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 Princeton University Library

32101 064225715
 VETVS& TESTA-
NOVVM MENTVM

DEI SVE
MINE
-VIGE!

PRINCETON
UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

Marquand Library Fund

 Plinius Secundus, C
Ch
J..A
THE

ATURAL HISTORY

OF

PLINY .

TRANSLATED,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

BY THE LATE

JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D. , F.R.S. ,

AND

H. T. RILEY, Esq. , B.A.,

LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. II.

LONDON :
ENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
MDCCCLV.
 (RECAP )

2904

.2855

v. 2

LIBRARY PAIR
PRI

316
32101 028366

J. BILLING,
PRINTER AND STEREOTYPER,
WOKING, SURREY.
 CONTENTS .

OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

BOOK VI.
IN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST, OR FORMERLY
EXISTED.
CHAP. Page
1. The Euxine and the Maryandini 1
2. Paphlagonia 3
3. Cappadocia
4. The region of Themiscyra, and the nations therein 8
5. The region of Colica, the nations of the Achæi, and other nations
in the same parts 11
6. The Cimmerian Bosporus 13
7. Lake Mæotis and the adjoining nations 14
8. The situation of Cappadocia 16
9. The Lesser and the Greater Armenia 17
10. The rivers Cyrus and Araxes 18
11. Albania, Iberia, and the adjoining nations 20
12. The passes of the Caucasus 21
13. The islands of the Euxine 22
14. Nations in the vicinity of the Scythian Ocean 23
15. The Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea 24
16. Adiabene 27
17. Media and the Caspian Gates 28
18. Nations situate around the Hyrcanian Sea 30
19. The nations of Scythia and the countries on the Eastern Ocean 33
20. The Seres 35
21. The nations of India 38
22. The Ganges 43
23. The Indus 46
24. Taprobane 51
25. The Ariani and the adjoining nations 56
26. Voyages to India 60
27. Carmania .. 66
28. The Persian and the Arabian Gulfs .. ib.
29. The Parthian Empire 68
iv CONTENTS.
CHAP. Page
30. Mesopotamia 70
31. The Tigris 75
32. Arabia 82
33. The Gulfs of the Red Sea 91
34. Troglodytice 93
35. Ethiopia 97
36. Islands of the Ethiopian Sea 10 5
37. The Fortunate Islands .. .. .. 107
38. The comparative distances of places on the face of the earth .. 108
39. Division of the earth into parallels and shadows of equal length 110

BOOK VII.
MAN, HIS BIRTH, HIS ORGANIZATION, AND THE INVENTION OF THE ARTS.
1. Man .. .. .. 117
2. The wonderful forms of different nations 122
3. Marvellous births 135
4. The generation of man ; the unusual duration of pregnancy ; in-
stances of it from seven to twelve months .. 139
5. Indications of the sex of the child during the pregnancy of the
mother .. .. 141
6. Monstrous births 142
7. Of those who have been cut out of the womb 143
8. Who were called Vopisci .. 144
9. The conception and generation of man ib
10. Striking instances of resemblance 14
11. What men are suited for generation. Instances of very nume-
rous offspring 14
12. At what age generation ceases 15
13. Remarkable circumstances connected with the menstrual discharge ib
14. The theory of generation 15
15. Some account of the teeth, and some facts concerning infants ib
16. Examples of unusual size .. 15
17. Children remarkable for their precocity 15
18. Some remarkable properties of the body 2
19. Instances of extraordinary strength .. 16
20. Instances of remarkable agility .. 16
21. Instances of acuteness of sight 16
22. Instances of remarkable acuteness ofhearing 16
23. Instances of endurance of pain 16
24. Memory .. 2
25. Vigour of mind
26. Clemency and greatness of mind
27. Heroic exploits 16
28. Union in the same person of three of the highest qualities with
the greatest purity 1
29. Instances of extreme courage .. .. 11
30. Men of remarkable genius 1
31. Men who have been remarkable for wisdom 1
 CONTENTS.
Page
Precepts the most useful in life 178
Divination 179
The man who was pronounced to be the most excellent ib.
The most chaste matrons 180
Instances of the highest degree of affection ib.
Names of men who have excelled in the arts, astrology, grammar,
and medicine 182
Geometry and architecture 183
Painting; engraving on bronze, marble, and ivory ; carving 184
Slaves for which a high price has been given 185
Supreme happiness 186
1. Rare instances of good fortune continuing in the same family .. 187
3. Remarkable example of vicissitudes .. 189
4. Remarkable examples of honours .. ib.
5. Ten very fortunate circumstances which have happened to the
same person .. 191
6. The misfortunes of Augustus 195
7. Men whom the gods have pronounced to be the most happy 199
48. The man whom the gods ordered to be worshipped during his
life-time; a remarkable flash of lightning ib.
49. The greatest length of life 200
50. The variety of destinies at the birth of man 203
51. Various instances of diseases 206
52. Death 208
53. Persons who have come to life again after being laid out for
burial 210
54. Instances of sudden death .. 213
55. Burial 217
56. The Manes, or departed spirits of the soul 218
57. The inventors of various things 219
58. The things about which mankind first of all agreed. The ancient
letters 236
59. When barbers were first employed .. ib.
60. When the first time-pieces were made 237

BOOK VIII.
THE NATURE OF THE TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS.
1. Elephants ; their capacity 244
2. When elephants were first put into harness ..245
3. The docility of the elephant ..246
4. Wonderful things which have been done by the elephant .. 247
5. The instinct of wild animals in perceiving danger ..248
6. When elephants were first seen in Italy .. 251
7. The combats of elephants .... .. 252
8. The way in which elephants are caught .. 255
9. The method by which they are tamed 256
10. The birth of the elephant, and other particulars respecting it .. 257
 vi CONTENTS.
CHAP .
P
11. In what countries the elephant is found ; the antipathy of the ag
elephant and the dragon .. 25
12. The sagacity of these animals 260
13. Dragons 261
14. Serpents of remarkable size
15. The animals of Scythia ; the bison
16. The animals of the north ; the elk, the achlis, and the bonasus 26 26
17. Lions ; how they are produced .. 264
18. The different species of lions ·· 266
19. The peculiar character of the lion
20. Who it was that first introduced combats of lions at Rome, and 261
has brought together the greatest number of lions for
who pu
that rpose
269
21. Wonderful feats performed by lions 270
22. A man recognized and saved by a dragon .. 273
23. Panthers
274
24. The decree of the Senate, and laws respecting African animals ;
who first brought them to Rome, and who brought the greatest
number of them ..
25. Tigers when first seen at Rome ; their nature ib.
26. Camels ; the different kinds 275
27. The cameleopard ; when it was first seen at Rome 270
28. The chama, and the cepus 277
29. The rhinoceros ib.
30. The lynx, the sphinx, the crocotta, and the monkey 278
31. The terrestrial animals of India ib.
32. The animals of Ethiopia ; a wild beast which kills with its eye 281 280
33. The serpents called basilisks ..
34. Wolves ; the origin ofthe story of Versipellis .. 282
35. Different kinds of serpents · .. ib.
36. The ichneumon 284
37. The crocodile 287
38. The scincus ·· ib.
39. The hippopotamus .. 288
40. Who first exhibited the hippopotamus and the crocodile at Rome 290 ib.
41. The medicinal remedies which have been borrowed from animals 291
42. Prognostics of danger derived from animals .. .. 294
43. Nations that have been exterminated by animals
44. The hyæna 295
45. The crocotta ; the mantichora .. 296
46. Wild asses ib.
47. Beavers ; amphibious animals ; otters • 297
48. Bramble-frogs .. ib.
49. The sea-calf; beavers ; lizards 298
50. Stags ib.
51. The chameleon 299
52. Other animals which change colour ; the tarandus, the ·· lycaon, 302
and the thos
53. The porcupine.. .. 304
54. Bears and their cubs 305
ib.
 CONTENTS. vii
АР . Page
The mice of Pontus and of the Alps 308
Hedgehogs ib.
The leontophonus, and the lynx 310
. Badgers and squirrels .. ib.
. Vipers and snails 311
D. Lizards 312
1. The qualities of the dog ; examples of its attachment to its mas-
ter ; nations which have kept dogs for the purposes of war .. ib.
2. The generation of the dog 316
3. Remedies against canine madness ib.
54. The nature of the horse 317
55. The disposition of the horse ; remarkable facts concerning chariot
horses 319
66. The generation of the horse 320
67. Mares impregnated by the wind 322
68. The ass ; its generation .. ib.
69. The nature of mules, and of other beasts of burden 324
70. Oxen ; their generation .. 326
71. The Egyptian Apis 330
72. Sheep, and their propagation 331
73. The different kinds of wool, and their colours 333
74. Different kinds of cloth 336
75. The different shapes of sheep ; the musmon 338
76. Goats, and their propagation 339
77. The hog 342
78. The wild boar ; who was the first to establish parks for wild
animals .. 344
79. Animals in a half-wild state 346
80. Apes 347
81. The different species of hares.. 348
82. Animals which are tamed in part only 350
83. Places in which certain animals are not to be found 352
84. Animals which injure strangers only, as also animals which injure
the natives of the country only, and where they are found .. 353

BOOK IX.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES.
1. Whythe largest animals are found in the sea 358
2. The sea monsters of the Indian Ocean .. 359
3. The largest animals that are found in each ocean 361
4. The forms of the Tritons and Nereids. The forms of sea-elephants 362
5. The balæna and the orca 365
6. Whether fishes respire, and whether they sleep 367
7. Dolphins .. 369
8. Human beings who have been beloved by dolphins 371
9. Places where dolphins help men to fish 374
10. Other wonderful things relating to dolphins 376
11. The tursio 377
viii CONTENTS.
CHAP .
12. Turtles ; the various kinds of turtles, and how they are caught
13. Who first invented the art of cutting tortoise-shell ..
14. Distribution of aquatic animals into various species
15. Those which are covered with hair, or have none, and how they
bring forth. Sea-calves, or phoca ..
16. How many kinds of fish there are .. ..
17. Which of the fishes are of the largest size
18. Tunnies, cordyla, and pelamides, and the various parts of them
that are salted. Melandrya, apolecti, and cybia
19. The aurias and the scomber
20. Fishes which are never found in the Euxine ; those which enter
it and return ..
21. Why fishes leap above the surface of the water
22. That auguries are derived from fishes .. ..
23. What kinds of fishes have no males ..
24. Fishes which have a stone in the head ; those which keep them-
selves concealed during winter ; and those which are not taken
in winter, except upon stated days
25. Fishes which conceal themselves during the summer ; those which
are influenced by the stars .. .. ..
26. The mullet ..
27. The acipenser .. .. .. .. ..
28. The lupus, the asellus .. ..
29. The scarus, the mustela ..
30. The various kinds of mullets, and the sargus that attends them..
31. Enormous prices of some fish .. ..
32. That the same kinds are not everywhere equally esteemed ..
33. Gills and scales ·· ..
34. Fishes which have a voice.-Fishes without gills
35. Fishes which come on land ; the proper time for catching fish ..
36. Classification of fishes, according to the shape of the body .. ..
37. The fins of fish, and their mode of swimming .. ..
38. Eels .. .. .. ..
39. The murena
::::

·· ..
40. Various kinds of flat fish ··
41. The echeneis, and its uses in enchantments ..
42. Fishes which change their colour .. .. ..
43. Fishes which fly above the water-the sea-swallow-the fish tha
shines in the night-the horned fish-the sea-dragon .. ..
44. Fishes which have no blood.-Fishes known as soft fish ..
45. The sæpia, the loligo, the scallop .. .. .. .. .. ..
46. The polypus · .. ..
47. The nautilus, or sailing polypus .. ..
48. The various kinds of polypi ; their shrewdness ·
49. The sailing nauplius .. ..
50. Sea-animals which are enclosed with a crust ; the cray-fish
51. The various kinds of crabs ; the pinnotheres, the sea urchin
cockles, and scallops .. ..
52. Various kinds of shell-fish .. ·· .. ..
53. What numerous appliances of luxury are found in the sea ..
 CONTENTS. ix
Page
Pearls ; how they are produced, and where .. 430
How pearls are found 433
The various kinds of pearls 434
Remarkable facts connected with pearls-their nature 436
Instances of the use of pearls 437
How pearls first came into use at Rome .. 440
The nature of the murex and the purple .. 441
The different kinds of purples 443
. How wools are dyed with the juices of the purple 445
. When purple was first used at Rome ; when the laticlave vestment
and the prætexta were first worn .. 447
. Fabrics called conchyliated .. 448
5. The amethyst, the Tyrian, the hysginian, and the crimson tints 449
5. The pinna, and the pinnotheres 450
7. The sensitiveness of water-animals ; the torpedo, the pastinaca,
the scolopendra, the glanis, and the ram-fish 451
8. Bodies which have a third nature, that of the animal and vegetable
combined-the sea-nettle 453
9. Sponges ; the various kinds of them, and where they are pro-
duced proofs that they are gifted with life by nature 454
0. Dog-fish 456
1. Fishes which are enclosed in a stony shell-sea-animals which
have no sensation- other animals which live in the mud 458
72. Venomous sea-animals 459
73. The maladies of fishes 460
74. The generation of fishes 461
75. Fishes which are both oviparous and viviparous 465
76. Fishes the belly of which opens in spawning, and then closes again 466
77. Fishes which have a womb ; those which impregnate themselves ib.
78. The longest lives known amongst fishes 467
79. The first person that formed artificial oyster-beds ib.
80. Who was the first inventor of preserves for other fish .. 469
81. Who invented preserves for murenæ .. ib.
82. Who invented preserves for sea- snails 470
83. Land-fishes 471
84. The mice of the Nile 472
85. How the fish called the anthias is taken 473
86. Sea-stars 474
87. The marvellous properties of the dactylus 475
88. The antipathies and sympathies that exist between aquatic animals ib.

