering Soviet airspace would go in different directions hitting many targets. MIRV
marked a tremendous exponential upgradation of the arms race. This sent shivers down
the Soviets who, however, mastered the technology by 1974. During this phase, the
Soviets deployed two other weapon systems. First, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM)
 system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
ensuring that the arms race went on.

Check Your Progress 3

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Briefly examine the period of US Monopoly in the Arms Race.

. 2) Describe the efforts made by the erstwhile Soviet Union to break the US Monopoly
in armaments.

9.4.5 1981 : Regan's Strategic Modernization Plan

The next major technological tussle took place between the two Superpowers over the
MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981 President Regan announced a strategic modernization
plan at an estimated cost of $ 160 billion. The weapons systems planned included :

(i) Missile Experimental or MX missle : 100 of these were to be built; (ii) B-IB
Bombers : 100 of them to be built; (iii) STEALTH Bombers that are radar resistant by
1990s; (iv) TRIDENT-I1 D-5 missiles-one per year between 1983 and 1987; (v)
Command Control and Intelligence system (C,I) to be modernized; (vi) NAVSTAR
Satellite global positioning system; (vii) Encapsulated dormant missiles; (viii) TERCOM
for precision guided cruise missile; an advanced communication system; (ix) Global
Positioning System (GPS) for guidance of the ICBMs during the boost phase; (x) Route
encrypted comunications to missiles or launchers; (xi) slackwire buoys radio reception
by submarines; (xii) Fuel-Cell propulsion.

9.4.6 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star Wars Programme

The militarization of space began from 1958 and since then, over 2219 satellites-military
and civilian have been launched by t'he superpowers and other nations, and 75% of the
satellites launched have been for surveillance and military use, thus clearly violating the
Space Treaty of 1967. On March 23, 1983 President Reagan announced the Strategic
Defence Initiative (SDI) popularly called 'Star Wars' Programme costing 1 trillion
dollars to raise the militarization of space to a qunlitatively rlcr; high. The aim being to
build both a ground based and space based Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) to protect
US territory against Soviet strategic missile attacks.

Theoretically, the SDI programme, was supposed to be an alternative to the Mutual

Assured Destruction or MAD dogma as it would provide Mutual Assured Survival. It
was thought the render nuclear weapons obsolete be relying on three new types of non-
nuclear weapon systems. These were :
Cold War Period i) Kinetic Energy Weapons
ii) Directed Energy Weapons and
iii) Microwave Energy Weapons

All these weapons were based on various types of chemicals, electromaphetic forces.
and x-rays and lasers. The SDI programme did not take off for many reasons. They
being:

a) It was too expensive.

b) It was not a sure technological venture, in the sense that it was far too complicated
and thus not feasible.

C) The Soviets could easily render SDI ineffective by building a counter SDI.

d) Reagan never consulted his European NATO allies and infact, surprised them by his
announcement thus creating opposition to the programme in Europe.

e) Reagan by signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) completely
ended the political rationale of the SDI programme.

f) In the USA itself, in the Congress and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
both the Republicans and the Democrats were of the opinion that they would not
allow SDI to pass at any cost and thus, damage the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM)
Treaty of 1972.

Thus, they rejected SDI as otherwise it would have meant that the ABM Treaty
alongwith SALT I and I1 would be nullified. Same would be the fate of START
negotiations thus destroying the whole edifice of arms control and the start of an
unbridled nuclear arms race.

Added to this, many important scientists in USA, important people like James
Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense Mc-George Bundy, cold warriors likc George
F. Kennan and Robert McNamara, former Secretary of Defence Harold Brown and a
host of other people opposed the very fundamental logic of SDI that it would make the
world safe of USA by removing the stability provided by the MAD capability of both
the superpowers. Later on, the sweeping changes initiated by Michael Gorbachev within
the USSR vide 'Glassnost' and 'Perestroika' and allowing democracy in Eastern Europe
ended the whole logic of SDI.

Check Your Progress 4

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What were the main cornponcnts of US President Ronald Reagan's Strategic
Modernisation Plan?

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
\
2) What were the reasons for the criticism of Regan's SDI P r o g r a ~ r i ; ~ , ~ !
9.4.7 1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
Last Days of Collapsing Soviet Union
By January 1985, due to the damage already done by SDI of Ronald Reagan, massive
rearmament programmes were on the both the sides, and the future direction of the arms
race was dependent upon the two superpowers.

The arms race was on at three levels of nuclear weaponary, i.e.,-space weapons,
intercontinental weapons, and intermediate nuclear weapons. The US position on
militarization of space through SDI really put the arms negotiation in difficult state. The
Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko said, "If there were no advancement on the
issues of outer space, it would be superfluous to discuss the possibility of reducing
strategic armaments."

The US in 1984 had a massive programme for rearmament of many types of weapon
systems. The rearmament programme of USA consisted of more Sea Launched Ballistic
Missiles (SLBMs); about 800 more nuclear warheads to be fitted on sea and air delivery
systems; MX missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; the eighth Trident submarine fitted
with more accurate SLBMs and 100 B-lB bombs. On the Soviet side, in 1984-1985 the
rearmament meant rearmament of all Soviet SS-17s SS-18s and SS-19s into the MIRV
ed mode, a new TYPHOON class submarine and testing a new type of more accurate
SLBM. There was a reported attempt to make 40% of Soviet ICBMs on the movable
mode instead of the existing 25% and all 243 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles
(IRBMs) were to be deployed. All in all, 1984-85 was a period of massive rearmament
of all weapon systems.

