UNIT 1 ADULT EDUCATION: ,THE BASIC

CONCEPT, TERMS, FEATURES AND

OBJECTIVES
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.I Objectives
1.2 Concept of Adult Education
1.2.1 Adult Education
1.2.2 Education of Adults
1.2.3 Education for Adults
1.3 Relevant Terms Explained
1.3.1 Fundamental Education
1.3.2 Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Education
1.3.3 De-schooling
1.3.4 Lifelong Education
1.3.5 Recurrent Education
1.3.6 Further Education
1.3.7 Continuing Education
1.3.8 Correspondence Education
1.3.9 Distance Education
1.3.10 Open Learning~Education
1.4 Some Specific Terms Used in Adult Education
1.4.1 Literacy: Literate, Illiterate, Numerate and Innumerate
1.4.2 Functional Literacy, Functionality and Literacy Diversity
1.4.3 Pedagogy, Andragogy and Humanagogy
1.5 Significance, Nature and Characteristics of Adult Education
1.5.1 Significance
1.5.2 Nature and Characteristics
1.6 Goals and Objectives of Adult Education
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Right now you are beginning your academic journey thi-ough your programme.
You are in Unit-1 of Block-1 of Course-MAE-001 of the programme. When you
had decided to choose this Programme (PGDAE) you must have had your own
concept or meaning of "adult" and "adult education". Your concept of 'adult'
I could be right or wrong or partially correct and you will so appreciate it after you
understood these concepts clearly in this Unit.
i
Development of ~ d u ~ t To begin with, we all know that, as human beings, we go through four important
Education
stages in life - childhood, teenage, adulthood and old age. We further know for
certain that the teenage stage is between thirteen and nineteen, while adulthood, in
general, is the longest, most productive and s i m c a n t stage falling in between teenage
and old age. Thus, adults constitute a large chunk of most of the societies and
perform diverse and dynamic roles in various spheres of their life. Historically, it is
they who have contributed to the growth, transformation and transmission of
civilisation over the ages. It is all the result of their (adult) education and hence adult
education is as old as human civilisation itself. Therefore, in simple terms, the entire
education received by, and spread over the adulthood of, any individual is nothing
but adult education. We are all adults with different levels of maturity - biologically,
socially, economically, politically, culturally, morally, and so on. As adults our place,
role and contribution remain significant and dynamic in every sphere of life. Adult
education, as an essential and integral part of overall education of an individual, is
dynamic and begins with the onset of adulthood and is co-extensive with the adult
life of an individual. Thus, its forms, relevance, meaning,nature, objectives,functions,
approaches, curriculum, duration, coverage, etc keep on changing from time to
time in a given society or country. The changing socio-cultural,geographic,economic,
political, cultural, moral and other conditions determine its overall place and
organisation in a society. It is also important for you to know that although adult
education, as an academic subject and as a field of specialisation of the discipline of
education, has emerged only recently it has now established itself as a discipline and
a profession in its own capacity. You will realise all this by the time you complete
your journey through this programme.

In this unit we will discuss in detail about adult, adult education, its features,
goals and objectives, relevant terms used in adult education and other related
matters.

OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, it is expected that you will be able to:
Understand the concepts of 'adult' and 'adult education' ;
Explain the meaning of different, but relevant terms used in adult education;
Ilistinguish between and among different terms used in literacy and adult
education;
Describe the need, significance and characteristic features of adult education;
and
State the goals and objectives of adult education.

CONCEPT OFADULT EDUCATION

You can understand the concept "adult education" better if you first understand
the concept 'adult' very clearly. We will therefore focus first on "adult". In simple
terms, we can define "adult" as a person who has attained physical, mental,
emotional and social maturity or legal age for marriage, or for franchise or voting
right. But can we say for certain that every person who has attained physical
maturity only, or legal age of adulthood can be considered to be mature adult of
that society or country? Or can we say at what age a person will definitely become
an adult, in terms of maturity? The answer is 'No'. But at the same time, as *dultEducation:The*asic
Concept, Terms, Features
mentioned above, we can be sure of one thing that we are all adults with different and Objectives
levels of maturity and belong to the most significant and productive age group -
physically, socially, mentally, economically, politically, morally culturally, and
so on. Nevertheless, we need to remember that maturity is an endless process
and in general it increases with one's age, experience and knowledge.

In the context of adult education, the concept 'adult' remained inadequately

defined because of the multiplicity of criteria used in defining it. The Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995) defines adult as: 1. (a) grown to full size
or strength; (b) intellectually and emotionally mature; 2. Legally, old enough to
vote, marry, etc. Various other definitions given by different adult educationists
(Wiltshire, 1966; Cameron, 1969; Apps, 1979; Shingi, 1980; Knowles, 1980;
Legge, 1982; Jarvis, 1990) have also taken into account different criteria, often
two or more, like age (legal or otherwise), experience and/or maturity (physical/
biological, social, psychological, etc), citizenship with full rights and duties, and
so on. Also, the legal age of adulthood for franchise, marriage, etc of males and
females varies from country to country. For instance, the legal age of adulthood
in the United Kingdom is 18 years. In India, the legal age for franchise (voting
right) is 18 years, while the legal age for marriage of males is 21 years and for
females it is 18 years. All these definitions reveal that it is very difficult to define
the concept 'adult', theoretically or draw practical boundaries, and thereby render
it to remain 'ideal' rather than practicable. Notwithstanding the fact that no one
definition defines 'adult' adequately or exhaustively, some have classified
adulthood into stages and defined each stage separately (Erikson, 1963; Sheehy,
1976). This is mainly because of the fact that the transition from childhood to
,adulthood is gradual, not sudden, and the rate of transition varies throughout life
from individual to individual and from environment to environment. Therefore,
drawing clear demarcating lines between childhood - when it ends, and adulthood
- when it starts and ends - by any one criterion or all criteria together, is a very
difficult task. Thus, adulthood by itself is not definitive because of its continuous
transition throughout life. In this context, we need to consider the question whether
it is essential to have such distinction between child and adult as raised by Legge
(1982, p.3). It is also important for us to recall some actions of a few children,
wherein they reflect maturity of an adult and some actions of some adults which
reflect immaturity of a child. You can thus see "child-man" or "man-child" in
terms of their maturity. But, cybercoitus intemptus (May 9, 2007, see http://
ask.metafilter.com/) draws one clear distinction between adults and juveniles -
''I think real adults take responsibility for and clean up their own messes
(emotional, domestic, culinary, environmental, whatever), unless physically or
mentally incapacitated. Juveniles, whatever their physical ages, make someone
else clean up after them".

Characteristics of an Adult: At this juncture, we need to have a clear

understanding of the diverse and comprehensive traits or characteristics by which
a person can be called an adult. An adult, therefore, is a person who:

i) is of certain age (legal or otherwise);

ii) is mature (physically, mentally, emotionally, intellectually and morally);
iii) is sensible and has the ability to act rationally and responsibly by
understanding hisher own rights and limitations and of others;
9
Development of ~ d u ~ t iv) can exercise self-control or restrain oneself;
Education
v) can focus with partial or full personal sacrifice on public cause of great
importance;
vi) can make balanced choices in picking and choosing actions involving not
only gains and pleasures, but also loss, danger and pains;
vii) owns up responsibility for hisker own actions;
viii) can get to be a kid, youth, adult or the old as and when required and continue
to exist as adult;
ix) identifies one's own strengths and weaknesses; and
x) acts and reacts with kindness, compassion and reason and with long-term
perspectivelgoal towards self-actualisation.
Reflection
With your understanding of the concept of "adult" and based on your
observations of the members of your community, can you identify the persons
who are adults by:
a) physical maturity; b) mental maturity; c) legal age for marriage, and d)
legal age for franchise.
Compare the characteristics of each of the above identified persons with the
characteristics of an adult mentioned above and arrive at the conclusion as to
who islare really adult(s).
How to become an adult? Here comes the role of education - adult education.
Remember that becoming an adult is not a one-time affair, and it is a life-long
process as it comes mostly from age, observation and experience over the lifetime
of an individual. This in a nutshell is the crux of adult education. You will now
agree that adult education has always been there in every society and country;
may be in different forms. Thus, adult education is not of recent origin, but has
gained currency in recent times because of its growing need, significance,
organised presence, acceptability and popularity. Every man and woman feels
familiar with their own concept of adult education, but when asked to define it,
a majority of them feel real difficulty. Don't you also feel so? Perhaps, yes. So
what then is adult education.

Misconception about adult education: In the developing countries where

illiteracy is a major problem, the meaning of the term 'adult education' is widely
misconceived only as adult literacy i. e. something to do with imparting of only
literacy to adults. Thus, it is not surprising that, in practice too, adult education is
more often referred to as 'adult literacy' in developing countries. Literacy generally
refers to reading, writing and arithmetic skills of a person with understanding, in
the language (s)he normally speaks or uses. In fact, adult education is literacy
plus many other things. It includes the development of functionality and awareness
in relation to various different aspects of life. Another misconception is whether
adult education comes under formal education system (school, college, university,
etc) or under non-formal education system, that is outside the formal education
system or under both. Surely, the scope of adult education is very wide and
includes both the systems and more. Its activities range from leisure time spent
in reading to attending classes as remedial learning, from learning literacy to
10 achieving or acquiring a formal certificate, a diploma or a university degree;
from learning on the job to free-lance learning, etc. So, different people in different Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
countries have called adult education by different names such as liberal education, and Objectives
basic education, remedial education, vocational education, avocational education,
literacy education, continuing education, lifelong education, and so on. But, the
term "adult education" has, in fact, become a generic or more common term to
mean and include a wide range of things for adults. Nevertheless, adult education
has currently came into wide use throughout the world; yet, the concept is among
the most problematic ones in the field. Therefore, Sharan and Phyllis (1989,
p. 15) are right when they say "It is rare to come upon a single sentence that will
do justice to the full range of this phenomenon of adult education, or that will
satisfy the many different kinds of practitioners who call themselves adult
educators." This is so because all these practitioners feel that this need not be
considered a problem at all.

Although different countries use different terms, 'adult education' has been
recognised as an acceptable term for many. As mentioned above, the term 'adult
education' has been used to refer to different things in different countries. For
instance, it is used to refer to 'liberal education for adults' in the United Kingdom,
whereas in the United States it has the wider connotation of 'education of adults',
whether it be vocational or otherwise. In India the populace has widely
(mis)conceived it as literacy education for adults (old people), because of the
magnitude of illiteracy. The Government's literacy drives are also concentrated
more on eradication of illiteracy. 'Government of India has also called it by
different names at different times - community education, adult literacy, adult
education, workers' eduction, etc. As early as 1952 UNESCO had stated in its
"International Directory of Adult Education" that, in essence, adult education is
so closely related to the social, political, economic, geographic and cultural
conditions of each country that no uniform or precise definition can be arrived
at. As Aggarwal (1989, p.1) rightly points out, "adult education cannot be
explained or understood in a vacuum. It has to be seen in the cultural context and
in the nature of the activity." Added to this, the concept is expressed through
different terms - 'adult education' 'education of adults' and 'education for
adults'. One may wonder, whether they mean one and the same or are they
different!

1.2.1 Adult Education

'Adult education' has been variously defined by different people and institutions.
It is more useful for us to have a look at a few definitions quoted and analysed by
Lakshmi Reddy (2000, pp.4-8) from different view points. According to him,
some have defined it as education that starts at a particular stage or level of
education. According to Lindeman (1961) adult education, more accurately
defined, begins where vocational education leaves off. Adult education offers
some, who were not privileged, a last chance to learn. Some feel a need for
training in basic skills of learning so they enroll for learning, reading, writing
and arithmetic. If we examine this definition we will find the following essential
elements that characterise it.
i) It is post-vocational education.
ii) It is education for the deprived classes.
iii) It is training in basic skills of learning i. e. literacy.
Development of ~ d u ~ t Some others have defined adult education by looking at it as a process. The
Education
Exeter Conference 1969 defines it as the process whereby persons who no longer
(or did not) attend school on a regular and full-time basis (unless full-time
programmes are especially designed for adults) undertake sequential and
organised activities within a conscious intention of bringing about changes in
information, knowledge, understanding or skills, appreciation and attitudes, or
for the purpose of identifying and solving personal or community problems
(Liveright and Haygood, 1969, p.8). In this definition, we can observe that there
are two elements that characterise it, viz.
i) Part-time or full-time process.
ii) Sequential and organised activities.
On the contrary there are other definitions which do not link adult education
with any level and treat it as an activity or a programme or a process that
encompasses so many things. According to Paulo Freire (1970) adult education
"is a cultural action for freedom." It means, it is a liberating force for adults.
Freedman (1972, quoted in Jarvis, 1990) considers adult education as a process
which is part of cultural development, primarily the establishment of a means of
communication between the cultural systems of transmitters (inventors, research
workers, creative minds) and the cultural system of the receivers, i. e. groups for
whom adult education is intended. We will find that there are two important
elements in this definition.

i) A process which is part of cultural development.

ii) Communication between transmitters and receivers.
According to Faure et a1 (1972) the normal culmination of the education process
is adult education. There is one characteristic element in this definition i. e.
terminal education for adults. But, in view of the Education Committee of the
OECD ( 197.1) "adult education refers to any learning activity or programme
deliberately designed for adults. Its ambit is taken as spanning non-vocational,
vocational, general, non-formal, and community education and it is not restricted
to any particular level." As we can see this definition includes three essential
elements:

i) All activities and programmes for adults.

ii) General, non-formal, vocational and non-vocational education.
iii) Not-restricted to any particular level.
The General Conference of UNESCO (UNESCO, 1976) comprehensively defines
adult education as the "entire body of organised educational processes, whatever
content, level and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong
or replace initial education in school$, colleges and universities as well as in
apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adults by the society to which they
belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their attitudes or
behaviour in the two-fold perspective of full personal development and
participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural
development". We can very clearly notice the following essential elements in
this definition:
i) It includes all organised educational processes;

12 ii) It encompasses all content, levels and methods;

 iii) It includes formal or non-formal education for adults; Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features .
iv) It prolongs or replaces initial education in schools, colleges and universities; and Objectives

V) It develops abilities, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours; and

vi) It develops adults in two-fold manner - full personal development and
participation in development process.
Adult education is also regarded as the provision of largely, non-vocational
education for people who have left school and are not formally registered for a
college and university course leading to certification. Day-time or evening tuition
may be provided by an Extra-Mural or Extension Department or a college or a
university or by other institutions such as trade unions or the Workers Educational
Association. It may take place in college or secondary school premises and may
cover wide range of cultural, recreational. community and sporting activities.
Some writers have defined adult education by viewing it as a self or others-
directed efforts aimed at finding solutions to certain problems. Self-directed in
the sense that it is a voluntary, serious and frequently organised effort of adult
individuals and groups to find, through educational means, information, attitudes,
understanding and skills helpful in diagnosing and solving their vocational,
personal, familial and civic problems. According to Sharma (1984, pp.15-16)
adult education takes into itself both self-education whereby a learner is
responsible for management of hisker learning activities, and others-directed
education whereby a teacher, leader, media, or some other educational agent is
primarily responsible for the management of learning. While recognising this
enlarged application of the term 'adult education', most writers limit their
jnvestigation to those activities of men and women, who are guided and shaped
for a definite period of time by the desire to learn. This definition is characterised
by three essential elements.
i) Self-directed or others-directed.
ii) Guided by desire to learn and shaped to teach.
iii) Problem-solving.
Kundu (1986, p.16) states that "adult education is a development oriented
I education which can be planned and designed by others as well as the learners
themselves. The adult learner, to a great extent can assert in regard to content,
methodology, place and time of learning." The three characteristic elements that
! we can notice in this definition are:
&

II
i) Organised by adults themselves or by others.
j ii) Learner-centred.
iii) Development-oriented.
In Eire the 'Murphy Committee' defined adult education as the provision and
i utilisation of facilities whereby those who are no longer participants in the full-
I time school system may learn whatever they need to learn at any period of their
i
lives. Adult education, thus, is the organised provision of learning situations to
mature men and women with the purpose of enabling them to enlarge and to
i
interpret their own living experience for solving their own and the community
problems (de Castell, et al. 1989). In this definition one can observe two
approaches.
Development of ~ d u l t i) Cafeteria education, a choice based provision and utilisation of learning
Education
situations.
ii) Learning throughout life of mature people for solving their own and
community problems.
Thus, some of these definitions of adult education restrict it to mere provision of
educational facilities out of which the learners pick and choose according to
their needs, interests, etc making for a cafeteria approach to education. If we go
on to quote and analyse, we have many definitions offered by other adult
educationists. Hence, for the present we accept the widely accepted definition
offered by UNESCO which was the result of some collective international
thinking of the adult educationists. What then is education of adults?

1.2.2 Education of Adults

Like many academics, you too might have got a doubt as to whether there is any
difference between adult education and education of adults. It is, of course,
interesting too to know whether there does exist any difference in the usage of
these two terms. Can these be used interchangeably or are they different? Perhaps,
it is not even out of context to look at different views expressed in this regard.
According to Jarvis (1990a, pp.29-32) the term 'education of adults' tends to be
used to refer to all 'education' of 'adults'. In other words, its meaning relates to
the conceptual understanding of both 'education' and 'adult'. The term 'adult
education' carries specific connotations in the United Kingdom, which imply
that it is liberal education, and carries a stereotype of being middle-class, leisure
time pursuit. It must be recognised that the term 'adult education' has a social
definition as being a form of liberal education undertaken by those people who
are regarded as adults. Therefore, it is more a social rather than a conceptual
definition, and that is why it is important to distinguish between 'adult education'
and the 'education of adults'. In this view 'education of adults' is wider than
'adult education'. However, the definition of 'adult' still complicates this
discussion. Nevertheless, he ends up saying that what is called 'education of
adults' in the United Kingdom is synonymous to 'adult education' in the United
States. What then is education for adults?

1.2.3 Education for Adults

According to Deleon (1970) adult education includes all kinds of education for
adults - in schools and out of school, formal and informal, full-time and part-
time, for persons who no longer attend schools as well as for those who never
attended a school, and so on. We can see through this definition that it is more
precise, comprehensive and all embracing. Ansari (1996, p.56) views adult
education as education for adults outside the formal system not leading to
qualification; education for adults outside the formal system leading to
qualification; and deliberate provision of education for adults within the formal
system. According to Lakshmi Reddy (2000, pp.7-8) "adult education is part-
time or full-time education for men and women of all ages either organised by
themselves or provided by schools, learning centres, or other agencies which
enable them to improve their general or professional knowledge, skills and
abilities by either continuing their education or resuming their initial or incomplete
education of previous years. Adult education is, thus, usually more flexible in its
structure than traditional, mandatory education. Adult education may offer credits
14
towards higher education degrees or do not offer any degrees or credits. Its
clientele include all those adults who have never been to school, who have dropped Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
out of school or who are continuing their education in formal, non-formal or ,
and Objectives
vocational educational institutions of different kinds or who are seeking
employment or who are engaged in different occupations or professions".

As Lakshmi Reddy, (2000, pp.28-29) further puts it "Though UNESCO's (1 976)

definition of adult education is widely accepted, the concept 'adult education7,
like the concept 'adult' has yet to have a universally accepted definition. The
different definitions of adult education (Lindeman, 1961;Liveright and Haygood,
1969; Deleon, 1970; Nyerere, 197 1; OECD, 1971; UNESCO, 1970a) include
adults who are: i) illiterates and literates, irrespective of their occupation, socio-
economic background, etc, and ii) undertaking educational activities in non-
vocational, vocational, general, formal, non-formal andlor informal education
system on full-time or part-time basis organised by adults for themselves or by
others for adults. These definitions embrace education leading or not leading to
degrees, certificates, etc, covering a wide range of subjects and activities. Most
of these definitions are concerned with promotion of knowledge, skills, attitudes,
capacities, etc. for the development and/or welfare of individuals, society and/or
nation. However, there is no unanimity on definition of adult education either
from the view point of class of its clienteleltarget groups, nature, aims, objectives,
form, type, subjects, scope, stages or levels."

Having looked at different views on definitions of 'adult education7and 'education

of adults7,we understand that though they are generic terms, they are used in
different countries to include a wide variety of activities, experiences, efforts,
approaches, processes and programmes for adults, which cover different spheres
of lives of different groups or cultural systems. They, therefore, reflect the
differences in the historical, political, social and cultural conditions of different
countries.

But, we need to be very'clear that whichever of these three terms - 'adult

education', 'education of adults' and 'education for'adults' - is used by any
one, in general it includes all kinds and forms of education for adults i. e. for
their growth, development, welfare and transformation. So, we should not have
any confusion about these terms or about the distinction between and among
these terms as they are used interchangeably by different people in different
countries, either inadvertently or intentionally to mean one and the same. In this
course material also hereafter use of any one of these three terms wherever used,
means one and the same, unless it is specifically mentioned otherwise.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit
under "Answers to Check Your Progress".
1) Define adult education. Explain the difference, if any, between the terms
'adult education', 'education of adults' and 'education for adults'.
................................................................................................................
Development of Adult
Education

1.3 RELEVANT TERMS EXPLAINED

In this section we will focus our discussion on some terms and concepts related
to adult education. This would help you in dispelling misunderstanding or any
confusion you have about them. However, our discussion does not go into the
details of the origin and growth of these terms and concepts, as it is mainly
meant to familiarise you with these terms and concepts and the difference, if
any, between them.

1.3.1 ~undamentalEducation
It is the responsibility of the parents, society andlor the State to see that all human
beings in a modern society acquire or achieve a certain minimum level of
education. This is generally called elementary education and offered to the
individuals during their childhood starting with their formal schooling. In reality,
due to some reason or the other, many individuals either get deprived of the
opportunity to have access to formal school or after access to it they may fail to
acquire the desired level of elementary education. In such a case, it is more the
State's responsibility to provide them with remedial opportunities/measures in
their later years or adult life to promote in them this elementary education as
remedial education. Such education is called, by UNESCO, fundamental
education. Fundamental education is preparation of children or adults who have
not had an opportunity for traditional formal schooling, for effective participation
in community life through instructions in basic facts and skills as of literacy,
agriculture, dwelling, health and hygiene and citizenship and so on.

1.3.2 Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Education

Hartnett (1972, p.14) and Coombs et a1 (1973, p.10) defineformal education as
the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded 'education system' running
from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general
academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-
time professional education and training.
Non-formal education, as the name itself indicates, is education without
formalities or with relaxed formalities. It refers to education which reduces or
relaxes formalities and rigidities with the purpose of avoiding hindrances in
16
making education more accessible to different kinds and types of learners. In *dultEducation:TheBasic
Concept, Terms, Features
other words, non-formal education, as implied by the term, is supposed to be and Objectives
available outside the formal or conventional system with enhanced access to
many learners. While Hartnett (op. cit) calls it non-traditional education and
defines it as a "set of learning experiences free of time and space limitations",
Coombs et a1 (op. cit) call it non-formal education and define it as "any organised
educational activity outside the established formal system - whether operating
separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended
to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives". To clarify this
definition further, the same authors distinguished non-formal education from
informal education. They defined irzjormal education as "the truly lifelong process
whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from
daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her
environment - from family and neighbours from work and play, from the market
place, the library, and the mass media." However, Radcliffe and Colletta ( 1 989,
p.60) state that "in practice no hard lines of demarcation exist between formal,
non-formal and informal education: while many activities may be perceived as
falling exclusively into one category alone, many share aspects of two or all of
them."

Non-formal education, like formal education, can also be organised at any level,
ranging from primary education in schools to higher education in Universities or
institutions of higher learning. It can be offered by existing formal institutions
by relaxing the formalities or by establishing specialised structures or institutions
outside these institutions. You are, perhaps, aware of Institutes of Correspondence
Courses, Directorates of Distance Education in conventional Universities, and
Open School, State Open Universities, State Resource Centres for Adult Education
and so on outside the formal system. All these are examples (and part) of non-
formal education system in India. Of course the Open University is the more
current term coined to refer to an institution providing higher education in more
open, tlexible or non-formal manner through the distance mode.

Population growth on one hand and lack of commensurate expansion of school

system with its rigidities on the other, amongst many other things, have deprived
many people of their access to education. It is in this context some educational
thinkers have focused their thinking on taking education out of the physical
environs of the school. Ivan Illich (1971 - Deschooling Society) was the main
exponent of such school of thought called 'de-schooling7. De-schooling is the
philosophy that underlines non-formal or open education. In simple terms it
means biinging education out of the confines of school. In other words, it espouses
free education shorn of all rigidities of formal system such as one point entry or
single point admission, regular attendance, definite and common syllabus, rigid
timingsfperiods of teaching and learning, examinations and so on. It prescribes
relevant, flexible, systematic and diversified education for the learners with
diverse needs and interests.
You may have a doubt here. What is the difference between non-formal education,
open education and de-schooling? In fact, these terms are synonymous and
espouse the same philosophy. Open learningfeducation emphasises openness of
leaningfeducational opportunities, non-formal education emphasises freeing of
education from all the formalitiesfrigidities; while 'de-schooling7emphasises on
17
Development of ~ d u l t bringing education outside the physical environs of the schools, which in broad
Education
sense includes all the educational institutions.

1.3.4 Lifelong Education

In its broadest sense lifelong education includes all processes by which an
individual acquires formal, non-formal and informal education continually or
continuously throughout adulthood, for necessary career development and
valuable personal enrichment. It is far from being limited to the period of
attendance at a school for education and learning. It extends throughout life,
includes all skills and branches of knowledge, uses all possible means and gives
the opportunity to all people for full development of their personality.

Life-long education is the provision and utilisation of educational experiences

throughout a person's life. It implies learning throughout life and, therefore,
denotes an overall scheme aimed both at restructuring the existing education
system and at developing the entire educational potential inside and outside the
education system. Its rationale is in part the same as that for adult education,
except that it intrinsically involves a radical reform of organisation, form and
content of all other phases of education, and also implies a greater recognition of
the educational functions of non-educational agencies.

The UNESCO report 'Learning to Be' (Faure et al, 1972) is the leading policy
document on lifelong education. It contains a coherent philosophy developed
about man, education and society to which the idea of lifelong learning was
related. It adopts as optimistic view of education to change society. Eagerness to
learn. 'libido sciendi' is deeply rooted in human nature and once external obstacles
are removed it will provide the necessary motivation for lifelong learning. The
society of the future will be a 'learning society' the culture of future society will
be 'scientific humanism'. Every individual must be in a position to keep learning
throughout life. The idea of life-long education is the key-stone of the learning
society. Life-long education will be the master concept for educational policies
in the years to come for both developed and developing countries. Life-long
education in the fullest sense of the term means that business, industrial and
agricultural firms will have extensive educational functions.

There appear to be two approaches to lifelong education in contemporary

literature. One that stretches 'initial education' to what is termed 'further
education' and the other that stretches the concept even forward throughout life
using the concept of 'continuing education'. It thus stretches from initial education
to further education to continuing education.

It is a process that begins in childhood and continues through out life. It includes
formal, informal and non-formal education received by the individual. The
educational and learning processes in which children, young people and adults
of all ages are involved in the course of their lives, in whatever form, should be
considered as a whole constituting into lifelong education (UNESCO. 1976).
Lifelong education is the concept that education is not a once-for-all experience
confined to the initial cycle of full-time education commenced in childhood, but
a process that must continue throughout life. Life itself is a continuous learning
process, but each person also needs specific opportunities for further and new
education, both vocational and general, throughout life. In order that an individual
may adapt to change in his own circumstances (marriage, parenthood, professional
18
 situation, old age, etc.), may achieve his fullest potential for individual Adult Education:TheBasic
Concept, Terms, Features
development and may keep abreast of technical and social change. Lifelong and Objectives

I education comprehends both individual's intentional and incidental learning

experiences.

Dave (1976, p.34) regards lifelong education as 'a process of accomplishing

personal, social and professional development throughout the life span of
individuals in order to enhance the quality of life of both individuals and their
collectives. It includes formal, non-formal and informal patterns of learning
throughout the life cycle of an individual for the cons~iousand continuous
enhancement of the quality of life of his own and that of his society.' According
to Jarvis (1990, p.35) lifelong education is any planned series of incidents having
a humanistic bases directed towards the participants' learning and understanding
that may occur at any stage in the life span. Reviewing certain approaches and
underlying philosophies he expresses that lifelohg education is a concept and an
idea which remains rather meaningless unless it is actually implemented.

Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the

Twenty-First Century (Delors, 1996) reiterates the role of education in personal
and social development, particularly in the context of globalisation. It proposes
learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be as
the four pillars, the foundations, of education which can tap all the hidden talents
of every person in any society. It emphasises that such lifelong learning will be
one of the keys to meeting the challenges of the twenty-first century.

What then is Education Permarzente? It is, in fact, a French term for 'lifelong
education'. French law specifies that higher education must be open to former
students as well as mature students who have not previously had the opportunity
of higher education, even if they do not have necessary entrance qualifications
i.e. through a system of lifelong education. It implies that the education system
needs to be remade to meet people's lifelong but discontinuous needs, which
might recur in personal, social, academic or vocational life. In this sense lifelong
education means the same as recurrent education? Let us look at the concept of
recurrent education.

1.3.5 Recurrent Education

Recurrent education and its affiliated concepts have been the most debated
educational issues. They have been presented as the panacea of all the ills of -
ailing educational systems and of old ideas.