BOOK X.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS.
1. The ostrich 478
2. The phoenix 479
3. The different kinds of eagles 481
4. The natural characteristics of the eagle 484
X CONTENTS .
CHAP. Pa
5. When the eagle was first used as the standard of the Roman
legions ..
6. An eagle which precipitated itself on the funeral pile of a girl..
7. The vulture .. ·· ..
8. The birds called sangualis and immusulus · .. ..
9. Hawks. The buteo .. ..
10. In what places hawks and men pursue the chase in company
with each other ..
11. The only bird that is killed by those of its own kind.— A bird
that lays only one egg
12. The kite ..
13. The classification of birds
14. Crows. Birds of ill omen. At what seasons they are not inauspi-
cious ..
15. The raven.. •
16. The horned owl
17. Birds, the race of which is extinct, or of which all knowledge has
been lost
18. Birds which are born with the tail first..
19. The owlet ..
20. The wood-pecker of Mars
21. Birds which have hooked talons
22. The peacock
23. Who was the first to kill the peacock for food. Who first taught
the art of cramming them ..
24. The dunghill cock .. ..
25. How cocks are castrated. A cock that once spoke
26. The goose ..
27. Who first taught us to use the liver of the goose for food ..
28. The Commagenian medicament ..
29. The chenalopex, the cheneros, the tetrao, and the otis
30. Cranes
31. Storks
32. Swans
33. Foreign birds which visit us ; the quail, the glottis, the cychramus,
and the otus
34. Swallows ..
35. Birds which take their departure from us, and whither they go
the thrush, the blackbird, and the starling-birds which lose
their feathers during their retirement- the turtle-dove and the
ring-dove-the flight of starlings and swallows
36. Birds which remain with us throughout the year; birds which
remain with us only six or three months ; whitwalls and hoopod
37. The Memnonides
38. The Meleagrides
39. The Seleucides
40. The ibis .. •
41. Places in which certain birds are never found
42. The various kinds of birds which afford omens by their note
Birds which change their colour and their voice .. ·
 CONTENTS. xi
Page
The nightingale 509
The melancoryphus, the erithacus, and the phoenicurus .. 511
The œnanthe, the chlorion, the blackbird, and the ibis ib.
. The times of incubation of birds 512
The halcyones : the halcyon days that are favourable to navigation ib.
3. Other kinds of aquatic birds 513
9. The instinctive cleverness displayed by birds in the construction
of their nests, The wonderful works of the swallow. The
bank-swallow ib.
50. The acanthyllis and other birds .. 515
51. The merops -partridges 516
52. Pigeons.. .. 517
53. Wonderful things done by them ; prices at which they have been
sold 519
54. Different modes of flight and progression in birds 520
55. The birds called apodes or cypseli 521
56. Respecting the food of birds-the caprimulgus, the platea.. .. ib.
57. The instincts of birds-the carduelis, the taurus, the anthus 522
58. Birds which speak-the parrot ib.
59. The pie which feeds on acorns 523
60. A sedition that arose among the Roman people, in consequence of
a raven speaking¸ 524
61. The birds of Diomedes .. 526
62. Animals that can learn nothing .. ib.
63. The mode of drinking with birds. The porphyrio 527
64. The hæmat opous ib.
65. The food of birds ib.
66. The pelican ib.
67. Foreign birds : the phalerides, the pheasant, and the numidicæ.. 528
68. The phoenicopterus, the attagen, the phalacrocorax, the pyrrhoco-
rax, and the lagopus ib.
69. The new birds. The vipio 529
70. Fabulous birds.. .. 530
71. Who first invented the art of cramming poultry : why the first
Censors forbade this practice 531
72. Who first invented aviaries. The dish of Esopus ib.
73. The generation of birds : other oviparous animals 532
74. The various kinds of eggs, and their nature ib.
75. Defects in brood-hens, and their remedies 535
76. An augury derived from eggs by an empress ib.
77. The best kinds offowls 536
78. The diseases of fowls, and their remedies 537
79. When birds lay, and howmany eggs. The various kinds of herons ib.
80. What eggs are called hypenemia, and what cynosura. How
eggs ars best kept .. 539
81. The only winged animal that is viviparous, and nurtures its young
with its milk .. 540
82. Terrestrial animals that are oviparous. Various kinds of serpents ib.
83. Generation of all kinds of terrestrial animals ib.
84. The position of animals in the uterus 544

1
xii CONTENTS.
CHAP. Pa
85. Animals whose origin is still unknown 5
86. Salamanders
87. Animals which are born of beings that have not been born them-
selves-animals which are born themselves, but are not repro-
ductive-animals which are of neither sex
88. The senses of animals-that all have the senses of touch and taste
-those which are more remarkable for their sight, smell, or
hearing-moles-whether oysters have the sense of hearing
89. Which fishes have the best hearing
90. Which fishes have the finest sense of smell
91. Diversities in the feeding of animals
92. Animals which live on poisons
93. Animals which live on earth-animals which will not die of
hunger or thirst ..
94. Diversities in the drinking of animals
95. Antipathies of animals. Proofs that they are sensible of friendship
and other affections
96. Instances of affection shown by serpents
97. The sleep of animals
98. What animals are subject to dreams
NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY .

BOOK VI.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS ,

HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES
WHO NOW EXIST, OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. ( 1 . )—THE EUXINE AND THE MARYANDINI .

THE Euxine¹ Sea, which in former times had the name of
Axenus, from the savage and inhospitable character of the
nations living on its borders, by a peculiar whim of nature,
which is continually giving way before the greedy inroads of
the sea, lies between Europe and Asia. It was not enough
for the ocean to have surrounded the earth, and then de-
prived us of a considerable portion of it, thus rendering still
greater its uninhabitable proportion ; it was not enough
for it to have forced a passage through the mountains, to
have torn away Calpe from Africa, and to have swallowed up
a much larger space than it left untouched ; it was not enough
for it to have poured its tide into the Propontis through the
Hellespont, after swallowing up still more of the dry land
-for beyond the Bosporus, as well, it opens with its insatiate
appetite upon another space of immense extent, until the
Maotian lakes³ unite their ravening waters with it as it ranges
far and wide.
That all this has taken place in spite, as it were, of the
earth, is manifested by the existence of so many straits and
such numbers of narrow passages formed against the will of
1 Or the " Hospitable" Sea, now the Black Sea.
Or the " Inhospitable."
The streams which discharge their waters into the Palus Mæotis, or
Sea of Azof.
VOL. II. B
2 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

nature that of the Hellespont, being only eight hundr

and seventy-five paces in width, while at the two Bospori t
passage across may be effected by oxen swimming, a fact fro
which they have both derived their name. And then beside
although they are thus severed, there are certain points
which these coasts stand in the relation of brotherhood towar
each other-the singing of birds and the barking of dogs
the one side can be heard on the other, and an intercourse c
be maintained between these two worlds by the medium ev
of the human voice, 8 if the winds should not happen to car
away the sound thereof.
The length of the borders of the Euxine from the Bospor
to the Lake Mæotis has been reckoned by some writers
fourteen hundred and thirty-eight miles ; Eratosthenes, ho
ever, says that it is one hundred less. According to Agripp
the distance from Chalcedon to the Phasis is one thousand mil
and from that river to the Cimmerian Bosporus three hundr
and sixty. We will here give in a general form the distances
they have been ascertained in our own times ; for our arms ha
even penetrated to the very mouth of the Cimmerian Strait
After passing the mouth of the Bosporus we come to t
river Rhebas," by some writers called the Rhesus. We ne
come to Psillis,10 the port of Calpas, " and the Sagaris,12 a fam
4 Straits of the Dardanelles or of Gallipoli, spoken of in B. iv. c. 18,
seven stadia in width.
5 The Thracian Bosporus, now the Channel or Straits of Constar
nople, and the Cimmerian Bosporus or Straits of Kaffa, or Yeni Kale.
From Bous, an ox, and Topóg, " a passage." According to the lege
it was at the Thracian Bosporus that the cow Io made her passage fr
one continent to the other, and hence the name, in all probability, c
brated alike in the fables and the history of antiquity. The Cimmer
Bosporus not improbably borrowed its name from the Thracian.
Esch. Prom. Vinc. 1. 733.
7 This sentence seems to bear reference to the one that follows, and
as punctuated in the Latin, to the one immediately preceding it.
It is not probable that this is the case at the Straits of Kaffa, wh
are nearly four miles in width at the narrowest part.
9 Now the Riva, a river of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into
Euxine north-east of Chalcedon.
10 Probably an obscure town.
11 On the river Calpas or Calpe, in Bithynia. Xenophon, in the A
basis, describes it as about half way between Byzantium and Herac
The spot is identified in some of the maps as Kirpeh Limán, and the p
montory as Cape Kirpeh.
12 Still known as the Sakaria.
ap. 2.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC.

ver, which rises in Phrygia and receives the waters of other

13
vers of vast magnitude, among which are the Tembrogius ¹³
nd the Gallus, " the last of which is by many called the Sanga-
ius. After leaving the Sagaris the Gulf of the Mariandyni¹
begins, and we come to the town of Heraclea,16 on the river
Lycus ; 17 this place is distant from the mouth of the Euxine two
hundred miles . The sea-port of Acone ¹8 comes next, which has
a fearful notoriety for its aconite or wolf's-bane, a deadly
poison, and then the cavern of Acherusia," the rivers Pædo-
pides, Callichorus, and Sonautes, the town of Tium,20 distant
from Heraclea thirty-eight miles, and the river Billis.
CHAP. 2. (2. )-PAPHLAGONIA,
Beyond this river begins the nation of Paphlagonia, " by
some writers called Pylæmenia ;22 it is closed in behind by the
country of Galatia. In it are Mastya,23 a town founded by the
13 Now called the Sursak, according to Parisot.
14 Now the Lef-ke. See the end of c. 42 of the last Book.
15 The modern Gulf of Sakaria. Of the Mariandyni, who gave the an-
cient name to it, little or nothing is known.
16 Its site is now known as Harakli or Eregli . By Strabo it is erro-
neously called a colony of Miletus. It was situate a few miles to the north
of the river Lycus.
17 Now called the Kilij.
18 Stephanus Byzantinus speaks of this place as producing whetstones, or
akovai, as well as the plant aconite.
19 This name was given to the cavern in common with several other
lakes or caverns in various parts of the world, which, like the various
rivers of the name of Acheron, were at some time supposed to be con-
nected with the lower world.
20 Now called Falios (or more properly Filiyos), according to D'Anville,
from the river of that name in its vicinity, supposed by him and other
geographers toe the same as the ancient Billis, here mentioned by Pliny.
By others of the ancient writers it is called Billæus.
21 Paphlagonia was bounded by Bithynia on the west, and by Pontus on
the east, being separated from the last by the river Halys ; on the south it
was divided by the chain of Mount Olympus from Phrygia in the earlier
times, from Galatia at a later period ; and on the north it bordered on the
Euxine.
22 In the Homeric catalogue we find Pylæmenes leading the Paphlago-
nians as allies of the Trojans ; from this Pylæmenes the later princes of
Paphlagonia claimed their descent, and the country was sometimes from
them called Pylæmenia.
23 Suspected by Hardouin to have been the same as the Moson or
Moston mentioned by Ptolemy as in Galatia.
B2
4 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