In 1985-86, the picture as regards arms race was the same. There was no restraint. The
only hope that some kind of arms control was possible was generated by the November
1985 summit meeting at Geneva between President Reagan and General Secretary
Gorbachev where both in a joint statement stated that, "The sides .... have agreed that a
nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought." They also agreed to hold
summit level meetings in 1987 and 1988. These words were an indirect admission by
USA that the SDI was not workable. In other words, it recognised as unfeasible that the
MAD doctrine could be replaced and a limited nuclear war waged by militarizing space
was recognised as unfeasible. Apart from this, there was little progress in the talks on
arms reduction in Europe.

As regards the nuclear arms race in 1986-87, the situation was still more or less the
same except that there was a little movement towards arms control. The US put its first
MX ICBM and B-1B bomber on operational position and on a 24 hour alert.
Deployment of Pershing I1 missiles and SS-20s continued in Europe. However, certain
positive developments took place which definitely halted the arms race in the long run.

First, the 27th CPSU Congress in February 1986 decided on Perestroika (Restructuring
of Economy), Glasnost (Openness and Democratization) and reversal of military
confi.ontation in Europe and opening up of Eastern Europe. Second, the Raykiajavik
summit on 11 and 12 October 1986 declared that a nuclear war could never be won
and should never be fougkt. Third, within the USA a tattered Reagan's economy and the
Senate's opposition to SDI hit US arms race plans. Fourth, there were differences
between USA and its NATO Allies who were never consulted on SDI. Thus, though the
arms race went on in 1986-87 it was definitely going to end soon.

As regards 1987-88, on December 8, 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces

Treaty (INF) was signed for the elimination of all intermediate and short range missiles.
The agreement required the USA and USSR remove 2695 intermediate range GLBMs
with a range of 1000 to 5500 kms. It also envisaged the removal of GLBMs short range
i.e., 500 to 1000 kms. USSR agreed to remove 1836 missiles while USA removed 867
missiles. The INF Treaty saved the ABM Treaty from being neutralised by SDI, because
with this treaty the rationale for SDI became even weaker and Reagan found it very
difficult to push the matter in the Congress as well as with US public. In this sense, it
saved the world from another dangerous dimension of arms race i.e., the space opening
UP.
1988-89 was another significant year as it too had something to show in terms of peace.
Cold War Period 1988-83 can be characterised as the year of settlement of disputes in Afghanistan,
Namibia, Iran-Iraq War, Israel-PLO and South Africa. It was also the year Gorbachev
announced at the UN, unilateral reduction of Soviet troops and armaments in Europe
amounting to 40% reduction of Soviet tank divisions and 50% of Soviet tanks deployed
in GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This was a very significant political and military
move as regards the continuation of conventional and nuclear arms race in Europe.

1989-90 can be characterized as the Year of Europe. By the end of 1989, almost all
Soviet Allies in Eastern Europe and Central Europe except Rumania and Albania were
free. In August 1989, the first non-communist government got elected in Poland. By
November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall had crashed. Elections also took place in Hungary,
GDR and Czechoslovakia. On 29 December 1989 Vaclav Havel took over as the
President of Czechoslovakia. At the Malta summit in December 1989, President
Gorbachev showed readiness to regulate further and move ahead on the START process.
Gewge Bush, the US President, hesitated a bit though he committed US towards a
I
Chemical Weapon Ban and the required agreement in the future.

1990 was a year full of events. While Europe and the two superpowers were moving
towards peace the Gulf was in flames with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2,
1990. Apart from this, in 1990, the WARSAW Pact was dissolved on 3rd March. On
June 1, 1990, US and USSR signed a treaty on the destruction of and non-production of
chemical weapons and on multilateral measures to ban chemical weapons. It was
decided that by 31 December, 1992, all chemical weapons in the world would be
destroyed and' only 5000 tons of agents would be kept. Then, the membership of the
Missiles Technology Control Regime (MTCR) expanded. On November 20, 1990 there
was the Treaty and a Joint Declaration of Conventional Armed Forces (CFF) forever
reducing the nuclear threat in Europe.

Check Your Progress 5

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What were the salient features of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev era?

9.4.8 1991 to 97 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet

Union

1991-92 was a historic year in the sense that due to the collapse of USSR, the enemy
that fueled the arms race for US militarists broke up into 14 new states. Yugoslavia
also broke up and in one stroke the enemy in so far as the US was concerned was gone
and so, the whole political ideologic'al basis of the nuclear arms race.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 led to the launch of US and Allied
coalition attack under UN auspices against Iraq on 17th January, 1991. It ended on 28th
February, 1991 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade as a result showed a
down-ward trend. In 1991 the total value of global arms trade touched $ 22, 114
million. This .was 20% less than in 1990.
 In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, and Britain all agreed to halt the Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
nuclear arms race totally except vis-a-vis R & D. At the regional level, there was further
concretization of Europe's complete demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinkl
Document by all Eastern and West European countries. Added to this, there was the
world summit on environment at Rio and UN Secretary General's declaration of the
'Agenda for Peace'.