Recurrent education has been called 'the first new idea in education in this century'
(Houghton, 1974). Recurrent education, organised in Europe, is understood
primarily as the development of a national policy that would provide citizens
with opportunities to alternative periods of work with periods of fornlal training
throughout their lives. In general the learning experiences are to be related to
goals. But according to Kallen (1979, p.45) the only new thing about recurrent
education is its recurrence. The concept of 'recurrent education' has been launched
as an alternative strategy in 1968, first by Olof Palme, at that time Swedish
Minister of Education, in his address to the conference of European Ministers of
Education held at Versailles, and later in many Organisation of Economic Co-
1 operation and Development (OECD) reports.
I
Development of Adult There is some argument about the definition of the term 'recurrent education'
Education
which is perhaps summarised by the following rather tautologous suggestions
that recurrent education is 'the distribution of education over the lifespan of the
individual in a recurring way' (OECD, 1973, p.7). This means lifelong education
is nothing but recurrent education over the life span, interspersed with work a n d
or leisure. However, this is a little broader than the earlier definition proposed by
OECD that recurrent education 'is formal and preferably full-time education for
adults who want to resume their education, interrupted earlier for a variety of
reasons (Jarvis, 1990, p.40). Does it mean second chance formal education to
those deprived of education? According to Kallen (1990, pp.45-6) there are two
major risks that have to be avoided in writing on definitions and distinctions' in
the field. The first relates to the temptation to see distinctions where there are
none or where they are irrelevant to educational policy and practice. Much of the
literature about the issues ignores the distinctions between recurrent, permanent
and lifelong education and even treats the terms as interchangeable. The second
risk that must be avoided is that of reconstructing history.

One of the most significant features of recurrent education is that the individual
is regarded as having a right to a specified amount of formal education during
his life-time, and that this need not all be completed during the formative years,
within the period of initial education. It is also regarded as a radical, moral strategy
for lifelong education. Unlike continuing education which appears to occur in
piece-meal manner in response to expressed or perceived needs, etc, recurrent
educationists regard their approach to be a comprehensive alternative strategy
for what are at present three unrelated sectors: a) conventional post-literacy
educational system, b) on the job training of all kinds, and c) adult education
(OECD, 1973, p.25 quoted in Jarvis, 1990. p.4 1).

Recurrent education is the organisation of lifelong education into periods of

systematic study alternating with extended periods of other activity, e.g. work or
leisure. Policy instruments of recurrent education fall into two categories:
educational and non-educational. The educational strategies are to some extent
elaborated. It is stressed that 'the introduction of recurrent education ... must be
part of a wider policy for educational change in which all types and levels are
carefully coordinated. Recurrent education will necessitate reforms in curricula
and structure. both at the compulsory and post-compulsory levels. It also implies
bringing upper secondary and post-secondary education together into one flexible
and integrated system. The non-educational measures include financing policies,
educational leave and measures on the labour market and inside industry, as well
as impact on transport, housing, medical care and culture (Kallen, 1979, pp.49-
52).

According to (Jarvis, 1990, p.35-44) recurrent education has two major strands
of philosophy: a more radical one that regards it as a strategy for the reform of
the whole educational system and the other, perhaps also a conservative stand, is
less ambitious in its claims preferring rather to regard it as a reformist approach
to implementing lifelong education. There is, therefore, a marked difference in
the philosophy of the two stands and yet they both recognise that while education

conceptually different from lifelong education? Is continuing education actually

20
hynanymous with further education? What is the relationship between continuing Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
and recurrent education? and Objectives

Here, we feel it necessary to understand the concepts 'further education' and

'continuing education', at least to see through the substance in the above questions
raised above by Jarvis.

1.3.6 Further Education

Indian Education Commission (1964-66) observes that education does not end
with schooling but it is a long process. The adult today is in need of an
understanding of the rapidly changing world and the growing complexion of
society. Even those who have the most sophisticated education must continue to
learn or else, the alternative is, face obsolescence.

In the United Kingdom further education is a general term used to describe full-
time or part-time education for those who have completed their secondary
education, higher education (i.e. academic or professional education for students
over 18 with university entrance or equivalent qualifications) and adult education.
Traditionally this refers to the 16-19 years old 'young adult' but now it is much
broader. 'Liberal adult education' is often a sector of further education and many
'colleges of further education' have departments of adult education. Additionally,
a great deal of 'continuing education' with 'vocational' education is provided by
these colleges. But, in the Federal Republic of Germany further education covers
'adult education', 'continuing education' and 'vocational retraining', and is
defined as all forms of continuation or resumption of studies after completion of
the first educational phase of varying duration and, as a rule after, taking full-
time employment. It is for adults of all age groups and educational qualifications,
and may be 'vocational' or 'general' (Jarvis, 1990a). Further education is, thus,
offered primarily for adults of all ages at post-seconciilry levels; it includes
extensive programmes designed to keep such professionals as attorneys,
physicians and engineers up-to-date in their fields. It also includes many varieties
of degree programmes designed especially for adults, career counselling and
counselling for career change services, and programmes of non-credit courses.
Thus, further education is treated as education for the professionals and for those
seeking counselling for careers.

Let us now see how further education is different from continuing education.

1.3.7 Continuing Educatiod

We know that knowledge is not stagnant and constant, it is ever growing, .
expanding, exploding and multiplying.All individuals whether literate or illiterate,
student or teacher, employer, employee or unemployee require endless education
throughout life in order to keep abreast of new knowledge for their survival,
growth and development. At the present rate of growth in knowledge, it is
calculated that knowledge doubles every five years. This necessitates constant
learning on the part of an individual to keep himself up-to-date in his field or the
developments in general.
Venables (1976, p. 19) defines continuing education as inclusive of all learning
opportunities which can be taken up after full-time, compulsory schooling has
ceased. They can be full-time or part-time and will include both vocational and
non-vocational study. According to Legge, (1982, p.8), "Continuing education
 Development of ~ d u l t seems to have reference to some kind of retraining when needed, for example, in
Education
a new job. It certainly presupposes that some education has gone before,
presumably initial education, which has first to be completed." According to
these definitions it is clear that continuing education starts after certain level of
schooling while lifelong education is broader as it subsumes continuing education.
Continuing education includes those learning opportunities that are taken up
after full-time schooling has ended, or those learning opportunities that are taken
up after the completion of initial education. It is, in fact, an all-embracing term
and it has assumed currency in the 1980s, although 'continuing professional
education7is also employed in the case of post-basic vocational education7.The
German Education Council define it as 'the continuation or resumption of
organised learning after the completion of an initial educational phase of varying
length7(Jarvis, 1990a).
Continuing education is education offered to or undertaken by persons who have
completed the cycle of full-time education in childhood. It is a synonym of adult
education. It is a term used in the United States to denote the entire range of
elementary, secondary and post-secondary educational opportunities offered by
public and private agencies, whereby participants of any age engage in academic,
vocational, leisure time and personal development activities (DAE, 1992, p. 13).
Mandatoq Continuing Education is the practice by which members of a
profession are compelled to attend 'continuing professional education7in order
to retain the license to practice. Usually the profession stipulates the extent of
their obligation, e.g. at least one 'refresher course7every five years. In America,
a large number of professions are introducing mandatory continuing education,
and in some states it is required to register to practice in that state. Open
Continuing Educution is the term used in the Federal Republic of Germany to
mean the continuation or resumption of orgalzised learning after the completion
of any kind of primary.or secondary education. This definition is very close to
that of 'continuing education' in the United Kingdom although in practice in
Germany this term appears to be closer to 'initial adult education'.
In India and in the United Kingdom Departments or Centres of Adult and
Continuing Education exist in different Universities. What then does the term
'Adult and Continuing Education7denote? Is it different from adult education
and continuing education? In fact, it is a fusion of the two terms 'adult education7
and 'continuing education'. It is an attempt to end the historic division between
'adult liberal education7and 'vocational edhcation' in the United Kingdom, and
to illustrate that both are about the 'education of adults'. Conceptually this is
valid, but it was seen by some as a sign that 'liberal adult education' had little
future. (Jarvis, 1990a).
Is there any difference between life-long education, further education and
continuing education? According to Jarvis (1990, pp.36-7) lifelong education
makes no distinction between initial and post-initial education where as continuing
education refers only to the later part of life-long education and is, only one
branch of education. Continuing education, however, is not the same as further
education for a number of reasons: further education is post-compulsory but not
necessarily post-initial; further education tends to imply a specific level of study
whereas continuing education does not; further education is usually pre-
I vocational, vocational or academic while conceptually continuing education need

1 22 not be directed towards any course assessment or award.

 Adult Education: The Basic
Check Your Progress Concept, Terms, Features
and Objectives
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress"
2 i) Explain the difference, if any, between 'De-schooling', 'Non-formal
Education' and 'Open Education'.
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ii) Explain 'Lifelong Education' and 'Recurrent Education'.
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While technological advancements have come to the aid of policy makers and
proinoters of education for all, the adults with ability to study on their own or
independently are the most benefited ones. There are now different modes of
education that have interface with technology. Let us discuss a few such current
concepts of adult education, which are the results of technological interface.

1.3.8 Correspondence Education

Correspondence education can be said to be one of the earliest and institutionalised
means of providing distance education. Learning materials prepared by a few
trained subject experts are supplied to the learners by post for reading, alongside
giving them some reading and writing assignments. To develop in them the feel
of formal school/classroom atmosphere, contact classes/programmes are
conducted at some convenient places where the learners and the instructors come
together for face-to-face personal interaction. At the end of the course,
examinations are conducted and certificates, degrees, or diplomas are awarded I
to successful candidates.
23
Development of A ~ U I ~ Correspondence education, a form of education organised through the written
Education
medium, began in Britain as early as 1840. Pitman started teaching shorthand
through correspondence in England towards the end of the nineteenth century.
In America there were attempts to introduce it in 1873 but it really began with
Chautaqua in 1879 (Jarvis, 1990a).

Correspondence education consists of "batches of study materials sent by post

to the student who then completes the required reading and exercises, and returns
the latter to the college for assessment by an appointed personal tutor. The
exercises are marked and the student receives comments, advice and general
guidance" (Legge, 1982, p.86). From the above definition, the following essential
elements can be observed.

i) Supply of study materials along with writing exercises/assignments by post

to students.
ii) Returning of written exercises/assignments by the students.
iii) Assessment of and feedback on exercises/assignments by the tutor.
We can thus find in this definition that there is an organised educational instruction
and interaction made possible through printed and/or written material sent by
post.

Correspondence education is education conducted through postal services with

or without face-to-face contact between teacher and learners. Teaching is done
by written or tape-recorded material sent to the learner, whose progress is
monitored through written or taped exercises sent to the teacher, who corrects
them and returns them to the learner with criticism and advice. It is also called
correspondence study (Titmus, 1989). This definition is slightly more advanced
in the sense that it brings in electronic media within the purview of correspondence
education.

From the above definitions it is very clear that correspondence education is a

means of education for those who are literates and with certain level of basic
skills of self-reading and writing as well as with some kind of mastery over the
written language, and also with some educational qualifications already possessed
by them. Usually these learners are relatively more mature and are in a position
to learn on their own through self-study or self-understanding of the printed
materials and/or the electronic materials supplied to them. It is, thus, education
mainly for adults or others who are literate with ability for self-study. To be brief
and precise, it is an education offered for literates with certain educational
qualifications through correspondence mode of teaching and learning. There may
or may not be provision for face-to-face contact between the teacher and the
learner.

1.3.9 Distance Education

In simple terms, the system of education in which education is imparted from a
place to a distant learner is called distance education, The institutionalised
education offered by or received from the correspondence/distance education
institutions and open universities falls under 'distance education'. Now, let us
look at some of the.definitions of distance education for clarity and better
understanding about it, and also of the subtle differences, if any, between
24
correspondence education and distance education.
Different definitions of distance education have been offered by different distance Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Term, Features
educationists. Distance education has been variously described as correspondence and Objectives
education, open education, open learning, etc. According to Dohmen ( 1967, p.9
quoted in Keegan, 1986, p.39) distance education is a systematically organised
form of self-study in which student counselling, presentation of learning materials
and securing and supervision of students' success is carried out by a team of
teachers, each of whom has specific responsibilities.

Moore (1972, quoted in 'right, 1990, p.156) defines distance teaching as "the
':\tilily of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviours are executed
ap;ln ~I-OIIIthe learning behaviours, including those which in a contiguous situativn
w~t:lh.i b2 ~?crl-'ormed in the learners' presence, so that communication between
the teacher ant1 the learner must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical or
odier de\ ices". Accordins to him transactional distance is a function of two
variables called 'dialogue' - which describes the extent to which the learner and
educator are able to respond to each other, and 'structureL-- which measures an
educational programme's responsiveness to leaimers' indik idual needs. Combining
dialogue and structure he developed four types of distance teaching programmes:
i) programmes with no dialogue and no structure (-D -S); ii) programmes with
no dialogue but with structure (-D +S), iii) programmes with dialogue and
\tructure (+D +S) and, iv) programmes with dialogue and no structure (+D -S).
+D and +S represent dialogue and structure respectively and -D and -S represent
no dialogue and no structure.

But, according to Boyd, et a1 (1980) distance between the teacher and learner is
not merely geographical and educational but psychological as well. It is a
'transactional distance' in the relationship of the two partners in the educational
enterprise. Borah (1990, pp.vii-viii) opines that distance is not to be seen as a
poor relation or distant cousin of the formal system. It is a system of non-fornlal
education in its own right. It has its own philosophy, its own goals and its own
methodology. If the formal system has served the society fruitfully, so does the
system of distance education hope to do so. It does not compete with the formal
system, but supplenlents it. It caters to those sections of society which, either
being located in far-flung remote areas or because of economic compulsions,
cannot take advantage of the formal system. It also provides another opportunity
to those members of the community who have had to discontinue their education
at one point or the other because of any reason whatsoever. It provides the support
services, guidance and conselling, and libraries through study centres. This
definition is, perhaps, more general in nature and its approach is based on
philosophical point of view.

According to Peters (d973, p.206 quoted in Keegan, 1986,p.41) distance teaching1

education is a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is
rationalised by the application of division of labour and organisational principles
as well as by the extensive use of technological media, especially for the purpose
of reproducing high quality teaching materials which makes it possible to instruct
great numbers of students at the same time wherever they live. It is an
industrialised form of teaching and learning. In this context, you can compare
this definition with lGNOU as an educational industry so that you can better
understand and appreciate this definition. You can engage your fellow student as
well in this discussion, whenever you find a chance to meet them.
Development of Adult Erdos, (1975) defines distance education as a 'method of teaching in which the
Education
teacher bears the responsibility of imparting knowledge and skills to a student,
who does not receive instructions orally, but who studies in'a place and at a
distance determined by his individual circumstances. According to Homberg
(1977) distance education include various forms of study at all levels which are
not under the continuous, immediate, supervision of tutors present with their
students in lecture rooms or on the premises. Nevertheless, the distance education
method benefits from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorial organisation.

Distance education is a means of providing learning experiences for students

through the use of self-instructional materials and access to educational resources,
the use of which is largely determined by the student and which allow the student
for the most part, to choose the time, place and circumstances of learning (Gough,
1981, p.10).

Keegan (1986, p.49) describes distance education as a form of education

charac tensed by:
the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length
of the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face
education;
the influence of an educational organisation both in the planning and
preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support
services; this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself
programmes;
the use of technological media; print, audio, video or computer to unite
teacher and learner and carry the content of the course;
the provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit
from or even initiate dialogue; this distinguishes it from other uses of
technology in education; and
the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of
the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not
in groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and
socialisation purposes.
Though we my feel difficulty to call it a definition, his (Keegan's) above
description of distance education is very comprehensive and includes all the
essential elements that characterise distance education. He further points out
that, it is important to be able to say whether distance education is to be regarded
the same as or different from University without walls, extra-mural studies,
experiential learning, off-campus education, open learning, extended campus,
etc.
I

The term 'distance education' has now become a generic term for forms of
education in which the teachers and students are separated by geographical
distance and communication is through correspondence or other forms of
technology, e.g. satellite, computer, electronic mail, etc. The distance and open
education interfaced with interactive technology is a major advance in the
provision of part-time higher education for adults. It provides open access to
higher education and has no formal entry requirements. It aims at utilising multi-
media resources for enhancing access to education.
 The latest among the distance teaching institutions of higher education are the Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
open universities. You being a student of IGNOU, a national open university in and Objectives
India, it is of some interest to you in this context to know that the first University
to engage in distance teaching was the University of Queensland in Australia,
which began its distance education programmes in 191 1. In the 1950s the
University of New England in Armidale, Australia had included within its charter
a 'distance education' remit. This later has become the model upon which some
other universities have developed. Thus, the developments in distance education
led to the establishment of a more evolved or advanced institution for adult
education called Open University. There is a real sense in which the Open
University in the United Kingdom acted as a catalyst in the formation of these
institutions, with many of them being founded in the 1970s and 1980s. Throughout
the world there has been a remarkable development of these universities, all
offering various degree programmes.
Nevertheless, what we can notice is that these Open Universities are in turn
establishing separate distance education units and offering specialised
programmes through distance education. You may be further aware that there
are DirectoratesISchools of Distance Education established even in the
conventional universities. It would be meaningful and contextual for you to
understand the concept of open educationllearning and distinguish it from distance
education.

1.3.10 Open LearningIEducation

Open learning is the title given to more flexible methods of study, and teaching
in which there is openness in access, content, delivery system and assessment.
There are colleges or provider-based systems in which learners attend centres;
local-based systems with 'flexi-study' and support but the learning is undertaken
in the learners' homes; and 'distance learning systems' (Jarvis, 1990a). From
this we understand that open learningleducation underlines a philosophy which
provides for open education or open teaching and learning which can be offered
either through distance learning system or the contiguous system by introducing
an element of openness or flexibility in it. The learninglteaching can be either at
the provider (individual or institution) of learning opportunities, or at home or
the place where the learner is. In the case of the provider-based system, it refers
to the formal or conventional institutions and in the latter case it refers to the
distance methods and modes. According to Borah (1990, p.vii) open education
is characterised by relaxed or no rigid entry qualifications, learning according to
one's own pace and convenience, flexibility in the choice of courses, and use of
modern and appropriate educational and communicative technology. It means
open learningleducation can be offered either through distance learning systems
or the contiguous system by introducing an element of openness or flexibility.
You may ask an important question here - whether open education is part of
distance education or vice versa? Or, are there differences between the two?
Escotet (1983, p.144) distinguishes open education from distance education.
I

I
According to him open education is particularly characterised by the removal of
t restrictions, exclusions and privileges; by the accreditation of students' previous
1 experiences; by the flexibility of the management of the time variable; and by

I
substantial change in the traditional relationship between professors and students.
On the other hand, distance education is a modality which provides education
without the necessity of regular class participation, where the individual is
responsible for his own learning.
Development of Adult
Education Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
3) Explain the difference between the following:
i) 'Correspondence Education' and 'Distance Education'.
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ii) 'Distance Education' and- 'Open Education'.
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1.4 SOME SPECIFIC TERMS USED IN ADULT

EDUCATION
You may recall that in Section 1.2 above, we have defined the term 'literacy' in
our attempt to define adult education. As you move on further into the subject or
discipline of adult education you will come across many different terms related
to literacy. We will. however, confine our discussion here to some specific terms
that you may come across very conlmonly in the literature of adult education.

1.41 Literacy: Literate, Illiterate, Numerate and Innumerate

As we have discussed in section 1.2, adult education in developing countries has
often concentrated on promotion of literacy, amongst others things. The Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995) defines literacy as ability to read and
write. Definitions of literacy given by Laubach (1971. p.536), Bormuth (1978,
p.125), Oyedji et a1 (1982, p.l), Directorate of Adult Education (1992, p.29)
28
 commonly refer to reading, writing and counting or arithmetic skills of a person Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
with understanding in the language (s)he normally speaks or uses. So, there is and Objectives
not much hesitation for many to accept that a liter~zteis one who has the ability
to read, write and compute, with understanding in one's language. And, an
illiterute is one who does not have the ability to read , write and compute.

It does not stop there. We also find terms 'numerate' and 'innurner:lte' based on
the tern1 'literate'. A person who can use paper and pentpencil (includes \!ate
and slate pencil) for arithmetic purposes is called nzrlnemtr, and the one who
cannot do so and solely depend\ on mental/oral calculations is called an
irznlimernte (Carraher et al., 1985: Graham and Ellika, 199 1 ). A vegetable vendor
who is an illiterate but has good ability to do mental calculations in dealing with
his customers is a perfect example of an innumerate.

1.4.2 Functional Literacy, Functionality and Literacy Diversity

Having understood litel-ate and illiterate, you need to remember the fact that all
literates may not be functional literates, i.e. not able to use literacy in their living
and working conditions. Functional illiterate is one 'who has not acquired the
basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic and, thus, is unable to participate
actively in those activities within society which require such skills' (DAE, 1992).
Some are good in using their literacy skills and some are not good (cr bad) in
using them. Perhaps. in view of this Lakshmi Reddy (2000, p.31) introduces the
terms ill-literate and well-literate as synonymous to the terms 'functional illiterate'
and 'functional literate' respectively.

In simple terms, literacy that is functional can be called functional literacy.

F~rnctionalliterucy has also been defined in various ways. The final report of thc
World Conference of Education Ministers on the Eradication of Illiteracy
organised by UNESCO in Tehran in 1965 (IFNESCO,1976, quoted in St. John
1-luuti.r. 1987, p.25) contains the following statement which can be conaidered
a\ its official definition of functional literacy:

7'lie l*rrjpmcrst o j l ~ ( ~ r n i to
l ~ read
g and kvr-it~should be nude an
opportrrnity j i ~ rtrcquiring irzform~~tiollthat cczrz be used for improving
sta~~durclc;reading c~ntlw,ritin,o should lead not only to elementary
perzeral kno~lleclgebut to tlninirlg .for- ~jork,iizcreased productil.ity, a
greater pcirticipation in civil life and GI better understanding qf the
surrounding world and should z~ltirizatelyopen the way to basic human
c-ulture.

Other definitions considered functional literacy in terms of:

a) the goals to be accomplished by literacy in life (Heath, 1989, p. 17);

b) the ability to use literacy and engage in such activities which require literacy
skills (Jarvis, 1990);
c) \elf-reliance in literacy and numeracy coupled w ~ t hawarene\s of and
participation in the wide range of development and wellclre activities
(National Literacy I\/lission. GOl. 1988. p. 14);
ci ) the completion oi certain years of \chooling (Cairns, 1977: Cipolla. 1969);
t:) occupational and life skills for economic. social and cultural developn~znt
and liberation (Freire. i970), and so on.
1 29
b
Development of Adult It must, however, be noted that there it is not easy to compare functionality of
Education
literacy across different cultures because of the differences across cultures in the
process, methodology of acquisition and its measurement and comparison. Hence,
Resnick and Resnick (1977) has rightly noticed that the concepts of literacy and
criteria for its achievement have varied significantlyover time, place and populace.
Notwithstanding the above, serious attempts have been made to distinguish
literacy from functional literacy. Kundu (1986, p.40) and Okenimkpe (1992,
p.34) argue that functional literacy follows literacy, implying thereby that
functional literacy is later stage of literacy. The World Conference of Education
Ministers held in 1965 used functional literacy for designating second form of
literacy. To avoid confusion even between basic literacy and traditional literacy
Okenimkpe (1989) uses the term initial literacy in place of basic literacy. The
Education Commission (1964-66) in its report 'Education and National
Development' expresses the view that if literacy is to be worthwhile it must be
functional, indicating thereby that, literacy should promote functionality. The
UNESCO report (1976) on the Experimental World Literacy Programme
questions whether functional literacy can be applied in a society with diverse
vocational interests. In its publication, Functional Literacy - Why and How
(UNESCO, 1976a, pp.9-10) attempts to provide an understanding of the
distinction between traditional and functional literacy. According to it traditional
literacy is a separatist activity which is diffuse, non-intensive, standardised and
rigid, while functional literacy is (not an end in itself) integrative and intensive
which aims directly for knowledge of practical/technical utility and promotion
of development. We can see here that this may, theoretically, seem sound, but in
practice the distinction is always an illusion.
Okenimkpe (1992, pp.32-42) discusses at length the theoretical soundness,
practical difficulties and unconvincing victories of functional literacy, and
advocates the promotion of traditional literacy expressing the belief that it is
capable of achieving the same goals as is functional literacy. Thus, all the exercises
to define and differentiate literacy and functional literacy seem to be futile, more
particularly, from the practical point of view as there appears, hardly, to be any
clear distinction between the two. Hence, till today, the two terms are used
distinctly by some and interchangeably by others, leaving no scope for any sort
of discussion. Furthermore, making out absolute differences between illiteracy
and functional illiteracy may indeed be a difficult task.
Moreover, if functional literacy is considered as a later stage of literacy, it seems
to differ very little from another term 'post-literacy'. One of the working groups
during the First International Orientation Seminar held at Nairobi from 16-27
August, 1982 (Dave et al, 1985, p.320) defined post-literacy as "an integrating
learning process to assist literates to retain, improve and apply their basic
knowledge, attitudes and skills for the satisfaction of their basic needs, and to
permit them to continue education through a self-directed process for
improvement of their quality of life (personal and societal)". By comparing this
with the definitions of functional literacy one may struggle in vain to differentiate
between the two terms because both functional literacy and post-literacy stress
integrating and applying learning for improving quality of life.
Recent literature on literacy lists many types of literacy (literacy diversity) such
a s computer literacy, legal literacy, visual literacy, information literacy,
communication literacy, scientific literacy, social literacy, multi-cultural literacy,
30
global literacy, etc used in different contexts. You will learn about them if you AdultEducation:TheBasic
Concept, Terms, Features
start discussing with others, or reading some material related to these concepts. and Objectives

1.4.3 Pedagogy, Andragogy and Humanagogy

You will find the word 'pedagogy' commonly used in the literature of education.
Pedagogy (derived form the Greek word paid meaning 'child' and agogy meaning
'leader of') literally means the art and science of teaching children. But, in many
people's mind and even in the dictionary, pedagogy is defined as 'the art and
science of teaching'. Thus, .the children part of the definition got lost. Even in
books on adult education references are found on the pedagogy of adult education,
without any apparent djscomfort over the contradiction in terms (Knowles, 1985,
p.53).
Some adult educationists prefer to use the term andragogy instead of adult
educaf on. 'Andragogy' (from Greek word aner meaning 'man') was first used
in Europe. Eventually, the term andragogy was introduced by Knowles, called
the father of andragogy, for the first time in adult educational literature in the
United States. Presently, andragogy is in vogue parallel to pedagogy and
synonymous with adult education. Knowles (1990, p.55), defines andragogy, as
'the art and science of helping adults to learn'. Titmus et a1 (1979) put it as "...
the art and science of helping adults to learn, and the study of adult education
theory, processes and technology to that end." There is now, considerable amount
of literature available, and growing on andragogy and adult education.
There has been, however, enough debate on the use of the term 'andragogy' as
parallel to pedagogy implying that pedagogy includes andragogy. While Cross
(1981, pp.220-228), with his criticism on andragogy, questions the use of
'andragogy' saying that it is not a theory at all, Jarvis (1 990) defines Educational
gerontology and penal andragogy almost in a similar way as the scientific
study and practice of educztion among and about the elderly or the older adults.
'Kapp distinguished andragogy from social pedagogy (basic education for the
disadvantaged or handicapped adults) referring to andragogy as the normal and
natural process of continuing education for adults' (Jayagopal, 1985, p.17). You
will find many more terms like social andragogy, family andragogy, military
andragogy, industrial andragogy, etc.? To put an end to this debate Knudson
(1979, pp.281-284) proposes 'Humanagogy', as a solution to the pedagogy-
andragogy issue. If we accept this, from the growing literature and practice we
can say that humanagogy encompasses child education (pedagogy), adult
education (andragogy), special education (social pedagogy/andragogy), education
of the oldaged, (educational gerontology) etc., as its divisions. All this is to
suggest you that the growing literature is presumably an indication of pace of
conceptual development in the field of adult education.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress"
4) Distinguish between:
i) Traditional literacy and functional literacy
........................................................................................................
Development of Adult
Education ........................................................................................................
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........................................................................................................
ii) Literate and Numerate
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L

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE, NATURE AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT
EDUCATION
Having understood the concept of adult education, some related terms and some
specific terms used in adult dducation, you are perhaps now in a better position
to appreciate the significance of adult education and also understand its
characteristic features.