Milesians, and then Cromna, atwhich spot Cornelius Nepos als

places the Heneti,25 from whom he would have us believe tha
the Veneti of Italy, who have a similar name, are descended
The city also of Sesamon, now called Amastris,26 Moun
27
Cytorus, distant sixty-three miles from Tium, the towns
Cimolis 28 and Stephane,29 and the river Parthenius.30 Th
promontory of Carambis,31 which extends a great distance int
the sea, is distant from the mouth of the Euxine three hundre
and twenty-five miles, or, according to some writers, thre
hundred and fifty, being the same distance from the Cimmeria
Bosporus, or, as some persons think, only three hundred an
twelve miles. There was formerly also a town of the sam
name, and another near it called Armene ; we now find the
the colony of Sinope,32 distant from Mount Cytorus one hundre
and sixty-four miles. We then come to the river Evarchus
24 It is mentioned by Homer, Il. ii. 855, as situate on the coast
Paphlagonia.
25 Strabo also, in B. xii., says that these people afterwards establish
themselves in Thrace, and that gradually moving to the west, they fina
settled in the Italian Venetia, which from them took its name. But
his Fourth Book he says that the Veneti of Italy owe their origin to t
Gallic Veneti, who came from the neighbourhood known as the mode
Vannes.
26 This city, ninety stadia east of the river Parthenius, occupied a pen
sula, and on each side of the isthmus was a harbour. The original ci
as here mentioned, seems to have had the name of Sesamus or Sesamu
and it is spoken of by that name in Homer, Il. ii. 853, in conjuncti
with Cytorus. The territory of Amastris was famous for its growth of
best box-wood, which grew on Mount Cytorus. The present Amasra
Hanasserah occupies its site.
27 See the last Note.
28 Otherwise called " Cinolis." There is a place called Kinla
Kinoglu in the maps, about half-way between Kerempeh and Sinope, wh
is the Kinuli of Abulfeda, and probably the Cirolis or Cimolis of
Greek geographers.
29 The modern Estefan or Stefanos.
30 Now known by the name of Bartin, a corruption of its ancient
pellation.
31 It still retains its ancient appellation in its name of Cape Keremp
of the ancient town nothing is known.
32 Now called Sinope, or Sinoub. Some ruins of it are still to be se
The modern town is but a poor place, and has probably greatly decli
since the recent attack upon it by the Russian fleet. Diogenes, the Cy
philosopher, was a native of ancient Sinope.
33 The boundary, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, also of the nati
of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. As Parisot remarks, this is an er
ap. 2.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 5

d after that a people of the Cappadocians, the towns of Ga-

35
ura 34 and Gazelum, the river Halys,36 which runs from the
ot of Mount Taurus through Cataonia and Cappadocia, the
owns of Gangre" and Carusa,38 the free town of Amisus,39
istant from Sinope one hundred and thirty miles, and a gulf
of the same name, of such vast extent40 as to make Asia assume
the form of a peninsula, the isthmus of which is only some
two hundred 41 miles in breadth, or a little more, across to the
gulf of Issus in Cilicia. In all this district there are, it is
said, only three races that can rightly be termed Greeks, the
Dorians, the Ionians, and the Eolians, all the rest being of
barbarian origin.42 To Amisus was joined the town of Eupa-
toria,43 founded by Mithridates : after his defeat they were
both included under the name of Pompeiopolis.
arising from the circumstance of a small tribe bearing the name of Cap-
padocians, having settled on its banks, between whom and the Paphlago-
nians it served as a limit.
34 On the river Iris. It was the ancient residence of the kings of
Pontus, but in Strabo's time it was deserted. It has been suggested that
the modern Azurnis occupies its site.
35 In the north-west of Pontus, in a fertile plain between the rivers
Halys and Amisus. It is also called Gadilon by Strabo. D'Anville
makes it the modern Aladgiam ; while he calls Gaziura by the name of
Guedes.
36 Now called the Kisil Irmak, or Red River. It has been remarked
that Pliny, in making this river to come down from Mount Taurus and
flow at once from south to north, appears to confound the Halys with one
ofits tributaries, now known as the Izchel Irmak.
37 Its site is now called Kiengareh, Kangreh, or Changeri. This was
a town of Paphlagonia, to the south of Mount Olgasys, at a distance of
thirty-five miles from Pompeiopolis.
38 A commercial place to the south of Sinope. Its site is the modern
Gherseh on the coast.
39 Now called Eski Samsun ; on the west side of the bay or gulf, an-
ciently called Sinus Amisenus. According to Strabo, it was only 900
stadia from Sinope, or 112 Roman miles. The walls of the ancient city
are to be seen on a promontory about a mile and a half from the modern
town.
40 He means the numerous indentations which run southward into the
coast, from the headland of Sinope to a distance of about one degree to
the south.
41 On examining the map, we shall find that the distance is at least 300
miles across to the gulf of Issus or Iskenderoon.
42 Not speaking the Greek language.
43 A part of it only was added to Eupatoria ; and it was separated from
the rest by a wall, and probably contained a different population from that
6 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

CHAP. 3. (3. )-CAPPADOCIA.

44
Cappadocia has in the interior Archelais,45 a colony founded
by Claudius Cæsar, and past which the river Halys flows ; also
46 47
the towns of Comana, watered by the Sarus, Neocæsarea,
48
by the Lycus, and Amasia,49 in the region of Gazacene,
washed by the Iris . In Colopene it has Sebastia and Sebas-
topolis ;51 these are insignificant places, but still equal in im-
portance to those just mentioned. In its remaining districts
there is Melita,52 founded by Semiramis,
54 and not far from the5
Euphrates, Diocæsarea,53 Tyana, Castabala,55 Magnopolis,

of Amisus. This new quarter contained the residence of the king, Mithri
dates Eupator, who built Eupatoria.
44 The boundaries of Cappadocia varied under the dominion of the Per
sians, after the Macedonian conquest, and as a Roman province under the
emperors.
45 Founded by Archelaüs, the last king of Cappadocia. In Hamilton'
Researches, the site has been assumed to be the modern Ak-serai, but tha
place is not on the river Halys, as Leake supposes. It is, however, con
sidered that Ak-serai agrees very well with the position of Archelais a
laid down in the Itineraries, and that Pliny may have been misled in sup
posing that the stream on which it stood was the Halys.
46 Also called by the name of Chryse, or 66 Golden," to distinguish i
from another place of the same name in Pontus. It is generally suppose
that the town of Al-Bostan, on the Sihoon or Sarus, is on or near the sit
of this Comana.
47 Now called Niksar, according to D'Anville, though Hardouin say
that it is Tocat. Parisot remarks, that this place belonged rather
Pontus than to Cappadocia.
48 A small tributary of the Iris, or Yeshil-Irmak, mentioned in the nex
Chapter.
49 Still called Amasia, or Amasiyeh, and situate on the river Iris, o
Yeshil Ermak. It was at one time the residence of the princes of Pontus
and the birth-place of the geographer Strabo. The remains of antiquit
here are very considerable, and extremely interesting.
51 Both to the west of Neo-Cæsarea. According to Tavernier, as quote
by Hardouin, the modern name of Sebastia is Sivas.
52 Which gave name to the district of Melitene, mentioned in c. 20 d
the last Book. 1
53 Near Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, the birth-place of Gregory Nazi
anzen. The traveller Ainsworth, on his road from Ak Serai to Kara His
sar, came to a place called Kaisar Koi, and he has remarked that by it
name and position it might be identified with Diocæsarea. Some geo
graphers, indeed, look upon Diocæsarea and Nazianzus as the same place.
54 Its ruins are still to be seen at Kiz Hisar. It stood in the sout
of Cappadocia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus. Tyana was th
ap. 3.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC.

ela,57 and at the foot of Mount Argæus58 Mazaca, now called

æsarea.59 That part of Cappadocia which lies stretched out
efore the Greater Armenia is called Melitene, before Com-
nagene Cataonia, before Phrygia Garsauritis, Sargarausene, ⁰
and Cammanene, before Galatia Morimene, where their terri-
tories are divided by the river Cappadox,61 from which this
people have taken their name ; they were formerly known as
the Leucosyri.62 From Neocæsarea above mentioned, the
lesser Armenia is separated by the river Lycus. In the in-
terior also there is the famous river Ceraunus,63 and on the
coast beyond the town of Amisus, the town and river of
Chadisia, and the town of Lycastum,65 after which the region
of Themiscyra begins.
native place of Apollonius, the supposed worker of miracles, whom the
enemies of Christianity have not scrupled to place on a par with Jesus
Christ.
55 Some ruins, nineteen geographical miles from Ayas, are supposed to
denote the site of ancient Castabala or Castabulum.
56 This place was first called Eupatoria, but not the same which Mithri-
dates united with a part of Amisus. D'Anville supposes that the modern
town of Tchenikeb occupies its site.
57 Or Ziela, now known as Zillah, not far south of Amasia. It was
here that Julius Cæsar conquered Pharnaces, on the occasion on which he
wrote his dispatch to Rome, " Veni, vidi, vici."
58 Still known by the name of Ardgeh- Dagh.
59 Its site is still called Kaisiriyeh. It was a city of the district Cilicia,
in Cappadocia, at the base of the mountain Argæus. It was first called
Mazaca, and after that, Eusebeia. There are considerable remains of the
ancient city.
60 Hardouin remarks, that the district of Sargarausene was not situate
in front of Phrygia, but lay between Morimene and Colopenene, in the
vicinity of Pontus.
61 Now known as the Konax, a tributary of the Halys, rising in Mount
Littarus, in the chain of Paryadres.
62 Or " White Syrians." Strabo says that in his time both the Cappa-
docian peoples, those situate above the Taurus and those on the Euxine,
were called Leucosyri, or White Syrians, as there were some Syrians who
were black, and who dwelt to the east of the Amanus.
63 It is doubtful whether this is the name of a river or a town. Not-
withstanding its alleged celebrity, nothing is known of it.
64 Hecateus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, speaks of Chadisia as
a city of the Leucosyri, or Cappadocians. Neither the river nor the town
appears to have been identified.
65 Probably on the river of that name, which has been identified with
the Mers Imak, a river two or three miles east ofthe Acropolis of Amisus.
66 The extensive plain on the coast of Pontus, extending east of the
river Iris, beyond the Thermodon, and celebrated as the country of the
 8 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

CHAP. 4.—THE REGION OF THEMISCYRA, AND THE NATIONS

THEREIN.