The peripd between 1993 and 1997 saw two other significant events taking place in~the
nuclear arms race. First, in 1995 the NPT review Conference took place for an
indefinite extension of the treaty and on 24th September 1996, the Comprehensive Test
Ban Traty (CTBT) was up for signature. US and the other nuclear weapons states and
60 other non-nuclear states signed the CTBT. India did not sign either the NPT or
CTBT. The government argued that it did so to keep the nuclear weapons option open.
This position taken by India brings us to the question of nuclear arms race in the Third
World, dealt with in the following section.

.; Check Your Progress 6

L
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
I) Examine the nuclear arms race after the collapse of the USSR.

9.5 NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE THIRD WORLD

AND SOUTH ASIA
r
The nuclear arms race that went on in the First World throughout the Cold War
definitely had its impact on the Third World. The quest of the German Bomb fueled the
r American 'Manhattan Project' initially, and as the Second World War came to a close it
was the Soviet ideological and military power manifest in the occupation of Eastern
Europe that really put Americans firmly on the track of nuclear bomb making.

However, at that time the Allies needed the Soviet Communists to destroy fascist
Germany, Italy and Japan. Stalin's intelligence agencies were well aware of the secret
American nuclear programme and at Postdam, his suspicions were confirmed when
President Roosevelt informed Stalin of a secret weapon. This knowledge fueled the
Soviet desire to build the bomb at a feverish pace to counter the threat form captalist
west. The bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though not really necessary were also a
veiled threat to Soviets of the American resolve. These events in a way led to the
nuclear arms race. After 1949, when Communist China emerged under Mao, it is
believed that the Chinese through Soviet help (prior to Sino-Soviet split) too got the
nuclear capability and tested in 1964. China was considered a Third World state and one
can see how the ideological and political nature of nations deeply affected their decision
to develop a nuclear capability.
Cold War Period 9.5.1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms
Race in South Asia
Thus, the acquisition of nuclear capability of China in 1964 signalled the beginning of a
nuclear arms race in South Asia. The Indo-Pak conflict was not actually the factor
responsible for India's quest for nuclear capability as many scholars claims, though it
came in much later. The Kashmir conflict and partition and the three subsequent wars in
1948, 1965 and 1971 did fuel the conventional arms race.

9.5.2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclew arms race in South Asia however was not of India's making.

It rather came after the massive defeat India suffered at Chinese hands in 1962, which
hit our whole defense and foreign policy. This followed by the news of Chinese
exploding the nuclear device in 1964 shook the Indian political and military
establishment and they decided to develop India's nuclear capability. The decision was
also influenced, perhaps, by the Chinese collusion with Pakistan in the 1950s prior to
the 1962 war. It brought home to the Indian strategists the real possibility of Chinese
and Pakistanis joining hands against India. After 1962, there was thus no looking back
and the nuclear arms race reached South Asia.

When India conducted the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974, the Pakistanis too
decided to go for a nuclear programme. The onset of the Second Cold War with the
Soviet invasion in Afghanistan 1979 put Pakistan on the high priority zone of US in its
fight against communism. It signalled deeper military cooperation and aid to Pakistan
and some say, the beginning of some help even in fledgling Pakistan nuclear weapons
programme.

As of now, the South Asian region, is definitely a zone of nuclear competition with
India consciously 'keeping its option open' and not exercising its capability. This is
expressed in its refusal to sign both the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in the 1995 Review
Conference ahd the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on 24th September, 1996.

9.5.3 'Domino Theory' in South Asia

The South Asian case amply demonstrates the 'Domino Theory' which fuels nuclear
arms race or any arms race. First, it was the German threat to Europe which made the
US go for the bomb. Then, the Soviet threat made US go in for the bomb again. The
bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki led Soviets to acquiring the bomb. The common
threat to world communism led to Soviets helping the new communist state of China in
1949 with nuclear technology which helped China to conduct a nuclear test in 1964.
The Soviets, however, had refused to give nuclear weapon design to China, which
became the cause of Sino-Soviet rift. The Indian defeat in 1962 and Pakistan's collusion
with the Chines led the Indians to develop the nuclear capability by 1974. The Indian
explosion coupled with successive defeats in wars with India led the Pakistanis onto the
bomb. The cases of other third world countries acquiring the bomb in similar; e.g. the
Iraqi and Iranian nuclear programmes. The South African case too is due to perceived
survival threats. The other nuclear capable states are Argentina and Brazil-two major
States in, Latin America.

9.5.4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia

Overall one can say that the third world nuclear arms race is definitely a product of the
nuclear arms race in the first world and the many conflicts within the Third World
sustain it. The cold war military alliance system helped this process. Now, after the
collapse of soviet Union and the massive reduction prior to it and after it in Western
nuclear arsenals, nuclear peace has been brought to the world in the sense that we aren't
always 'living on the edge' of a nuclear holocaust. However, the non-resolution of
conflicts in the Third World, e.g. Indo-Pak conflicts, Arab-Israeli conflict is a definite
reason for the continuance of nuclear arms race in the Third World.
 --- -

Check Your Progress 7 Arms Race and Nuclear Threat

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

F
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the wit.
t
1) What are the factor propelling the arms race in South Asia?