1.5.1 Significance
Adult education is a sine qua rzon (that is absolutely necessary) for survival of
adults of all age groups in modem society. Illiteracy, poverty, ignorance. population
growth, advancements in science and technology, ever growing knowledge,
developmental pursuits of individuals, communities, societies and nations have
been creating an increasing de~nandfor adult education. It is very essential to
address the diverse issues and problems in different spheres of life - social,
economic, cultural, political, environmental, health, developmental, etc . Learn
or perish has become the order of the day and adult and lifelong learning is the
only solution to survival, growth, development and welfare of individuals,
families, societies and nations at large.
 Adult Education: 'l'he Basic
1.5.2 Nature and Characteristics Conce~t.Terms. Features
Adult education is very dynamic in its nature. Its role, purposes and functions and Objectives
will change with changing situations and conditions of adults. Accordingly its
nature and character also undergo changes. Broadly, the nature and characteristic
features of adult education are as follows.
i) Adult education is purposive: It (adult education) has a definite purpose
specific to the given context. Without purpose it does not have any existence.
ii) It is community-specific:Adult education is community-based and assumes
great significance in particular context(s), and it need not be equally relevant
to other communities in similar contexts.
iii) It is culture-specific: The nature, objectives and types of adult education
required for adults would vary from culture to culture.
iv) It is need-based and problem-solving:Adult education takes into account
the dominant needs and prevalent problems of the communities and aims at
addressing them in effective ways.

v) It is participatory: It involves adults at different levels and stages of

planning, implementation and evaluation of adult education activities meant
for their progress, development and welfare.

vi) It is flexible and relevant: In many respects adult education incorporates

the element of flexibility so that the adults would feel at home and
comfortable to acquire education that has relevance to their living, working
and deveiopment.
vii) It is action - oriented: Adult education is not simply education for the
sake of education. Education for action is the motto, if adults have to act for
transforming their own situations or conditions.
viii) It is dynamic, change-oriented and transformative: Adult education is
very dynamic and, change-oriented, primarily aimed at bringing in social,
economic, political and cultural transformation of the adults, their society
and nation.
ix) It is an awareness building and conscientisation process: It helps to
enhance the level of adults' awareness and conscientisation and prompts
them to action for change. It helps in emancipating or liberating adults from
their current problems and situation.

x) It is experiential: 1t.k basically conceived and offered taking into account

the experiences of adults.
xi) It is welfare and development oriented: It promotes rational and informed
decision with a view to promote the welfare and development - social,
!
economic, political and cultural - of individuals, groups, society and nation.
xii) It is goal-directed: It is directed by the goals set by adults for themselves,
or by others for them, or by the nation for them and helps in achieving them.
xiii) It is learner-centred, systematic and flexible: It is a systematically
organised process, using diverse methods and techniques of teaching and
t learning with an in-built element or component of flexibility for promotion
of more learner-centred educational activities.
33
Development of ~ d u l t xiv) It is a network building activlty: It is very effective in building the network
Education
of adults, their groups, activities and associations in the particular context
and situation in which the adults live, earn and learn.
XV) It is quality-of-lifeor standard-of-livingoriented: It aims at enabling the
adults to use all their networks - personal, social, professional, political, etc
- for raising their quality of life and standard of living.

xvi) It is an education for empowerment: Adult education is an effective tool

for empowerment of adults.

1.6 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OFADULT

EDUCATION - - ----

While goals are long-term targets, objectives are more immediate ones.
Major objectives of adult education include:
i) Imparting literacy of diverse types - It includes basic literacy, scientific
literacy, economic literacy, technological literacy, visual literacy, information
literacy, multicultural literacy, global literacy, legal literacy, computer literacy,
and so on. You have learnt about language literacy or basic literacy. You
will learn about other types of literacy at higher levels of your educational
pursuits.
ii ) Generating Awareness on various matters/subjects -It includes awareness
about one's self, community, society and the nation; about individual,
relational, and collective roles and responsibilities; about social, economic,
political, cultural, environmental, developmental, health, hygiene, etc; about
peace, welfare, and harmonious growth and development of the individual,
family, community, nation and the world, amongst other things; and
iii) Promoting Functionality - It includes application of individual, collective.
community, corporate, national and international knowledge, skills, attitudes.
practices, resources, etc for addressing the felt needs, for solving the
problems, for promoting larger public participation in various activities and
for bringing out social, economic, cultural, political transformation for raising
the general level or standard of living of the individual, community, nation
and the world.
The goals of adult education are: to increase the quality of life of an individual
and enable himlher to realise hislher full potential for self-realisation; to raise
the standard of living of the families, communities, societies and nations; to
promote peace and communal harmony in the multi-cultural global village; and
to enhance the pace of development and welfare of the individual nations and
the international community as a whole.

1.7 LET US SUM UP ,

In this unit we have discussed the concepts of adult, adult education and literacy,
different terms related to adult education, some specific terms used in literacy
and adult education. We have also discussed the significance, nature and
characteristic features, goals and objectives of adult education. It is hoped you
are very clear about what we have discussed here.
 Adult Education: The Basic
1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Concept, Terms, Features
and Objectives
1) Adult education has been variously defined by different adult educationists.
The definition offered by the General Conference of UNESCO held in 1976
is the widely accepted defintion, if not universally accepted. It elaborates
the term adult education and comprehensively defines it as the "entire body
of organised
- educational processes, whatever content, level and method,
whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial
education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in apprenticeship,
whereby persons regarded as adults by the society to which they belong,
develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge; improve their attitudes or
behaviour in the two-fold perspective of full personal development and
participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural
development. In other words, the essential elements of adult education are
as follows:
i) It includes all organised educational processes;
ii) It encompasses all content, levels and methods;
iii) It includes formal or non-formal education for adults;
iv) It prolongs or replaces initial education in schools, colleges and
universities;
v) It develops abilities, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours;
vi) It aims at two-fold development - full personal development of adults
and their participation in balanced and independent social; economic
and cultural development.
The three terms - 'adult education', 'education of adults' and 'education for
adults' - are used interchangeably or distinctly by different people in different
countries either inadvertently or intentionally to mean one and the same and
each term includes all kinds and forms of education for adults i.e. for their growth,
development, welfare and transformation in particular and their societies, nations
and the globe in general.
2) i) The terms open education, non-formal education and de-schooling are almost
synonymous and espouse the same philosophy. Open learning/education
I emphasises openness of leaning/educational opportunities - non-formal
i education emphasises freeing of education from all the fonnalities/rigidities;
while 'de-schooling' emphasises on bringing education outside the physical
environs of the schools, which in a broad sense includes all the educational
institutions.
ii) Life-long education is the provision and utilisation of educational experiences
throughout a person's life. It implies learning throughout life and, therefore,
denotes an over all scheme aimed both at restructuring the existing education
system and at developing the entire educational potential inside and outside
the education system. Its rationale is in part the same as that for adult
education, except that it intrinsically involves a radical reform of
organisation, form and content of all other phases of education, and also
implies a greater recognition of the educational functions of non-educational
I
agencies. Recurrent education, organised in Europe, is understood primarily
as the development of a national policy that would provide citizens with
!
35
t

I
Development of Adult opportunities to alternative periods of work with periods of formal training
Education
throughout their lives. Life-long education is thus broader in its concept
than recurrent education as the latter appears to be primarily meant for
periodical training of those engaged in some kind of work through
conventional institutions, while the former is meant for all the people in
general, through out life through diverse institutions - formal, non-formal
and informal.
3) i) Correspondence education is one of the earliest and institutionalised means
of providing distance education in which learning materials prepared by a
few trained subject experts are supplied to the learners by post for reading,
alongside giving them some reading and writing assignments. To develop
in them the feel of formal school/classroom atmosphere, contact classes/
programmes are conducted at some convenient places where the learners
and the instrqctors will have the chance for mutual interaction. In other
words, correspondence education is education conducted through the postal
services with or without face-to-face contact between teacher and learners.
Teaching is done by written or tape-recorded material sent to the learner,
whose progress is monitored through written or taped exercises sent to the
teacher, who corrects them and returns them to the learner with criticism
and advice. At the end of the course, examinations are conducted and
certificates, degrees, or diplomas are awarded to the successful candidates.
According to Keegan (1986) distance education is a form of education
characterised by:
the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length
of the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face
education;
the influence of an educational organisation both'in the planning and
preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support
services; this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself
programmes;
the use of technical media; print, audio,video or computer to unite teacher
and learner and carry the content of the course;
the provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit
from or even initiate dialogue; this distinguishes it from other uses of
technology in education;
the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of
the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not
in groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and
socialisation purposes.
ii) Open education is particularly characterised by the removal of restrictions,
exclusions and privileges; by the accreditation of students' previous
experiences; by the flexibility of the management of the time variable; and
by substantial change in the traditional relationship between professors
and students. On the other hand, distance education is a modality which
promotes learning without the necessity of regular class participation, where
the individual is responsible for his own learning. Open education underlines
a philosophy while distance education is a form or mode of education.
 4) i) Literacy means the ability to read and write. Traditional literacy as defined Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
I by Laubach (1971, p.536), Bormuth (1978, p.125), Oyedeji et a1 (1982, p.l), and Objectives
I

Directorate of Adult Education (1 992, p.29) commonly refers to reading,

I writing and, counting or arithmetic skills of a person with understanding in
the language (s)he normally speaks or communicates. According to
I UNESCO functional literacy is defined as follows:
! The very process i f learning to read and write should be made an

I
I
opportunity for acquiring information that can be used for improving
standards; reading and writing should lead not only to elementary general
knowledge but to training for work, increased productivity, a greater
participation in civil life and a better understanding of the surrounding
i world and should ultimately open the way to basic human culture.
I
ii) Literate is a person who has the ability to read, write and compute with .
understanding in histher language. A person who can use paper and pen/
pencil (includes slate and slate pencil) for arithmetic purposes is called
numerate, and the one who cannot do so and solely depends on mentalloral
calculations is called an innumerate.

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L

I Gough, E. 1981. Distance Education at Deaken University and University Sans

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'I
Government of India. 1988.National Literacy Mission, p.14. New Delhi: Ministry Adult Education: The Basic
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<
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Legge, D. 1982. The Education of Adults in Britain, p.3. Milton Keynes: The
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Lindeman, E.C. 1961. "The Meaning of Adult Education " quoted in Aggarwal,
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Liveright, A. S and Haygood, N. (Eds).1969. The Exeter Papers, p.9. Boston.

Moore, M. 1972. Learning Autonomy: The Second Dimension of Independent
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R C. op.cit.

OECD. 1971. Equal Educationul Opportunities: A Statement of the Problem

with Special Reference to Recurrent Education. Paris: OECD.
OECDICERI. 1973. Recurrent Education: A Strategy for Lifelong Education.
Paris: OECD.
Okenirnkpe, M. N. 1989. Typologizing Adult Education. Lagos Educational .
Review, Vol. 5,No. 1 (July), pp.182-192.
Okenimkpe, M. N. 1992. Traditionalism versus Functionality in Adult Literacy
Education. Convergence, Vol.XXV, No.3, pp.32-43.
Oxford Advanced Learner S Dictionary of Current English. 1995. (Indian Fourth
Edition). Calcutta: Oxford University Press.
Oyedji, L., M. Omolewa and K. Asiedu. 1982.A Handbook of Literacy Education
for WestAfrica. Ikeja (Nigeria): Longman.
Peters, 0. 1973. Quoted in Keegan. 1986. The Foundations of Distance
Education. London: Croom Helm.
Peterson R.E., and Associates. 1979. Lifelong Learning in America. San
Francisco: Jessey-Bass.
Radcliffe, D .J., and Colletta, N. J. 1989. "Non-formal Education" in Titmus, C.
J. (Ed). Lifelong Education for Adults: An Internationul Handbook. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Resnick, D. and Resnick, L. 1977. The Nature of Literacy: An Historical
Exploration. Hanard Educational Review, 47, pp.370-386.
Sharan, B. Merrian and Phyllis M. Cunningham. 1989. Handbook of Adult and
Continuing Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sharma, D. V. 1984. In Search of Conceptual Framework of Adult Education:
. Reading Material VI. Bangalore: Directorate of Adult Education.
Sheehy, G. 1976. Passages, pp.25-32. New York: Dutton.
Shingi, P. M. 1980. Rural Youth: Education, Occupation and Social Work. New Adult Education: The Basic
Concept, Terms, Features
Delhi: Abhinav Publishers. and 'objectives
St. John Hunter, C. 1987. "Literacy: What Do the Definitions Tell Us? in Margaret
Gayfer (Ed). Literacy in Industrialised Countries: A Focus on Practice, pp.23-
26. Toronto: ICAE.
Tight, M. (Ed). 1990. EducationforAdults: Adult Learning and Education Vol.1.
London:Routledge in Association with The Open University.

Titmus, C. J. (Ed) 1989. Lifelong Education of Adults: An International

Handbook. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Titmus, C. J. et al. 1979. Terminology of Adult Education. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. 1976. The Experimental World Literacy Programme: A Critical

Assessment. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. 1976a. Draft Recommendations on the Development of Adult

Education. Paris: UNESCO.

Venables, P. (Chairman) 1976.Report of the Committee on Continuing Education.

Milton Keynes: The Open University.

Wedemeyer, C. A. 1977. "Independent Study" in Knowles, A.S. (Eds). The

International Encyclopedia of Higher Education. Boston: Northeastern
University.

Wiltshire, H. 1966. Inaugural Lecture on "The Nature and Uses of Adult

Education." England: The Open University Press, Quoted in Legge, D. 1992.
Op. Cit. p.6.

Suggested Readings
UNIT 2 INDIAN ADULT EDUCATION - A
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Origin of Adult Education: As a Socialisation and Cultural Process
2.2.1 Adult Education in Ancient India
2.2.2 Adult Education in Medieval India
2.3 Emergence and Growth of Adult Education in India before 1947:
Beginning of Institutionalisation
2.3.1 Adult Education in Colonial India
2.4. Growth of Adult Education in India after 1947: Growth of Institutions
2.5.1 Social Education Programme (1 948- 1967)
2.4.2 Functional Literacy Programme ( 1968- 1977)
2.4.3 National Adult Education Programme (1978-1987)
2.4.4 Programmec of National Literacy Mission (1988- 2007)
2.5 Institutionalisation of Adult Education: An Overview
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.8 References

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Your understanding of current Adult Education programmes in India would not
be coinplete without knowing how the concept of Adult Education evolved over
the years and was operationalised. A brief overview of different programmes
implemented during the past would help you appreciate the continuous efforts
made in the field of Adult Education. Historical records show that the concept of
Adult Education has undergone several but significant changes in the past. It has
been observed that the organised and systematic instruction of adults long
preceded the formal organization of schools for children. However, such practices
rarely led to institutionalization or gave rise to any specific term during ancient
times. Transmission of knowledge was an integral part of sbcialisation and cultural
process. Although the term- "Adult Education" was first coined in the English
language in 1851, the proc isions for the education of adults were available since
time immemorial (Hudson. 1 85 1).

Being renowned for it's learning and educational institutions from ancient days,
a vide variety of educational opportunities were available to the people of India.
The sacred literature especially the Vedas, Upanishads, D h a m a Sutras and the
Aranyakas bear testimony to the importance accorded to the acquisition of
knowledge. The word Veda is derived from the word, Vid which signifies
'knowledge par excellence'. Notwithstanding the importance accorded to the
acquisition of knowledge in ancient India, the prevalence of caste system among
Hindus greatly restricted its access to the priestly class (Dube, 1990). The colonial
policy of encouraging the education of upper classes was also not conducive for 1ndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
spread of education among the masses (Shah, 1999).

The history of Adult Education in lndia may be broadly studied in two parts:
pre- independence and post-independence. The growth of Adult Education before
independence may be divided into the pre-colonial and colonial periods. Over
the years a number of initiatives were taken by the state, civil society and religious
organizations and individuals to promote Adult Education. Several programmes,
viz: Night Schools, Social Education Programme, Farmers' Functional Literacy
Programme, National Adult Education Programme, Total Literacy Campaigns,
and Continuing Education Programmes have been implemented in India at various
points of time.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of this unit is to provide you an overview of the emergence
and growth of Adult Education Programmes in India during the last sixty years
(1947-2007). However, an attempt is also made to familiarize you with the origins
of Adult Education and its growth prior to1947 as a backdrop.
After studying the unit, you are expected to be able to:
Understand the conceptual changes in the policy and programmes during
the last sixty years;
Examine the differences among various programmes;
Identify the reasons for changes in the programmes; and
Study the impact of different programmes.

2.2 ORIGIN OF ADULT EDUCATION: AS A

SOCIALISATION AND CULTURAL PROCESS
Adult Education formed an integral part of socialization and cultural process
during ancient and medieval period. Although, there were no formal or specialized
institutions imparting literacy or education to adults, the social and religious
centers specially the temples, market places, community halls, etc served as centers
of non formal education for adults. In this section below, you will get a brief
overview of Adult Education programmes during ancient and medieval periods.

2.2.1 Adult Education in Ancient India

The origins of Adult Education in India may be traced to the oral tradition
prevalent in ancient society. The ancient world being an 'oral world', the mode
of transmission of knowledge was through discourses and discussions. Compared
to secular knowledge the acquisition of sacred knowledge was held in high esteem
as it widened the individuals' horizon of understanding to achieve "dharma"
(moral), "artha" (wealth), "kama" (pleasure) and "moksha" (salvation) (Graff,
1987).

Written texts, although not many, were kept secret and access to sacred knowledge
was not the right of everyone. "The craft of reading and writing remained the
sacred monopoly of small circle of elites" (Cipolla, 1969).The tradition of Vedic
learning was to impart it in the ear as a secret doctrine to be contemplated and
43
Development of A ~ U I ~ realized and not intended for the profane (Mookherji, 1951). According to the
Education
ancient Indian theory of education, knowledge was technically called Sruti or
what was heard by the ear and not what was seen in writing (Smriti). It was the
system of oral tradition by which learning was transmitted from teacher to pupil
in an unbroken chain called Guruparampara. Learning was also promoted through
discussions at public meetings which were regular feature of rural life. Masses
were addressed by wandering scholars known as Carakas. There was also equality
between the sexes in the field of knowledge (Altekar, 1944).
Unlike the Christians and Muslims whose desire to read the holy scriptures like
the Bible and the Quran served as a strong motivational factor for the acquisition
of basic literacy, there were no such urges among the Hindus. Hinduism being
not a religion of Book, reading from the holy books like the Gita and the
Ramayana was not an essential religious requirement for the Hindus. Thus if
religion became an enabling factor in the spread of literacy among Christians
and Muslims, it was an inhibiting force in the Hindu society. Besides there was
a fear that failure to recite the Vedic hymns properly would lead to disaster; and
this prevented many from venturing into it. Even writing appeared to be a "sacred
act of worship carrying with it the supernatural powers and fraught with mystical
dangers". "Tendencies to secrecy, proprietorial exclusiveness and the greater
valuation of what is learned orally from a Guru over what is read in books- all
these have served to limit the resort to writing" (Goody, 1975). Thus, in a society
where access to knowledge was ascriptive and the privilege of a few, it was quite
natural that large sections of people remained illiterate not by choice but due to
circumstances. Education in ancient India was dominated by religion and the
concept of universal basic literacy was alien to the ancient Indians. This inbuilt
resistance of the Hindu religion was a great stumbling block to the wider spread
of literacy. Hence, one of the root causes of illiteracy in India may be traced to
the prevalence of rigid caste system in the country.
The pattern of 'restricted literacy' fitted in with the segmentation of ancient Indian
society. In the absence of scriptal literacy. visual graphic aids and art forms were
resorted to, but literacy practices were not institutionalized. This early stage was
termed as 'craft literacy'. A number of temples served as effective channels of
adult education, though the terminology of adult education was not in vogue.
Temple architecture, sculpture, and paintings preserved the knowledge of the
pre-literate world. In many of the South Indian temples and mathas reading of
the epics, the Puranas and other religious texts took place even from the days of
the Pallavas and continued to be practiced on a large scale in the subsequent
periods. The puraniks with good pronunciation and oratory recited the stories of
the Puranas in temples or in the mansions of rich persons. The Haridasas and
Kathakaras gave sermons accompanied by music and singing and were popular
among masses. Every important temple had a kuthakara attached to it who acted
as teacher-musician to the adults. They organized keertans, bhajans, jagrun and
satsung which were a powerful source of education for the adults from ancient
days and these continue even today (Gurumurthy, 1979).
Notwithstanding the importance accorded to education in ancient India, the
demand for education was restricted. It was due to the varna system which
empowers Brahmanical class to inherit and transmit learning. Most of the
occupations practiced by the masses did not require any formal learning except
on the job training which they acquired at home through observation and imitation.
AA The elite character of education began to change with the advent of Buddhism,
 since Buddhist monks and viharas did not differentiate people on the basis of 1ndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
caste and were open to all irrespective of caste taboos. "Buddhism envisaged the
democratization of education." The sermons of Buddhist monks were the main
source of education to the masses who flocked to their assembly. The Buddhist
philosophy recognizes the potential of all human beings to develop their resources
to their ultimate till one reaches the final state of perfection. The teachings of
Buddha which were inscribed on iron pillars, stones and rocks which served as
non-formal channels of education for the common people, especially during the
reign of Asoka. The dynasty of Gupta (A.D.320-647) witnessed the flourishing
of Hindu culture when books came into common use. While in the north books
were written on birch-bark, in the south palm-leaves were made use of. In this
I
period, libraries were also established. Drama, lyric poetry and prose were .
assiduously cultivated and they served as channels of adult education (Keay,
and Karvey, 1973).

2.2.2 Adult Education in Medieval India

The tradition of oral transmission of knowledge, values and culture of society
continued even during the medieval period when the rulers of India provided
considerable political patronage and financial support to scholars, saints, teachers,
artists and artisans who were actively involved in the spread of the messages of
peace and harmony through various art forms, music, preaching, and writings.
Temples became dearer to people as social centres. They were the meeting places
I
and centres of village ceremonies and religious and social discourses, besides
I imparting 3R's to children. "As the temples spread, literacy spreads." (Patwardan,
1939). The spread of education in medieval India was mainly dependent on the
interest of the rulers. The growth of popular education was hindered for want of
a popular medium of instruction. Mughal rulers considered education to be a
,
handmaiden of religion and hence State encouragement to education was sporadic.
I However, due to the egalitarian philosophy of Islam, access to education was
open to all during the Mughal regime. The sayings of Prophet Mohammed and
/ the teachings of the Quran placed great emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge
from the cradle to the grave. During Akbar's time, there were no printed books
and important handwritten books were read aloud in the Court and discussions
were held which benefited the aristocracy. Aurangazeb was the first Mughal
[ Emperor who championed the cause of free and compulsory education for the
masses. Though he could not enforce it throughout his kingdom, on an
experimental basis he enforced it in Gujarat among the Bohra community, which
seems to have paved the way for the high rate of literacy in this community
(Ahmed, 1987).

2.3 EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF ADULT

EDUCATION IN INDIA BEFORE 1947:
BEGINNING OF INSTITUTIONALISATION
Prior to the independence of India in 1947, the process of institutionalization in
I Adult Education had already begun in the form of Night schools. These schools
! emerged in different provinces of British India. While the colonial rulers
encouraged them, several Christian Missionaries, social reform organizations
and the Nationalist leaders also set up Night schools. This section will provide
you a brief overview of the colonial policy towards adult education, various
provisions and efforts made by eminent leaders. 45
Development of Adult
Education
2.3.1 Adult Education in Colonial India
The colonial period witnessed several interesting developments in the field of
Adult Education. While the economic policies of the colonial rulers impoverished
the landed aristocracy which was providing financial support to a large number
of vernacular and adult schools, the limitations of financial resources and the
Anglo-oriental controversy gave a new twist to the British policy towards
education in India. According to the downward filtration theory adopted by the
British in 1830's "education was to permeate the masses from above. Drop by
drop from the Himalayas of Indian life, useful information was to trickle
downwards, forming in time a broad and stately stream to irrigate the thirsty
plains" (Mathew, 1926).The policy was to concentrate on the education of upper
classes who have "leisure for study and whose culture would then filter down to
masses". In practice, it was observed that most of the educated who usually
came from the higher castes got comfortable jobs and became absorbed in
bettering their own prospects than sharing their learning with the masses. In fact
some of the middle classes who were the beneficiary of English education opposed
the attempts made by the social reformers to spread mass education, since it
would lead to an increase in the ranks of those demanding a "share of the cake."
(Majumdar, 1972). On the other hand, due to downward filtration theory, the
British administrators did not consider it necessary to develop any programme
of Adult Education or of universal primary education in British India during the
first half of the nineteenth century.

The practice of downward filtration theory was soon criticised by the Education
Despatch (1854) which suggested several measures for spreading mass education
and also for preserving and encouraging indigenous education. The Despatch
stated that the masses were "utterly incapable of obtaining any education worthy
of the name by their own efforts", and recommended a system of grant-in-aid
which materialized at a much latter date. Although illiteracy among Indians had
attracted the attention of British statesmen in 1860's when Lord Lawrence noted
that "among all the sources of difficulty in our administration and of possible
danger to the stability of our government, there were few so serious as the
ignorance of the people", the colonial rulers did not develop any specific
programmes to liquidate adult illiteracy as there were neither the resources nor
the trained personnel to take up Adult Education programmes (Shah, 1999, Op.
Cit).

The main thrust of Adult Education in India during the 19"' Century
revolved around basic literacy. Night schools were the key adult
education institutions in British India. They were few and modeled after
British Adult Schools and were mainly set up by the Christian missionaries,
nationalist leaders, socio-religious organiziltions and intellectuals. The
ofJicial policy was to encourage them wherever practical and permit as
muchjlexibility as possible in school hours. The core curriculum included
rudiments o f reading, writing and numeracy, covered within a minimum
of 100 days. Average iristruction per day was of 2-3 hours duration. The
Indian Education Commission (1882) observed that every province in
British India had provisions for setting up night schools and Bombay
and Madras had 134 and 312 night schools with an enrolment qf 4000
and 7000 adults respectively (Report of the Indian Education Commission
1882, 1883).
46
The challenging task of educating illiterate adults was taken up by the 1ndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
missionaries, enlightened Indians and socially committed British officials. In
the absence of adequate professional literature, replicable models and limited
number of dedicated adult educators in British India, the growth of Indian adult
education was extremely slow. British models like the Mechanics Institute.
Working Men's College were not of much relevance to the socio-economic
requirements of Indian society since the 19th century India and Britain were at
different stages of growth. In England adult education institutions like the
Mechanics Institutes and Working Men's Colleges had emerged partly as a
response to the particular needs essentially created by industrial capitalism. In
the case of India, such developments came at a much later period. Arguably
then, the educational needs of adults in colonial India were quite different, which
made it difficult to transfer any of the British models and philosophies to the
Indian situation. The adoption of the policy of expansion of primary education
as a strategy for curbing the growth of illiteracy in India also seems to have led to
the negligence of adult education. It was argued that "adults cannot be given the
cake when the child remains without bread and hence the government preferred
the policy of encouraging primary education to adult education since 1880's."
(Siqueira, 1960).

Although the concept of basic literacy remained unchanged all through the British
period, a variety of attempts were made to educate illiterate adults by Indian
intellectuals, nationalist leaders, social. religious and political organizations during
the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Some eminent Indians like Dadabhai
Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Ranade, Keshub Chandra Sen, Vidyasagar,
Rabindra Nath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Veerasalingam, Sayyid Ahmad Khan
not only opposed the idea of restricting the access to knowledge to the upper and
middle strata of society, but also pleaded for the promotion of ma\.; ~ducatjon
through vernacular languages. While Keshub Chandra Sen wrote a ceries of open
letters to Lord Northbrook depicting the "painfully ignorant and pj tiable condition
of the dumb millions in India", Vidyasagar stressed that the extension of education
to the masses was the immediate need of the country. Being a great champion of
mass education Keshub Chandra Sen set up a society "Sangat Sabha" in 1859,
with the co-operation of Devendra Nath Tagore to disc& spiritual and social
problems of the day. He pleaded for the establishment of evening schools for the
benefit of agricultural and working classes to free themselves from popular
prejudices and blind beliefs and suggested that Government should award special
honours to those landlords who establish cuch schools. Systematic attempts were
also made by Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Mary Carpenter, and leaders of Brahm
Samaj, viz., Sashipada Banerjee to educate illiterate women in Bengal during
the nineteenth century. Keshub Chandra Sen also established Barna Hitaishini
Sablza (Society for the Welfare of Women) where learned women read newspapers
and held discussions to arouse social and intellectual consciousness among the
Indian women so that they could respond readily to the schemes of social and
educational reforms introduced for their upliftment (Shah, 1999. op.cit.).

Of all the nineteenth century intellectuctls, Swai71i Vivcknrzanda1s ideas

on adult educatiorz are notewortlzy. Observing that the clziqf' cause of
India's ruin has been the nzonopolising of all tlze education b j ~a lzundful
c?f'men,he stressed the nee(l.fi?r spreading educcltiort ar~longthe masses.
He believed tlzat "(1 nation is advanced irz proportiorz as education (2nd
intelligence spread ainong the masses; and the orzlj. wi-~.ic.cto bbc done
47
Development of ~ d u l t for the lower classes is to give them education to develop their lost
Education
individuality.... They are to be given ideas; their eyes are to be opened to
what is going on in the world around them; and then they will work out
their own salvation". According to him the greater part of education to
the poor should be given orally and in vernacular languages. To quote
Swami Vivekananda, "education is not the amount of information that is
put into brain and runs riot there, undigested all your life. We must have
life-building, man-making, character-making assimilation of ideas. If you
have assimilatedfine ide,as and made them your life and characte~;you
have more information than a man who has got by heart a whole library.'"
(Advaita Ashram, 1990).

The social reform societies, viz., the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Sarnaj, Arya Smaj
and Indian Social Conference did pioneering work by educating the masses
through publications and public lectures. The organisation of literacy classes
and setting up of libraries was also recognised by Indian social reformers as
crucial for the progress of their movements. Some of the Indian universities like
Madras and Mysore organised extension lectures for the benefit of masses
following the extra mural tradition of British Universities.