The river Iris brings down to the sea the waters of th

Lycus. In the interior is the city of Ziela," famous for th
defeat of Triarius68 and the victory of C. Cæsar.69 Upon th
coast there is the river Thermodon, which rises at the fortifie
place called Phanarea,70 and flows past the foot of Mour
Amazonius.7 There was formerly a town of the same nam
as the river, and five others in all, Amazonium, Themiscyr
Sotira, Amasia, and Comana,72 now only a Manteium. (4.) W
find here the nations of the Genetæ," the Chalybes,75 the tow
of Cotyorum,76 the nations of the Tibareni and the Mossyn
who make marks upon their bodies," the people called Macr

Amazons. At the mouth of the Thermodon was a city of the same nam
which had been destroyed by the time of Augustus. It is doubtful wh
ther the modern Thermeh occupies its site.
67 The same place apparently as is mentioned in the last Chapter und
the name of Zela.
68 Valerius Triarius, one of the legates of Lucullus, in the war again
Mithridates. Plutarch tells us that Lucullus was obliged to conce
Triarius from the fury of his troops.
69 Over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates.
70 Now called the Thermea.
71 Still called Mason- Dagh.
72 He alludes to Comana, in Pontus, the site of which is now call
Gumenek, near to which, on the Tocat-su, the modern name of the In
Hamilton found some remains of a Roman town, and part of a bridge a
parently of Roman construction. The language of Pliny seems to imp
that it had become in his day nothing beyond a manteium or seat of
oracle.
74 Strabo speaks of a promontory called Genetes ; and Stephanus E
zantinus mentions a river and port of the same name.
75 Strabo places the Chaldei, who, he says, were originally called Ch
lybes, in that part of the country which lies above Pharnacia (the mode
Kerasunt).
76 Or Cotyora. According to Xenophon, this was a colony of Sino
which furnished supplies for the Ten Thousand in their retreat. T
place was on a bay called after the town. Hamilton, in his Research
&c., Vol. i., is of opinion that Cotyorum may have stood on the site
Ordou, where some remains of an ancient port, cut out of the solid rock,
still visible. He remarks, however, that some writers suppose that Coty
was the modern bay of Pershembah, which is more sheltered than Ord
Cotyora was the place of embarkation of the Ten Thousand.
77 Similar to what we call tatooing. Parisot suggests that these peo
 4.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 9

ali,78 the town of Cerasus,79 the port of Chordule, the

80
ons called the Bechires and the Buzeri, the river Melas,
people called the Macrones, and Sidene with its river
enus, by which the town of Polemonium is washed, at a
cance from Amisus of one hundred and twenty miles. We
t come to the rivers Iasonius and Melanthius,85 and, at a
86
tance of eighty miles from Amisus, the town of Pharnacea,
e fortress and river of Tripolis ;87 the fortress and river of
ilocalia, the fortress of Liviopolis, but not upon a river, and,
a distance of one hundred miles from Pharnacea, the free
ty of Trapezus,88 shut in by a mountain of vast size. Be-
89
ond this town is the nation of the Armenochalybes and the

may have been the ancestors of the Mongol tribes who still dwell in tents
similar to those mentioned by Mela as used by the Mossyni.
78 Or the " long-headed people."
79 Its site is not improbably that of the modern Kheresoun, on the coast
of Asia Minor, and west of Trebizond._ Lucullus is said to have brought
thence the first cherry-trees planted in Europe.
So It has been remarked, that Pliny's enumeration of names often rather
confuses than helps, and that it is difficult to say where he intends to place
the Bechires. We may perhaps infer from Mela that they were west of
Trapezus and east of the Thermodon.
81 Now the Kara Su, or Black River, still retaining its ancient appel-
lation. It rises in Cappadocia, in the chain of Mount Argæus.
82 Still called by the same name, according to Parisot, though some-
times it is called the river of Vatisa. More recent authorities, however,
call it Poleman Chai.
83 On the coast of Pontus, built by king Polemon, perhaps the Second,
on the site of the older city of Side, at the mouth of the Sidenus.
8 Probably near the promontory of Jasonium, 130 stadia to the north-
east of Polemonium. It was believed to have received its name from
Jason the Argonaut having landed there. It still bears the name of
Jasoon, though more commonly called Bona or Vona.
5 Sixty stadia, according to Arrian, from the town of Cotyora.
66 Supposed to have stood on almost the same site as the modern Khe-
resoun or Kerasunda. It was built near, or, as some think, on the site of
Cerasus,
67 Still known by the name of Tireboli, on a river of the same name, the
Tireboli Su.
88 Now called Tarabosan, Trabezun, or Trebizond. This place was
originally a colony of Sinope, after the loss of whose independence Tra-
pezus belonged, first to Lesser Armenia, and afterwards to the kingdom of
Pontus. In the middle ages it was the seat of the so-called empire of
Trebizond. It is now the second commercial port of the Black Sea, rank-
ing next after Odessa.
89 The "Chalybes of Armenia." See p. 21.
 10 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

Greater Armenia, at a distance of thirty miles. On the co

before Trapezus, flows the river Pyxites, and beyond it is
nation of the Sanni 90 Heniochi. Next comes the river
sarus,91 with a fortress of the same name at its mouth, dist
from Trapezus one hundred and forty miles.
At the back of the mountains of this district is Ibe
while on the coast are the Heniochi, the Ampreutæ,92 the L
95
the rivers Acampsis,93 Isis," Mogrus, and Bathys, the nati
of the Colchi, the town of Matium," the river Heracleum
the promontory of the same name,97 and the Phasis,98 the m
celebrated river of Pontus. This river rises among the Mos
and is navigable for the largest vessels a distance of thirty-ei
miles and a half, and for small ones very much higher
it is crossed by one hundred and twenty bridges. It form
had many cities of note on its banks, the more famou
which were Tyndaris, Circæum, Cygnus, and Phasis " at
mouth. But the most celebrated of them all was Æa, fift
miles ' distant from the sea, where the Hippos and the
aneos,² rivers of vast size, flow into it from opposite directi
At the present day its only place of note is Surium, wh
90 Theodoret says that the Sanni, and the Lazi , subsequently mentio
although subdued by the Roman arms, were never obedient to the Ro
laws. The Heniochi were probably of Grecian origin, as they were
to have been descended from the charioteers of the Argonauts, who
been wrecked upon these coasts.
91 Or Apsarus, or Absarum. Several geographers have placed the si
this town near the modern one known as Gonieh. Its name was conne
with the myth of Medea and her brother Absyrtus. It is not improb
that the names Acampsis and Absarus have been given to the same rive
different writers, and that they both apply to the modern Joruk.
92 It is suggested by Hardouin that these are the same as the Zyd
mentioned in the Periplus of Arrian, and by him placed between the
niochi and the Lazi.
93 See note 91.
94 Supposed to be the same as the modern Tshorok.
95 Or " Deep " River. This stream may possibly be identified by
serving that Pliny places only one river between it and the Phasis.
96 Probably the Madia of Ptolemy, who places it in the interior.
97 At the present day called Eraklia, according to Parisot.
98 Now called the Faz or Rhioni.
99 Still called El Faz or Poti.
1 This place was in reality thirty-seven miles and a half from the
It was said to have been the native place of the enchantresses Circe
Medea.
2 The rivers Hippos and Cyaneos do not appear to have been identi
5.] ' ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 11

es its name from the river which flows at that spot into
Phasis, and up to which place the Phasis is navigable for
e vessels, as we have already mentioned . It receives also
e other rivers, wonderful for their number and magnitude,
among them the Glaucus. At the mouth of the Phasis,
distance of seventy miles from Absarus, are some islands,
ich, however, have no name. After passing this, we come
another river, the Charieis, and the nation of the Sale,
the ancients called Phthirophagi, as also Suani . The
er Chobus flows from the Caucasus through the country of
e Suani. The river Rhoas comes next, then the region of
erectice, the rivers Singames,' Tarsuras,10 Astelephus, " Chry-
rrhoas, the nation of the Absilæ, the castle of Sebastopolis, 12
ne hundred miles distant from Phasis, the nation of the San-
igæ, the town of Cygnus, 13 and the river and town of Penius.¹4
We then come to the tribes of the Heniochi, 15 who are dis-
inguished by numerous names.

CHAP. 5. ( 5)—THE REGION OF COLICA, THE NATIONS OF THE

ACHEI, AND OTHER NATIONS IN THE SAME PARTS.
Below this lies the region of Pontus known as Colica, ¹6 in
3 In the previous page.
4 Now called the Tchorocsu.
5 It is doubtful whether this is the same river as that mentioned by
Strabo under the name of Chares. D'Anville says that its modern name
is Enguri.
6 Or " Feeders on Lice ;" so called, according to Strabo, from the ex-
treme filthiness of their habits.
7 There is a nation in this vicinity still called by a similar name. Pro-
fessor Pallas, who visited them, says that nothing can equal their dishonesty,
rapacity, and voracity. Parisot suggests that they are probably the
descendants of the Phthirophagi of Pliny.
Now called the Khalira, according to D'Anville.
9 Now called the Hati - Scari, according to D'Anville.
10 Now the Okhum, according to D'Anville.
11 Now the Mosti- Skari, according to D'Anville.
12 Still called Savastopoli, according to Hardouin.
13 This must not be confounded with the other place of the same name
mentioned in the present Chapter. See p. 10.
14 Hermolaus suggests Pityus as the correct reading.
15 The Sanni Heniochi ; one of these nations has been already men-
tioned in thelast page.
16 Inhabited anciently bythe Coli, and constituting the northern portion
of ancient Colchis.
 12 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Boo

which the mountain chain of Caucasus bends away towards

17
Riphæan mountains, as we have previously mentioned ;
side running down towards the Euxine and the Lake Mæ
the other towards the Caspian and the Hyrcanian sea.
remaining portion of these shores is peopled by savage nati
the Melanchlani ,18 and the Coraxi, who formerly dwelt in I
curias,19 near the river Anthemus, now deserted, but on
famous city ; so much so, indeed, that we learn from Ti
thenes, that three hundred nations, all of different langua
were in the habit of resorting to it, and in later times we
there one hundred and thirty interpreters for the purpo
transacting business. There are some authors who a
opinion that this place was built by Amphitus and Telc
the charioteers20 of Castor and Pollux, from whom it is g
rally understood that the nation of the Heniochi sprang.
passing Dioscurias we come to the town of Heraclei
seventy miles distant from Sebastopolis, and then the Ach
the Mardi,23 and the Cercetæ,24 and, behind them, the Cerr
the Cephalotomi.25 In the innermost part26 of this dis
there was Pityus,27 a city of very considerable opulence
17 In B. v. c. 27.
18 Or nation " with the black cloaks," from some peculiarity in
dress .
19 This was the great trading-place of the wild tribes in the int
and so numerous were they, that the Greeks asserted that there were se
different languages spoken in the market of Dioscurias.
20 Whence the appellation Heniochi, from the Greek voxòs.
21 There were two places called Heracleium on this coast, one nort
the other south of the river Achæus probably the latter is here mea
22 Said to have been descended from the Achæans or Greeks w
companied Jason in the Argonautic Expedition, or, according to 4
anus,,who resorted thither after the conclusion of the Trojan war.
23 Probably meaning the " martial people," or the " people of
This was the title, not of a single nation, but of a number of peopl
tinguished for their predatory habits.
24 This people occupied the N.E. shore of the Euxine, betwe
Cimmerian Bosporus and the frontier of Colchis. Their name is
existence, and is applied to the whole western district of the Caucas
the forms of Tcherkas, as applied to the people, and Tcherkeskaia
cassia, to the country.
25 Hardouin suggests that these ought to be read as forming one
the "Cerri Cephalatomi," and suggests that they were so called fron
habit of cutting off the heads of their slain enemies.
26 Meaning, nearly in the extreme corner of Pontus.
27 In the time of Strabo this was a considerable sea-port, and af
5.1 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 13

>yed by the Heniochi : behind it are the Epageritæ, a

e of Sarmatian origin, dwelling upon the range of the
asus, and beyond them, the Sauromatæ. It was with
› people that Mithridates 28 took refuge in the reign of the
eror Claudius : and from him we learn that the Thalli 29 2
up to them, a people who border on the eastern side upon
mouth30 of the Caspian sea : he tells us also that at the
ux the channel is dry there. Upon the coast of the
xine, near the country of the Cercetæ, is the river Icarusa,³¹
th the town and river of Hierus, distant from Heracleium
e hundred and thirty-six miles. Next to this, is the pro-
ontory of Cruni, after passing which, we find the Torete upon
lofty ridge of mountains. The city of Sindos 32 is distant
om Hierus sixty-seven miles and a half ; after passing which,
e come to the river Setheries. (6. ) From thence to the en-
rance of the Cimmerian Bosporus the distance is eighty-eight
niles and a half.

CHAP. 6. THE CIMMERIAN BOSPORUS.