2 ) Briefly comment on India's stand on the nuclear proliferation issue.

9.6 LET US SUM UP

We can conclude this unit by recalling a few pertinent points. Thus:
i) The discovery of the.power of the 'atom' in both its creative and destructive
senses was possibly the greatest event in 20th century history. The creation and
blasting of the nuclear bomb by the US demonstrated its power with telling effect.
ii) The ideological conflict between capitalist West and socialist East was the single
biggest factor instigating the nuclear arm race until the collapse of one side i.e., of
the USSR in 1991.
iii) However, despite the demise of Socialist Soviet Union nuclear weapons still
remain the basis for military power and their quest continues by many third world
countries e.g. India, Pakistan, South Africa, Israel, Iran, Iraq and North Korea.
iv) The nuclear threat to humanity remains even today and there is very little hope of
complete disarmament. The only possible way is probably to reduce the number of
warheads and number of nations acquiring this technology for settling their
disputes.

KEY WORDS
ABM-Anti-Ballistic Missile System : It is a weapon system designed to defend
against a ballistic attack by intercepting and destroying ballistic missiles and their
warheads in flight.
Cold War Period BMD-Ballistic Missile Defense : Systems capable of intercepting and destroying
nuclear weapons in flight for defense against a ballistic Missile attack.

CFE Tnaty : The h a t y on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe : Negotiated in

the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), a process which began
in 1973 and was signed in 1990 by NATO and WTO countries and came into force on
9 November, 1992.

NATO-North Atlantic h a t y Organisation : Created by the US and its allies in

Western Europe after the Second World War to counter USSR.

WTO-Warsaw %sty Organisation: Created by Soviet Union in 1955 to counter

NATO military alliance. Dissolved in 199 1.

ICBM-Inter Continental Ballistic Missile: Ground launched Ballistic Missile capable

fo delivering a warhead to a target at ranges in excess of 5500 km.

INF-Intermediate Range Nuclear forces: are nuclear forces with a range oflfrom
1000 km. upto and including 5500 kms.

MIRV-Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicles,

carried by a nuclear ballistic missile, which can be directed to separate targets along
separte trajectories (as distinct from MRVs). A missile can carry two or more RVs.

MRV-Multiple Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicle, carried by a nuclear missile,

directed to the same target as the missile's other RVs.

MAD-Mutual Assured Destruction: Concept of reciprocal deterrence which rests on

the ability of the nuclear weapon powers to inflict intolerable damage on one another
after receiving a nuclear attack.

Open Skies h a t y - A Treaty signed by 25 CSCE states in 1992, permitting flights

by unarmed military or civilian surveillance aircraft over the territory of the signatory
states, in the area from Vancouver to Vladivostock.

SLBM--Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile: A ballistic Missile launched from a

submarine, usually with a range in excess of 5500 kms.

START I TREATY : Strategic Arms Reduction lkeaty : Between USA and USSR to
reduce strategic nuclear weapons.

Strategic Nuclear Weapons : ICBMs, SLBMs and bomber aircraft carrying nuclear
weapons of inter-continental range of usually over 5500 kms.

Doctriae of Deterrence : It theorically means that the most appropriate way to prevent
your enemy employ atomic weapons against you is to put a counter threat by also
possessing the atomic bomb.

Doctrine of Massive Retaliation: Was a strategy of employing nuclear weapons and

outlined by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles after President Eisenhower took
over from President Truman in 1954. The massive retaliation doctrine was founded on
responding to any communist inspired aggression, however marginal the confrontation,
by means of a massive nuclear strike against major centres in the Soviet Union and
China.

Doctrine of Limited War : Was propounded by Captain Basil Liddel Hart in the late
1940s. He argued in his book 'the Revolution in Warfare' in 1946 that "When both
sides possess atomic power 'total warfare' makes nonsense... Any unlimited war waged
with atomic power would be worse than non-sense, it would be mutually suicidal". He
argued that war should, therefore, be a controlled affair and without barbarous excess.
However, many US strategies criticized his concept of limited war as practically
impossible.

Doctrine of Flexible Response : Adapted by NATO in 1967 and based on a flexible

and balanced range of appropriate responses, conventional and nuclear, to all levels of
aggression or threats. These responses, subject to appropriate political control, are
designed first to deter aggression and thus preserve peace; but, should aggression Arms Race and Nuclear Threat
unhappily occur, to maintain the security of NATO area within the concept of forward
defense.

9.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy.

P:M.S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East West Relations.

Hedly Bull : The Control of the Arms Race.

Morton Halperin : Limited War in the Nuclear Age.

Freed Ikle : Can Nuclear Deterrence last out the country?

Robert Jervis : Perceptions and Misperceptions in International Politics.

Herman Kahn : On Escalation : Metaphors and Scenarios.

Henry Kissinger : Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy.

Thomas Shelling : Arms and Influence.