A number of the enlightened rulers of Princely States of Mysore, Baroda, Cochin

and Travancore had taken special interest in the promotion of literacy among
masses. In 1912 Sir M. Visvesvaraya, the Dewan of Mysore, organised 7000
literacy classes throughout the State with a network of circulating l i b r ~ e s A.
magazine- Wgyana- was also published to popularise scientific knowledge. Several
non-Governmental organisations, social reform societies and political parties
played a significant part in the promotion of adult education during the first
quarter of the twentieth century. In 1915, Dr. D. N. Maitra founded the Bengal
Social Service League in Calcutta for the amelioration of the condition of illiterate
poor through a variety of community development programmes. With the
establishment of a rural centre at Sriniketan by Rabindranath Tagore in 1922 and
initiation of rural reconstruction activities by the Y.M.C.A. at Marthandam, social
reconstruction programmes by Subba Rao at Rajamundry and by EL. Brayne at
Gurgaon and launching of the constructive programme by Mahatma Gandhi
during 1920s, there was tremendous expansion and diversification adult education
activities in India (Mohisini, 1993).

The growing nationalist movement in India, the prospects of Swaraj and the
introduction of constitutional reforms in 1919 further brought home the danger
of entrusting power to an ignorant electorate and highlighted the importance of
literacy for political and economic reasons. Nationalist leaders like Lala Laipat
Rai and B.G. Tilak organized night schools for illiterate masses and summer
schools for literate adults. The Congress Socialist Party of Andhra established
peasant schools in Guntur and West Godavari to train workers for the peasant
movement. Most of the political parties organised schools to train young men
for local leadership so as to enable them to carry on the struggle for freedom of
India. The overwhelming concern of Indian nationalist leaders being the freedom
movement, they had initiated a process of mass mobilization and conscientization
through public lectures and discussions with a view to making the masses aware
of their rights and motivate them to fight for the freedom of India. Hence, the
freedom struggle of India may be viewed as the biggest and the most successful
adult education movement in modern times. While some of the nationalist leaders
48
like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendra Nath Bannerjee and Gopal Krishna Gokhale Indian Adult Education: A
had pleaded for universal literacy; B.G. Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai set-up night Historical Perspective
schools and summer camps for the political education of freedom fighters.
AIthough Rabindra Nath Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi tried to tackle the problem
of illiteracy by integrating literacy with rural development and constructive
programmes, their efforts were rather limited. The interest and involvement of
eminent Indian leaders in literacy, however, drew the attention of masses towards
the gravity of the problem.

The active interest of non-officials and non-Governmental organisations in the

promotion of adult education received a boost when the Royal Commission on
Agriculture (1928) and the Auxjlliary Committee of Indian Statutory Commission
(1929) reiterated the importance of adult education as a tool for the socio-
economic development of the nation. Observing that "illiteracy presents the most
formidable single obstacle to rural development in the widest sense" and the
movement for adult education in India had hardly begun, (with the exception of
the efforts made by the Indian Army School of Education at Belgaum), the Royal
Commission recommended that adult education should be promoted mainly
through non-official channels. During 1920s there werefour important channels
of adult education in India: (i)night schools, (ii)awarenessprogrammes through
films, public lectures and discussions organized by social, cultural andpolitical
organisations, (iii)libraries and (iv)community development projects including
constructiveprogmmmes. It was estimated that in thefourprovinces of Bombay,
Burma, the Central provinces and the Punjab, there were 3450 registered night
schools with an enrolment of 1,17,000 learners. Bengal, Bihar and Madras had
7768 night schools with an enrolment of 1,87,000 learners. Of all the places in
India, Punjab was in theforefront of literacy efforts. As early as 1921, a literacy
campaign was launched in the province of Punjab which catapulted it into the
forefront of adult education movement. Starting with 630 night schools with an
enrolment ($17,776 adult learners in 1922-23, the number of night schools
increased to 3784 with an enrolment of 98414 by 1926-27. Apart from official
initiatives, the non-Governmental organisations like the Y.M.C.A. in Calcutta,
Madras and Bombay, Servants of India Society of Pune, Seva Sadan Society of
Bombay, Devadhar Reconstruction Trust in Madras, Bengal Society for the
Improvement of Backward classes, Bengal Social Service League and co-
operative schools of the United Provinces had also shown considerable interest
in the promotion of adult education. Some of the professional societies, viz.,
Economic Association of Kanpur, Rural Reconstruction Association of Benaras,
Bombay Sanitary Association, Saksharta Prasarak Mandal, Bombay Literacy
Association, were engaged in educating the masses through public lectures, films
and slides on various aspects of health, society, economy and polity (Shah, 1999.
op.cit. .).

The policy of creating rural libraries was first inaugurated in Baroda State in
1894, where 661 out of a total of 706 libraries were rural in 1927. In small
provinces of Ajmer, the Punjab and the United Provinces there were vernacular
libraries attached to rural schools and a school teacher functioned as librarian. In
1928, there were 1,769 village libraries in the Punjab. Besides these there were
circulating libraries in certain districts of the United Provinces. Madras Library
Ass~ciationand the Christian Literature Society brought out a number of books
for neoliterates and supplied them in tin boxes to several villages during 1930s.
of 49
In fact, the Adult Education Committee of the National Christian
Develnpment of Adult India and 11s I4 PIC>\i~lcidlC'(IUI~L.:I\ I I IAs\am, A1idht.a. 8engitl. 13111,~l.Gujardt,
Educatio~~
S o ~ ~India.
t h Mid I:ld!a arid Gnltcd tlrobinc.es\vcre very ac~icein [he preparation
and publication 01' lircraLg anct pi~\t-ii~eracj rr~,iterial\in a nurnbcr of Indian
language\ 7'hc; W C I C t'inanciall> cuppor!cd by the Churche\ of America, Canada,
Australia, Rrjt:!in, Ireland. etc.

Some ~f the enlighiencii H~.irisi?ofticiala like F.I.. Brayne (Punjab) introduced

;:.I innovati\e rur;rl rrconstl-uction carnpaigr.~.A large rnolur van fitted with a
1r.u~ c.1ii11glib1.31.yi! Iadi:,-act. :I cincn-121pr(~-iecti~r,
a dispensary and public address
s? t c m W:IS wnr to ~ . ~ i i ; i larcas with u view to educating and entertaining the
iuasses :lnd also ~x.o\iidingthem medicrzl help. An adult educator, a doctor, a
~ i j ~ e t ntechnician,
a a driver. a cleaner and a peon travelled as a team. Not only
did they exhibit the books and lent them for reading to villagers but the selected
books were also read out to the illiterate masses. Rural reconstruction activities
were also initiated by some of the British professors with the active co-operation
of' college students. An experiment on rural reconstruction was undertaken by
-IF. Fernandes of King Ed\var-dCollege at Amraoti in Central Provinces on the
line.; of the Young Fariners Club ill England in which the college students were
;~c:i\cly involved in a variety of rural development activities (including literacy)
in co-operatioil with governmental and non-governmental agencies (Fernandes,
1939).

Dc~ring1930s s ~ t c ~ -.~tte~nprs
iil were made by individual adult educators to evolve
ctft'cctivc:literacy nlilter-ials;lnd met!locls in various Indian languages. While S.R.
tiJla::\s'at was aclively involved in the dcvrlopn~entof' literacy primers in Marathi,
1)s. .l.J, Lucax. Dr. J . H . L.i!wrence and Dr. S.G. Daniel - Gijubhai Phadke, Mrs R.
Dongre cxperi~ncntedin Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi and Tamil languages. Howevcr,
ir was Dr. Fi-a11k C. Lanbach, an American Missionary who developed the
technique of Each One Teach One in the Philippines during 1930, provided the
psofessic~nallcadership to Indian adult educators to develop innovative literacy
p!inlers (based on keywords and pictures) in a number of languages, v i ~Hindi, .
hlal-athi, Telugu, Kannada. Ta~riil.Gujarati. Bengali? Assaniese, etc. through a
.cries oflitcr;~cyworkshoj~s.Addressing a number of adult education conlkrcnct.:,
in Irrdia during 1935-39 hc 1t.it.tl to promote the cause of adult education, in
which he received the support of Mahatma Ciandhi, Tagore, Sayed Mahmud,
Jilwaharlal Nehru, R:!jagopalacZlari, ant1 others. His work on /rz~-liaShall Be
Liternre which throws light on Indian adult education during 1930s. is an
important publication on adult education in India (Laubach, 1940).

Apart from programmes, attempts were also made to set-up adult education
institutions in India. Two eminent adult educators of India, Shafiq-ur-Rahman
Kidwai and N. G. Ranga set up adult education institutions, viz., Idara-o-Talim-
o-Taraqqi (Institute of Adult Education) in Jamia Millia Islamiya (1938) and
Rama Needu Adult Education Institute in Andhra (1933). While Ranga was
influenced by the Bayer Summer School, Workers' Education Association and
Wood-broke's Settlement of Birkenhead in England, Kidwai drew inspiration
from the Indian National Movement. These institutions not only brought out a
number of publications but also organised a number of adult education activities
during 1930s (Indian Journal of Adult Education, 1964).

During the early decades of twentieth century the colonial rulers adopted the
policy of promoting adult education as a non-Governmental activity and focusing
 on elementary education as an effective mean5 of achieving literacy. Such a policy Indian Adult Education: A
Historical Perspective
wa, not very conducive for the emergence of adult education as a distinct field
of activity. However. certain international developments during 1920s and 1930s
aided the growth of adult education in India. The formation of the World
Association For Adult Education (1 91 9) and the organisation of the first World
Conference on Adult Education in Cambridge (1929) which drew together 300
representatives from 24 nations including nine from India, the publication of the
Rcyotpt c!fA~txiliurjCornnzittce oflndian Statutory Conznzission (1929). the visit
and ground work of Dr. Frank Laubach in different parts of India during 1930s,
the political support to literacy given by the Congress government in power
during 1937-38 and the publication of the Report of Adult Education committee
and the formation of Indian Adult Education Association in 1939 - all have been
instrumental in promoting adult education as a distinct field of activity by late
1930s. hl fact. in pre-independent India, apart from certain Indian intellectuals a
number of British adult educators and adult education organizations have played
a key role in shaping the character and growth of adult education.

There was tremendous expansion of adult education programme since mid- 1930s.
With the transfer of power to the elected representatives of Indians as a result of
the 1935Act and the assumption of power by the Congress in several provinces,
a series of Provincial Mass Literacy Campaigns were organised in different parts
IC of India during 1938-39 viz. Bihar, United Provinces, Bengal, Bombay, Madras,
I Punjab and Assam. The duration of these campaigns varied from 4 to 6 months
i
and the age-group of target was 10-50 years. There was consistent expansion of
t adult education during 1938-42. It was estimated that during 1938-42 nearly
2.77 crores adults attended literacy classes of whom 1.38 crores became literate.
Though these campaigns were launched by different provincial governments,
there was active participation of students, teachers and all sections of society. Of
the different provinces In India, the literacy campaign of Bihar was the most
successful in terms of coverage as well as setting up of libraries (Shah, 1987).

Post-literacy programmes followed the literacy campaign and a large number of

village libraries were set up. During the period 1940-44, nearly 8,000 libraries
were established and about one million people were made literate. It was observed
that 60 percent of the literacy centres were set up by the Education Department
and more than 60 percent of the instructors were either student volunteers or
non-professional teachers. The success rate was also high. The Government policy
of implementing the literacy programme mainly through the involvement of
volunteers was extremely successful in pre-independent India (Shah, 1987. op
cit ).

In enhancing the scope and status of adult education in India, the non-
governmental agencies, nationalist leaders and social reformers played a key
role since 1920s. The launching of literacy campaigns all over India and the
active association of eminent Indians created a conducive atmosphere for the
development of adult education movement in India and also led to the formation
of professional societies. Though a few adult education agencies like the Bombay
Presidency Adult Education Association, South Indian Adult Education
Association and Bengal Adult Education Association had already been formed
to co-ordinate and extend adult education work in their respective areas, the
need for a central organization was increasingly felt by some of the adult educators
who founded the Indian Adult Education Society in Delhi in 1937. The initiative
51
Development OK Adult taken by this society in organizing the first All India Adult Education Conference
Education
in Delhi in March, 1938 to confer and explore the possibilities of bringing into
being a central organization yielded result in December 1939, when the Second
All India Adult Education Conference held in Bhagalpur adopted the Constitution
of Indian Adult Education Association, setting it up with the objective of
promoting the development of adult education movement in India (Indian Adult
Education Association, 1952).

In view of the urgency of the problem of illiteracy and lack of resources, the
Report of the Post- War Educational Development in India, 1944 (Sergeant
Committee), suggested a 25-year plan for the development of Indian education
mainly through a campaign approach and highlighted the importance of devoting
the first five years to necessary preparations. The committee observed that the
responsibility of adult education must rest with the State but every effort should
be made to enlist the aid of suitable voluntary organizations wherever available.
While there was a basic shift in the official policy towards adult education, the
concept remained the same during the pre-independence era. If adult education
was recognized as a non-official activity in 1920s, it became an official programme
by 1940s. It seems that the success of the Provincial Mass Literacy Campaigns
and the initiatives of non-officials and social-reformersand the increasing intensity
of freedom struggle and the awakening of the masses were the crucial factors
that moulded the British policy towards Indian adult education. With the
intensification of freedom struggle, the recommendations of Sergeant Committee
could not be operationalised. Throughout the colonial period, adult education
programmes continued with varying intensity in different parts of India.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below is the question for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
1) What was the main thrust of Adult Education in 19thcentury India (100
words).
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52
 lndian Adult Education: A
2.4 GROWTH OF ADULT EDUCATION IN INDIA Historical Perspective

AFTER 1947: GROWTH OF INSTITUTIONS

The emergence of India as an independent and democratic nation brought about
certain basic changes in the policy and programmes of adult education. Not only
the prevalent colonial policy towards adult education was reviewed by the
Government of India but also new programmes were developed to cater to the
changing needs of a democratic nation. The Constitution of Intlia which defined
the role of the Government of India (centre) vis-a-vis the State Governments
made the latter responsible for the adult education programme\. Since the Centre
designed the adult education policy and programmes for thc entire country, and
provided the major share of funds to States for its implemental~onand coordinated
the overall activities, it assumed a dominant and decisive role in shaping the
character of adult education in independent India.

The development of a new policy towards adult education in independent India

was necessitated due to a variety of socio-economic and political factors. The
adoption of the welfare approach to development necessitated extensive and
intensive involvement of Government and bureaucracy in carrying out structural
reforms in various fields and also the creation of infrastructure. However, it
could be argued that more than these factors, it was the leadership in adult
education, especially of the then Education Minister of the Government of India
that was responsible for moulding the new adult education policy. The successful
operation of the Mass Literacy Campaign during the period 1938-47, had
awakened the masses, their organisations and leaders - both within and outside
the Government - to the role of adult education in development and made them
conscious of the need to strengthen the programme. Since India at the time of
independence was economically backward and extremely underdeveloped and
had a low literacy rate of 12.2 per cent, the leadership realized that freedom had
no meaning for the ignorant and poor masses unless it was made tangible through
activities which helped them improve their social and economic conditions.
Although Adult Education formed a part of several development programmes of
the Government of India and recognised as one of the two top priority programmes
in education, it was felt that the prevalent colonial pattern of adult education was
too inadequate to meet the growing needs and aspirations of a democratic nation
where every adult would have certain rights and responsibilities which they would
find difficult to discharge without basic education. How to design a dynamic
adult education programme was one of the challenges before the professional
adult educators as well as the Government of India.

The issue of adult education remained sidetracked during 1947- 48 mainly due
to the partition of the country which paved the way for the displacement of
millions of people, disruption of social life and depletion of resources. Although
the rnain attention of the Government and leaders was focused on the problem of
rehabilitation of refugees, the idea of developing an appropriate adult education
programme for the refugees as well as non-refugees continued to be the concern
of officials and non-officials in the early years of freedom. The Indian Adult
Education Association, a non-official organization of professional adult educators,
took up the task of "reviewing the role of adult education and reinterpreting its
functions in a democratic set up in their annual conference held in Rewa during
29-3 1 December, 1947. It was observed that "adult education must aim at enabling
53
Development of Adult the common man to live a richer life in all its aspects - social, economic, cultural
Education
and moral" and for the first time, the social aspect of adult education was
emphasised by the professional adult educators.

2.4.1 Social Education Programme (1948-1967)

The recommendations of the non-official body - Indian Adult Education
Association - were taken seriously by the official body, the Central Advisory
Board on Education (CABE), which appointed a sub-committee under the
chairmanship of Mohan La1 Saxena, the then Minister for Relief and
Rehabilitation, Government of India, on 15 January 1948 to work out a detailed
"scheme for adult education and literacy". The Committee comprising of seven
eminent educationists of India, viz. Humayun Kabir, Mata Prasad, K.G. Saiyadain,
V. S. Jha, M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar and M.K. Sidhanta, felt the need for
giving a new orientation to the scheme of adult education and suggested the
importance of laying "greater emphasis on the social aspect" and coined the
term social education. Defining the objectives and operational details of the
programme of social educadon, the committee aimed at achieving the target of
50 per cent literacy among 12-45 age group within a period of five years. These
recommendations, which were accepted by the CABE with minor modifications
at its meeting held at Allahabad during 6-9 January 1949 and reiterated by the
Conference of Provincial Ministers of Education held in New Delhi during 19-
20 February 1949, formed the basis of the social education programme in India
during 1950s. However, the credit for popularising the idea and translating it
into a programme goes to the then Minister for Education, Maulana Azad, who
evinced special interest in the programme and was keen to make "an immediate
start with the new scheme" notwithstanding the financial stringency. The fact
that a decision was taken to earmark a sum of one crore of rupees for social
education (out of the total education budget of Rs.20 crores) shows the official
concern for and commitmept to adult education. It was stated that 90 per cent of
the proposed budget for social education should be distributed among States in
proportion to the number of illiterates while the remaining 10 per cent should be
reserved for central activities. The deteriorating finances caused by the failure of
crops in 1950-51 and rehabilitation of refugees restrained the Government of
India from honouring the commitment, and instead, the actual expenditure
incurred by the Provinces was reimbursed (Shah, 1995).

Thefollowing were the objectives of Social Education as recommended by

the Mohan Lnl Saxena Committee: a ) To instill a consciousness of the
rights and duties ofcitizenship and foster a spirit of service to the
community; b ) To develop lovefor democracy and impart an understanding
of the way in which democracy functions; c ) To disseminate knowledge of
the outstanding problems and dificultiesfacing the country and the world;
d ) To develop love for the pride in our cultural heritage through the
knowledge qf our history, geography and culture; e ) To teach the simple
laws ofpersonal and communit4, health and develop habits of hygiene and
cleanliness; f ) To jbster the growth ofthe co-operati~~espirit as a way qf
life; g ) To provide training in cra@.s both as a hobby and as a means to
economic bettermevt; h) To provide cultural and recreational facilities by
way of folk dances, drama, music*,poetry, recitation and other ways of
spontaneous self-expression; i ) To provide through these various activities
as well as through reading and discussion groups, an understanding of
54
 Tlze c-onzmittee alsc>ideniified .fi~*r :,
rrspoc 01 \ i ) c 1i11 rduc cit~r)nIO hc. rht~
core-curriculum via., ( I ) Health and Hygie~ic,( 2 ) fi~tnilyclnd Coilz~lz~lnitj)
lirsing, ( 3 ) vocation,^, ( 4 ) Literacy and Culturcrl uctil,ities, and ( 5 )
Recrerrtior~crlactivities. Irz short, tlze social cducc~tioncZe/ined (1s a "coz~vsc~
c!f ,stud.y directed towcrrds tht. productiotl of c~ot~,sciozi ~ I I C J Sof' citi:en~l~ip
among the people utrd pmnzotion of soc.ial solidurit\ llrnorlg tlzetn" tzad
three as1)ect.s: ( i ) Tlze .\pmad oj' litemcy anmiry grown-up illiterates, (ii)
rtze ~'rod~~ction ofrzn edilcated mind in the masses in the nh.ren~.eqf'litcracv
education, and (iii) the inculcatiorl of li\*el~,setl.w (frights (lnd di~tiesof
citizenship - both as indi~ridualsand inernhers of a po~'erfi~f"1 natiotz.

The implementatioil strategies were worked out by the diffzrer?t State

govcrnment4. The duration of the programme wa\ 180 ho~rssto he sprcad o\er
90 day4 - on an average of 2 hour\ per day. The tcachcr \tudt.nt ratio wa\ 1 :30.
The programme was to be undertaken especially hut not exclusively by the pri111ary
school teachers who were paid an honorarium of Rs.10 per month and a rzcurring
allowance of Rs.25. and Rs. 1 1 per year for contingencie4. Thc t,lrfet group was
1 2-40 years. A detailed syllabus for the training of in\tructors wa\ also prepared.
The scheme was flexible enough to enable each Statc to develop a variety of
operational strategies. Delhi introduced the education caravan, conskting of four
vans, one to serve as a mobile stage, another as a moving cinema and the remaining
two as exhibition vans for the promotion of social education in ruial area\. The
caravail toured 300 villages holding three-day educational melas at one centre
during 1949-50.West Bengal and Bihar also emphasised recreational and cultural
aspects of social education, while Madras and Bombay concenlraled on setting
up libraries. U.P. and M.P. organised social education camps dur~ngsummer
vacations. Almost every State had its own progr:unme of 4ocial education during
1949-50 (Government of Tndia, I 963 ).

The progranrme picked up with the launching of the First F I LYear ~ Plan which
made a provision of Rs.5 crorc4 for social education. With the creation of a full
fledged Ministry of Community Development and Co-operation in 1952 and thc
integration of social education with the communitj developnlent programme,
more syste~~latic attempts were madc to tackle the problem of illit2racy. 'The
integration of social education with the cotnmu~litydevelopnlent programlne
was based on the premise rhat any large scale and effective programme for adult
litcracy must be based on the closest possible co-operation at every level of
personnel engaged in education and in community development and for that,
social education and adult literacy have to be developed as extension activit1t.4
undertaken by educational institutions, especially village schools in collaboration
with Panchayats, co-operatives and voluntary organisations. The comtnlxnity
development programme aimed at "con~munityuplift through cornrnunity action",
covering agriculture, irrigation. communication, education, health. hocial welfare,
etc. The First Five Ycar Plan empha~isedthat social educat~onapproach must
permeate all the programmes of State aid to the people (Government of India,
1952).
 Development of ~ d u l t The Community Development Programme was conceived as a centre-based
Education
programme at block level. A number of blocks constituted a project. Each
block on an average covered a population of 66,000. While the Block
Development OfJicer was responsible for the overall implementation o f
the project in the area, a chief social education oficer supervised the
social education programme which was carried out at grassroots level by
a male and female social education oficel: Programme of social education
in the blocks included formation of community centres, youth clubs, Mahila.
Mandals, adult literacy centres, farmers' groups, recreation centres and
training of gram sahayaks. While the course content of social education
programme under community development did not difler from the earlier
one, the duration of the programme was increased from 6 to 10 months
and divided into two stages offive months each. Although the main course
was completed in the first stage, follow up activities were taken up in the
second stage. The basic approach towards social education and budget
allocation remaining the same during the First and Second Five Year
Plans, there was strengthening of the administrative infrastructure,
expansion of training facilities, library system and increased production
of audio-visual programmes.

There were several significantachievementsin the field of Social education during

1950s. Beginning with 55 selected blocks in 1952, the community development
movement extended to 4 lakh villages by the end of the Second Plan. It was
estimated that during the First Five Year Plan, nearly 35 lakh illiterates became
literate (out of 67 lakhs enrolled in adult literacy centres) whereas during the
Second Plan nearly 40 lakh attained literacy. Besides, 63,000 community centres,
Lf 454 school-cum-community centres, 55,000 youth clubs, nearly 100 libraries
and five Social Education Organisers Training Centres were also established
during the First Five Year Plan. Some of the key national level institutions also
came up during the 1950s, viz., Literacy House, (1953), National Fundamental
Education Centre (1956) and National Book Trust, Central Board of Workers
Education (1957).

The Government of India accorded due importance to the production and

distribution of suitable literature to neoliterates through a centrally sponsored
scheme which provided assistance to several agencies, viz. Mysore State Adult
Education Council, Jamia Millia, Indian Adult Education Association,etc. Besides
this, the Ministry of Education instituted prizes for authors of best books for
neo-literates in different languages and organised workshops in literacy
journalism. Central assistance was also provided to voluntary organisations, for
production of audio-visual aids, promotion of workers' education, development
of rural radio forums and setting up of permanent adult schools on experimental
basis (Mohisini, 1993).

Notwithstanding the well defined concept of social education, well conceived

programme package and effective leadership of Maulana Azad, the first Education
Minister of Government of India, active participation of NGOs and eminent
adult educators, viz., Mohan Sinha Mehta, Sohan Singh, T.A. Koshy, B. N. Jha,
M. C. Nanavathy, A. R. Deshpande, and the support of UNESCO, and America
(Ford Foundation) the programme did not make a dent in rural areas. "Except
for certain isolated examples here and there, a large percentage of the rural
community has by and large been impervious to the influence of adult literacy
 programme." It was calculated that the benefits of social education programme 1ndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
was actually derived by 0.3% of the population. It was noted that since the key
grassroots level workers - Social Education Officers, were overburdened with
diverse but immense responsibilities, they failed to cope with the demands
specially in the absence of suitable literature, expert guidance and adequate
research support (Shah, 1987).

b During 1950s, India received international support towards the development of

adult education. While a number of Indian adult educators were trained by the
American team led by Dr. Frank C. Laubach and Dr. Wealthy Fisher, the Ford
I
Foundation provided grants for setting up Social Education Training Centres.
The Indo-American cooperation in adult education did not last long due to political
reasons. The only exception being the World Literacy Inc. which continued to
provide financial support to Literacy House at Lucknow. Subsequently India
izceived funds from UNESCO for setting up a National Fundamental Education
Centre and organisation of a regional seminar on reading materials for neo-
literates. While all these international inputs strengthened Indian adult education,
it remained basically a centre-based programme and did not develop into a popular
movement. Although Dr. Frank Laubach submitted a proposal to the Government
of India for launching an All India Literacy Campaign in 1950, it was shelved
due to paucity of funds. The official policy revolved around the expansion of
elementary education. It was argued by the policy planners that by providing
free and compulsory education to all the children by 1960, the problem of illiteracy
could be tackled more effectively. The failure to achieve universalisation of
elementary education by 1960, the successful emergence of Gram Shikshan
Mohim and the paucity of resources, limitations of social education programme
and the proclamation of Education Policy (1967), all paved the way for change
in the adult education concept and policy by mid-1960s (Shah, 1991).

The Gram Shikshan Mohim (Village Education Campaign) was the first successful
literacy campaign undertaken in independent India during the late 1950s.
Masterminded by an enterprising official of the Education Department of
Maharashtra-Shri B. R. Patil - the campaign was a resounding success, and
gradually spread over the entire state of Maharashtra during 1960s and
significantly contributed towards increase of literacy in the state. During 1961-
71, the literacy in the state increased by about 10% i.e. from 29.82% to 39.18%
as against the 5% increase (from 24.02% to 29.45%) at the national level. It is
estimated that about 10 million adults became literate through the campaign.
The campaign not only won international recognition in the form of UNESCO
Pahalavi Prize for literacy in 1963, but was also considered worth replication in
other states by the Planning,Cornrnission (Dutta, 1986).