The length of the peninsula33 which projects between the
destruction by the Heniochi, it was restored, and served as an important
frontier fortress of the Roman empire against the Scythians.
25 This was Mithridates, king of Bosporus, which sovereignty he
obtained by the favour of the emperor Claudius, in A.D. 41. The circum-
stances are unknown which led to his subsequent expulsion by the Ro-
mans, who placed his younger brother Cotys on the throne in his stead.
29 Hardouin thinks that the Thalli inhabited the present country of
Astrakan.
30 It was the ancient opinion, to which we shall find frequent reference
made in the present Book, that the northern portion of the Caspian com-
municated with the Scythian or Septentrional ocean.
31 Mentioned only by Pliny. It is supposed to answer to the present
Ukrashriver ; and the town and river of Hierus are probably identical with
the Hieros Portus of Arrian, which has been identified with the modern
Sunjuk-Kala.
32 Inhabited by the Sindi, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia. They pro-
bably dwelt in and about the modern peninsula of Taman, between the
Sea of Azof and the Black Sea, to the south of the river Hypanis, the
modern Kouban. The site of their capital, Sindos, or Sinda, is supposed
to have been the modern Anapa. Parisot conjectures that this place
was one of the ancient settlements of the Zigeunes, the modern Bohemians
or Gypsies. He seems to found his opinion upon some observations of
Malte Brun (Précis de Geographie, vol. vi.) upon the origin of the Gypsy
race, which will amply repay the perusal.
33 The peninsula on which Taman or Timoutarakan is situate.
 14 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

Euxine and Lake Mæotis, is not more than sixty- se

miles and a half, and the width across never less than
jugera 34 it has the name of Eion.35 The shores of the I
porus then take a curve both on the side of Europe and
Asia, thus forming the Mæotis. The towns at the entranc
the Bosporus are, first Hermonassa, 36 next Cepi,37 founded
the Milesians, and then Stratoclia and Phanagoria,38 and
almost deserted town of Apaturos,39 and, at the extremity
the mouth, Cimmerium,40 which was formerly called Cerber
(7.) We then come to Lake Mæotis, which has been alre
mentioned in the description of Europe.

CHAP. 7.- LAKE MÆOTIS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

After passing Cimmerium, the coast 2 is inhabited by

Mæotici, the Vali, the Serbi, 3 the Arrechi, the Zingi, and
Psessi. We then come to the river Tanais," which dischar

34 Thejugerum was 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet in length.

35 Signifying in Greek the " sea-shore."
36 Lying between Singa and Phanagoria. Rennell fixes it at the of
ing of the lake into which the Kouban flows.
37 Or the " gardens," from the Greek κnπо . A town of the Cim
rian Bosporus, founded by the Milesians. Dr. Clarke identifies the
dern Sienna with it, and the curious Milesian sculptures found there
firm the supposition .
38 Its ruins are supposed to be those near Taman, on the eastern
of the Straits of Kaffa. It was the great emporium for all the traffic
tween the coasts of the Palus Mæotis and the countries on the south of
Caucasus, and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as their capital in A
39 A town of the Sinda ; it possessed, like Phanagoria, a celebr
temple of Aphrodite Apaturos, or Venus "the Deceiver," whence prob
its name.
40 Clarke identifies it with the modern Temruk, but Forbiger
Eskikrimm .
41 See B. iv. c. 24.
42 That lying on the east of the Sea of Azof. It seems impossibl
identify the spot inhabited by each of these savage tribes. Hardouin
that the modern name of that inhabited by the Mæotici is Coumania.
43 Parisot suggests that this tribe afterwards emigrated to the w
and after establishing themselves in Macedonia, finally gave its name to
dern Servia. He remarks, that most of these names appear to have
greatly mutilated, through the ignorance or carelessness of the transcri
no two of the manuscripts agreeing as to the mode in which they sh
be spelt.
44 Or Don. It flows into the Sea of Azof by two larger mouths
-1 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 15

into the sea by two mouths, and the banks of which are
ited by the Sarmatæ, the descendants of the Medi, it is
a people divided into numerous tribes. The first of these
The Sauromatæ Gynæcocratumeni,45 the husbands of the
zons. Next to them are the Evazæ,46 the Coitæ,47 the
meni, the Messeniani, the Costobocci, the Choatræ, the
,48 the Dandarii, the Thyssagetæ, and the Iyrcæ,49 as far as
ain rugged deserts and densely wooded vallies, beyond which
n are the Arimphæi,50 who extend as far as the Riphæan
untains.51 The Scythians call the river Tanais by the name
Silis, and the Mæotis the Temarunda, meaning the " mother
the sea." There is a city also at the mouth of the Ta-

eral smaller ones. Strabo says thatthe distance between the two larger
uths is sixty stadia.
15 Fromthe Greek уvvαιкократоvμevoi, " ruled over by women." It is
t improbable that this name was given by some geographer to these Sar-
atian tribes on finding them, at the period of his visit, in subjection to the
le of a queen. Parisot remarks, that this passage affords an instance of
e little care bestowed by Pliny upon procuring the best and most correct
formation, for that the Roman writers had long repudiated the use of the
erm " Sauromatæ." He also takes Pliny to task for his allusion to these
ribes as coupling with the Amazons, the existence of such a people being
n his time generally disbelieved.
46 Hardouin suggests from evalu, " to celebrate the orgies of Bacchus."
47 Perhaps from coiтn, a " den" or " cavern," their habitation.
48 Parisot suggests that they may have been a Caucasian or Circassian
tribe, because in the Circassian language the word zig has the meaning of
"man." He also suggests that they were probably a distinct race from
the Zingi previously mentioned, whom he identifies withthe ancestors of
the Zingari or Bohemians, the modern Gypsies.
49 The more common reading is " Turcæ," a tribe also mentioned by
Mela, and which gave name to modern Turkistan.
50 The Argippæi of Herodotus and other ancient authors. These people
were bald, flat-nosed, and long-chinned. They are again mentioned by
Pliny in C. 14, who calls them a race not unlike the Hyperborei, and then,
like Mela, abridges the description given by Herodotus. By different
writers these people have been identified with the Chinese, the Brahmins
or Lamas, and the Calmucks. The last is thought to be the most probable
opinion, or else that the description of Herodotus, borrowed by other
writers, may be applied to the Mongols in general. The mountains, at the
foot of which they have been placed, are identified with either the Ural,
the western extremity of the Altaï chain, or the eastern part of the Altaï.
( 51 Generally regarded as the western branch of the Ural Mountains.
52 The former editions mostly have " there was," implying that in the
time of Pliny it no longer existed. The name of this place was Tanais ;
its ruins are still to be seen in the vicinity of Kassatchei. It was founded
 16 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book

nais. The neighbouring country was inhabited first by

Carians, then by the Clazomenii and Mæones, and after th
by the Panticapenses.53
There are some writers who state that there are the foll
ing nations dwelling around the Mæotis, as far as the Ce
nian mountains ;54 at a short distance from the shore, the
pitæ, and beyond them, the Essedones, who join up to the
chians, and dwell upon the summits of the mountains : a
these again, the Camacæ, the Orani, the Autacæ, the
zacasi, the Cantioca , the Agamathæ, the Pici, the Rimo
the Acascomarci, and, upon the ridges of the Caucasus,
Itacalæ, the Imadochi, the Rami, the Anclacæ, the Tydii,
Carastasei, and the Anthiandæ. The river Lagoüs runs from
Cathæan 55 mountains, and into it flows the Opharus . U
it are the tribes of the Cauthadæ, and the Opharitæ. I
to these are the rivers Menotharus and Imityes, which
from the Cissian mountains, among the peoples called the A
the Carnæ, the Oscardei, the Accisi, the Gabri, the Go
and, around the source of the Imityes, the Imityi, and
Apatræi. Some writers say that the Auchetæ, the Athe
and the Asampatæ, Scythian tribes, have made inroads
this territory, and have destroyed the Tanaitæ and the In
to a man. Others again represent the Ocharius as run
through the Cantici and the Sapæi, and the Tanais as pas
through the territories of the Sarcharcei, the Herticei,
Spondolici, the Synhietæ, the Anasi, the Issi, the Cateta
Tagoræ, the Caroni, the Neripi, the Agandei, the Mand
the Satarchei, and the Spalei.
CHAP. 8. (8.) THE SITUATION OF CAPPADOCIA.
We have now gone over the coast which borders upon
by a colony from Miletus, and became a flourishing seat of trade.
modern town of Azof is supposed to occupy nearly its site.
53 The people of Panticapæum, on the opposite side of the Palus M
occupying the site of the present Kertch. It was founded by the
sians B.C. 541 , and took its name from the neighbouring river Panti
54 The Ceraunian mountains were a range belonging to the Cau
chain, and situate at its eastern extremity ; the relation of this ran
the chain has been variously stated by the different writers.
55 He may possibly allude to a range of mountains in the Pu
and the vicinity of the modern Lahore, by his reference to the Cathæi
are supposed to have been the ancient inhabitants of that district.
localities of the various races here mentioned are involved in great obs
p. 9.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 17

er55 Sea, and have enumerated the various nations that dwell
reon ; let us now turn to those vast tracts of land which lie
ther in the interior. I do not deny that in my description
hall differ very materially fromthe ancient writers, but still
is one that has been compiled with the most anxious research,
om a full examination into the events which have transpired
late in these countries under the command of Domitius
orbulo,56 and from information received either from kings
-ho have been sent thence to Rome, as suppliants for our
mercy, or else the sons of kings who have visited us in the
haracter of hostages.
We will begin then with the nation of the Cappadocians.
Of all the countries of Pontus, this57 extends the greatest
distance into the interior.58 On the left59 it leaves behind the
Lesser and the Greater Armenia, as well as Commagene, and
on the right all the nations of the province of Asia which
we have previously described . Spreading over numerous
peoples, it rises rapidly in elevation in an easterly direction
towards the range of Taurus. Then passing Lycaonia, Pisidia,
and Cilicia, it advances above the district of Antiochia, the
portion of it known as Cataonia extending as far as Cyrrhestica,
which forms part of that district. The length of Asia 60 here
is twelve hundred and fifty miles, its breadth six hundred
and forty.61

CHAP. 9. (9.)- THE LESSER AND THE GREATER ARMENIA.

62
Greater Armenia, beginning at the mountains known as the
55 Or Mediterranean.
56 See Vol. i. p. 497.
57 He includes under the term " Cappadocia," the northern part origi-
nally called " Cappadocia ad Pontum," and in later times simply Pontus,
and the southern part, originally called " Cappadocia ad Taurum," and
more recently simply Cappadocia.
59 Running from the shores of the Euxine to the borders of Syria.
59 I. e. on the eastern side.
60 Meaning that part of Asia which we now call Asia Minor.
61 This ill agrees with what he has said in c. 2, that the distance across
from Sinope to the Gulf of Issus is but 200 miles.
62 Greater Armenia, now known as Erzeroum, Kars, Van, and Erivan,
was bounded on the north-east and north by the river Cyrus, or Kur of
the present day ; on the north-west and west by the Moschian mountains,
the prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus, and the Euphrates, or
VOL. II. C
18 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book V
64
Paryadres, is separated, as we have already stated, fro
Cappadocia by the river Euphrates, and, where that river turn
off65 in its course, from Mesopotamia, by the no less famo
river Tigris . Both of these rivers take their rise in Armeni
which also forms the commencement of Mesopotamia, a tra
of country which lies between these streams ; the inte
vening space between them being occupied by the Arabia
Orei,66 It thus extends its frontier as far as Adiabene,
which point it is stopped short by a chain of mountai
which takes a cross direction ; whereupon the province e
tends in width to the left, crossing the course of the Araxes
as far as the river Cyrus ;68 while in length it reaches
far as the Lesser Armenia," from which it is separated
the river Absarus, which flows into the Euxine, and by t
mountains known as the Paryadres, in which the Absar
takes its rise.

CHAP. 10. THE RIVERS CYRUS AND ARAXES.