- - - - - - - - -

9.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) See Section 9.2
2) See Section 9.2 and sub-section 9.2.3

Check Your Progress 2

1) SeeSection9.3

Check Your Progress 3

1) See Section 9.4 and sub-sections 9.4.1 to 9.4.4
2) See Section 9.4 and sub-section 9.4.3

Check Your Progress 4

1) See sub-sections 9.4.5 and 9.4.6
2) See sub-section 9.4.6

Check Your Progress 5

1) See sub-section 9.4.7

Check Your Progress 6

1) See sub-section 9.4.8

Check Your Progress 7

1) See Section 9.5
2) See Section 9.5 and sub-section 9.5.2
UNIT 10 DISARMAMENT AND PEACE
MOVEMENT
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Rationale of Disarmament i
10.3 Brief History of Disarmament
10.4
10.5
Disarmament Agreements and Treaties
Concept of Peace
1
10.6 Peace Movements
10.7 India, and Peace Movement and Disarmament
10.7.1 lndia and NPT
10.7.2 lndia and CTBT
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Key Words
10.10 Some Useful Books
10.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

10.0 OBJECTIVES
Disarmament and peace are the desired goal of humanity. After going through this unit
you would be in position to :
dcffne the concepts of disarmament and peace;
trace the hisotry of the movements for disarmament and peace in the world; and
discuss India's role and views on disarmament treaties so far signed.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The word disarmament means the reduction or disbandment by a state of its military
forces and weapons. The disarmament may be self imposed, externally imposed or due
to international or regional treaties. Disarmarncnt may again be partial or general. Partial
disarmament stands for the reduction of special types of weapons which are generally
considered to be more dangerous. General and complete disarmament stands for
abolition of all kinds of weapons. Though the general disarmament is the ideal position,
the partial disarmament is the pragmatic approach. The present advocates of
disarmament generally talk in terms of partial disarmament. Reductions deadly weapons .
is the immediate goal while the general disarmament is the ultimate goal.

10.2 THE RATIONALE OF DISARMAMENT

The concept of disarmament his originated from an understanding that weapons are the
source of tcnsion which at times create wars. The stock piling of arms instills mutual
fear and hastility into interstate relations. It is being argued that in order to stop wars or
hostilities and to develop trust between thc states, the weapons, which are considered to
be the root of all these evils, are required to be eliminated.
Disarmament is necessary for maintaining peace and progress of the human civilization.
The increasing stockpiles of armaments, continuing enlargement of the armed forces and
the growing investment for research and dcvelopment of the weapon technology of the
world pose fresh threats to peace and development of the human race. The invention
and development of nuclear weapons have posed the threat of total annihilation of the
human race in the event of another world war. All these have made the people more
conscious about disarmament because only the elimination of these weapons can ease
the tension in the world and remove the fear of any world wide holocaust. The
t
i invention and development of sophisticated military technology has made all countries Disarmament and Peace
Movement
- vulnerable. None can be self-sufficient in defense. It is impossible for any single
country to defend itself from the attack of any other country. So disarmament is the
only way to make the world safe. The increasing investment in the military industry is
also consuming money and useful resources which otherwise could be diverted to the
development sectors. In the context of the growing poverty in large parts of the world,
the increasing investment in military industry can further increase the poverty and
accentuate the social tension in every society of the world. The huge expenditure in the
defence sector can only be stopped or decreased if the disarmament at least of partial
type is achieved.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Discuss in details the rationale for disarmament.

1'0.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF DISARMAMENT

The concept of disarmament is an old one. It has been in use as an instrument to

achieve international security for a long time. Its dated history can be traced back to
546 B.C. when warring Chinese principalities met in a conference and signed a
disarmament agreement to end protracted wars between them.
With the beginning of the modern period the urge for disarmament increased among the
big powers. Several attempts were made by the Western powers and Russia. But none of
these attempts could become successful because of deep rooted suspicions against the
big powers. So the moves for disarmament were so designed that interests of the
proposers could be protected. Not all disarmaments efforts ended in failure. Probably the
first disarmament agreement in the modern age which still continuing was the one
signed in 1817 by the Great Britain and the USA known as the Rush-Bagot Agreement
it sought to demilitarize the Canadian American Frontier.
In 1899 first international disarmament conference was held in Hague. All European
major powers attended the conference which ended without much success. However, it
passed resolutions proscribing certain type of deadly weapons, and asking the states to
limit the military expenses so that more funds could be diverted for developmental
purpose. The second international disarmament conference was held again in Hague in
1907. The conference failed lo stop the contemporary growing arms race.
When First World War broke out in 1914, all waring countries broke their commitments,
and undertakings which had been given by them in different conferences and meetings.
After the war, the first international organisation, named the League of Nations was
established in 1920. It served as a forum for holding discussions on the issues
connected with the disarmament. Disarmament had been one of the cherished goals of
League of Nations, under the auspices of the League conferences were held, studies on
disarmament were sponsored. The League of Nations convened the first World
Disarmament Conference in 1932. The Conference however contributed to augment the
process of disarmament.
Disarmament conferences were also held outside the League of Nations. The United
States organised a Naval Conference in Washington in 1922. The Washington Naval
Conference ended with a treaty which limited the size of warships, imposed restrictions
on the building of warships and aircrafts for ten years. The treaty also banned the
indiscriminate raising of naval bases in the Pacific.
Cold War Period The large scale destruction in Second World War and the devastating impact of the
explosion of atom bombs on Japan again made the people anxious for the world peace
and disarmament. The war ended with formation of the new world body, known as the
United Nations, (UN). The UN General Assembly in its very first session in 1946
founded the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC), which was asked to
make specific recommendations for the elimination of weapons. The UN General
Assembly also called the UNAEC to prepare plan for the peaceful use of the atomic
energy for the developmental purpose.