2.4.2 Functional Literacy Programme (1968-1977)

The concept of functional literacy emerged during 1960s. While, the Second
World Conference on Adult Education held in Canada in 1960 reaffirmed the
importance of closely linking adult education to productive activity, work and
development, the World Conference of Education Ministers on "Eradication of
illiteracy', held in Tehran in 1965, defined functional literacy with greater
precision and the close Link of literacy and social and economic progress was
discussed in detail. The conference observed that:
adult literacy, an essential element in general development, must be linked
C7 I
 13el elopn~cntof',idult to ecBonornrc(in(/ \ot'inl prioritie\ utzd to present trncl future need for.
I:cl~~cation
k ~ b o ~ ~Rctther
t : . . tlian an end in it.sel#~fiozctioncrll i t e m c ~\hould he regrrrded
as a bt.aj. ($preparing nlarz ,for a social, ciiric. arrcl ec.onomic role tlzat
qoes jbr be\'ond I ~ liniits C cf ruclinzcntc~rylitclrtlc.j.trailling co~zsi~stirzg
n~rrelxirr thr' ir'clc hill,!:of're~dirip orrd writirly. Thc vPq7j)rocessoj learning
r ~ ( r d(//id ~ivritc,sIro~~ld he ~r~tltie(111 o p p o r . t i i ~ if01.
~ t ~ clcquiring
tizfili-l~r(li~~iz flurr C . ~ ( I Z inl~r~oclintely
hc rl.sed to inq,ro~,eli,sing .staizdtrrds;
rcntling aryti ~vrit~ng sholllrl l~crclrrot ot?fjto elcnzentclrygeneral krzott'led,qe
hrrl to tr(1irzirzg for work, iiit,~utr.rerl l)ro~liic'ti\~it?;
( 1 gwtlter-l~tlrti~ipcition
ii7 c i ~ i cIjfk ancl a better ~~ndrr\tt~ntlin,q c!/'~lze.\~~r-rr)~inc/rny tt-orhl,trnd
.slior~l~l~11tinl~;tel~ open the MYLV to htrsic 111,imur~culrrlrc~([IN ESCO. 1465).
The international thinking on adult education had its impact o n India11policy
planner\. Dr. V. K. R.V. Rao. an econonlist and a memher uf the Planning
Co~n~niasion in 1965. ardently \upported the idea of functional literacy. The
Conference of State Education Ministers organized by the Planning Commission
in June 1965, noted that "one of the reasons for the failure of many development
schemes like agricultural production, family planning, cooperatives, panchayat
raj institutions was the lack of functional literacy among the majority of the
population in rural areas". This new emphasis on the functional approach to
adult education was fully endorsed by the Fourth Five Year Plan and the Education
Cominissiorl ( 1964-66). To quote the report of the Education Commission:
We do not ecjuate literacy tt~iththe rnere ahilit~to retrcl and write. Litemcy
i f it is to he ~t~ortlz~vhile,
nnwt he~fimctionrrl.It .rhould enable the literate
riot only to acquire src#irierzt ma.stery over the tools cf literacy hut also to
acquire relevant knowledge which w~illenable hirn to pursue his own
interests and ends (Naik, 1968).
I Defined as "literacy integrated with the occ.upation of the learner and
1 directly related to development", the concept of functional literacy rvas
fransluted into action when UNESCO desigried the Experimental World
I
Literacy Progri~rnme(EWLP)wlzich provided an opportunity for India to
F develop the Furnzers Training and Functional Literacy Project (FTFLP).
This project, which was in operation during (1968-1977) aimed at
I improving the eficiency of thefarmers in the implemerztation of the special
programme of High Yielding Varieties of whec~tthcrt was selected by the
Government qf India for ertharzcing agricultural production and
development in the context ofthe Green Revolution. The project had
three conzponents viz., ( I ) farrners tmirzing (2).fiuzctionai literacy and
(-7) ,farm hrouclcasting. Under each, n rz~inlberof actil'ities were
~rndertcrken.Under farmers training, .five-d~~y frniiling courses wcre
orgarzi,-,et*forselectedjirrmers hy sperialists, hesides orypzi:ing Cl~tzrchn
Maizdnls ( D i ~ c u s s i o nGroups) Mnhilu Mar.rd~il\(wonzen'.~groups).
c~ondiictedtours and periodic fie/d demon,strations. Under firrrn
broadcasting, half an hour programme on tec.hnicc11i~zji)rrnationwas
hroadcast daily by the All India Radio. Thefi~nctionalliteracy progrnrnrne
was wovetf around thc selected themes rel~ztedto high yieldirzg varieties
q f ~ e r dand f(/rm pructices. Tl~esetlzwe crctivities were planned in an
integrated rntmrzer u~itha view to educatin~and ir?forming the illiterate
farrne~sabout the high yielding varieties of seeds and the (letail.\ o f
improved agricultural practices (Government of India, Ministry of
Education and Social Welfare, 1972).
58
 It wa\ ohcerved that neither the farmers training nor the increased or improved lndiarlAdultE:dumtioll:ri
Historical Perspecti,e
physical inputs could by the~nselvesachieve much if the farmer remained illiterate
and hence finctional literacy was in-built into the project as a key component
with the following objectives. To enable the farmers to (i) read and understand
1~1belson fertilizer bags: (ii) fill up loan application forms, input cards (iii) keep
ciniple account of operations, and (iv) read and make use of simple extension
bulletins, rural newspapers, etc. The FTFL project was jointly undertaken by
I three Ministries - Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Information and Broadcasting.
and Education and Culture, and it aimed at training about 5 million farm families
I)
in 100 Selected H.Y.P-districts and imparting functional literacy to one million
adults at the cost of ninety million rupees. Apart from Government of India
funds. tht: project also received the UNDP and UNESCO assistance. During the
Fourth Plan, Rs.60 million by the Ministry ofAgriculture for the farmers training,
Rs.20 million by the Ministry of Education for functional literacy and Rs.10
million by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting for fann broadcasting
were provided for this project (Shah, 1 99 1, Op. Cit.).

T11eor,gculi;~~tional .striti.tz~reand progranzrlze conlponents of FTFLproject

M9ererrorked oiit 1i7 riettril by t l ~ cGo~.er/lnrerlt of'liidiu. The FTFL project
H 1 a r c.o~~cc.i~~cdus ( I (*eiltre-bnseti pi-ogrrz117nzc~t.ithart irlstrzrc.tor lrwr~ler
ratio oj-1.30. 1'1.1~ 111-eject wus corzfzrzrd to 3 H. Y P. di~trict.5h (1 Strite ant1
tlze nzu.ximrrn7 11111710~1.of (.er1tr-t/~ per tiistrirt \ ~ ~ lirrlited
n$ to 60 rr~ldt11q-
were urlder tlze chnrge oj'u project t!ffic.cr ~ . h ow.as u.s.sistcd hy six port-
tir17e supenxisors(each cviti? 10 cclrtrec ) or r ) t v ofill1 tirue .sziprr~~i.sor.s (rrrcI1
witlz 30 celztres 1. The durcztion o f tlie fiinctior la1 lirertzcy llrognintuzc c,'rr,s
one year m ~ dit was organized in trrqophasc>,sqf' six nlonth.\ ~crc.1~ Each
phase lznd 150 I ~ o u r sq f ejfertilje tcnching. Tile prograllzme w t r ~
irnplc~~lielzted on all cvorking d q s crl~ri017 c1r1 tr\lc.r.crgc.of orlr nriri i ~ u l f h o z ~ r : ~
daily. Tlze leumirig inuteriul.\ were rcgioll .vl)ec-ific.trnd yroblen~orientcd
und the Directomte ofAdult Ed~tc.ation,New Delhi, prepart.d tlle.first hook
entitled Kisan Stzkshcrrutrz-PehliPustak, Teacher 5 gilide (a2d suppler11erztary
reaclers. These in ate rial.^ were prepared as yrototypes,for easy adoptution
to dijferer7t situutio~zs.More than 70 titles were hrouglzt out itz Irzdia. A
combinatiorz of nzethods was used ill c.urric.ulurn transactiori, \xi:.,
den1or7stration, practical training, or.al i n ~ t r u c ~ t i ao ~~z~d,i o - ~ i s i i a l
c o m ~ n u n i c a t i o iunci
~ discussiorzs. Tlze detrriled guidelilies for the
inzplernentatiori of the project were yr~paredhy the Gosernrrlent of India
urld the stater were i-equcsted to jbllow the directil~esof the Centre
(Government of India, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare. 1972,
o p . cit.,.

Commenced as a pilot project in three districts in 1968, the programme expanded

during the next ten years and by 1977 covered 144 districts out of 397. It was
estin~r!tedthat on an average 50,000 farm families attended the functional literacy
classes each year. During the Fourth Plan nearly 30 lakh farmers joined the
functional literacy classes as against the target of 100 lakh, and an expenditure
of Rs.80 lakh was incurred as against the proposed outlay of Rs.200 lakh. 'The
project was evaluated at different points of time by national and international
agencies. The Pilot evaluation study conducted by the Directorate of Adult
Education in 1970 revealed the utility of the functional literacy programme in
contributing to agricultural production. The drop-out rate was only 17.5%.The
subsequent evaluation conducted by a committee in 1977 noted that funds
59
Development of ~ d u l t provided for the scheme at district level were inadequate and the inter-
Education
departmental coordination was far from satisfactory. Besides, the supervisory
system was almost non-existent. It was observed that a substantial proportion of
the grassroots level workers had no training and in many districts, the follow-up
programmes for the neo-literates were found to be weak (Directorate of Adult
Education, 1973).

The programme was implemented exclusively through official channels. Although

it succeeded in developing skills and disseminating knowledge of improved
agricultural practices, among farmers, it had certain limitations since the
beneficiaries were mainly from relatively well-off and enterprising farmers who
were desirous of introducing new agricultural practices. The programme touched
only the fringe of the problem, leaving the mass of the illiterates - exploited
marginal farmers and landless agricultural workers - outside its scope.
Notwithstanding these limitations, the operationalisation of the project over a
decade, did enable a section of Indian adult educators to enhance their professional
skills in the integration of the components of literacy and functionality. It also
revealed the problems likely to be encountered in any inter-departmental
development programme besides upholding the importance of decentralisation
of powers and strengthening of the monitoring system.

The concept of functionality found a place in several programmes during 1970s.

Functional Literacy for Adult Women was an important project introduced during
1975-76. By 1977, it covered 23 States/Union Temtories. Its aim was to impart
non-formal education using functional literacy as the means, besides accelerating
the participation of adult women in the developmental efforts of the community
so as to bring about attitudinal changes among them which would enable women
to play their role as citizens. The scheme was conceived as a package of services
to adult women in the 15-45 age group and was implemented jointly by the
Department of Education and Social Welfare in the experimental Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) project areas. The functional literacy classes were
organized by the Anganwadi workers of ICDS who were given an additional
honorarium of Rs.50 per month. The programme contents included the elements
of health and hygiene, food and nutrition, home management and child care,
civic and vocational education (Naik, 1968, Op. Cit.).

The phase of functional literacy also witnessed the establishment of National

Board of Adult Education (1969), Directorate of Adult Education (1971) and
emergence of non-formal education programmes. The Central Advisory Board
of Education at its meeting held in November 1974 recommended that the
exclusive emphasis on formal system of education should be given up and a
large element of non-formal education should be introduced within the system.
Multiple entry and programmes of part-time and correspondence education should
be developed. Besides, the CABE recommended that functional literacy
programme should be planned in relation to various developmental schemes
appropriate to rural and urban situations. Hence during the Fifth and Sixth Five
Year Plans, efforts were made to integrate adult education with a number of
developmental programmes. Directorate of Adult Education identified 65
Schemes/Prograrnmes in different departments of the Government of India which
had a substantial component of non-formal education. Some of the significant
schemes were Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Workers Education programme, Nehru
Yuvak Kendra, Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, Shrarnik Vidyapeeth,
I
Rural Welfare Extension, and Family and Child Welfare project, etc. While the Indian Adult Education: A
i
t
Krishi Vigyan Kendras were concerned with technical literacy and aimed at
imparting education through work experience to rural youth in agriculture and
Historical Perspective

allied subjects, the Shrumik Vidyapeeth, were intended to provide integrated

education and training courses for different categories of urban workers with a
view to improving their professional competency and also enriching their lives.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below is the question for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
2) Briefly describe the salient features of Farmers Functional Literacy and
Training Programme.
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L

2.4.3 National Adult Education Programme (1978-1987)

By early 1970s two significant events, Paulo Freire's writings on conscientiation
approach and the deliberations of International Symposium on literacy held in
Persepolis in 1975 seem to have influenced the concept of adult education.
Viewing education as an element in the process of human liberation, Freire
considered that the main task of adult education is to bring about a process of
critical reflection that leads to action and change. According to him dialogue and
participation are key elements of liberating education and the role of adult educator
is to enter into dialogue with illiterates about concrete situations and offer them
the instruments with which they can teach themselves to read and write. Freire's
ideology was reaffirmed in the Declaration of Persepolis, which considered
literacy to be "not just the process of learning the skills of reading, writing and
arithmetic but a contribution to the liberation of man and to his full development."
Further, the Declaration clarified that:
"the concept offunctiona1it;vmust he extended to include all its dimensions
politictrl, economic, social and cultural. Just as developme~~t is not only
economic growth, so literacy must uim ahnve all to urouse in the individual
a critical awareness of social reality ai~clto enclhlc liitil ai- her to
understatltl, trzaster and transform his or 1zt.r clc,~tin?:''(Ratnille, 1976).
61
 I)c\ clopment of ~ d u l t These overseas ideas had their impact on Indian Adult Education. The scope and 1
1
Elducation
significance of combining the twin components of functionality and liberation
was realised in 1978 when the then Government in power (Janata Government),
Ii
einphasised "re-distributive justice" to alleviate poverty and liquidate illiteracy. 1
'The Government of India gave top priority to adult education and issued a Policy
Statement on Adult Education and formulated the National Adult Education
Programme (NAEP) in 1978. 'I'hr: conceptual framework of NAEP laid equal
emphasis on literacy, functionality and social awareness and visualised adult
education as a means to bring about a fundamelltal change in the process of
"
1
socio-economic development, from a situation in which the poor remain passive
spectators at the fringe of the development activity to being enabled to be at its
centre and as active participants". Emphasising that "literacy ought to be
recognised as an integral part of individual's personality, it was assumed that the
illiterate and the poor can rise to their own liberation through literacy, dialogue
and action". In tact, considering education as a means of man's liberation and
tool for human development, was in conformity with ancient Indian adage (Sa
Vi4.n Yu l i i ~ ~ z ~ i k tand
u ! ~the
~ ~ educational
) philosophies of Mahatma Gandhi and
Rabindra Nar h Tagore.

'The NAEP was mainly conceived on a project pattern with adult education centres
functioning as grassroots level units and each of them catering to 25-30 illiterate
adults. Initially (1978-80). the duration of the programme was for 10 months
(300-500 hours). However, it was extended to three years after the review in
1980 and renamed as Adult Education Programme, according to which the
programme was to be operationlised in three stages to be spread over three years.
While the first stage of basic literacy was of 300-350 hours' duration, the second
and third stages were of 150 and 100 hours respectively. 'The contents of the first
year programme included basic literacy, numeracy, knowledge about health,
family life, vocations related to the learners' background and laws relevant for
family life. Since the focus of the second and third year programme was on
reinforcement of literacy and improvement of vocational studies, no specific
content was laid down and freedom was given to the organizing agencies to
introduce locally relevant reading materials for the neo-literates. Subsequently
the duration of the programme was reduced to two years (Government of India.
1978).
Though equal emphasis was laid on literacy, hnctionality and social awareness,
in the course of operationalisation, functionality was relegated into background.
The Review Committee on NAEP observed that:
"the progrumme so far has largelv remairze~lc.onfined to literacy, the
development orientation of the programme h~1.5 been ~uperficialand the
functional components in the course crlmo~r~ron-existerzt ... while the
importance of functionali~and awareness (I.\ integral parts of the adult
education programme is being irzcreasing1.v rc(,ognised,much eflorts would
be needed to achieve this integration into prr~c,tice"(Government of India,
1980).
The subsequent operationalisation of adult education programmes revealed
several drawbacks. The study conducted by the Programme Evaluation
Organisation of the Planning Commission found that in as many as 45 per cent
of centres, the functionality part of curriculum was not being followed though

I 62
over 90 per cent of the learners reported increase in social awareness. A number
Ol'~~'ailliili011 studies \;~c?rl.;orectby tlic Dcpar1111ento1'Education (MHRD,)during Indian.4dult Education: ,\
1980s r~cvealect1.1.1at"i'unctionaljry :tnd awnrenesh component generally got Historical Pers~~ecti\
c.

ncglectcd or poorly reflcctcd" and :ichic\!enwnt level 01' learners varied from 40
to 60 per cent (Mathur and JamI?hu!kar 1985,. S i ~ ~ large c e sections of the poor
and i l litcn!tc inasses idcntificcl ?Y',~EP ;IS tklcir pl-ogramme,"tl1e drop-out rate has
becn much lower than was l'earer. ?'he higil level of panicipatic\n of women,
ScheduledCas~esand Scheduled Tribes, involvelnent ojvoluntary agencies have
been a significant achievement of the NAEI! Besides. the resource base of adult
education W ~ also S strengthened by setting up the State Reso~ll.ceCelltres. ThC
invol\len~entof the selected Social Science Research Orgar~isa~ions in t h e
evaluation of adult cducatio~~ progrsnlrlies g ; ~ ac tr.t.nlt.nctous br)ost to the
expanhion of a d u l ~educ-ation rese;!r-ci~.D~lring1980s ;IS nxiny as 56 cv:~lu;i~ion

Thc Ic)X0s also wi~nesszdthe expansion of University Adult Education in India

when the University Grants Commission (under the Icadcl-ship ilf Dr. Madhuri
Shah) pr-ovided hundred percent grants to universities to take up adi~lt,cor!:inuing
education and extensiol! ncti\:itics with the active participatio11 of university
comruunitj. Of' the 226 universit.ies, deemed universitiec and institutions of
nationai importance in India (during 1995-96). 93 set up separate Depar~ments
of Adult Continuin$ Education. The expansion of University Adult Education
since 1978 hacl its impact on the progress of research. Compa~.edto 41 Ph.D.
theses on adult education bsc)i~ghtout during 1946-79, as many as 139 theses
came out during 1980-98. With the launching of the Mass Programme of
Functio~lalLiteracy in 1986, the scope for participation of students. both college
and schools. increased tremendously. The expansion of Nehru Yuvak Kendras
provided an opporti~nityto non-student youth to participate in literacy programme
and other developmental activities (Shah. 1990).
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below the ci\\estion Ihr W T I ~ I I YoLir
I~ answer.
b j Chccli your answer with thC o;le gi\:en :I: the end ot'this unit undcr
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
3 ) What were the salient features of National Adult Education Programmec?
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 Development of A ~ U I ~ 2.4.4 Programmes of National Literacy Mission (1988-2007)
Education
Upholding literacy as an important component of human resource development,
the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) stated the need for strengthening the
programme for training in functional skills relevant to economic activities and
adopting the strategy of mass movement to cover the huge target of illiterates.
The importance of literacy was reiterated by the National Policy on Education
(1986) which envisaged that adult education would be a means for reducing
economic, social and gender disparities, and nation as a whole would assume
the responsibility for providing resource support. Working out the implementation
strategies, the Programme of Action recommended that "emphasis in adult
education programme should be on skill development and creation of awarenew
among the learners of the national goals, of development programmes, and for
liberation from oppression." Subsequently, when promotion of literacy became
an important national mission, the document on National Literacy Mission (NLM)
specified that the objective of NLM would be to impart functional literacy to 80
million illiterates in 15-35 age group by 1995 through a variety of means and
with the active involvement of all sections of society. The concept of functional
literacy envisaged under NLM was much broader than the earlier concept and
included the following four aspects: (i) achieving self-reliancein basic numeracy,
(ii) becoming aware of the cause of one's deprivation and moving towards
amelioration of conditions through organisation and participation in the process
of development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general
wellbeing and (iv) imbibing the values of national integration, conservation of
the environment, women's equality, observance of small family norm, etc. This
expanded concept of functional literacy may be termed as developmental literacy
in view of its coverage of all aspects of human life and emphasis on the promotion
of national concerns. Thus, developmental literacy may be defined as literacy
for all round development of human beings and nations. By enabling individuals
to lead an enlightened, productive and socially conscious lives, the developmental
literacy aims at the development of nation as a whole (Government of India,
1988).

With the change in the concept, the operational strategies were also modified to
make it a mass movement through total literacy campaigns. However, the
breakthrough came with an experiment in mass literacy campaign spearheaded
by an NGO, Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad, in Emakulam District in 1989
with the objective of making the entire district fully literate within a period of
one year. The campaign was implemented with the active cooperation of the
district administration and all sections of society in a time bound, volunteer-
based and cost-effective manner. The campaign approach was characterised by
large scale mobilisation through a multifaceted communication strategy which
fully exploited the traditional folk culture. The instant success of the campaign
approach had a snowballing effect and similar campaigns were launched in quick
succession all over the country. Of the 525 districts in India, more than 80%
(447 districts) launched Total Literacy Campaigns (TLC) by March 1998. During
the decade 1988-98,68.5 million learners were made literate as against the target
of 100 million by 1999, which is a remarkable achievement given the size of the
i country and its diversities in terms of region, religion and culture. Although a
perusal of the 130 evaluation reports of TLC districts, shows that only 25% of
districts have succeeded in achieving a literacy rate of above 80%. The Census
Report of 2001, reveals that the literacy percentage increased from 52 to 65.38
64
during 1991-2001. Besides, the cumulative number of literacy volunteers 1ndianAdultEducation:A
mobilised since the launching of the literacy campaigns has exceeded ten million. Historical Perspective
Thus, the literacy campaign represents the largest ever civil mobilisation in the
history of the country (Report of Expert Group, 1994).

Consequent upon the successful implementation of literacy campaign in the

Ernakulam District in Kerala state and it's emergence as the first fully literate
District in India, the Total Literary Campaign has been adopted by the NLM as
the principal strategy for eradication of illiteracy in the country. As on March
2000, the TLC had been launched in 526 districts (out of 588 districts) in the
country. Besides, the NLM supported the Rural Functional Literacy programme
(RFLP) in 30 districts (located in six states, viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Jammu and Kashrnir, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim), which are sparsely
populated and hilly areas where campaign mode could not be adopted. The RFLP
is a centre-based programme where an instructor imparts literacy to 20-30
illiterates for two hundred hours spread over a year. Apart from these two major
programmes several state Governments, voluntary agencies and educational
institutions have been implementing various types of small scale projects and
innovative programmes. During the period 1988-2000, NLM succeeded in
imparting literacy to 849.39 lakh persons through various programmes (National
Literacy Mission, 1998).

With a view to consolidating the gains of literacy campaigns and programmes

and providing the neo-literates further opportunities for learning, the NLM
launched a scheme of Continuing Education in 1995 (which was revised in 1999),
which envisaged the setting up of a Continuing Education (CE ) Centre for a
population of 2000-2500. The CE Centre is conceived as an institutional
mechanism which would provide a range of basic literacy, post literacy and target
specific programmes covering equivalency, income generation, special interest
and skill oriented programmes. Each Centre is managed by two part time
functionaries, viz. Prerak (Facilitator) and an Assistant Prerak. For every 8-10
CE centres, one Centre is designated as a nodal CE centre whose functionaries
are entrusted with the overall responsibility of monitoring and supervision of
the centres. As on December 200fj, there were 2,18,000 CE Centres in 32 1districts
in India. Further details of the C@programmes are given in the unit on Current
Policy and Programmes (Planning Commission, 2007).
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below the question for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
4) What were the objectives of the concept of functionality en\ : wed under
National Literacy Mission?
 -
Development of Adult
Education 2.5 INSTITUTIONALISATION OF ADULT
EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW
The history of adult education bears testimony to the development and demolition
of infrastructures at different periods. During 1950s, a national level institution,
National Fundamental Education Centre and several regional Training Centres
for Social Education officers and a number of Janata Colleges were set up only
to be folded up within a decade due to the change in the policy of Goverllment of
India. Since institutions take a long gestation period to develop professional
excellence and ethos, the continuation of the National Fundamental Education
Centre and its development into a full-fledged national institution would have
strengthened the professional base of Indian adult education. One of the reasons
for the slow pace of the growth of adult education as a distinct profession may be
traced to the absence of special institutions during 1960-80. This trend changed
in 1980s when several State Resource Centres and University Departments of
Adult Education were set up. Although several State Governments had developed
adequate administrative infrastructure for the Social Education Programme during
19505, they were dismantled during 1960s when the programme was terminated.
The process of redeveloping the infrastructure at State level began only in 1980s.
At the national level, though a National Institute of Adult Education was
established in 1991 to undertake research, training and publications, it was closed
by mid-1990s. In fact, there has been no long-term vision of institutional
development in the field of Indian adult education. This is mainly due to the
policy of conceiving and implementing adult education as short-term activities
or plan projects. Unless adult education is planned as a regular.ongoing activity
consisting of basic literacy, post literacy and continuing education with a provision
for permanent professional institutions for the training of manpower at national
and state levels, Indian adult education will remain as a marginal activity with
an uncertain future.

2.6 LET US SUM UP

The growth and development of adult education in lndia during the last hundred
. yearsreveal certain trends and raises a number of issues. During the past, the
concept, policy and programmes of adult education in lndia have undergone
several but significant changes. Of the various national and international forces
and factors that have influenced the character and development of Indian adult
education, the changing policies of Government of India, role of International
Organisations like UNESCO, the ideas of Paulo Freire were crucial. Besides
several key individuals viz; Humayun Kabir, A.R. Deshpande, Sohan Singh, V.
K. R. V. Rao, P. C. Chunder, Madhuri Shah, Anil Bordia, Lakshrnidar Mishra,
Mohan Sinha Mehta, S. C. Dutta, Malcolm S. Adisheshaiah, Chitra Naik, Ramlal
Parikh, Bhaskar Chattejee have also played signicant role in the promotion of
Adult Education programmes at different points of time.

Four main concepts can be discerned in the history of Indian adult education,
viz; basic literacy (1882-1947), civic literacy ( I 948-67), functional literacy (1968-
77) and developmental literacy (1978-till date). Evolved at different points of
time, these concepts were operationalised into a variety of programmes, projects
and schemes, viz; Night schools, Social Education, Farmers' Education and
Functional Literacy, Rural Functional lireracy, Mass P r o p m e of Functional
Literacy, National Adult Education Programme, Total Literacy Campaigns and 1ndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
Continuing Education. Besides these, a number of innovative projects were also
implemented by official and non-governmental organizations, the most
noteworthy being Mahila Salnakhya Project.

Of all the events, the launching of the National Literacy Mission in 1988 and the
emergence of Ernakulam as the first fully literate district in India in 1989 stand
out. While the former enhanced the status of adult education programme and
assured political and policy support, the latter sparked off a series of literacy
campaigns which led to the eradication of illiteracy from a number of districts.
Of the several literacy campaigns four (Emakulam, Burdwan, Pondichery, Bhav
Nagar) have received UNESCO Literacy awards and recognition during 1990-
1994. As observed by the Arun Ghosh Committee, these campaigns had a positive
impact on the enrolment of children in primary schools, improving caste and
communal relations, empowerment of women, besides sensitising the bureaucracy
to the concerns of common man and above all placing literacy on the national
agenda. The positive impact of literacy on development becomes clear when we
examine the census data of 198I - 199 1 which brings out the correlation between
literacy and a number of developmental indicators. The National Family Health
Survey of 1999, bears testimony to the positive impact of literacy on several
social and economic factors such as health and nutrition in relation to women.

Two clear trends are evident in the history of adult education in India. While
Indian literacy campaigns are characterised by short periods (1 -2 years) of intense
activity followed by an uncertain interlude and final tapering off, the centre-
based programmes have followed a slow but steady path for about a decade. Of
the different major centre-based programmes, projects and schemes viz., Social
education, Farmers Education and Functional Literacy, Rural Functional Literacy;
the first one had the longest run spreading over the first three Five Year Plans.
All the three programmes were characterized by ambitious plans, targets and
outlays. Their achievements were, however, modest. Though during the decade
1979-89, the Rural Functional Literacy Project enrolled 249.14 lakhs adult
learners, the number of those made literate was only 99.38 lakh. There was a
wide variation in coverage of different programmes during 1980s. Against the
target of covering 1 10 niillion adults during 198 1-82 to 1985-86, only 16 million
were reported to have been made literate. The average number of persons rendered I
literate per year declined from 49 Lakhs in 1985-88 to 44 Lakhs in 1988-90. Of
3
the 38 million adults estimated to have been covered during the Seventh Five
Year Plan, only 23 million (61 per cent) were made literate. In short, there was
considerable variation in the achievements of adult education programmes. It
seems that there was an official obsession with targets since most of the
evaluations and reviews hardly provided any details of qualitative achievement.
It may be argued that one of the causes for the failure of adult education
programme may be due to its poor quality and hence the collection of qualitative
data becomes all the more important.

2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) The mail1 thrust of Adult Education in India during the 19'hCentury revolved
around basic literacy. Night schools were the key adult education institutions
in British India. They were few and modelled after British Adult Schools
and were mainly setup by the Christian missionaries, nationalist leaders,
 Development of Adult socio-religious organisations and intellectuals. The official policy was to
Education
encourage them wherever practical and permit as much flexibility as possible
in school hours. The core curriculum included rudiments of reading, writing
and numeracy and was covered within a minimum of 100 days. Average
instruction per day was 2-3 hours duration. The Indian Education
Commission (1882) observed that every province in British India had
provisions for setting up night schools and Bombay and Madras had 134
and 312 night schools with an enrolment of 4000 and 7000 adults
respectively.
2) Defined as "literacy integrated with the occupation of the learner and directly
related to development", the concept of functional literacy was translated
into action when the UNESCO designed the Experimental World Literacy
Programme which provided an opportunity for India to develop Farmers'
Training and Functional Literacy Project (FTFLP). This project, which was
in operation during (1968-1977) aimed at improving the efficiency of the
farmers in the implementation of the special programme of High Yielding
Varieties of wheat that was selected by the Government of India for enhancing
agricultural production and development in the context of the Green
Revolution. The project had three components, viz., (I) farmers' training
(2) functional literacy and (3) farm broadcasting. Under each, a number of
activities were undertaken. Under farmers' training, five-day training courses
were organized for selected farmers by specialists, besides organizing
Charcha Mandals (Discussion Groups) Mahila Mandals (women's groups),
conducted tours and periodic field demonstrations.Under farm broadcasting,
half an hour programme on technical information was broadcast daily by
the All India Radio. The functional literacy programme was woven around
the selected themes related to high yielding varieties of seed and farm
practices. These three activities were planned in an integrated manner with
I
b
a view to educating and informing the illiterate farmers about the high
gi
yielding varieties of seeds and the details of improved agricultural practices.
3) The NAEP was mainly conceived on a project pattern with adult education
centres functioning as grassroots level units and each of them catering to
25-30 illiterate adults. Initially (1978-80), the duration of the programme
was for 10 months (300-500 hours). o ow ever, it was extended to three
years after the review in 1980 and renamed as Adult Education Programme
according to which the programme was to be operationlised in three stages
to be spread over three years. While the first stage of basic literacy was of
300-350 hours' duration, the second and third stages were of 150 and 100
hours respectively. The contents of the first year programme included basic
literacy, numeracy, knowledge about health, family life, vocations related
to the learners' background and laws relevant for family life. Since the focus
of the second and third year programme was on reinforcement of literacy
and improvement of vocational studies, no specific content was laid down
and freedom was given to the organizing agencies to introduce locally
relevant reading materials for the neo-literates. Subsequently the duration
of the programme was reduced to two years. Though equal emphasis was
laid on literacy, functionality and social awareness, in the course of
operationalisation, functionality was relegated to the background.
4) The objective of NLM was to impart functional literacy to 80 million
illiterates in 15-35 age group by 1995 through a variety of means and with
 the active involvement of all sections of society. The concept of functional IndianAdultEducation:A
Historical Perspective
literacy envisaged under NLM was much broader than the earlier concept
and included the following four aspects: (i) achieving self-reliance in basic
numeracy, (ii) becoming aware of the cause of ones deprivation and moving
towards amelioration of conditions through organisation and participation
in the process of development, (iii) acquiring skills to improve the economic
status and general wellbeing and (iv) imbibing the values of national
integration, conservation of the environment, women's equality, observance
of small family norm etc ...