The river Cyrus 70 takes its rise in the mountains of t
Heniochi, by some writers called the Coraxici ; the Araxes ri
in the same mountains as the river Euphrates, at a distance fr
it of six miles only ;"
¹ and after being increased by the wat
Frat of the present day ; and on the south and south-east by the mo
tains called Masius, Niphates, and Gordiæi (the prolongation of
Taurus), and the lower course of the Araxes. On the east the coun
comes to a point at the confluence of the Syrus and Araxes.
63 Now known as the Kara-bel- Dagh, or Kut-Tagh, a mountain ch
running south-west and north-east from the east of Asia Minor into
centre of Armenia, and forming the chief connecting link between
Taurus and the mountains of Armenia.
64 In B. v. c. 20.
65 He means, where the river Euphrates runs the farthest to the west
66 Littré suggests that the reading should be " Aroei,"
67 The modern Eraskh or Aras.
68 The modern Kur.
69 This district was bounded on the east by the Euphrates, on the no
and north-west by the mountains Scodises, Paryadres, and Anti-Tau
and on the south by the Taurus.
70 This river is said by Ammianus to have taken its name from Cy
It appears, however, to have been a not uncommon name of the river
Persia.
71 It is probable that these rivers take their rise near each other, bu
is not improbable that the intervening distance mentioned in the pres
passage is much too small.
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 19
ap. 10.]

f the Usis, falls itself, as many authors have supposed, into

he Cyrus, by which it is carried into the Caspian Sea.
The more famous towns in Lesser Armenia are Cæsarea,72
Aza,73 and Nicopolis ; in the Greater Arsamosata," which
ies near the Euphrates, Carcathiocerta" upon the Tigris,
Tigranocerta" which stands on an elevated site, and, on a
plain adjoining the river Araxes, Artaxata.78 According to
Aufidius, the circumference of the whole of Armenia is five
thousand miles, while Claudius Cæsar makes the length, from
80
Dascusa⁹ to the borders of the Caspian Sea, thirteen hundred
81
miles, and the breadth, from Tigranocerta to Iberia, half that
distance. It is a well-known fact, that this country is divided
into prefectures, called " Strategies," some of which singly
formed a kingdom in former times ; they are one hundred
72 Hardouin thinks that this is Neo- Cæsarea, mentioned as having been
built on the banks of the Euphrates.
73 Now called Ezaz, according to D'Anville. Parisot suggests that it
ought to be Gaza or Gazaca, probably a colony of Median Gaza, now
Tauris.
74 Originally called Tephrice. It stood on the river Lycus, and not far
from the sources of the Halys, having been founded by Pompey, where he
gained his first victory over Mithridates, whence its name, the " City of
Victory." The modern Enderez or Devrigni, probably marks its site.
75 Ritter places it in Sophene, the modern Kharpat, and considers that
it may be represented by the modern Sert, the Tigranocerta of D'Anville.
76. The capital of Sophene, one of the districts of Armenia. St. Martin
thinks that this was the ancient heathen name of the city of Martyropolis,
but Ritter shows that such cannot be the case. It was called by the
Syrians Kortbest ; its present name is Kharput.
77 Generally supposed, by D'Anville and other modern geographers, to
be represented by the ruins seen at Sert. It was the later capital of Armenia,
built by Tigranes.
78 The ancient capital of Armenia. Hannibal, who took refuge at the
court of Artaxias when Antiochus was no longer able to afford him protec-
tion, superintended the building of it. Some ruins, called Takt Tiridate,
or Throne of Tiridates, near the junction of the Aras and the Zengue,
were formerly supposed to represent Artaxata, but Colonel Monteith has
fixed the site at a bend in the river lower down, at the bottom of which
were the ruins of a bridge of Greek or Roman architecture.
79 A fortress in Lesser Armenia, upon the Euphrates, seventy-five miles
from Zimara, as mentioned in B. v. c. 20. It has been identified with the
modern ferry and lead mines of Kebban Ma'den, the points where the Kara
Su is joined by the Murad Chaï, 270 miles from its source.
80 Justin makes it only 1100, and that estimate appears to be several hun-
dreds too much.
81 A country lying to the north of Armenia.
C 2
20 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI
8
and twenty in number, with barbarous and uncouth names .
On the east, it is bounded, though not immediately, by the
Ceraunian Mountains and the district of Adiabene. The
space that intervenes is occupied by the Sopheni, beyond
whom is the chain of mountains,83 and then beyond them the
inhabitants of Adiabene. Dwelling in the valleys adjoining
to Armenia are the Menobardi and the Moscheni . The Tigris
and inaccessible mountains surround Adiabene. To the left
of it is the territory of the Medi, and in the distance is seen
the Caspian Sea ; which, as we shall state in the proper place
85
receives its waters from the ocean, and is wholly surrounded
by the Caucasian Mountains. The inhabitants upon the con
fines of Armenia shall now be treated of.

CHAP. 11. ( 10 . )-ALBANIA, IBERIA, AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS

The whole plain which extends away from 86 the river Cyru
is inhabited by the nation of the Albani, and, after them,
by that of the Iberi,88 who are separated from them bythe rive
Alazon,89 which flows into the Cyrus from the Caucasia

82 We find in Strabo the names of some of them mentioned, such a

Sophene, Acilisene, Gorgodylene, Sacassene, Gorgarene, Phanene, Comi
sene, Orchestene, Chorsene, Cambysene, Odomantis, &c.
83 The Ceraunian Mountains. Parisot remarks that in this description
Pliny, notwithstanding his previous professions, does not appear to hav
made any very great use of the list drawn up by Corbulo.
84 That is, looking towards the south.
85 The Septentrional Ocean, with which the ancients imagined that th
northern part of the Caspian Sea is connected . See c. 15.
66 According to Strabo, Albania was bounded on the east by the Caspia
and on the north by the Caucasus. On the west it joined Iberia, while o
the south it was divided from the Greater Armenia by the river Cyru
By later writers, the northern and western boundaries are different
given. It was found to be the fact that the Albani occupied the count
on both sides of the Caucasus, and accordingly Pliny, in c. 15, carri
the country further north, as far as the river Časius, while in this Chapt
he makes the river Alazon, the modern Alasan, the western boundary to
wards Iberia,
87 To the west of Albania.
88 Iberia lay south of the great chain of the Caucasus, forming an e
tensive tract bounded on the west by Colchis, on the east by Albania, ar
on the south by Armenia, and watered by the river Cyrus . It correspond
very nearly with modern Georgia.
9 The modern Alasan.
ap. 12.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 21

ain . The chief cities are Cabalaca," in Albania, Harmastis, "

ear a river of Iberia, and Neoris ; there is the region also
f Thasie, and that of Triare, extending as far as the moun-
ains known as the Paryadres. Beyond these are the deserts
f Colchios, on the side of which that looks towards the Ce
aunian Mountains dwell the Armenochalybes ; and there is
he country of the Moschi, extending to the river Iberus,
which flows into the Cyrus ; below them are the Sacassani,
and after them the Macrones, upon the river Absarus. Such
is the manner in which the plains and low country are par-
celled out. Again, after passing the confines of Albania, the
wild tribes of the Silvi inhabit the face of the mountains,
below them those of the Lubieni, and after them the Diduri
and the Sodii .

рабани здо
CHAP. 12. (11.) THE PASSES OF THE CAUCASUS.

After passing the last, we come to the Gates of Caucasus,95

by many persons most erroneously called the Caspian Passes ;
a vast work of nature, which has suddenly wrenched asunder
in this place a chain of mountains. At this spot are gates
barred up with beams shod with iron, while beneath the
middle there runs a stream which emits a most fetid odour ;
on this side of it is a rock, defended by a fortress, the name of
which is Cumania,96 erected for the purpose of preventing the
passage of the innumerable tribes that lie beyond. Here, then,
we may seethe habitable world severed into two parts by a pair

90 Now called Kablas-Var, according to Parisot.

91 Parisot says that this can be no other than Harmoza on the river
Cyrus, in the vicinity of the modern Akhalzik.
92 Probably meaning " of the same name."
93 To the west.
94 "The Armenian workers in iron," or "Chalybes ofArmenia." See p. 9.
95 There are two chief passes over the chain of the Caucasus, both of
which were known to the ancients. The first is between the eastern
extremity of its chief north-eastern spur and the Caspian sea, near the
modern Derbend. This was called " Albaniæ," 10 and sometimes, " Caspia
Pyle," the " Albanian " or " Caspian Gates." The other, which was
nearly in the centre of the Caspian range, was called " Caucasia " or
" Sarmatica Pyle," being the same as the modern pass of Dariyel, and
probably the one here referred to. 1910
96 Probably the same as the present fortress of Dariyel.
22 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI.

of gates ; they are just opposite to Harmastis, a town of the

Iberi.
Beyond the Gates of Caucasus, in the Gordyæan Moun-
tains, the Valli and the Suani, uncivilized tribes, are found ;
still, however, they work the mines of gold there. Beyond
these nations, and extending as far away as Pontus, are nu-
merous nations of the Heniochi, and, after them, of the Achæi.
Such is the present state of one of the most famous tracts upon
the face of the earth.
Some writers have stated that the distance between the
Euxine and the Caspian Sea is not more than three hundred
and seventy-five miles ; Cornelius Nepos makes it only two
hundred and fifty. Within such straits is Asia pent up in this
second instance⁹7 by the agency of the sea ! Claudius Cæsar
has informed us that from the Cimmerian Bosporus to the
Caspian Sea is a distance of
99 only one hundred and fifty miles,
and that Nicator Seleucus contemplated cutting through this
isthmus just at the time when he was slain by Ptolemy
Ceraunus. It is a well-known fact that the distance from
the Gates of Caucasus to the shores of the Euxine is two
hundred miles.

CHAP. 13. ( 12. ) -THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE.

The islands of the Euxine are the Planctæ or Cyaneæ,
otherwise called Symplegades, and Apollonia, surnamed Thy
nias,2 to distinguish it from the island of that names in
Europe ; it is four miles in circumference, and one mile
distant from the mainland. Opposite to Pharnacea¹ is Chal
ceritis, to which the Greeks have given the name of Aria,
97 The first instance was that of the narrow isthmus to which the con
tinent of Asia is reduced from Sinope across to the Gulf of Issus, as men
tioned in c. 2.
98 The shortest distance across, in a straight line, is in reality little les
than 600 miles.
99 The ancestor of the Seleucidæ, kings of Syria, treacherously slain by
Ptolemy Ceraunus, brother of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Already mentioned in B. iv. c. 27.
2 Mentioned in c. 44 of the last Book.
3 The one lying at the mouth of the Danube, and mentioned in B. iv
c. 27.
4 Mentioned in c. 4 of the present Book. See P. 9.
Or "Mars' Island," also called Aretias ; at this island, in the south a
p . 14.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 23

d consecrated it to Mars ; here, they say, there were birds

at used to attack strangers with blows of their wings.

AP. 14. (13.)-NATIONS IN THE VICINITY OF THE SCYTHIAN

OCEAN.

Having now stated all that bears reference to the interior

f Asia, let us cross in imagination the Riphæan Mountains,
and traverse the shores of the ocean to the right. On three
sides does this ocean wash the coasts of Asia, as the Scythian
Ocean on the north, the Eastern Ocean on the east, and the
Indian Ocean on the south ; and it is again divided into
various names, derived from the numerous gulfs which it
forms, and the nations which dwell upon its shores. A great
part of Asia, however, which lies exposed to the north,
through the noxious effects of those freezing climates, con-
sists ofnothing but vast deserts. From the extreme north north-
east to the point where the sun rises in the summer, it is
the country of the Scythians. Still further than them, and
beyond the point where north north-east begins, some writers
have placed the Hyperborei, who are said, indeed, by the
majority to be a people of Europe. After passing this point,10

the Euxine, the two queens of the Amazons, Otrere and Antiope, built a
temple in honour of Ares or Mars. It is thought to be the rocky islet
called by the Turks Kerasunt Ada, between three and four miles from
Kerasunt, the ancient Pharnacea.
6 It is difficult to say what chain ofmountains, if indeed any in particular,
he would designate by this name. Parisot remarks that these mountains
would seem to belong rather to the region of poetry and fable than of fact,
and states that it is pretty clear that the Balkan chain, the districts in
which the Danube takes its rise, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Hercynian
mountains, and even the chain of Taurus and Caucasus, have at different
times been described or mentioned under the name of Riphæan Mountains.
It was evidently Pliny's belief that the great Northern or Scythian Ocean
skirted the northern shores of Asia, a little above the latitude perhaps
of the northern extremity of the Caspian. In B. iv. c. 26, we find him
crossing these, perhaps imaginary, mountains, and then proceeding tothe
left, along, as he supposes, the extreme northern shores of Europe ; here
he seems to start from the same point, but turns to the right, and proceeds
along the northern, eastern, and southern shores of Asia.
7 North-east.
8 I. e. more to the west.
9 See B. iv. c. 26.
10 The extremity of the supposed shores of the Hyperborei.40
24 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

the first place that is known is Lytarmis, " a promontory

Celtica, and next to it the river Carambucis, 12 where the chai
of the Riphæan Mountains terminates, and with it the extrem
rigour of the climate ; here, too, we have heard of a certai
people being situate, called the Arimphæi,¹³ a race not muc
unlike the Hyperborei.14 Their habitations are the groves, an
the berries their diet ; long hair is held to be disgraceful by th
women as well as the men, and they are mild in their manner
Hence it is that they are reported to be a sacred15 race, an
are never molested even by the savage tribes which borde
upon them, and not only they, but such other persons as we
as may have fled to them for refuge. Beyond these w
come straight to the Scythians, the Cimmerii, the Cisianth
the Georgi, and a nation of Amazons.16 These last exten
to the Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea.¹7

CHAP. 15.- THE CASPIAN AND HYRCANIAN SEA.