Check Your Progress 2

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Who signed the first disarmament agreement and when?

,) Write short notes on:

a) Rush-Bagot Agreement

b) Hague Disarmament Conference

c) First World Disarmament Conference

.............................................................................................................................................

d) U.N.A.E.C.

10.4 DISARMAMENT AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES

In the wake of the Second World war efforts for disarmament increased. Immediately
after the war, the USA put forward a proposal, named as the Baruch Plan. In response
 to the US plan, the USSR came out with the Gromyko Plan which was diametrically Disarmament and Peace
opposed to the Baruch Ptan. After the failure of these plans, more plans were proposed Movement
by both the sides. In 1955 the USA proposed the Open Skies Plan. It was also rejected.
The plahs and proposals so far advocated by the different powers were so designed that
the proposer's monopoly over its weapons remained frozen indefinitely.
However the disarmament movement started registering progress from the early 1960's.
In 1950's both the USA and the USSR were placed under new administration. In USA
General Eisenhower came in power following presidential election in 1952 and in the
USSR due to Stalin's death a new leadership emerged. Besides, the USSR acquired the
capability of making of nuclear weapons. It brought the USSR near to the nuclear
capability of the USA. These developments created the way to achieve some success in
disarmament.
In 1963 an agreement was signed. It has banned the nuclear tests in the atmosphere (in
outer space and under water). In 1967 another agreement was signed to stop the
deployment of the nuclear weapon in outer space. Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty was
signed in 1968. The treaty has banned the acquisition of nuclear power capability by
non-nuclear nations. The treaty was not signed by a few countries including India. India
has termed the treaty as discriminatory. In 1971 another treaty was brought into the
world book of statute, which has banned the deployment of nuclear arms in sea bed and
ocean floor. In 1972 the convention on banning the biological weapons was held.
SALT-I and SALT-I1 were signed in 1972 and 1979 respectively. Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT) began in early 1970's between the USA and the USSR. The
h ~ s SALT
t agreement was signed in 1972. It is a treaty limiting the stockpiling of the
Antiballistic Missile systems (ABM). The negotiations for SALT-I1 had started in 1974
and ended in 1979 with the signing of the agreement by the USA and the USSR. As per
the terms, the high contracting states agreed to destroy a portion of the arms in their
arsenals. However, the treaty has remained non-ratified. The American senate did not
ratify the treaty. But it was ~mplementedwithout official sanctions. Another non-ratified
treaty is the threshold Test Ban Treaty which was signed in 1974 by the USA and the
USSR. It prohibited all tests with a yield of 150 kilotons. In 1987 the Intermediate
Range Nuclear forces (INF) was signed between the USA and the USSR. The Treaty
sanctioned for the destruction of intermediate range land-based nuclear weapons, stocked
by both countries. All these agreements though have not made the world free from
deadly weapons, have registered some progress towards the desired goal of
disarmament.

Check Your Progress 3

I Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Write short notes on :

a) NPT

a) SALT
.............................................................................................................................................
Cold War Period
CONCEPT OF PEACE
Peace is an eternal desire of a human being. It is considered to be one of the highest
values of life. The quotations like "Peace at any price", "The most disadvantageous
peace is better than the most just war." "Peace is more important than all justice." "I
prefer the most unjust peace to the justest war that was ever waged." "There never was
a good war or bad peace." Show-how precious peace has been. The New Testament
defines peace as absence of dissension, violence of war. Peace is also considered as
concord, harmony, agreement between the two or more, tranquillity, quiet, etc. Peace is
contrary to antagonistic hostilities, violence or war. Peace is freedom from or the
cessation of war. It is a state of freedom from war.

A large number of peace concepts, proposals and plans have been put forward so far for
the realisation of the everlasting peace-an eternal dream of the human being. In order
to achieve peace many plans have been contemplated. Proposals for establishing
federations of states, signing of treaties between and over nations and people, setting up
of courts of arbitration, reforming the legal system and many other proposals have so
far been advocated.

The concept of peace changes in response to the charge in the context and characters of
the ages. In medieval Europe the concept of peace was identified with the slogan of the
unification of the Christian world against the invasions of the 'infidels'. The concept of
peace was given communal orientations. During the same period a few scholars of
course talked about secular peace. In the subsequent ages the peace concept became
more secular and acquired universal contents. In the wake of the industrial revolution in
England peace was demanded because it was found to be helpful for the development 4
of capitalist society. In the years of Revolution the French people gave different
orientation to the concept of peace. Reason and basic human rights became the i
1
contents of the concept of peace. With the emergence of national states the idea of
federation of states or fations and the system of arbitration in international relations
started coming to the fore.
I
When the wars began to be considered as patriotic acts and accordingly people were
being mobilized to fight in the wars, people started becoming aware of the necessity for
peace. Peace now became the people's concern.