2.8 REFERENCES
Advaita Ashram. 1990. Selections From the Complete Works of Swami
Vivekananda. Calcutta: Advaita Ashram.

Ahmed, Moharnrnad Ashfaq. 1987. System of Education in Medieval India. New

Delhi: Panchasheel Publishers.

Altekar, A. S. 1944. Education in Ancient India. Varanasi: National.

Anil Bordia, 1982. Planning and Administration of National Literacy

Programme: The Indian Experience. Paris: IIEP.

Bataille, L. 1976. A Turning Point for Literacy. New York: Pergamon Press.

Cipolla, Carlo M. 1969.Literacy and Development in The West. London: Penguin

Books.

Directorate of Adult Education. 1973.Farmers Training and Functional Literacy:

A Pilot Evaluation Study of Functional Literacy Project in Lucknow District.
New Delhi: National Staff College.

Dube, S. C. 1990. Indian Society. New Delhi: National Book Trust.

Dutta, S. C. 1986. History of Adult Education in India. New Delhi: Indian Adult
Eduction Association.

Fernandes, T. F. 1939. Adult Education in Rural India. Adult Education, Vol.

XII, No. 1, September.

Goody, Jack. 1975. Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge: University

Press.

Government of India.1952. First Five Year Plan. New Delhi: Planning

Commission.

Government of India. 1963. Report on Social Education. New Delhi: Committee

on Plan Projects.

Government of India, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare. 1972. Handbook

qf Farmers Functionnl Literacy Project. New Delhi: Manager Publications.

Government of India. 1978. National Adult Education Programme: An Outline.

New Delhi: Ministry of Education and Social Welfare.
69
Development of ~ d u l t Government of India. 1980. Report of the Review Conznzittee on the National
Education
Adult Education Programme. New Delhi: Ministry of Education and Culture.

Government of India, 1988. National Literacy Mission. New Delhi: Ministry of

Human Resource Development. See also Government of India. 1986. Programme
of Action. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development; and National
Adult Education Programme: An Outline. 1978 Op. Cit.

Graff, Harvey J. 1987. The Legacies of Literacy. Bloomington: Indiana Press.

Gurumurthy, S. 1979. Education in South India. Madras: New Era Publication.

Hudson. J. W. 1851. The Histop ofAdult Education. London: Longman & Brown.

Indian Adult Education Association. 1952. Indian Adult Education Association:

What it is and what it does. New Delhi: Indian Adult Education Association.

Indian Journal of Adult Education. 1964. Vol. XXV, No.4.

Keay, F. E. and Karvey, D. D. 1973.A History of Education in India and Pakistan.

Calcutta: Oxford University Press.

Laubach, Frank. 1940. India Shall Be Literate: Jubbalpore: National Christian

Council of India.

Majumdar, Veena. 1972. Educatiorz and Social Change. Simla : Indian Institute
of Advanced Study.

Mathew, Arthur. 1926. The Education in India. London : Faber and Gwer.

Mathur, R. S. and Jambhulkar, G. L,. 1985. Evaluation of Adult Education

Programme: A Synoptic Account. New Delhi: Directorate of Adult Education.

Mohisini, S. R. 1993. History ofAdult Education In India. New Delhi: Anmol

Publication.

Mookherji, Radha Kumud. 1951.Ancient Indian Education. Lwdon: Macrnillan.

Naik, J. P. 1968. Education in the Fourth Plan. Bombay: Nachiketa. See also
Report of the Education Commission 1964-66, 1966. New Delhi: Ministry of
Education.
National Literacy Mission. 1998. Agenda Papers j i ~ rthe Sixty first meeting of
the Executive Committee of NLMA, held in New Delhi on 10 August. Also see
Planning Commission. 1992. Report of the NDC Committee on Literacy. New
Delhi.
Patwardan, C. N. 1939. History of Education in Medieval India. Bombay: The
Author.
Planning Commission. 2007. Eleventh Five Year P1an:Sub Committee Report
O n Adult Education in www.planningcommission.nic.in. see also
www.nlm.nic.in.
Report of the Indian Education Commission 1882. 1883. Calcutta: Government
Press.
70
 Report of Experz Group. 1994. Evaluation of Literaq Cun~paignsin Iizdia New India"AdullEducation:*
Historical Perspective
Delhi: National Literacy Mission. See also National Literacy Mission. 1998. A
I Note on the Natiorzal Litemcy Mission Along with an Overview of Literacy and
Adult Education. New Delhi.

Shah, S. Y. 1987. Adult Education in Bihar: New Delhi: Indian Adult Education
Association.
.
I
Shah, S.Y. (Ed). 1987.A Source Bookon Adz& Education. New Delhi: Directorate
of Adult Education.
-
Shah, S. Y. 1990. The Policy, Philosophy and Problems of University Adult
Education in India. Uiliversity News, Nov. 12.

Shah, S.Y. 1991. Each Orae, Teach Orze Lnubnch :s Methods and Materials. New
Delhi: IndianAdult Education Association.

Shah, S.Y. 1995. Indian Adult Education: A Historical Perspective. New Delhi:
Directorate of Adult Education.

Shah, S.Y. 1999. An Encyclopedia qf Iildian Adult Education. New Delhi:

National Literacy Mission.

Siqueira, T. N. 1960. Modern Indian Education. Calcutta: Oxford Press.

UNESCO. 1965. World Conference of Minister c$Ed~ic.utionon the Emdication

of llliterc~cy:Firlal Report. Paris: UNESCO. See also Naik, J. P. 1968. Education
in the Fourth P l ~ n Bombay:
. Nachiketa.
UNIT 3 GLOBAL, REGIONALAND NATIONAL !
SCENARIOS ON LITERACY
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Global Scenario
3.2.1 Need for Literacy
3.2.2 Literacy Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE)
3.3 Regional Scenario
3.3.1 Differences in Regional Literacy Rates
3.3.2
'

Narrowing of Gender Gap in Literacy Rates

I
I

3.3.3 Numbers of Illiterates High in Some Regions

3.4 National Scenario
!
3,4.1 Literacy Practices in India
3.4.2 Long-term Objectives and Commitments for Literacy
3.4.3 Issues of Language and Gender
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.7 References

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Unit 3 PI-ovideslearners with an overview of the state of literacy world wide. It a
discusses the cision and need for literacy especially in contemporary knowledge
societies, and the necessity of working for literacy for one's well-being. It guides
you to develop your own definition of literacy, describe different forms of literacy, i
and to apply your understanding of adult literacy learning to global, regional and
national scenarios. It is assumed that as an adult educator you are already aware
of the national scenario on literacy in India. For example, you are of course
familiar with the facts that starting from Mahatma Gandhi's basic education in
1937 (when he called for a coordinated teaching-learning process of hand, body
and soul and learning by doing) and the Kothari Commission Report in 1966, to
the Education for All (EFA) Declaration of Government of India in 2005 - all
a
emphasized the importance of literacy. This is why Unit 3 attempts to lead you
to build your own perspective of literacy in the light of global, regional and
national developments to achieve universal literacy.

You may already know that various stages of evolution in explaining and defining
literacy as per the needs and demands of the period, have taken place and they
have been influenced by academic research, international policy agendas and
national priorities from time to time. You also know that a commonly held
viewpoint is that literacy means developing or acquisition of reading and writing
skills and numeric skill. Unit 3 provides more value addition to your perspective
of literacy.
After studying this unit, you are expected to be able to: Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
Explain the concept of literacy and its importance at the global, regional Literacy
and national levels;
Explain the need for literacy;
Identify the various forms and types of literacy;
Apply various approaches to implement adult literacy programmes; and
Develop your own understanding of issues related to literacy.

-
GLOBAL SCENARIO - - - - - - -

Before we start our overvlew of global scenario on literacy, it is essential to

build a perspective on literacy discourse. In the field of literacy, we are much
used to dividing the world into illiterates and literates. Generally we tend to
follow the global pattern of perceiving in society such binary oppositions as
between underdeveloped and developed, between primitive and modem. Just as
there are worldwide programmes to remove underdevelopment and thereby usher
in modem development so are there many plans to end illiteracy. In this sense
for most of us the distinction between illiteracy and literacy is the same as between
primitive and modem or between underdeveloped and developed. This perception
makes universal literacy as a first condition for development. Such a view of
literacy begs questions like: 'How does one define literacy? Do underdeveloped
countries wait till they achieve universal literacy before they can engage in
development activities? Why have traditional adult literacy learning initiatives
not brought in any significant way either universal literacy or enabled participants
to acquire new skills to improve their well-being? These are some difficult
questions that we need to consider as we construct our perspective on literacy.
For academic debate on this subject you may like to go through Box 3.1.

Box 3.1 Debate on Literacy

In academia, social scientists like Goody (1977) and Olson (1977) found a
link between cognitive abilities and learning to be literate and then they
pointed out how through times immemorial literacy has been important for
the way a society works. Global concerns with literacy campaigns also
.reflect the popular assumption about utmost importance of literacy for
functioning of a society. Such ideas as promoted by Goody, Olson and
Farrell were in the past a basis for planning literacy programs but in
contemporary conditions, differences between literates and non-literates
do not follow the assumptions of the metaphor of the "great divide" between
literates and illiterates.
The results of the tests Scribner and Cole (198 1: 13-17)carried out in three
areas of communicative skills, memory and language analysis during their
study of Vai peoples of Liberia made clear that 'specific practices promote
specific skills' and that is why the claims of literacy thesis are not tenable.
In the light of the hold of cognition thesis of literacy and its sway over
policy makers, the doubt arose in the mind about literacy being over-rated.
Findings of Scribner and Cole (198 1: 13-17) that the distinction between
illiteracy and literacy may not be appropriate under conditions when reading
and writing of a text is not the sole source of information and knowledge,
are tenable because today people receive information and knowledge from
73
Development of Adult
Education innumerable sources, including those that do not require the ability to read
and write. In view of the sophistication of "oral" culture in India (also see
Finnegan 1999), it is not surprising to find the entire corpus of Vedic
literature surviving for centuries without being written up by its creators.
Mahatma Gandhi once said, "Illiteracy is a curse in our country." At the
same time he went on to proclaim, "Literacy in itself is no education." For
Gandhi, "Literacy is not the end of education or even the beginning." He
elaborated that "Literacy must be one of the many means for intellectual
development, but we have had in the past the intellectual giants who were
illiterate." Gandhi espoused a well-integrated concept of cultural literacy.
It is important that we do not ignore the findings of new researches while
re-formulating our plans for literacy on the ground that these are simply
academic discussions and have nothing to do with actual practical work of
achieving the goal of universal literacy. In fact so called academic
discussions of assumptions underlying literacy programs help us to escape
the route of unproductive activities and gain control and knowledge of
what we plan to do.
An international perspective on adult literacy and post-literacy is indeed a guide
for developing one's own ideas on how to go about your professional work as an
adult educator. Reading through UNESCO documents gives a feeling of
satisfaction that the international organization has elaborate plans of large-scale
collaboration to bring about universal literacy by 2015. However, in the light of
utter hopelessness of the situation on the ground, UNESCO documents appear
to be full of false hopes. Adult educators have begun to raise basic questions and
articulate their views in the context of literacy that can pull people out of poverty.

You are an adult educator. As you know, Professor Amartya Sen, the 1998 Nobel
laureate in Economics, recalled in his message at the celebrations for 2002
International Literacy Day, "There is an old Bengali saying that knowledge is a
very special commodity: the more you give away, the more you have left.
Imparting education not only enlightens the receiver, but also broadens the giver
- the teachers, the parents, the friends."

Some questions arise in the mind. Is Amartya Sen referring to adult educators?
Do you have confidence in the role of adult education as it exists today? Or, is it
necessary to go beyond its current status? With a co-learner, discuss the following
quotation from the speech by John Daniel (2003). What does he mean by these
statements?

". .. adult educators have a reputation for being boring, sanctimonious,

backward looking and paternalist. They have a propensity to miss the
boat when new developments of importance in adult education appear on
the scene. This is not a good reputation to have, especially if we want to
influence governments and the wider society."

You may not agree with what John Daniel has to say about adult educators. In
fact, I too do not agree with him. All the same let us try and make out what he
meant when he spoke the above words about adult educators. Do they ring a bell
in our minds? Is there some truth lurking behind them? About twenty Delhi-
based adult educators participated in a workshop, held in January 2006 at
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Well, some participants looked bored
7A
if not boring, while some were making a show of being keen, serious and Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
committed. In their responses to questions about contemporary social reality, Literacy
many of them were backward-looking and paternalistic. Adult educators have
been described to me as a 'lazy lot' who would not be up to 'reflecting' and
answering the 'check your progress' questions. So may be John Daniel was just
being blunt and calling a spade a spade. Or, he may be simply trying to shake us
up and exhort us to take up the challenge of universal literacy. Whichever way it
is, I suppose the test is right here. Let us find out how many learners of Unit 3
actually work on defining literacy.
You can also compare John Daniel's statements with those of H. S. Bhola (2005:
67). He is well known among adult educators in India and abroad and he said,
Adult educators in India have to understand Globalization in general and
how it has influenced Indian politics, economy and health services,
education-and adult education-in particular. ... As activists, Indian
adult educators must work to ensure that the position regarding its political
economy India is indeed protected; and that the state is not allowed to
withdraw from its functions that have traditionally become a part of the
social contract between the state and its citizens. They must re-commit
themselves to adult education and lifelong education and press on the
state to allocate enough resources to revive the objectives and operations
of the National Literacy Mission and design and launch new programmes
and projects of adult education for poverty alleviation and sustainable
development.
Do Bhola's words inspire you to carry forward your professional pursuits with
new ideas about adult literacy learning? Alternatively, would you like to form
your own perspective on global, regional and national scenario on literacy? Let
us proceed to initiate the process whereby you construct your own perspective.
It is well known that in the international arena UNESCO started supporting the
spread of adult education as part of a concerted effort to advance basic education
after the Second World War. The first global survey of adult literacy, covering
over sixty countries, was published in 1957. By then the world leaders and policy
makers realizkd that education and literacy could better enable individuals to
participate in and benefit from a modernizing economy. The second-half of the
twentieth century witnessed international policy community stressing on the role
of literacy in economic growth and national development especially in newly
independent countries. In the mid-1960s, in trying to cope with the development
hopes of Third World nations, economic functionality came to be the focus,
though mention was also made of social, and,-cultural needs of human beings.
The Teheran Conference of 1965 asked that functional literacy - now defined as
economic functionality - be in the centre of global efforts. The Teheran Conference
Report (1965) accepted functional literacy "as an essential element in overall
development ... closely linked to economic and social priorities and to present
and future manpower needs".
In 1978, the General Conference of UNESCO adopted a definition of functional
literacy which is still in use as 'A person is functionally literate who can engage
in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his
(or her) group, community and also for enabling him (or her) to continue to use
reading, writing and calculation for his (or her) own and the community's
development.' 75
Development of Adult In 1958 at the General Conference of UNESCO the standard definition of literacy
Education
emerged which is: 'A person is literate who can with understanding both read
and write a short simple statement on his (or her) everyday life.' The definition
of literacy sometimes extends to basic arithmetic and other life skills. This
definition became a yardstick for measuring literacy in national censuses. As
you are well aware, this understanding of literacy which emphasized on an
exclusively skills-based view captured the attention of researchers during 1960s
and 1970s. Further elaborated to use and apply skills in meaningful ways, the
notion of functional literacy gained ground on the basis of linking literacy to
productivity and overall socio-economic development. To use literacy in social
and cultural context has also been a perspective among recent developments.
Literacy has also been viewed by many educators as an active process of learning
involving social awareness and critical reflection which in turn would promote
social change. The Brazilian educator Paulo Freire advocated integrated notions
of active learning within a particular socio-cultural set up, as he wrote: 'Every
reading of the word is preceded by a reading of the world'.
But, some of you may say that in order to cope with the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) age of the twenty-first century we need to
have something more than the basic skills for survival. Isn't that so? The answer
to this question will depend on how you wish to define literacy. Some of you
may have come across the concept of 'multiple literacy' which is related to
technological, health, information, media, visual, scientific and other contexts
and more suited for life in the twenty-first century. Emphasis is placed not only
on reading and writing, but also on skills and practices relevant to the changing
demands of community life. With the emphasis on adult literacy skills in evolving
labor markets and knowledge-based societies during the 1980s and 1990s, the
Jometian Conference at Thailand in 1990 for Education for All (EFA) placed
literacy within the broader context of meeting the basic learning needs of every
child, youth and adult. It stated that these needs comprise both essential learning
tools (such as literacy, oral expression, numeric, and problem solving) and the
basic learning content (such as knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes) required
by human beings to be able to survive, to develop their full capacities, to live
and work in dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality
of their lives, to make informed decisions, and to continue learning.' This concept
of basic learning needs in terms of learning tools and learning content is invariably
subject to interpretationby implementing agencies. In this sense, no one definition
of literacy can reflect all its aspects. Even the EFA Global Monitoring Report's
matter-of-fact definition of literacy does not lend itself to a universal and standard
measurement of literacy. Also in normal process of learning one measures
achievement by carrying out and Completing a task, while in formal system of
adult literacy learning there are formal tests to measure success. In a way we
may speak of the need to enlarge the scope of externally planned and assisted
adult literacy learning to include informal learning whereby literacy learning
becomes a part of our social skills learning.
The above approach to learning alludes to theconcept of lifelong learning that
has now become the buzz word in discourse on education. As a result many
adult education departments in educational institutions of higher education have
even converted themselves into departments of lifelong learning. So you have
now 'lifelong learning discourse' (See Rogers, 2002 and 2003) in which adult
literacy learning has to be contextualized in terms of adult learners' perception
76 of themselves and their self-created goals.
 Global, Regional and
Check Your Progress National Scenarios on
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer. Literacy

b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
1) With the above background information that many of you may already
possess, systematize your ideas on literacy and write down your definition
of literacy in one page.
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L

In sub-section 3.2.1, let us now look at the global scenario on literacy in the
perspective that you may have begun to form about the need for literacy.

3.2.1 Need for Literacy

UNESCO holds that education is a human right, but 771 million adults are
illiterate (UNESCO, 2005) and approximately 100 million children (UNESCO,
2004) are out of school today. Many of those who enroll in primary schools drop
out before acquiring adequate literacy skills. Here literacy refers to basic skills
in reading, writing and numeric to have access to information about health,
environment, education and the world of work. Does it mean that 771 million
adults have no knowledge and skills about health and environment? What happens
to skills that people without the so-called literacy possess to survive and earn a
living despite many odds against them? Do they not learn from each other? Have
they not preserved environment for thousands of years? Asking these questions
does not mean that those asking them are against literacy for all. What in fact is
questioned here is the premise that illiterates have to somehow become literate
in the sense of being able to read, write and count. Questioning this premise
opens a window for us to understand the context for the need for literacy.

At present, 85 per cent of populations with insufficient literacy competencies

live in thirty-five countries (see Annex 1 of LIFE,2006). Planners and policy
makers consider that relevant policy measures, well-planned programs and
Development of ~ d u l t sustained allocation of sufficient resources are needed to ensure that effective
Education
learning opportunities are provided to those without literacy competencies. They
do not as such mention the actual use of new skills. It is recognized that women
and girls are the largest group without access to education and they need focused
attention, for their personal development and for their role as mothers, and as
citizens. But we do not find any mention of women and girls encumbered with
the responsibilities of collecting firewood, water for sheer survival. Will reading,
writing and numeric help them getting firewood and water with less exertion?
Of course, we need to also give priority to other excluded and disadvantaged
groups, such as ethnic minorities, rural populations, indigenous people, people
living with HIViAIDS and disabilities. Conventional literacy programs with their
focus on reading, writing and numeric can help only a few while focus on effective
developmental activities can address most of those mentioned above. In a way,
if we were to give the need for just literacy a back seat and concentrate on effective
developmental activities, it would be easier to promote the cause of universal
literacy.

Given the fact that literacy is a low priority on the development and the education
agendas in many countries and consequently is a weak link in the global movement
towards achieving Education for All (EFA), we may rather consider a model of
multiple adult literacies whereby participants engage primarily in different
activities and learn reading, writing and numeric in the context of those activities.
The following statements reflect a similar view.

"Literacy is not a pre-condition for the spread of some form of basic knowledge
however much it would be facilitated by literacy." (UNICEF, 1990: 53-54).

"Literacy is neither an entry requirement, nor necessary for the clientele to learn.
... the facilitation of adult and continuing learning can be provided without first
teaching learners to read and write." (Bas, 1991, cited in Lynch, 1997: 90).

"While literacy is a pre-requisite to 'schoolability', it is not crucial to either the

ability or the need of non-literates to learn." (Grandstaff, 1976: 300).

In view of the idea of multiple literacies, let us have a critical look at Literacy
Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE) which is a global strategic framework for
the implementation of the United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD 2003-201 2).
It is supported and led by UNESCO. As an integral component of EFA, UNLD
provides both a platform and an impetus for achieving all six goals of the Dakar
Framework for Action, promoting literacy under the banner 'Literacy as Freedom'.
The UNLD reaffirms 'that literacy for all is at the heart of basic education for all
and that creating literate environments and societies is essential for achieving
the goals of eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, curbing population
growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development, peace
and democracy' (United Nations, 2002).

3.2.2 Literacy Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE)

Let us recognize the fact that despite the importance of literacy for the
achievement of global development objectives, many countries do not have
enough resources and capacity to address the challenge. LIFE will be supported
over ten years to implement some of the recommendations highlighted in the
UNLD framework.
78
LIFE specifically aims to contribute to the empowerment of women, out of- Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
school girls and their families, especially in rural areas, and of those with Literacy
insufficient or no literacy skills - often the poorest and most marginalized
members of society. Their empowerment in turn can have a positive impact on
the quality of the lives of their families, poverty reduction, socio-economic
development. and school enrolment of their children. Taking into account the
principles put forward by the Delors Commission, LIFE will promote literacy
throughout life so that women and men can engage in 'learning to be', 'learning
to live together', 'learning to do' and 'learning to know'(UNESC0, 1996). LIFE
will be planned and operationalized alongside other EFA initiatives, especially
the Teacher Training Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa and EDUCAIDS, the Global
Initiative on HIVIAIDS and Education.
The map given below shows the world adult literacy rates in 2000. You can see
at a glance your country's adult literacy status. Obviously, we begin to feel a
little uncomfortable when we look in global terms at the current status of adult
literacy in India.

-J
50% and more
1 30% to <50%
@ lO%to<30%
Less than 10%
_) Data not available
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimate. July 2002

This situation brings home the important concern of training adult educators so
that they can improve the current growth of literacy in our country. In order to
operationalize plans for creating a literate society, the initiative of training adult
educators is as important in India as it is in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is so because
new developments of importance in adult education have appeared and it is time
to make sure that we do not miss them. Adult educators cannot afford to project
the image of 'being boring, sanctimonious, backward looking abd paternalist'
(Daniel, 2003) and not notice new developments occurring in their field of
activities.
Literacy meets a wide spectrum of individual needs and development goals.
Your definition of literacy (hopefully already worked out by you in Activity 1.2)
most likely reflects a much broader understanding of literacy where literacy stands
for several types of skills. The concept of 'multiple literacies' can be used if you
think it fits your description of literacy.
The term 'literacy' is often used as a metaphor, as we say computer literacy or
environmental literacy or legal literacy or gender literacy, etc. Here, literacy is
Development of Adult used more in the sense of skill. Is literacy something different for adult educators?
Education
Does it mean only the ability to read and write texts? Is literacy the same as
'awareness'? Is it not that one can be aware but not literate or one can be literate
and not aware? To answer these questions we need to consider and be clear
about the discourse on various approaches to literacy. FOPthis purpose you may
put your thinking antennae up and look into the current and previous practices of
operationalizing the concept of literacy. For achieving tangible results, you would
need to look into objectives of adult literacy learning programmes and the
measures for deciding on their success.
The following examples show that literacy is important but not a pre-requisite. It
can take place as and when required.

In Nirantar a group of women have learnt about maintaining water pumps

and in the process they learnt literacy skills as well.
In Bangladesh, a group of men organized and operated a tempo service and
as they made profits, they learnt also how to read and write so they could
sustain their operations.
In Nepal, a group of women wanted to learn to sew but they could not read
the sewing manual so they were told to first learn to read and write. They
lost their interest in sewing and their efforts to acquire literacy skills did not
also proceed well.
Lalita Ramdas found that literacy classes could continue only as long as the
activity helped to find work. If no remuneration was found, adult educators
were told to go away and teach children only. As a result Ramdas had to re-
think her approach to literacy.
Let us now turn to the regional scenario on literacy.

3.3 REGIONAL SCENARIO

It is well known that the overall world adult literacy rates do not reflect regional
variations and we need to separately discuss the regional scenario on literacy.

3.3.1 Differences in Regional Literacy Rates

The EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002 estimates that the overall world adult
literacy rate in 2000 was 79.7% - women 74.2% and men 85.2%. Past and
projected improvements in world literacy rates are shown below:
As indicated above, the figures mask large regional differences, with the lowest Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
overall rate in South and West Asia (55.3%), and the highest in Central Asia Literacy
(99.6%). Sub-Saharan Africa showed the biggest increase over two decades.
The following chart projects trends to 2015 on the basis of past experience:
Figure 3 2 Adtrk I e w P
~IS-bf -at Il@SO-LfOlSf

3.3.2 Narrowing of Gender Gap in Literacy Rates

It is noteworthy that the gender gap in literacy has narrowed in all regions, and it
is expected that the trend will continue to 2015:
Flyure 3 3 Grrbrln r)np s~IWr.rua mtcs. by rotJton(WCK)&41d 20151

These trends and proiections give us reason for hope and optimism regarding
progress In literacy. Though gentlet dill'erence\ in literacy rates are more nurked
among adults, there is now almost no gender difference in literacy rates of 15-24
year olds in many regions of the world. I-Iowcver, the absolute numbers \ ~ f
illiterates remain obstinately high. Of an estimated figure of 875 million illiterate
adults in the world in the year 2000, nearly two-thirds were women. It has been
projected that the fastest increases in literacy rates among adult women will take
place in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States.

Interestingly, in the Indian state of Rajasthan it is found that there is no positive

correlation between high literacy and low gender gap. The situation of higher
gender gap that prevailed in 1991 11ah changed and some of the high-literacy
districts now show a lower gender gap. A-stage has been reached where overall
literacy cannot increase without a significant increase in female literacy. The
emphasis therefore has to shift to women's education.
Development of Adult
Education Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
2) Which one of the four so-called 'bimaru' states of India made a steady
progress in rates of female literacy and reflected a relatively lower degree
of gender gap?
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3.3.3 Numbers of llliterates High in Some Regions
Literacy efforts have not kept pace with population growth -in South and West
Asia and in Sub-Saharan Africa numbers of illiterates have increased since 1990.
The following table compares numbers of male and female illiterates by region
for 1990 and 2000.
Numbers of adult illiterates - 000's
1990 2000
Total Male Female Total Male Female
World 879130 324914 554216 861966 3133231 548643
Developed 21970 6660 15311 14895 4862 10033
countries/countries ,
in transition
Developing 857159 318254 538905 847071 308461 5 3 86 10
countries
Arab States 62400 23118 39282 67473 24310 43162
Central and 16519 3833 12686 12518 2857 9661
Eastern Europe
Central Asia 480 98 383 222 73 149
East Asia and 232904 71924 160979 186404 53412 132992
the Pacific
Latin America and 41932 18243 23689 39254 17436 21819
the Caribbean w

North America and 11363 4024 7339 -. 7873 2935 4938

Western Europe
South and West Asia 38215 1 151980 230171 412242 159705 252538
Sub-Saharan Africa 131380 5 1693 79687 135980 52595 83385
For the sake of gaining a comparative perspective, the statistics quoted above Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
from various sources speak for themselves. We need to form a comparative Literacy
perspective for locating our country's status in the regional scenario. This
exercise is useful for looking beyond our noses and spotting where and what is
happening and if there is something for us to learn from others' experiences. In
this context we may also glance at figures on youth literacy in our neighboring
countries (see the Table below). Adult literacy rate in this table is for the age
group 15 years and above. Youth literacy rate is for the age group 15-24 years.
The youth literacy rate for lndia relates to 200 1. The table has been taken from
UNESCO in the National Literacy Mission Website.
1
Country Adult Literacy Rate Youth Literacy Rate
China 90.9 98.9
India 61.3 73.3
Nepal 44.0 62.7
Paki stan 4 1.5 53.9
Sri Lanka 92.1 97 .O
Bangladesh 41.1 49.7

3.4 NATIONAL SCENARIO

We will now turn to the national scenario. Your task here is basically to discover
the links between global, regional and national scenarios on literacy and then
generate a profile of the local scenario on practical dimension of adult literacy
learning in India.