Bursting through, this sea makes a passage from the Scythia

Ocean into the back of Asia, 18 receiving various names from th

11 D'Anville supposes that he means the headland called Cande-Noss

Kanin-Noss, in the White Sea. Parisot, who thinks that Pliny had 1
idea of the regions which lie in those high latitudes, supposes that
refers to Domnes-Ness in the Baltic, and that by the Carambucis he mea
the river Niemen.
12 Ansart thinks that he means the Dwina, which falls into the Gulf
Archangel.
13 Previously mentioned in c. 7.
14 For a full description of them, see B. iv. c . 26.
15 See the Note to c. 7, p. 15. This description is borrowed from th
given by Herodotus. Their sacred character has been explained as r
ferring to the class or caste of priests among this Eastern people, whoev
they may have been.
16 Ansart thinks that the Cicianthi, the Georgi, and the Amazons, i
habited the modern governments of Archangel and Vologda. It see
almost akin to rashness to hazard a conjecture.
17 It has been already stated that the Caspian Sea was, in one porti
of it, so called, and in another the Hyrcanian Sea.
18 His meaning is, that the Scythian ocean communicates on the northe
shores of Asia with the Caspian Sea. Hardouin remarks, that Patrocl
the commander of the Macedonian fleet, was the first to promulgate th
notion, he having taken the mouth of the river Volga for a narrow passag
by means of which the Scythian or Northern Ocean made its way into t
Caspian Sea.
 25
25
ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC.
Chap. 15.]
nations which dwell uponits banks ,thetwo mostfamous of which
Clitarchus is of
are the Caspian and the Hyrcanian races .
opinion that the Caspian Sea is not less in area than the Eux-
ine. Eratosthenes gives the measure of it on the south-east,
along the coast of Cadusia¹ and Albania , as five thousand four
hundred stadia ; thence , through the territories of the Anariaci ,
the Amardi , and the Hyrcani , to the mouth of the river Zonus
he makes four thousand eight hundred stadia , and thence to the
mouth of theJaxartes20 two thousand four hundred ; which makes
in all a distance of one thousand five hundred and seventy -five
miles. Artemidorus , however , makes this sum smaller by twen-
ty-five miles. Agrippa bounds the Caspian Sea and the nations
around it, including Armenia , on the east by the Ocean of the
Seres, 21 on the west by the chain of the Caucasus , on the south
bythat of Taurus , and on the north by the Scythian Ocean ; and
he states it, so far as its extent is known , to be four hundred
and eighty miles in length , and two hundred and ninety in
breadth . There are not wanting , however, some authors who
state that its whole circumference , from the Straits ,22 is two
thousand five hundred miles .
Its waters make their way into this sea by a very narrow
mouth, 23 but of considerable length ; and where it begins to
enlarge, it curves obliquely with horns in the form of a cres-
cent, just as though it would make a descent from its mouth
into Lake Mæotis, resembling a sickle in shape, as M. Varro
says. The first of its gulfs is called the Scythian Gulf ;
it is inhabited on both sides, by the Scythians , who hold com-
munication with each other across the Straits,25 the Nomades
being on one side, together with the Sauromatæ , divided into
19 The country of the Cadusii , in the mountainous district of Media
Atropatene, on the south-west shores of the Caspian Sea, between the paral-
lels of 390 and 370 north latitude. This district probably corresponds
with the modern district of Gilan.
20 Nowthe Syr-Daria or Yellow River, and watering the barren steppes
of the Kirghiz-Cossacks . It really discharges itself into the Sea of Aral,
and not the Caspian.
21 The supposed Eastern Ocean of the ancients .
22 The imaginary passage bywhich it was supposed to communicate with
the Scythian Ocean.
23 This being in reality the mouth of the Rha or Volga, as mentioned
in Note 18, p. 24.
24 On the eastern side.
25 Across the mouths of the Volga.
26 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book

tribes with numerous names, and on the other, the Abzoæ, w

are also divided into an equal number. At the entrance,
the right hand side,26 dwell the Udini, a Scythian tribe, at
very angle of the mouth . Then along the coast there are
Albani, the descendants of Jason, it is said ; that part of the
which lies in front ofthem, bears the name of 6 Albanian.' T
nation, which lies along the Caucasian chain, comes down,
we have previously stated,28 as far as the river Cyrus, wh
forms the boundary of Armenia and Iberia. Above the ma
time coast of Albania and the nation of the Udini, the Sarma
the Utidorsi, and the Aroteres stretch along its shores, and
their rear the Sauromatian Amazons, already spoken of.29
The rivers which run through Albania in their course to
sea are the Casius30 and the Albanus,31 and then the Cambyse
which rises in the Caucasian mountains, and next to it
Cyrus, rising in those of the Coraxici, as already m
tioned.33 Agrippa states that the whole of this coast, in
cessible from rocks of an immense height, is four hundred
twenty-five miles in length, beginning from the river Cas
After we pass the mouth of the Cyrus, it begins to be cal
(
the Caspian Sea ; ' the Caspii being a people who dwell u
its shores.
In this place it may be as well to correct an error into wh
many persons have fallen, and even those who lately took
with Corbulo in the Armenian war. The Gates of Ibe
34
which we have mentioned as the Caucasian, they h
spoken of as being called the ' Caspian,' and the colou
plans which have been sent from those parts to Rome h
that name written upon them. The menaced expedit
too, that was contemplated by the Emperor Nero, was
to be designed to extend as far as the Caspian Gates, wh
26 On a promontory, on the right or eastern side of the mouth of
river Volga.
27 He here means the western shores of the Caspian, after leaving
mouth of the Volga.
28 In c. 11.
29 See the end of c. 14.
30 The Caesius of Ptolemy, and the Koisou of modern times.
31 Probably the modern river Samour.
32 It is difficult to determine the exact locality of this river, but it w
seem to have been near the Amardus, the modern Sefid-Rúd.
33 In c. 10.
34 See the beginning of c. 12, and the Note, p. 21.
 16.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 27

t was really intended for those which lead through

ia into the territory of the Sarmata ; there being hardly
possibility of approach to the Caspian Sea, by reason of the
e juxtaposition of the mountains there. There are, how-
, other Caspian Gates, which join up to the Caspian tribes ;
these can only be distinguished from a perusal of the narra-
e of those who took part in the expedition of Alexander the
eat.
CHAP . 16.--ADIABENE.
The kingdom of the Persians, by which we now understand
at of Parthia, is elevated upon the Caucasian chain between
vo seas, the Persian and the Hyrcanian. To the Greater
rmenia, which in the front slopes towards Commagene, is
pined Sophene, which lies upon the descent on both sides
hereof, and next to it is Adiabene, the most advanced frontier
f Assyria ; a part of which is Arbelitis,36 where Alexander con-
quered Darius, and which joins up to Syria . The whole of this
country was called Mygdonia by the Macedonians, on account of
the resemblance it bore to Mygdonia³7 in Europe. Its cities are
Alexandria,38 and Antiochia, also called Nisibis ;39 this last
place is distant from Artaxata seven hundred and fifty miles.
There was also in former times Ninus, 40 a most renowned city,
on the banks of the Tigris, with an aspect towards the west.
Adjoining the other front of Greater Armenia, which runs 1
down towards the Caspian Sea, we find Atropatene, " which
35 See c. 10.
36 He alludes to the town of Arbela, where, as it is generally said, the
army of Darius was defeated by Alexander the Great ; by which engage-
ment the conflict was terminated. It was the fact, however, that Darius
left his baggage and treasures at Arbela, while the battle really took place
near the village of Gaugamela, about twenty miles to the north-west of
Arbela. This place still retains its name of Arbil.
37 A district in the east of Macedonia, bordering on the Thermaic gulf
and the Chalcidic peninsula.
38 Nothing is known of this place. Hardouin suggests that it may have
been built on the spot where Alexander defeated Darius.
39 Also known as Antiochia Mygdoniæ, the capital of Mygdonia. Its
ruins are still to be seen near a place called Nisibin. It stood on the river
Mygdonius, now the Nahral Huali.
Or Nineveh, the capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, destroyed
by the Medes and Babylonians about B.C. 606.
41 There is great difficulty in ascertaining, from the accounts given by
the ancient writers, the exact limits of this district, but it is supposed to
 28 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

is separated from Otene, a region of Armenia, by the 1

42
Araxes ; Gaza2 is its chief city, distant from Artaxata
hundred and fifty miles, and the same from Ecbatana in M
to which country Atropatene belongs.

CHAP. 17. ( 14 .)- MEDIA AND THE CASPIAN GATES.

43
Ecbatana, the capital of Media, was built by king Seleu
at a distance from Great Seleucia of seven hundred and
miles, and twenty miles from the Caspian Gates. The
maining towns of the Medians are Phazaca, Aganzaga,
45
Apamea, surnamed Rhagiane. The reason of these pa
receiving the name of " Gates,'" is the same that has
stated above. The chain of mountains is suddenly broke
a passage of such extreme narrowness that, for a distanc
eight miles, a single chariot can barely find room to move al
the whole of this pass has been formed by artificial me
Both on the right hand and the left are overhanging r
which look as though they had been exposed to the acti
fire ; and there is a tract of country, quite destitute of w
have included a considerable portion of the province now known b
name of Azerbaijan. It derived its name from Atropates or Atropes
was governor of this district under the last Darius.
42 Most probably the place now known as Gazæa, the royal resider
the Parthian kings, and, as its name would imply, their treasure
Colonel Rawlinson thinks that this place underwent many changes of
according to the rulers who successively occupied it ; among other nam
appears to have borne that of Ecbatana.
43 A city of great magnitude, pleasantly situate near the foot of M
Orontes, in the northern part of Greater Media. Its original found
was attributed by Diodorus Siculus to Semiramis, and by Herodot
Deioces. It was the capital of the Median kingdom, and afterward
summer residence of the Persian and Parthian kings. The genuine o
graphy of the name seems to be Agbatana. The ruins seen at the m
Hamadan are generally supposed to represent those of the ancient
tana ; but it is most probable that at different times, if not contem
neously, there were several cities of this name in Media.
44 Pliny in this statement, as also in the distances which he here as
to Ecbatana, is supposed to have confounded Ecbatana with Europus
Veramin, rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator.
45 This was a city in the vicinity of Rhage, which was distant
500 stadia from the Caspian Gates. It was built by the Greeks afte
Macedonian conquest of Asia. The other places here mentioned d
appear to have been identified.
46 See the beginning of c. 12, p. 21.
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 29
Chap. 17.]
twenty-eight miles in extent. This narrow pass, too, is ren-
dered still more difficult by a liquid salt which oozes from the
rocks, and uniting in a single stream , makes its way along the
pass. Besides this, it is frequented by such multitudes of
serpents, that the passage is quite impracticable except in
winter.
(15.) Joining up to Adiabene are the people formerly known
as the ' Carduchi , ' now. the Cordueni ,47 in front of whom the
river Tigris flows : and next to them are the Pratitæ , entitled
the Par Odon, who hold possession of the Caspian Gates ."
On the other side50 of these gates we come to the deserts¹ of
Parthia and the mountain chain of Cithenus ; and after that,
the most pleasant locality of all Parthia , Choara2 by name.
Here were two cities of the Parthians , built in former times for
53
their protection against the people of Media, Calliope, and
Issatis, the last of which stood formerly on a rock. Heca-
tompylos , 55 the capital of Parthia , is distant from the Caspian
Gates one hundred and thirty-three miles. In such an effectual
manner is the kingdom of Parthia shut out by these passes .
After leaving these gates we find the nation of the Caspii , ex-
tending as far as the shores of the Caspian , a race which has
given its name to these gates as well as to the sea : on the left
This was the name of the wild tribes which occupied the high moun-
tainous district between the great upland of Persia and the low plains of
Mesopotamia. In addition to the name mentioned by Pliny, they were
called Gordyæ, Cardaces, and Curtii. The present Kurds, inhabiting Kur-
distan, are supposed to be descended from them.
48 The Greek wap' odòv, " on the road" —meaning, probably, to the
Caspian Gates. Hardouin says that the Pratite were so called from the
Greek pariral,dwelling
49 Although " merchants.
at a" considerable distance, the custody of these
gates was delivered to them, Hardouin says, by the kings of Media.
50 To the south-east of them.
51 Mentioned in c. 29 of the present Book.
52 Or Choarene.
53 Its site is unknown ; but it is mentioned by Appian as one of the
manytowns erected by Seleucus.
54 By the use of the word “ quondam,” he implies that in his time it
was inruins.
55 A place of considerable importance, which seems to have derived its
name from its " hundred gates." It was one of the capitals of the Ar-
sacidan princes ; but, extensive though it may have been, there is great
doubt where it was situate, the distance recorded by ancient writers not
corresponding with any known ruins.
30 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

there is a mountainous district. Turning back 57 from

nation to the river Cyrus, the distance is said to be two b
dred and twenty miles ; but if we go from that river as
down as the Caspian Gates, the distance is seven hundr
miles. In the itineraries of Alexander the Great these g
were made the central or turning point in his expediti
the distance from the Caspian Gates to the frontier of I
being there set down as fifteen thousand six hundred
eighty stadia, to the city of Bactra,60 commonly called 2
aspa, three thousand seven hundred, and thence to the
Jaxartes five thousand stadia.