In 19th century peace societies and movements began to come up and international
peace conferences and organisations were founded for the first time. With the birth of 1

Marxism and Marxist movements in mid 19th century a new approach took birth in the
peace movement. It is being propagated that peace can be achieved only through the
basic social transformation of the society. A classless society is only capable to establish i
peace.

Today we have two concepts of peace, which are offered to each other-Bourgeois
concept and Marxist concept. 1

Check Your Progress 4

Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Why the people desire for peace?
.............................................................................................................................................
 Disarmament and Peace
10.6 PEACE MOVEMENTS Movement

The publication of Saint-Simoan's "The Reorganization of ~ u r o ~ e aSociety"

n' cGncided
with the foundation of the peace societies. The first peace society was founded in the
United States. Europe followed the suit. Early peace societies were engaged in the
debates over the issues like just and unjust wars, need of violence, colonialism, etc.
.
'
Debates gradually arose over the subjects such as linking peace with social issues, like
the slavery, the emancipation of women, universal education and other human rights.

The national peace societies gradually felt the need of international movement. From
mid 19th century international peace conferences began to be held. These international
congresses debated over the issues of establishing world organisation of nations and of
setting up of the international ,our? of arbitration to solve the conflict. These peace
congresses also discussed the questions of freedom of the colonial peoples. The
individualists, came out with the concept that peace would be achieved by implementing
the principle of free trade among the states. However, all these organisations and the
peace movements were domina~edby liberal democrats who passed many radical
decisions but failed to implement any of the decisions.

In 1870, the followers of Marxism established the first International (The International
Working Men's association). The Marxists consider that the transformation of society is
the principal object of the working class movement and the transformed society can
only guarantee the world peace. The state International passed a historic resolution
which states that :

"The burden of war is borne mainly by the working class, in as much as war does
not only deprive the workers of the means of subsistence but compels them to shed
one another's blood. Armed peace paralyses the forces of production, asks the
workers nothing but useless labour peace, which it is the first requisite of general
well-being, must be consolidated by a new order of things which shall no longer
recognise in society and existence of two classes, one of which is exploited by
another."

The inception of the Marxist peace movement added a new dimension in the odgoing
peace movement and rested the leadership of the movement from the idealist leaders of
the movement.

By the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of peace societies had emerged on
the international arena. But these societies failed to stop the breaking out of the First
World War in 1914. During the war, most of the peace societies gave up their idealistic
universal stand and responded to the nationalist call. After the War, new proposals and
plans like Lenin's Decrees on peace, President Wilson's Fourteen Points, etc., were
placed before the world. But the Second World War could not be stopped. The Second
World war was most horrifying and most murderous weapon, the atom bomb was used
in the war for the first time. The war has left a horrifying impact on the people of the
world. The war ended with the beginning of a new age named as Nuclear Age. The new
age gave birth to new fears and also dangers of total destruction of the civilisation if the
nuclear war ever broke out. Thus the fears of nuclear war give birth to new peace
concepts, new debates and new movements.

After the Second World War peace movement turned into a mass movement under the
auspices of the World Peace Council. In different countries of the world the Council
developed the organisational network. These organisations propagated the ideals of
world peace. The writers, philosophers, artists of world fame joined this movement.
Even Burtrand Russel the famous novelist cum philosopher also joined this movement.
But the United States went on condemning the emerging peace movement in the post
world war period as the ploy of the USSR and the communists. Despite the
condemnation, the movement spread for and wide in the world. Now there are several
peace organisations, which are not only propagating the ideals of peace, they have also
added an academic dimension to the movement by encouraging research and identifying
the problems and other connected issues. Many organizations are working as the think
. tank for the peace movement.
Cold War Period Check Your Progress 5

Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the Marxist concept of peace?

10.7 INDIA, AND PEACE MOVEMENTS AND

DISARMAMENT
India is a peace loving nation. It achieved independence from centuries old British
colonial rule through peaceful non-violent movements. India has a long tradition of
peace and apathy towards war of any kind. Ashoka the Great renounced the use of
weapon and abandoned the principles of war. This is one of the earliest examples of
disarmament. Till the arrival of the Europeans in India, the Kings had fought wars and
battles. But these battles did not affect the lives and properties of the common citizens.
Pursuing the tradition of peace, India at the very dawn of its independence declared
peace as the cornerstone of its policies. In 1954 India took the initiative to ban the
nuclear tests. India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru proposed at the U.N. a
standstill agreement in respect of the atomic tests. He knew that the total destruction of
the existing weapons was not possible, so he wanted to stop the tests so that there might
not be further escalation of nuclear weapons. Many countries of the world supported the
view, but the big powers hardly paid any heed to the proposal. However, the proposal
set the ball of disarmament in motion and countries in the UN became vocal in support
of peace and disarmament. Consequently from early 1960s new initiatives towards the
direction of disarmament started.

10.7.1 India and NPT

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was concluded in 1967, kept open for
signature in 1968 and was promulgated in 1970 for a period of 25 years. The NPT has
been extended unconditionally and indefinitely by its Review and Extension Conference
held in New York from 17th April to 12th May, 1995. The 1995 Conference has not
suggested any change, alteration or modification of its provisions. The Conference even
has not produced any review document. 178 states signed the treaty and 13 countries
including India did not sign the NPT.