Practicing literacy or its practical aspects have to be understood in terms of what

we consider to be the ways of learning or in other words theories of learning.
With respect to the practice of adult learning and practical activities for spreading
literacy, we need to have a clear understanding of theories of learning, which are
subject to varying points of view, including 'collaborative learning', 'distributed
learning' and 'communities of practice'. Some of these ways of looking at learning
do not focus on individual learner, rather they emphasize group learning and
social practices around which communities build their knowledge structures.
Making a paradigmatic shift from cognitive approach to understanding literacy
practices in their socio-cultural contexts, we need to go into what is known as
New Literacy Studies (see Barton and Hamilton 1999, Collins 1995, Gee 1999,
Street 1991) and think about the everyday meanings and uses of literacy in their
cultural contexts. We can also critically assess the claims of cognitive approaches
to literacy and explore the potential of findings made available in New Literacy
Studies.

Street's (1984) draws distinction between an 'autonomous' model and an

'ideological' model of literacy. Autonomous model of literacy deals with practices
that impose western conceptions of literacy on other cultures (see Street 2001).
The autonomous model of literacy assumes that literacy in itself, autonomous~y,
will influence other social and cognitive practices. This model of literacy hides
its cultural and ideological assumptions and presents them as though they are
neutral and objective. Research in the social practice approach has challenged
this view and shows that in practice dominant approaches relying on autonomous
83
De~elopmentof Adult model impose western notions of literacy on other cultures. Instead of imposing
Education
an alien conception of literacy on your society, you may like to look at an
alternative model for planning literacy programs in your area. You may like to
first give a critique of the cultural and ideological assumptions of autonomous
model of literacy and then look at literacy as a social practice that is embedded
In socially constructed principles of knowledge. The ideological model of literacy
provides a more culturally sensitive perspective of literacy practices as these
practices differ from one culture to another and from one context to another and
therefore each particular version of literacy would be always ideologically rooted
in a particular worldview. The ideological model of literacy has premises different
from autonomous model and posits that literacy is a social practice and not just
a technical and neutral skill and that it is basically rooted in socially constructed
ways of how one knows something. Clearly, literacy in this sense is always
contested with regard to its meanings and practices. \?'orking in the field of literacy
is always a social act that influences the nature of the literacy being learnt and
the learners already hold some idea\ about literacy and about their position in
relations of power.

In the light of above discussion, it is not tenable to hold the view that 'literacy'
can be 'given' neutrally and its social in~pactcan be measured afterwards.
Traditional literacy programmes, based on autonomous model of literacy, have
largely failed because they did not use appropriate intellectual tools to understand
the diversity of literacy practices around the world and did not design literacy
programmes to suit the particular needs of adult learners. You can argue that
organizing a literacy programme is to be a part of a power relationship and how
adult learners take hold of such a programme depends on socio-cultural practices
and not just on pedagogic and cognitive factors.

Adult educators need to address, in a literacy programme. all the questions about
power relation among the participants. about the resources and their sources,
about choices available to learners for learning one literacy rather than another
. type of literacy, about how learners challenge the dorninal~tpoints of view of
literacy. It is worth asking about what literacy means to the concerned adults and
which social contexts the use to drive meanings of literacy. Often. one has come
across the fact that even non-literate persons engage in literacy activities ant1
therefore the dividing line bet~veenliteratei non-literate i~ not all that obvlous
(see Doronilla. 1 996).

'r11e new concept5 of 'literacy events' and 'literacy practices' have been commonly
wed in New Literacy Studiel. Heath (1982: 50) has explained the concept of
'literacy event' as 'any occasion in which a piece of writing is integral to the
nature of the participants' interactions and their interpretive processes'. Street
(1984: 1) has elaborated the term 'literacy practices' as a means of focusing
upon 'the social practices and conceptions of reading and writing' and also that
the term includes the social models of literacy that participants bring to bear
upon those events and that give meaning to them.

The questions posed about literacy practices make one feel like going further
into the complex nature of debates around literacy issues. Bringing enlightened
perspective5 to what an adult educator can do for achieving universal litera~yi \
possible by questioning one's own understanding of the nature arid meaning ot
literacy.
84
3.4.1 Literacy Practices in India Global, Regional and
National Scenarios on
If we put the official view of managing and funding literacy programmes vis-A- Literacy
vis the perspective of our discussion on different approaches to literacy, we need
to reflect on the nature of literacy programmes and their objectives. This reflection
enables us to make our own choices 011 literacy practices initiatives in adult
learning activities. We need to think about implicati.c,nsof adopting the approach
that treats literacy as the ability to read and write. Will it lead to adult literacy
programmes with text books and adults being taught to read and write in ways
similar to those in which children are taught in schools?
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
3) Is it possible to take another approach to literacy practice in which there
is no 'task-conscious learning', instead we have 'learning-conscious
learning'? What is the implication of this approach'! Will it start from
what adults know and what they can add to learning sessions?
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1

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Being a signatory to World Declaration. India's commitment for EFA, and
particularly for primary education and adult literacy became evident from Ccntral
Advisory Board of Education (CABE), the national policy making body's (a)
endorgement of EFA goals. as underlined in India's National Policy on Education
(NPE) 1986 and its Programme of Action (as revised in 1992); and (b) approval
for accepting external funding for primary and elementary education programmes
(MHRD-NIEPA, 2000). Kerala with the highest literacy rate (90.86 per cent)
and Bihar the lowest (47.00 per cent) represent two extremes of the Indian scenario
on literacy. Social indicator like life expectancy at birth (2001-2006) is 71.61 for
males and 75 for females in Kerala while in Bihar, it is 65.66 for males and
64.79 for females. Similarly another social indicator, infant mortality per 1,000
85
Development of Adult live births is only 10 in Kerala against 61 in Bihar. Also birth rate (per 1,000) is
Education
16.9 in Kerala against 30.9 in Bihar and death rate (per 1.000) is 6.4 in Kerala
against 7.9 in Bihar. All these indicators highlight the social differences in the 4

two states and the differences show that literacy is the key to improving the
quality of life (see Sen,2005 ). The literacy rates in different states for 1981 and 1
!
2001 reflect considerable variance throughout the country. Leaving aside a few 1
states at the top and bottom, most of the states are either a little above or below
the national average.

With this national scenario, adult educators in India would certainly wish to re-
think the current practices in the field of adult literacy in order to achieve better
results. Should we continue to borrow the formal learning methods of school? If .
we were to focus on informal learning methods, surely we would then need to
alter our use of curricula and text book and also the way of formative and/ or
summative assessment of literacy programs. For making a shift from formal
learning methods to informal learning methods, or combining the formal and
informal methods, we need to examine our assumptions about how one knows.
Secondly, we would need to consider the cognitive consequences of learning
literacy and talk about cognitive approaches to literacy.

As has been pointed out by Street (2005) both meaning of literacy and its mode
of operation for research and action are highly contested issues. In order to run
an adult literacy programme for attaining long-term success, we need to probe
into these contested domains. Adult educators need to seek and become aware of
alternative approaches to literacy work. It is only then it would become possible
for them to tell their adult learners to acquire literacy for becoming aware, more
critical and in control of their own development. We may also consider what
Levi-Strauss (1961: 291-292) argued about literacy that it is not the royal route
to liberation and it is many times a means of enslavement.This may be a polemical
view but coming from a great thinker of our times it needs to be seriously
considered by adult educators of the twenty-first century.

3.4.2 Long-term Objectives and Commitments for Literacy

In the light of EFA goals and targets set up in Dakar Framework for Action and
clearly aligned to social and gender equity thrusts, NLM felt the necessity to
effect a certain re-focusing of its strategies pursued since 1999. The EFA-NPA's
new "thrust areas" in literacy include (MHRD, 2003: 85):
Achievement of 75 per cent literacy level by 2007.
A multi-pronged strategy to address regional, social and gender disparities
in literacy.
Refocusing literacy, post-literacy and CE programmes to increase and
strengthen women's participation, so as to bridge the gender gap in literacy.
Encouraging PL and CE districts to pay special attention on mobilization
and organization of women into neo-literate and self-help groups (SHGs).
Special attention to socially disadvantaged groups like SCsISTs and women. 1
45 districts with <30% female literacy rate selected for a multi-pronged
strategy to raise female 1i teracy.
Special stress with ZSS to specifically highlight strategies to take up literacy
86 and skill upgradation programmes for SCsISTs and women in particular.
Achievement of 75 per cent literacy seemed a doable pursuit in 2003 but in Global, Regional and
December 2006, does it appear to be an achievable goal? National Scenarios on
Literacy
Let us remind you that it is important to be aware of what is real and what is
rhetorical in the field of literacy. Only then one is able to realistically plan for
achieving sorne tangible results. Do you really believe some of the following
claims made by various agencies on behalf of literacy drives?

1) Literacy changes the way human beings think.

2) Literacy leads to human modernization and to the changing attitude about
development.
3) Literacy fosters democratic ideals and increases national productivity.
4) Literacy will be eradicated by fifty-per cent by the year 201 5.
5 ) It is possible to initiate an innovative literacy programme in a modest way
and sustain it through local efforts.

3.4.3 Issues of Language and Gender

If we are to be more culturally sensitive and in line with specific literacy practices
required for specific cognitive skills being targeted, we need to reflect on issues
of both language and gender. Explicit language policy guides the use of mother
tongue in adult learning and this remains a topic of debate because access to the
economic market place may require learning to take place in a language that is
not one's mother tongue.
Often general views on literacy rates hide large inequalities with higher illiteracy
rates among girls and women because literacy varies dramatically by gender,
ethnicity and urban-rural living. However, it is worth reflecting on the fact that
whether mere increase in number of women and girls can make any noticeable
impact on achieving the ideal of a self-directed adult learner who is able to define
her learning needs and to face the challenges of new ways of doing things with
fast shifting epistemologies of workplaces. Do we not need to plan for some
kind of revolution in our cultural and political settings? .

The language of teaching-learning (or medium of instruction) in adult literacy

programs has, as a conscious policy, been the mother tongue from the beginning.
After TLC became the dominant approach and strategy, NLM adopted the
approach of leaving the issue of language of instruction, to ZSS - the reason
being the language preference of learners, their numbers and feasibility of literacy
primers development and transaction as the main considerations. Within a State
there are many languages and dialects with or without a written script, spoken
by sizeable number of people. There are cases of TLCs that used primers in 6-7
languages, as per their demographic composition and language preference of the
learners. In some cases, learners not knowing regional language - language of
administration - may like to become literate in that language. There are also
districts with large tribal population, speaking a dialect that may or may not
have a written script. In such cases, learners are initiated into literacy by using
the first primer in the local dialect and switching over to regional language in
second and third primers used in TLC. The reading materials in PL and CE
stages are generally in regional languages.
The gender focus (to reduce gender gaps in accesslprovision, participation,
achievement, etc., that have a more quantitative dimension) and addressing the
Development of Adult gender bias i.e., age-old socio-economic and culturally ernbedded gender
Education
iniquities, have been the two distinct. but inter-related dimensions of India's
literacy movement since early 1990s. Gender focus was obviou\ly warranted by
their two-thirds share in illiteracy. The gender focus of TLCs (viz., paying greater
attention in proportion to their number), however. did not come by a pre-design.
It emerged from actual experience seen in the massive response of women who
perceived the social sanction for their participatiotl as an opportunity to realize
their aspirations for literacy, empowerment and improvement. But the hurdles
of gender inequities were pervasive, in the socio-cultural outlook, in the content
of literacy primers about the role of women in society. in development, pokilion
within family, solidarity and collective assertion for their equality. and ko on.
The literacy movement was the first to address these issues of gender in early
1990s which lent an effective model for the gender focused primary education
programmes later.

3.5 LET US SUM UP

You have in this unit developed your skill of working out an explanation of the
concept of literacy by defining it from the input given in various sections of this
unit. You had an opportunity of also checking if your effort was along the right
lines and that is how you could also improve your effort in case you felt that your
definition missed out on any relevant aspect of literacy.

Secondly, you discussed various forms of literacy. Prevalence of ever-widening

types of literacy makes each one of us illiterate in one sense or the other and we
all try to learn new skills, making literacy a lifelong endeavor.

Thirdly, you tried to work out the importance of llteracy in various ways by
looking at the global, regional and national scenario on literacy and thereby you
were able to derive lessons for applying better literacy practices in your region.

3.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

I) The definition of literacy is dynamic, evolving, and reflects the conti~lual
changes in our society. Literacy has, for instance, expanded to include literacy
in information and communication technologies and critical literacy. Literacy
is a complex set of abilities needed to understand and use the dominant
synlbol systems of a culture - alphabets, numbers, visual icons - for personal
and community development. The nature of these abilities, and the demand
for them, vary from one context to another. In a technological society, literacy
extends beyond the functional skills of reading, writing, speaking and
listening to include multiple literacies such as visual, media and information
literacy. These new literacies focus on an individual's capacity to use and
make critical judgements about the information they encounter on a daily
basis.
Sotne examples of definitions of literacy (taken from the internet) are given
below for you to compare your own definition of literacy.
The condition or quality of being literate, especially the ability to read and
write. In the international arena UNESCO started supporting the spread of
adult education as part of a concerted effort to advance basic education
after the Second World War. The first global survey of adult literacy, covering
88
over sixty countries, was published in 1957. By then it was realised by Global, Regional and
world leaders and policy-makers that education and literacy could better National Scenarios on
Literacy
enable indi\liduals to participate in and benefit from a modernizing economy.
In 1958 at the General Conference of UNESCO the standard definition of
literacy emerged which is: 'A person is literate who can with understanding
both read and write a short simple statement on his (or her) everyday life.'
The definition of literacy sometimes extends to basic arithmetic and other
life skills. This definition became a yardstick for measuring literacy in
national censuses.
The condition or quality of being knowledgeable in a particular subject or
field: cult~trulliteracy; biblical literacy.
The second-half of the twentieth century witnessed international poljcy
community stressing on the role of literacy in econornic growth and national
development especially in newly independent countries. In 1 978, the General
Conference of UNESCO adopted a definition of functional literacy which
is still in use as 'A person is functionally literate who can engage in all
those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his
(or her) group, community and also for enabling him (or her) to continue to
use reading, writing and calculation for his (or her) own and the community's
development. '
The Dakar Framework for Action 2002 on the eve of the United Nations
Literacy Decade, 2003-2012 recognized literacy as the heart of life-long
learning. It says: 'Literacy is crucial to the acquisition, by every child, youth
and adult, of essential life skills that enable them to address the challenges
they can face in life, and represents an essential step in basic education,
which is an indispensable means for effective participation in the societies
and economics of the twenty-first century'. It further added that ' literacy is
the heart of basic education for all and creating literate environments and
societies is essential for achieving the goals of eradicating poverty, reducing
child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and
ensuring sustainable development, peace and democracy.'
Most dictionaries define literacy as the ability to read and write. Today the
definition has been expanded. Many now consider literacy to be the ability
to locate, evaluate,' use, and communicate using a wide range of resources
including text. visual, audio, and video sources.
The traditional definition of Literacy is the ability to read and write. In
modern context, the word means reading and writing at a level adequate for
written communication and generally a level that enables one to successfully
function at certain levels of a society if that society is one in which literacy
plays a role in providing access to power.
The standards fur what level constitutes "literacy" vary among societies.
Other skills such as computer skills or basic numeracy may also be included,
as there are many people who cannot read letters but can read numbers, and
even learn to use a computer (in a limited way) while remaining unable to
read text. These and the increasing inclusion of sound, still and moving
images and graphical elements in digitally based communication call for an
even broader concept of literacy. (See: Literacy in the Information Age:
Final Report of the lnternational Adult Literacy Survey, OECD,2000. PDF).
Recently the National Council of Teachers of English and the International
Development of ~ d u ~ t Reading Association have added "visually representing" to the list of
Education communicative compctences that are considered to constitute literacy.
Many policy analysts consider literacy rates a crucial measure of a region's
human capital. This claim is made on the grounds that literate people can be
trained less expensively than illiterate people. Policy makers also argue that
literacy increasesjob opportunities and access to higher education. In Kerala,
India, for example, female and child mortality rates child rates declined
dramatically in the 1960s, when girls schooled to literacy in the education
reforms after 1948 began to raise families. Recent researchers, however,
argue that correlations such as the one listed above may have more to do
with the effects of schooling rather than literacy in general.
In broad terms, literacy is the ability to make and communicate meaning
from and by the use of a variety of socially contextual symbols. Within
various levels of developmental ability, a literate person can derive and
convey meaning, and use their knowledge to achieve a desired purpose or
goal that requires the use of language skills, be they spoken or written. A
literate person can mediate their world by deliberately and flexibly
orchestrating meaning from one linguistic knowledge base and apply or
connect it to another knowledge base. For example, knowing that letters
symbolize sounds, and that those sounds form words to which the reader
can attach meaning, is an example of the cognitive orchestration of
knowledge, a literate person conducts. Literacy is "not in isolated bits of
knowledge but in students' growing ability to use language and literacy in
more and broader activities" (Moll, 1994: 202).
However a culture defines it, literacy touches every aspect of individual
and community life. It is an essential foundation for learning through life.
and must be valued as a human right.
During the 1990s the problem of illiteracy was quite acute in the four States
of the Hindi heartland - Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
- which have the derisive adjective of Bimaru. But, the statistics provided
by the Census of India 2001 show that the rate of improvement has been
faster in each of these States than in India as a whole. In 1991. the gender
gap in Rajasthan increased in 24 of the 27 districts but in 200 1 it increased
only in 13 of the 32 districts. In 19 districts the gap decreased. While the
increase is nominal, the decrease is substantial. The highest decrease was
recorded in Jhunjhunu, followed by Sikar. Whereas the highest increase
was in Jalore, followed by Bhilwara. Interestingly, there is no positive
correlation between high literacy and low gender gap. Although the situation
that prevailed in 1991 has changed and some of the high-literacy districts
now have a lower gender gap, the overall position is not positive. This may
be a temporary phase. A stage has been reached where overall literacy cannot
increase without a significant increase in female literacy. The emphasis
therefore has to shift to women's education.
3) According to Street (2005), this approach would involve use of 'real literacy
materials' that come from everyday social life. This does not mean that we
need not do anything beforehand. As Street says we need to carry out pre-
programme research on what adults already know and also find out what
the learners would like the programme to provide. This is quite a lot for
adult educators to prepare before they take up any of the provisions made
90
 available by the government in the field of adult learning. Such advance Global, Regional and
N a t i o d Scenarios on
preparation is likely to initiate the process of building your own perceptions 1,iteracy
about the national scenario on literacy.

3.7 REFERENCES
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Bhola, H. S. 2005. Adult Education and Adult Learning between Poverty

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Collins, A., J. S. "Brown and S. Newman 1989. Cognitive Apprenticeship:

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Daniel, John 2003. UNESCO Mid-term Review of Progress in Adult Education.

Paris: TJNESCO.

Doronilla, M. L. C. 1996. Landscapes with Literacy: An Ethnographic Study of

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Farrell, Thomas J. 1978. Differentiating Writing from Talking. College

Composition and Communication 29(4): 346-350.

Finnegan, Ruth 1988. Literucy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of

Com~nunication.New York: Basil Blackwell.

Finnegan, Ruth 1999. "Sociological and Anthropological Issues in Literacy", in

Daniel Wagneret a1 (eds) Literucy: An lrztrrnntional Handbook, Pp. 89-94.
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Gee, J. P. 1999. An Introduction to Discourse Ana1y.vi.v: Theory and Method.

London:Routledge.

Goody, J. 1977. Literacy in Traditionnl Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge

TJniversity Press.

Grandstaff, Martin 1976. Non-formal Education: Some Indications for Use.

Comnparati~'e Education R~itiew,20 (3): 294-304.

Heath, S. B. 1982. "Protean Shapes in Literary Events: Ever-shifting Oral and

Literate Traditions", in D. Tannen (Ed). Written Language: Exploring Orality
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Heidegger, M. 1972. On Time and Being. ( J . Stambaugh, Trans.). New York:

Harper & Row.

Levi-Strauss, C. 1961. A World on the Wane. (Translated by J . Russell) New

York: Criterion Books.

LIFE (2006) Literac! lnitiative For Empowerment 2005-2015, Vision and

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Luke, A. 2005. Literacy and the Other. A Sociological Agenda for Literacy Policy
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Lynch. J. et al. 1997. Education and Development: Tradition and Innovation.

Non-form1 andNon-governmental Approaches, Volume 4. London: Cassell.

Maddox, B. 2004. "Language policy, Modernist Ambivalence and Social

Exclusion: A Case Study of Rupendehi District in Nepal's Tara". in Studies in
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MHRD. 2003. Education for All: National Plan o f Action INDIA 2003. New
Delhi.

Moll, L. C. 1994. "Literacy research in community and classrooms: A

Sociocultural Approach", in R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.),
Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (4thEd.), Pp.788-8 11. Delaware:
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Olson, D. R. 1977. From utterance to text: The bias of language in speech and
writing. Harvard Educational Review, 47 (3), 257-28 1.

Overwien, B. 2005. "Informal Learning and the Role of Social Movements", in

Madhu Singh (Ed.) Meeting Basic Learning Needs in the Informal Sector.
Hiedelberg: Springer.

Rogers, Allen 1992. Adults Learning for Development. London: Cassell.

Rogers,.Allen 1997. Learning: Can We Change the Discourse?. Adult Learning,

8 (5): 1 16-6.

Rogers,Allen 2002. Re-thinking Adult Literacyfrom an International Perspective.

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Rogers, Allen 2003. What is the Difference? A New Critique ofAdult Learning
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Rogers, Allen 2006. "Lifelong Learning and the Absence of Gender", in N. Rao
and A. Robinson Pant (Eds.) Special Issue of International Journal of
Educ~atioizalDevelopment on Gender and Adult Education, 26: 189-208.

Scribner, S. and M . Cole. 1 98 1 . Tlzr P.sjv~l~ologr*

of '1.itcl.crc:~:Cambridge: I-iarvard
liniversity.

Sen, Amartya.2005. Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture

and Identi@. New York: Farar, Straus and Giroux.

Street, B. 1984. Literacy in Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
'
Street, B. 2001. Literacy and Development. London: Routledge.
Street, B. 2005. Understanding and Dejining Literacy: Scopirzg Paper for EFA Global, Regional and
Global Monitoring Report 2006. National Scenarios on
Literacy
UNESCO. 1996. Learning: the Treasure Within. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. 2004. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2004: The Quality imperative.
Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. 2005. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005: Literacy for Life. Paris:
UNESCO.

UNICEF. 1990. Meeting Basic Learning Needs: A Vision far the 1990s. The
Background Dacunzent of'Janztien. New York: UNICEF.

United Nations. 2002. United Nations Literacy Decade: Educution ,for All:
Internationul PILZII
of Action- Inzplenzentution of General Assenzbly Resolution
56/115. Report cfthe Secretaq-Getzeml. New York: United Nations.
--

UNIT 4 POLICY ON ADULT AND LIFELONG

LEARNING: INTERNATIONAL AND
NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 The International Perspective
4.2.1 Fundamental Education ( 1 950s- 1960s)
4.2.2 Functional Literacy (1960s-1970s)
4.2.3 Paulo Freire's Radical Approach to Literacy (1970s)
4.2.4 Broadening the Concept of Literacy (1980s-1990s)
4.2.5 Growing Emphasis on Adult Literacy and Learning (2000-present)
4.3 The National Policy Perspective: Historical Overview
4.3.1 Marginality of Adult Education in Development Planning (1947-77)
4.3.2 Towards the Nationwide Programme of Adult Education ( 1 977-84)
4.3.3 The Shifting Approach of Adult Education
4.3.4 The Campaign Approach to Literacy
4.3.5 From Literacy to Post-Literacy and Continuing Education
4.3.6 Marginality of Adult Education in Legislation
4.3.7 Conclusion
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.6 References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
After understanding the global, regional and national overview of literacy in
Unit 3, it is now time to talk about the national and international perspectives
about policy on adult and lifelong learning (for a simple explanation of the terms
'lifelong learning' see Units 1 and 5). As will become clearer, much of the action
on adult learning has always been based on policy directives and for this reason,
it is necessary to become familiar about issues entailing different policies in the
international and national contexts. Unit 4 has two parts. Its first part deals with
the international policy discourse while the second part provides a historical
overview of the national perspective on adult education.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, it is expected that you will be able to:
Discuss the shift in international policy perspective from fundamental
education to adult literacy and learning;
 Describe the gradual transformation in national policy discourse from Policy on ~ d u l and
t
Lifelong Learning:
marginal status of adult education in national planning to integration of
and National
literacy, functionality and social awareness in adult learning programmes, Perspectives
and
Articulate your own views on the current status of policy perspective on
adult education in India.

4.2 THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Since the 1950s, there has been significant shift in the international policy
discourse on adult education. It has been influenced by the changing perspectives
put forth by the United Nations Education, Social and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO). Discussion in this section gives an overview of international
perspective on literacy and lifelong learning (UNESC0,2005;153-55).

4.2.1 Fundamental Education (1950s-1960s)

In the post-Second World War period, UNESCO recognised the acquisition of
literacy as fundamental aspects of individual development and human rights and
supported literacy as part of its efforts to promote basic education. It advocated
fundamental education to eradicate illiteracy. The focus of fundamental education
was primarily on imparting the basic literacy skills of reading and writing.
Subsequently, interest in the worldwide campaign for universal literacy weakened
due to the Cold War. Although the international community recognised the need
to eradicate illiteracy and finding ways to promote acquisition of a basic set of
autonomous literacy skills. only isolated national literacy campaigns were
undertaken in developing countries.

4.2.2 Functional Literacy (1960s-1970s)

In the 1960s and 1970s, international organisations advocated human capital
models of education that perceived education as one of the key inputs for economic
development. Within this perspective, literacy wah viewed as a necessary
condition for economic growth and national development. UNESCO proposed
the concept of functional literacy and emphasised interrelationships between
literacy and economic development. The Experimental World Literacy
Programme (EWLP) was introduced in 1966 and implemented with financial
and technical assistance of United Nations Development Organisation (UNDP)
and other international agencies in eleven countries till 1973, to enhance efficiency
and productivity of individual farmers. In 1978, UNESCO adopted a broader
definition of functional literacy, which is still used today:

A person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in which
literacy is required for effective functioning of his (or her) group and community
and also for enabling him (or her) to continue to use reading, writing and
calculation for his (or her) own and the community's development.

Subsequently, the broader concept of functional literacy has incorporated

divergent human concerns and a range of people's functions encompassing the
whole life. Lifelong education is implicit in the expanded concept of functional
 Development of Adult 4.2.3 Paulo Freire's Radical Approach to Literacy (1970s)
Education
In the 1970s, UNESCO's conceptualisation of literacy and other international
agencies was also influenced by Paulo Friere's radical approach to literacy. In
b this approach, acquisition of literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
l were not seen as an end in itself, but as a means to create conditions for developing
[
critical consciousness about one's social reality and take necessary action to
challenge and change it. Freire's influence on UNESCO's conception of literacy
was reflected in the Persepolis Declaration (1975) that acknowledged that literacy
must go beyond the process of acquisition of basic literacy skills and underscored
transformative potential of literacy. In practice, however, pseudo-Freirian
approach was adopted in many literacy program~nesin developing countries for
imparting development oriented literacy skills and knowledge, while maintaining
the status quo.

4.2.4 Broadening the Concept of Literacy (1980s-1990s)

During 1980s to early 1990s, international investment and interest in promoting
adult literacy programmes declined substantially. With growing pressures of the
World Bank's economic reforms on the education sector, investment in primary
education was favoured at the cost of adult education. UNICEF and UNESCO
voiced concerns against such trend throughout the 1980s arid put the focus on
literacy and education for all. Over the 1980s and 1990s. the definitions of literacy
were broadened in response to the growing demands created by new technologies
and other information media in the developed countries for increased levels of
knowledge, skills and understandings. The concept of literacy was broadened to
encompass not merely the ability to read, write and count, but also a broad set of
information processing competencies and multiplicity of skills. The International
Literacy Year (1990) and the World Declaration on Education for All, adopted in
Jomtien, Thailand placed the challenge of literacy within the broader context of
meeting the basic learning needs of all children. youth and adults. Furthermore,
the Hamburg Declaration (1997) also endorsed literacy as essential for lifelong
learning and as a catalyst for active community engagement.

4.2.5 Growing Emphasis on Adult Literacy and Learning

(2000-present)
Involvement of the international community in literacy since 2000 has revolved
around two goals articulated in the Dakar Framework of Action:
"ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills
programmes, and achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult
literacy by 2015, especially for women and equitable access to basic and
continuing education for all adults".
Following the World Education Forum in Dakar (2000), there has been renewed
interest among international planners in improving literacy levels. Many
international organisations (for example, ILO, World Bank, OECD, UNICEF,
UNESCO, and UNDP) have acknowledged the challenge that illiteracy poses
for development. While renewed interest and commitment to literacy has emerged,
there are marked differences in understanding about literacy across organisations.
The United Nations Literacy decade (2003-2012), launched in 2002, perceives
literacy as essential life-skills for every child, youth and adult to participate in
the societies and econonlies of the twenty-first century and as an essential step in Policy on Adult and
Lifelong Learning:
basic education (UNESCO. 2003). In the recent years, the World Bank has Internationaland National
advocated Adult and Nonfornlal Education (ANFE) that focuses on not merely Perspectives
literacy but all the possible learning needs of children and adults (Easton,et. al..
2003).

Education is one of the key goals in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
of 2000 dedicated to reducing poverty. Despite renewed interest in adult literacy
and learning, it is important to underscore that adult literacy and education is not
explicitly included in the MDGs. Focus on adult education is implicit in the
Goal 3 related to promoting gender equality and empowering women.

In summary, international perspective of literacy has broadened considerably

since the mid-twentieth century. It has moved away from fundamental education
with limited focus on basic literacy skills to functional literacy for economic
development to critical literacy of Freire for social and political change. Over
the years, broader understanding of literacy has emerged, encompassing multiple
literacies, literacy practices and lifelong learning.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer w-iththe one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
1) What are the key shifts in the international policy discourse on adult
literacy and lifelong learning?

4.3 THE NATIONAL POLICY PERSPECTIVE:

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
In India, the educational policy provides a broad framework for education
planning, and gives direction for overall educational development in the country.
Adult education in India is planned within the broader context of the general
educational policy (Pate1,2000). The central government plays a leading role in
policy formulation and planning to direct overall educational development in
the country, while individual states are responsible for the expansion and growth
of education in their respective areas on the basis of specific directions and
guidelines provided by the central government. This section highlights divergent
approaches to adult education since independence.
Development of Adult 4.3.1 Marginality of Adult Education in Development Planning
Education
(1947-77)
Despite massive illiteracy and low level of education in the workforce, the central
government after independence in 1947 neither took any constitutional
responsibility for educating the adult illiterate population nor emphasised adult
education within the general educational policy. The major thrust of the general
educational policy in the first three decades of planned development was on the
expansion of the pyramidal system of formal education. It was implicitly assumed
that expansion of the general educational system, particularly elementary
education, would solve the problem of illiteracy in the adult population. Hence,
adult education was relegated to an unimportant position, both in terms of the
educational policy and finances.
During the first three decades of planned development (1 947-77), adult education
programmes with limited coverage and funds characterised the state's approach
to educating the vast population of adult illiterates. Each programme followed a
different strategy and approach to adult education (see Box below).
Major Programmes of Adult Education during 1947-77
Social Education Programme: The First Five Year Plan (1951-56) rejected
the term "adult education" as narrowly confined to literacy work and proposed
social education as a comprehensive approach to educating adult illiterates.
The major thrust of Social Education Programme was to make illiterate citizens
conscious of their rights and responsibilities for building a democratic nation,
while incorporating the components of health, recreation, and economic life.
Imparting basic literacy skills was not assigned priority in the social education
program.
Farmers' Functional Literacy Project: In the early 1960s,the focus of adult
education shifted from citizenship training to skill-training for development.
The Farmers' Functional Literacy Project (FFLP), known as Kisan Saksharata
Yojana, was launched as a centrally-sponsored scheme in the Fourth Plan
(1969-74) in three districts as an experimental project under the Experimental
World Literacy Project of UNESCO. The FFLP was one of the three
components of the Farmers' Training and Functional Literacy Project (FI'FLP),
which aimed at upgrading human resources to improve agricultural
productivity of the farmers. The focus of the FFLP was on upgrading the
occupational skills of farmers and inculcating among them modem attitudes,
values, and behaviours to attain self-sufficiency in food production. It
advocated the concept of functional literacy and emphasised imparting basic
literacy skills along with practical and technical agricultural knowledge.
Scheme of Non-formal Education for Youth (15-25 years):The Fifth Plan
(1974-79) advocated non-formal education for several categories of learners-
unschooled children, youth, and adults at all levels of education. It also
launched the Non-formal Education Programme for young adults who had
missed schooling to provide them second chance for learning. The primary
goal of the programme was to provide them functionally relevant education
in order to prepare them as producers as well as responsible citizens. The
underlying assumption was that acquisition of appropriate skills and knowledge
about the welfare-oriented development programmes would increase their
participation in this development and help improve their economic conditions.
In practice, the programme remained a traditional literacy programme and its
98 overall implementation was poor.
4.3.2 Towards the Nationwide Programme of Adult Education Policy on A ~ U and
I ~
Lifelong Learning:
(1977-84) International and National
Perspectives
It was with the shift in the direction of general educational policy in 1977 from
higher levels of education to basic education, that eradication of illiteracy came
to the forefront of development planning (Planning Commission,1978:219-29).
A draft policy statement on adult education was issued for the first time by the
government in 1979, which was operationalised in the form of a nationwide
programme of adult education, known as the National Adult Education
Programme (NAEP) (Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, 1979).The NAEP
aimed at covering an estimated 100 million illiterates in the age group of 15-35
over a period of six years (1978-84). The conceptual framework of NAEP
integrated literacy, functionality and social awareness. Adult education projects
were implemented nationwide under the NAEP by voluntary agencies, educational
irstitutions (universities and colleges), local bodies (for example, panchayats
and municipalities) and the central and state governments. Launching of the
NAEP led to creation of administrative and organisational structures for adult
education at the national. state and district levels.

However, the promise of the NAEP was not fulfilled (Ministry of Education and
C~lture~l980). Though the NAEP was intended to be a mass programme of adult
education, it never assumed the mass character as envisaged in the policy
statement. The coverage and intensity of projects under ttie NAEP remained
rather limited. In practice, the NAEP remained a traditional centre based,
honorarium based and hierarchical programme of adult education, which was
funded and controlled by the government. With the fall of the Janata government
in late 1979, the NAEP continued with minor modifications as Adult Education
Programme (AEP) without making a significant dent in eradicating illiteracy.

4.3.3 The Shifting Approach of Adult Education

The National Policy on Education (NPE), introduced in 1986 (Ministry of Human
Resource Development, l986a and 1986b) and revised in 1992 (Ministry of
Humah Resource Developtnent,l992a and 1992b), has been a major landmark
in the history of adult literacy education as it articulated for the first time the
national commitment to addressing the problem of eradication of adult illiteracy
in a time-bound manner with planned, concerted and coordinated efforts. The
policy also provided impetus to development of a mass approach to eradication
of literacy with mass mobilisation and support of divergent sections of society.
The NPE (1 986) contributed to widening the scope of adult education in order to
provide flexible learning-opportunities to out-of-school youth and adults.
Specifically, it advocated the following:

a) Expansion of non-formal, flexible and need-based vocational education

programmes for neo-literates, youth who have completed primary education,
school drop-outs, and adults;
b) Provision of non-formal vocational education and training for workers of
the unorganised sector through the existing institutions and agencies. For
example, community polytechnics, shramik vidyapeeths (polyvalent adult
education centre), rural institutes, Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and
Training for Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) of the District
Rural Development Agency.
Deb elopment of Adult c) Promotion of continuing education as an indispensable tool not only for
Education
human resource devclopment. but also for the creation of a learning society.
Besides advocating distance and open learning for higher levels of formal
education, the policy recommended continuing education for neo-literates
and school drop-outs through Jana Shikshan Nilayams, and proposed need-
based non-formal vocational education programmes and training for
divergent groups (workers, youth, farmers, etc.) to upgrade their knowledge
and skills to improve their productivity and their skills.

4.3.4 The Campaign Approach to Literacy

It was in pursuance of the mandate of the NPE (1986) that the National Literacy
Mission (NLM) was launched in 1988 as a societal and technological mission
with the objective of imparting functional literacy to 80 million adult illiterate\
in the age group 15-25years by 1905(Ministry of Human Resource Development,
1988).(Note: For details on the NLM refer to its %&site- http://www.nlm.nic.in.)
The NLM assigned priority to eradication of illiteracy among women, scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes and other disadvantaged groups through mass
mobilisation and support of the wider sections of society.

The launching of National Literacy Mission in 1988, and the subsequent

emergence of Total Literacy Campaigns in different parts of India. led to the
emergence of the concept of developmental literacy which included the
components of self reliance in basic literacy and numeracy, social awareness,
acquisition of relevant skills and imbibing the values of national integration,
conservation of environment and gender equity.

The NLM also introduced a technocratic pedagogic approach, known as Improved

Pace and Content of Learning (IPCL) to address the problems of slow pace and
poor quality of learning among adult learners (see Ministry of Human Resource
Development. 199.3). In TLCs, curriculum and pedagogy were guided by the
IPCL approach that gave priority to learner-centred teaching-learning process. It
was assumed that higher quality pedagogic inputs would improve the pace of
learning and enable learners to acquire the expected level of literacy in about
200 hours during 8-12 months as per the NLM norms. Zilla Saksharata Samiti
(ZSS) was entrusted with the responsibility of internal evaluation of learning
outcomes as per the NLM procedure and norms with the help of functionaries
and volunteers. The IPCL curriculum was operationalised in three literacy primers.
Besides imparting minimal basic literacy skills and functional knowledge and
skills. the content of IPCL primers covered 'core values', prescribed by the NLM,
to create social awareness about various development issues. In practice, however,
the focus of TLCs remained on transmitting basic literacy skills through the
conventional approach.

Until 1989, the NLM continued with the centre-based approach of the earlier
adult education programmes. The major breakthrough came in 1990 with the
success of the literacy campaign in Ernakulam district, spearheaded by Kerala
Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), a voluntary organisation based on the people'
science movement in Kerala. The NLM adopted the campaign approach and
introduced Total Literacy Campaign (TLCs), area-specific and time-bound literacy
campaigns with total coverage for the given age group, as a viable strategy for
promoting literacy on a mass scale. The key and unique features of TLC strategy
were:
100
 environment-building and mass mobilisation through kala jjattzus (cultural Policy on ~ d u land
t
Lifelong Learning:
caravans), folk media, radio and television, personal contact, conventions, Internationaland National
rallies, etc. to generate social demand for literacy and involve wider sections Perspectives
of society in promoting literacy;
large-scale involvement of volunteers for literacy work, and
planning, monitoring and implementation of TLCs at the district level
through decentralised administrative and organisational structure of Zilla
Saksharata Samiti.
The underlying assumption of the TLC approach was that intensive literacy
campaigns would eradicate illiteracy across the country irrespective of the
structural context of underdevelopment, deprivation and the history of social
movements.

Although NLM policy document envisaged nationwide expansion of post-literacy

and continuing education through new institutional structures, better utilisation
of the existing infrastructures and open and distance learning, post literacy and
continuing education for neo-literates was neglected as the major focus of NLM
strategy remained on mass literacy campaigns till the mid-1 990s. In practice, the
focus of TLCs remained on imparting rudimentary literacy skills and not
functional skills and knowledge (Ministry of Human Resource Development
1 994).

4.3.5 From Literacy to Post-literacy and Continuing Education

With most districts covered under TLC in the late 1990s, the focus of NLM in
the Ninth Plan ( 1 997-2002) shifted towards post-literacy and continuing
education. In 1999, the NLM .modified its approach to attain the goal of 'total
literacy', i.e. sustainable threshold literacy rate of 75% by 2007 and expansion
of continuing education programmes to cover all districts by 2007. The revised
approach of NLM is reported in EFA 2000 Assessment and Dakar Declarations
as a reference point. The Tenth Plan also endorsed and adopted the changes
made in the NLM strategy (Planning Cornmission 2002). The revamped policy
of NLM continues to focus on imparting functional literacy to non-literates
(women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes) in the 15-35 age group, but also
includes other age groups interested in literacy and other programmes.

Based on the premise that the TLCs succeeded in making a large adult population
literate, NLM has shifted its attention to tackling the problem of residual illiteracy.

The focus of NLM's strategy has changed from mobilisation approach to

managerial approach for implementation of literacy campaigns. Volunteers are
no longer the backbone of literacy campaigns as emphasis has shifted to paid
workers (yrerahs) with low wages. With loss of people's movement characteristics
in literacy campaigns, TLCs have become routine and target oriented programmes.

It has adopted an integrated approach, amalgamating all the features of earlier

TLCJpost-literacy phases under one project, called 'Literacy Campaigns in
Operation Restoration'. This new approach envisages integration of basic literacy
teaching-learning with post-literacy activities to ensure a smooth transition from
TLC to post-literacy on a learning continuurn (see Daswani,2002). It assumes
that such an approach would achieve continuity, efficiency and convergence and
 Development of Adult minirnise necessary time lag between the two. The Post literacy programme is
Education
also treated as a preparatory phase for launching continuing education that aims
at creating a learning society. In other words, NLM has de-linked post-literacy
from continuing education and linked it closely with TLC. Continuing education
programme is envisaged to link literacy with actual life situations by imparting
relevant technical and vocational skills.

Furthermore, NLM has changed its approach to promote decentralisation.

Specifically, it has promoted decentralisation of financial and administrative
powers to the State Literacy Mission Authorities for sanctioning literacy-related
and continuing education projects. It continues to involve non-government
organisations (NGOs) in environment building for TLCs, but assigns them a
major role in implementation of continuing education projects. NLM has
strengthened State Resource Centres (SRCs) to increase their involvement in
continuing education programme. It has also enlarged the activities of Jan Shiksha
Sansthan so that they could function as repositories of vocational/technical skills
in urban and rural areas not only for youth and workers with low level of education,
but also for neoliterate youth and adults.

4.3.6 Marginality of Adult Education in Legislation

The Constitution of India recognises the significance of education for social
transformation. During the last decade, two major changes have taken place in
the Indian Constitution, which have far reaching implications for education. The
86th ConstitutionalAmendment Act (2002) makes free artd compulsory education
a justifiable fundamental right for all children in the age group 6-14 years. It
guarantees eight years of elementary education to each and every child in the
country. However, the focus of Constitutional amendments in education is
primarily on elementary education of children @-14 years), and not on adult
education and lifelong learning for youth/adults. The underlying assumption is
that universal elementary education among children (6-14 years) will
automatically tackle the problem of adult illiteracy. Hardly any efforts are made
to justify adult literacy being a part of the Constitutional provisions and guarantees.
The right of the vast population of non-literate youth and adults for basic literacy
education and learning has remained invisible in the govemment policy.

On the other hand, enactment of the 72nd and 73rd Constitutional Amendments
has paved the way to decentralisation of educational governance at the local
level. The new legislation will have far reaching consequences for the provision
of adulthon-formal education for women as well as the roles and responsibilities
of central government, state govemment and local bodies in governance of non-
formal education, and adult education.

4.3.7 Conclusion
Despite widespread illiteracy and limited formal education among the adult
population, adult education remained a marginal sub-sector of the general
educational policy until the late 1970s. The government's policy towards adult
education was characterised by the sporadic programmatic efforts with limited
coverage. The first nationwide programme for adult education, known as the
National Adult Education Programme, was introduced in 1978. However, the
promise of the NAEP was not fulfilled. Though it was intended to be a mass
programme of adult education, it never assumed the mass character as envisaged
I 102
in the policy statement and did not contribute to tackling- the problem of Policy on Adult and
widespread illiteracy. It was the National Policy on Education - 1986that widened Lifelong Learning:
lnUrnStional and
the scope of adult education, and brought adult literacy to the forefront of Pers~ectives
educational planning.

The mandate of the NPE (1986) was operationalised through the National Literacy
Mission (NLM), which was launched in 1988. The NLM adopted the mass literacy
campaign model as the key strategy for eradicating illiteracy on a mass scale.
Initially, the NLM did not pay adequate attention to devising appropriate strategies
for linking literacy with post-literacy and continuing education.

In the late 1990s, the revamped policy of NLM introduced a significant shift in
the direction of adult education. While continuing with the target-oriented
approach, the NLM adopted an integrated approach, encompassing literacy, post-
literacy, and continuing education. Overall, the focus has shifted to removal of
'residual illiteracy', and from rnobilisation approach to managerial approach in
implementation of literacy campaigns. Continuing education is viewed as a key
strategy for creating a learning society. On the other hand, the revised policy
advocates devolution of financial and administrative powers from NLM to SLMA,
and decentralisation of management of various programmes at the district level,
and the expanded role of NGOs and community in programme implementation
for efficient delivery of various programmes of adult education. The government
has not yet paid adequate attention to promoting literacy and meeting divergent
learning needs of the vast population of non-literate and neo-literate youth and
adults on a sustained basis.
Check Your Progress
I Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer. I
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to Check Your Progress".
2) Describe major changes in the policy direction of adult education in
India since independence.
De~eloprnentof Adult
Education 4.4 LET US SUM UP
In summary, there have been significant shifts in international and national policy
discourse on literacy. The international perspective of literacy has changed from
defining literacy as technical and discrete skills to functional skills for economic
growth to human capabilities for social-cultural and political change. Over the
years, broader understandings of literacy have emerged, encompassing
'conscientisation', multiple literacies, literacy practices and lifelong learning.
There is now growing recognition about the social context in which literacy is
acquired, developed and sustained. Literacy is not merely perceived as a skill
but as socially and culturally determined practices.

In India, despite massive illiteracy and low level of education among the adult
population, promoting adult literacy and learning has remained a low priority in
the educational policy. Nevertheless, divergent approaches to adult education
have emerged since the 1950s. Adult literacy did not receive adequate attention
in the first three decades of planned development in India. Until the late 1970%
the government's policy on adult education was characterised by sporadic
programmatic efforts through pilot projects, which were linked with the
government's development strategy. It was with the shift in the direction of general
educational policy in 1977 from higher levels of education to basic education,
that adult education received some attention in the educational policy. NAEP,
the first nationwide programme of adult education, proposed to integrate literacy,
functionality and cocial awareness. However, it did not succeed in making a
dent in promoting adult literacy as it remained a traditional, honorarium-based,
hierarchical and government-funded and controlled programme.

It was the NPE ( 1986) that provided impetus to development of a mass approach
to eradication of literacy with mass mobilisation and wider support of divergent
sections of society. The NLM, introduced as a technological and societal mission,
adopted the campaign approach to eradicate illiteracy on a large scale, but did
not pay adequate attention to post-literacy and continuing education. Since the
late 1990s, there is a noticeable shift in NLM's policy towards integrated approach
to amalgamating literacy, post-literacy and continuing education phases,
devolution of financial and administrative powers from national to state and
local levels, and strengthening and revamping of existing institutions.
Nonetheless, marginality of adult education has continued in legislation. and
development planning. It is critical that adult literacy and learning is placed at
the heart of the agenda of basic education for all.

4.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) There are significant shifts in the international discourse on adult literacy
and lifelong learning, influenced by the United Nations Education, Social
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), since the 1950s. Table 1 gives an
overview of the changing international perspective.

104
 Table 4.1: Overview of International Perspective on Literacy and Lifelong Policy on ~ d u l and
t
Lifelong Learning:
I Learning. International and National
Perspectives
Key Trends Policy Perspective
Fundamental education Literacy acquisition as essential
(1950s-60s) aspect of individual development and
human rights.
Fundamental Education for imparting
basic literacy skills (reading and writing).
Functional Literacy (1960s-70s) Human capital model of education.
Literacy as a necessary condition for
economic growthand national development.
Functional literacy for enhancing
productivity.
Lifelong learning implicit in the
expanded concept of functional literacy
that incorporated divergent human
concerns and functions encompassing
the whole life.
Radical Approach to Influenced by Paulo Freire's approach
Literacy (1970s) to literacy.
Acquisition of basic literacy skills not
as an end in itself but as a means to
create the conditions for developing
critical consciousness about one's social
reality and for taking necessary action
to challenge and change it.
Emphasis on transformative potential of
literacy.
Broadening the Concept of Broader concept of literacy
Literacy (I 980s- 1990) encompassing basic literacy skills along
with a broad set of information processing
competencies and multiple literacies.
Literacy as part of the broader agenda
of Education for All for meeting basic
learningneedsof allchildm, youth and adults.
Endorsement of literacy as
indispensable skill for lifelong learning
and community engagement.
Growing Emphasis on Adult Recognisation of the challenge that
Literacy and Learning illiteracy poses for social and economic
(2000-present) development.
Literacy as essential life skills for all in
the 21" century.
Literacy as an integral part of basic
education that focuses on learning needs
all.
105
Development of ~ d u l t In summary, there has been a significant shift in the international perspective on
Education
adult education. Adult literacy and learning is not perceived as an end in itself
for economic development, but as a means to develop human capabilities for
bringing socio-cultural and political change.
2) The policy approach to adult education could be divided into four distinct
phases as follows:
1) Marginality of Adult Education (1947-77): During the first three decades
of planned development (1947-77),educating the vast majority of adult
illiterate's was neglected in the educational policy. It was assumed that
expansion of elementary education would address the problem of
illiteracy. Marginality of adult education was evident in development
planning and legislation despite massive illiteracy after independence
in 1947. The government's policy in this period was characterised by
sporadic programmatic efforts through pilot projects, which were linked
with the development approach of the government. There were three
major programmes; each followed a different approach to promoting
adult education: Social Education Programme linked with the
Community Development Programme, Farmers' Functional Literacy
Project initiated in 1967-68, and the Scheme of Non-formal Education
for Youth (15-25) from weaker sections, launched in 1975-76.
2) Emergence of the Nationwide Programme of Adult Education (1978-
84): With the shift in the direction'of general educational policy in
1977 from the higher levels of education to basic education, eradication
of illiteracy received some attention in development planning. NAEP,
the first nationwide programme of adult education, was introduced to
educate 100 million illiterates in the age group 15-35 years over a period
of six years. It brought three important changes in the government's
approach to adult education. First, NAEP broadened the conceptual
framework of adult education to integrate literacy, functional literacy
and social awareness. Second, it paved the way for participation of
voluntary agencies, educational institutions (universities and colleges),
and local bodies (for example, panchayats and municipalities) in
implementation of the programme under the central and state
governments. Third, NAEP established for the first time administrative
and organisational structures at the national, state and district levels
for implementation of the nationwide programme of adult education.
In practice, however, NAEP remained a traditional centre-based,
honorarium-based and hierarchical programme of adult education
without making a significant dent in eradicating illiteracy.
3) The Campaign Approach to Literacy (1988-1998): It was the National
Policy on Education- 1986 (revised in 1992) that widened the scope of
adult education to address the problem of widespread illiteracy and
promote continuing education to create a learning society. It also
provided impetus to developing a campaign approach to eradication of
literacy with mass mobilisation and support of divergent sections of
society. In pursuance of the mandate of the &E (1986), the'~ationa1
Literacy Mission (NLM) was launched as a societal and technological
mission to promote literacy among socio-economically disadvantaged
sections of society through mass mobilisation and support of the wider
sections of society. Table 2 highlights the salient features of NLM's
106 campaign approach to literacy.
Table 4.2: Major Elements of the NLM's Campaign Approach to Literacy policy on A ~ U and
I ~
Lifelong Learning:
Target Groups Adult Illiterates (15-35 years) - priority to International and National
Perspectives
women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Conceptualisation of Development Literacy:
Literacy
Self-reliance in basic literacy (reading and
writing) and numeracy;
Social awareness;
Acquisition of relevant functional skills; and
Imbibing the values of national integration,
conservation of environment and gender.
Curriculum and Improved Pace and Content of Learning (IPCL)
Pedagogy for improving pace and quality of learning.
Emphasis on learner-centred teaching-learning
process.
Three literacy primers based on IPCL approach
for imparting basic literacy skills, functional
knowledge and skills, and awareness about
social and developmental issues.
Implementation Strategy Time-bound, areas-specific, mass campaigns -
Total Literacy Campaigns - with total coverage
for the given age group;
Environment-buildingand mass mobilisation to
generate social demand for literacy and involve
wider sections of society in promoting literacy;
Large-scale involvement of volunteers for
literacy work; and
Planning, monitoring and implementation of
TLCs at the district level through decentralised
administrative and organisational structure of
Zilla Saksharata Samiti.
As the major thrust of the NLM's policy remained on expansion of TLCs across
the country, adequate attention was not paid to devising appropriate strategy for
provision of post literacy and continuing education for neo-literates.

4) The Integrated Approach of NLM (1999-present): With coverage of a large

number of districts under TLCs in the 1990s, the government assumed that
TLCs succeeded in making a large population literate. The NLM's approach
was modified to pursue the goal of attaining higher level of literacy (75%)
and expansion of continuing education programme. The shift in the policy
approach is evident in the following areas:
The primary target group continued to be non-literates in the age group
of 15-35 years from socio-economically disadvantaged groups, but the
other age groups interested in literacy and other programmes are also
included.
Development of Adult The NLM has proposed an integrated approach to promote literacy,
Education
post-literacy and continuing education. In the new approach, basic
literacy teaching and learning is integrated with post-literacy under
'Literacy Campaigns in Operation Restoration' project to ensure a
transition from TLC to post-literacy. Continuing education programme
is envisaged to link literacy with lifelong learning.

For implementation of literacy campaigns, the NLM has adopted the

managerial approach, based on paid functionaries and not volunteers.
The NLM continues to emphasise the role of NGOs in environment-
Building for TLC, but envisage greater involvement of NGOs in
implementation of continuing education projects.

There is devolution and decentralisation of financial and administrative

powers from the NLM to State Literacy Mission Authorities for
sanctioning of various programmes. Zilla Saksharata Samities are
expected to mobilise various government departments and agencies.
panchayats and NGOs for implementation of the projects.

Strengthening of and revamping of existing institutions, such as the

State Resource Centres (SRCs) and Jan Shikshan Sansthan to increase
their involvement in providing technical support to the continuing
education programme.

Despite recognising literacy as a key indicator for social and economic

development, marginality of adult education has continued in legislation, and
development planning. It is critical that adult literacy and learning is placed at
the heart of the agenda of basic education for all.

4.6 REFERENCES
Daswani, C . J. (2002). "Education Beyond Literacy: Changing Concepts and
Shifting Goals,'?in R. Govinda (Ed.) India Education Report: A Profile of Basic
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(1986b).National Policy on Education - 1986: Programme of Action.
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(1993). Handbook for Developing IPCL Material. New Delhi:
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( 1994). Evaluation of Literacy Campaigns in India: Report of the

Expert Group. New Delhi: Directorate of Adult Education, Department of
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Patel, lla (2000). "India: Adult Education - The Legislative and Policy
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Suggested Readings
Bharat Gyan Vugyan Samithi (2002). Impact of Post Literacy. A study sponsored
by UNESCO. New Delhi: UNESCO.

Centre for Media Studies (2004). Continuing Education Programme: An Impact

Study. New Delhi: Planning Commission.

Karlekar, Malvika ed. (2000). Reading the World: Understanding the Literacy
Campaigns irz India. Mumbai: Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education.

Kohli, Mamata (2003). The Cos?nos of' Education - Tracking the Indian
Ekperience. A colnmissioned study. Mumbai: Asian South Pacific Bureau of
Adult Education.

Mathew, A. (2005). 'Literacy: Real Options for Policy and Practice in India."
Background Paper for the Education for All: Global Monitoring Report 2006 -
Literacy for Life (http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-).

Patel, Ila (1999). Adult Education in the Context of Economic Restructuring.

Journal of Social and Economic Development, 2(2):2 18-40, July-December.
Development of ~ d u ~ t (2006). Strengthening Literacy and Non-Formal Education Policies
Education
and Practices in India. A Commissioned study, coordinated by the Asian South
Pacific Bureau of Adult Education in collaboration with UNESCO (New Delhi).

Rao, I. V. Subba (2002). "Literacy Assessment Practices (LAP) in Selected

Developing Countries: India Case Study." Discussion document prepared for
ILWNESCO LAP PdExperts' Meeting, UNESCO Paris, March 7-8
(http://www.literacyonline.org/products/ili/pdf/LAPIndiaCase~total.pdf).

Roy, Menaka and Khan, Maria Lourdes A. (2002). Education for All in India:
Going up the Down Staircase. Mumbai: Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult
Education.

Saldanha, Denzil (1999a). Residual Illiteracy and Uneven Development-I:

Patterned Concentration of Literacy. Economic and Political Weekly,34(27): 1773-
84, July 3.

(1999b). Residual Illiteracy and Uneven Development - 11: Literacy

and Development Characteristics. Economic and Political Weekly,34(28): 1907-
21, July 10.

------- (1999vc). Residual Illiteracy and Uneven Development - 111:

Performance of Literacy Campaigns and Prospects. Economic and Political
Weekly,34(29): 2019-33, July 17.

Shah, Yusuf (1989). A Source Book on adult Education. New Delhi: Directorate
of Adult Education, Government of India.

Shah, S. Y. (2003). A Study on Adult Education Financing in India. Mumbai:

Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education (http://www.aspbae.org/
publications.htm1)

Srivastava, Komal and Ila Pate1 (2006). Community Mobilisation, Gender

Equality and Resource Mobilisation in Adult Education. International Journal
of Educational Development, Vol. 26, pp. 153-165.

UNESCO (2000a). The EFE Assessment 2000: Country Report - India. Paris:
UNESCO (www2.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/indidrapportl .html).

(2000b). The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All -

Meeting our Collective Commitments.World Education Forum. Dakar, Senegal,
April 26-28. Paris: UNESCO.

(2003). Literacy as Freedom (http://unesco.unesco.org/images/OO13/

001318113 1823e.pdf).