'The NPT appears to be a pious attempt to stop the proliferation of nuclear weapon
technology. Its contents, however, bear ample evidences to establish the fact that the five
nuclear states who are also the veto-wielding permanent members of the Security
Council, intend to monopolise the nuclear technology and to establish their hegemony
over the world. The NPT demands that the present non nuclear states, and the states
which are on the threshold of acquiring the nuclear capability must stop the research
and making of nuclear weapons. India objected to such a treaty calling it
discriminatory. India has categorically declared that it will not sign the Treaty in its
present form because its indefinite extension only serves to perpetuate its discriminatory
aspects which have created a division between the nuclear "haves" and "have nots".

10.7.2 India and CTBT

The concept of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was mentioned in the NPT. The CTBT
has been planned to realise the objective of general and complete nuclear disarmament.
The CTBT in present form, however, is not intended to make the weapon free world
 free from nuclear weapons. It would neither actually reduce the number of nuclear . Disarmament and Peace
weapons, nor decrease the present offensive capabilities of the nuclear weapon states. * Movement
The treaty asks the non-nuclear states not to go for testing of nuclear devices thus
I preventing them from emerging as nuclear capable states. It has no provision for
reducing the nuclear capabilities of the weapon states. Like the NPT, the CTBT too
1 wants to divide the world into nuclear haves and have-nots. India has, therefore, not
signed the CTBT.

After the CTBT was ratified in 1996, negotiations on another treaty to cut off fissile
material production have started in January, 1997. The proposed Fissile Material
production Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) seeks to put a cut-off point in the sphere of fissile
material production. India has refused to be a party in the FMCT. It has opposed the
treaty on the same grounds that India put forward while opposing the NPT and the
CTBT.
In fact all the three treaties have been planned in a way that the nuclear weapon states
can control the nuclear technology and maintain their hegemony over the world. These
treaties will not deter the weapon states to sharpen and improve their technology.
Because they have reached a stage, now they can further improve their technology
through computer and other indoor tests which have not been banned. They are also not
willing to destroy the existing weapons within a time frame.

These treaties, therefore, are not in a position to eliminate the nuclear weapons leading
to general and complete disarmament.

' Check Your Progress 6

Note : i) Use the space below for your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Why does India refuse to sign the NIT, CTBT and FCCT?

10.8 LET US SUM UP

Though the armaments are the cause of tension and war, the nation-states are reluctant
to disband the arms. Both from political and economic points of view, the states are
compelled to pile up the stock of arms. Consequently, disarmament proposals are being
neutralized.

The efforts for reduction of arms to ensure peace in the world during the inter war
period and during the Cold War years have failed to check the stockpiling and
inventions of more sophisticated and deadly weapons. India though the initiator of the
disarmament movement, has refused to sign of the NIT, CTBT, etc., because of their
discriminatory character.

KEY WORDS
Antiballistic Missile Systems: 'Defensive Strategy, in which missiles are deployed to
counter the incoming missiles.
Fissile: It is capable of undergoing nuclear fission, fission means the action of dividing
or splitting matter into two or more parts.
NPT: Treaty to check the horizontal proliferation of Nuclear weapon states.
Cold War Period
10.10 SOME USE BOOKS
F.H. Hindley, 1963, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge.

Istvan Kende, The History of Peace ; Concept and Organisations from the Late Middle .
Ages to the 1870s in Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1989.

Ghanshyam Paradesi (ed.) : 1982, Contemporary Peace Research, New Delhi.

S.J.R. Bilgrami, The Arms Race and Disarmament, New Delhi.

1011 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Yaur Progress 1

Inventions of deadly weapons, destruction in wars, devastating impact of the explosion

of atom bomb on Japan during the closing days of the Second World War and the need
of more resources for socio-economic development in the developing world are some of
basic reasons for disarmament.

Check Yotlr Progress 2

1) Different Chinese Independent rulers in 546 B.C.

2) a) Signed between the USA and the Great Britain in 1817 to demilitarise US-
Canada border. It is still in vogue.
b) Hague Disarmament Conferences were held once in 1899 and again in 1909.
Pirst Conference prescribed the use of certain deadly weapons. It emphasised
on reducing the military budget and increasing the developmental budget.
Second Conference failed to stop the on going arms race.
First World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932 under the auspices of .!
c) j
the League of Nations. It passed certain pious resolutions. 4i
d) The UN founded the UNAEC (United Nations Atomic Energy Commission) in
1946. It was asked to prepare a plan for peaceful use of atomic power.

Check Your Progress 3 I

a) Nude@ Non-Proliferation Treaty, first signed in 1968 for twenty five years. Again
signed in 1995 for indefinite period. India has not yet signed the treaty because
India considers it discriminatory.
b) SALT I + I1 signed between the USA and the USSR. It is Strategic Armed
Limitation Treaty.

Check Your Progress 4

Peace is necessary for the even development of the human civilization

Check Yout. Progress 5

Classless transformed society can only guarantee the world peace.

Check Your Progress 6

Because the treaties are discriminatory, they have divided the world into nuclear haves
and have-notes states.