CHAP. 18. ( 16. )- NATIONS SITUATE AROUND THE HYRCANIAN

Lying to the east of the Caspii is the region known as

vortene,62 in which there is a place noted for its singular
tility, called Dareium.63 We then come to the nations of
Tapyri, the Anariaci, the Staures, and the Hyrcani,
whose shores and beyond the river Sideris the Caspian be
to take the name of the ' Hyrcanian ' Sea : on this sid
that stream are also the rivers Maxeras and Strato ; a
them take their rise in the Caucasian chain. Next c

57 In a northern direction, along the western shores of the Caspian

58 According to Hardouin, Fratosthenes, as quoted by Strabo,
the distance 5060 stadia, or about 633 miles. He has, however,
translated the passage, which gives 5600 stadia, or 700 miles ex
as stated by Pliny.
59 Or 1960 miles.
60 Bactra, Bactrum, or Bactrium, was one of the chief cities, if n
capital, of the province of Bactriana. It was one of the most a
cities in the world, and the modern Balkh is generally supposed to o
its site. Strabo, as well as Pliny, evidently considers that Bactr
Zareispa were the same place, while Appian distinguishes betwee
two, though he does not clearly state their relative positions.
61 The modern Syr-Daria, mentioned in c. 15. See p. 25.
62 By some writers called Apavareticene, in the south-eastern p
Parthia. Ansart says that it is now known as Asterabad and Ghilar
63 Or Dara. A strongly fortified place, built by Arsaces I., and s
on the mountains of the Zapaorteni.
6 According to Ansart, the district now known as Tabarista
Mazanderan, derives the first of those names from the Tapyri.
65 D'Anville remarks that this river still retains its " starry"
being the modern Aster or Ester, on which Asterabad is situate.
p. 18.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 31 1

district of Margiane," so remarkable for its sunny climate.

s the only spot in all these regions that produces the vine,
ng shut in on every side by verdant and refreshing hills.
is district is fifteen hundred stadia in circumference, but is
dered remarkably difficult of access by sandy deserts, which
tend a distance of one hundred and twenty miles it lies
posite to the country of Parthia, and in it Alexander founded
e city of Alexandria. This place having been destroyed
67
the barbarians, Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, rebuilt it
n the same site as a Syrian city.68 For, seeing that it was
69
atered by the Margus, which passes through it, and is after-
wards divided into a number of streams for the irrigation of
he district of Zothale, he restored it, but preferred giving
t the name of Antiochia.70 The circumference of this city is
seventy stadia : it was to this place that Orodes conducted such
of the Romans as had survived the defeat of Crassus . From
the mountain heights of this district, along the range of
Caucasus, the savage race of the Mardi, a free people, extends
as far as the Bactri." Below the district inhabited by them,
we find the nations of the Orciani, the Commori, the Berdrige,
the Harmatotropi," the Citomaræ, the Comani, the Marucæi,
and the Mandruani. The rivers here are the Mandrus and the
Chindrus.73 Beyond the nations already mentioned, are the

66 This district occupied the southern part of modern Khiva, the south-
western part of Bokhara, and the north-eastern part of Khorassan. This
province of the ancient Persian_empire received its name from the river
Margus, now the Moorghab. It first became known to the Greeks by
the expeditions of Alexander and Antiochus I.
67 Antiochus Soter, the son of Seleucus Nicator.
68 The meaning of this, which has caused great diversity of opinion
among the Commentators, seems to be, that on rebuilding it, he preferred
giving it a name borne by several cities in Syria, and given to them in
honour of kings of that country. To this he appears to have been
prompted by a supposed resemblance which its site on the Margus bore to
that of Antiochia on the Orontes.
69 The modern Moorghab ; it loses itself in the sands of Khiva.
70 Its remains are supposed to be those of an ancient city, still to be seen
at a spot called Merv, on the river Moorghab.
71 The people of modern Bokhara.
72 This appears to mean the nations of " Chariot horse-breeders."
73 In former editions, called the ' Gridinus.' It is impossible to identify
many of these nations and rivers, as the spelling varies considerably in the
respective MSS.
 32 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book

Chorasmii," the Candari," the Attasini, the Paricani,

Sarange, the Marotiani, the Aorsi," the Gaëli, by the Gre
writers called Cadusii," the Matiani, the city of Heracle
which was founded by Alexander, but was afterwards
stroyed, and rebuilt by Antiochus, and by him called Achaïs ;
Derbices also," through the middle of whose territory the ri
Oxus80 runs, after rising in Lake Oxus, the Syrmatæ, the Ox
dracæ, the Heniochi, the Bateni, the Saraparæ, and the Bac
whose chief city is Zariaspe, which afterwards received the na
of Bactra, from the river82 there. This last nation lies at

74 An extensive tribe of Sogdiana, now represented by the distric

Khawarezm, in the desert country of Khiva.
75 A tribe in the north-western part of Sogdiana. They appear to
been situate to the east of the district of Khawarezm. It has been
gested that they derived their name from the Sanscrit Gandharas, a t
beyond the Indus.
76 The chief seat of the Aorsi, who appear to have been a nume
and powerful people both of Europe and Asia, was in the cou
between the Tanais, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Caucasus. It se
doubtful, however, whether it is these people who are alluded to in
present passage.
77 These would almost seem to be a different people from those n
tioned in c. 15 of the present Book, as dwelling in Atropatene. The pre
appears to have been a tribe of Sogdiana.
18 Strabo mentions a town of this name, which he places, together
Apamea, in the direction of Rhage. If Pliny has observed anyt
like order in his recital of nations and places, the Heraclea here menti
cannot be that spoken of by Strabo, but must have been distant ne
1000 miles from it.
79 This was a tribe, apparently of Scythian origin, settled in Margi
on the left bank of the Oxus. Strabo says that they worshipped
earth, and forbore to sacrifice or slay any female ; but that they pu
death their fellow-creatures as soon as they had passed their seven
year, it being the privilege of the next of kin to eat the flesh of the
ceased person. The aged women, however, they used to strangle,
then consign them to the earth.
80 The modern Jihoun or Amou. It now flows into the Sea of
but the ancients universally speak of it as running into the Caspian ;
there are still existing distinct traces of a channel extending in a s
westerly direction from the sea of Aral to the Caspian, by which at le
portion, and probably the whole of the waters of the Oxus found their
into the Caspian ; and not improbably the Sea of Aral itself was conn
with the Caspian by this channel.
81 Most probably under this name he means the Sea of Aral.
82 The Bactrus. This river is supposed to be represented bythe m
Dakash. Hardouin says that Ptolemy, B. vi. c. 11 , calls this rive
Zariaspis, or Zariaspes. See the Note at the end of c. 17, p. 30.
 33
p. 19. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 33
83
k of Mount Paropanisus, over against the sources of the
er Indus, and is bounded by the river Ochus.84 Beyond it
e the Sogdiani,85 the town of Panda, and, at the very extremity.
their territory, Alexandria,s founded by Alexander the
reat. At this spot are the altars which were raised by Her-
les and Father Liber, as also by Cyrus, Semiramis, and
lexander ; for the expeditions of all these conquerors stopped
hort at this region, bounded as it is by the river Jaxartes,
y the Scythians known as the Silis, and by Alexander and
is officers supposed to have been the Tanais . This river was
crossed by Demodamas, a general of kings Seleucus and An-
tiochus, and whose account more particularly we have here
followed. He also consecrated certain altars here to Apollo
Didymæus.87

CHAP. 19. ( 17.)-THE NATIONS OF SCYTHIA AND THE COUNTRIES

ON THE EASTERN OCEAN.

Beyond this river are the peoples of Scythia. The Persians

88
have called them by the general name of Sace, which properly

83 Now known as the Hindoo-Koosh ; a part of the great mountain-

chain which runs from west to east through the centre of the southern
portion of the highlands of Central Asia, and so divides the part of the
continent which slopes down to the Indian ocean from the great central
table-land of Tartary and Thibet. The native term, Hindoo-Koosh, is
only a form of the ancient name " Indicus Caucasus," which was some-
times given to this chain. The ancient name was derived probably from
the Persian word paru, a " mountain."
84 Flowing from the north side ofthe Paropanisus. According to Pliny
and Ptolemy, this river flowed through Bactria into the Oxus ; but ac-
cording to Strabo, through Hyrcania into the Caspian Sea. Some suppose
it to have been only another name for the Oxus. Ansart suggests that it
may have been the river now known as the Bash.
85 D'Anville says that there is still the valley of Al Sogd, in Tartary,
beyond the Oxus. The district called Sogdiana was probably composed
of parts of modern Turkistan and Bokhara. The site of Panda does not
appear to be known.
86 It was built on the Jaxartes, to mark the furthest point reached by
Alexander in his Scythian expedition. It has been suggested that the
modern Kokend may possibly occupy its site.
87 The "twin," of the same birth with Diana.
88 The Sacæ probably formed one of the most numerous and most pow-
erful of the Scythian Nomad tribes, and dwelt to the east and north- east
of the Massageto, as far as Servia, in the steppes of Central Asia, which
VOL. II. D
34 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

belongs to only the nearest nation of them. The more ancien

writers give them the name of Aramii. The Scythians them
selves give the name of " Chorsari " to the Persians, and they ca
Mount Caucasus Graucasis, which means white with snow.
The multitude of these Scythian nations is quite innumerable
in their life and habits they much resemble the people of Parthia
The tribes among them that are better known are the Sacæ, th
Massagetæ,89 the Dahæ,90 the Essedones,91 the Ariacæ, th
Rhymmici, the Pæsici, the Amardi,93 the Histi, the Edones, th
Camæ, the Camacæ, the Euchatæ,94 the Cotieri, the Anthusian
95
the Psacæ, the Arimaspi, the Antacati, the Chroasai, and th

are now peopled by the Kirghiz Cossacks, in whose name that of the
ancestors, the Sacæ, is traced by some geographers.
89 Meaning the " Great Geta." They dwelt beyond the Jaxartes a
the Sea of Aral, and their country corresponds to that of the Khirgh
Tartars in the north of Independent Tartary.
90 The Daha were a numerous and warlike Nomad tribe, who wander
over the vast steppes lying to the east of the Caspian Sea. Strabo h
grouped them with the Sace and Massagetæ, as the great Scythian trib
of Inner Asia, to the north of Bactriana.
91 See also B. iv. c. 20, and B. vi. c. 7. The position of the Essedon
or perhaps more correctly, the Issedones, may probably be assigned to t
east of Ichim, in the steppes of the central border of the Kirghiz, in t
immediate vicinity of the Arimaspi, who dwelt on the northern decliv
of the Altaï chain. A communication is supposed to have been carried
between these two peoples for the exchange of the gold that was the produ
of those mountain districts.
92 They dwelt, according to Ptolemy, along the southern banks of t
Jaxartes.
93 Or the Mardi, a warlike Asiatic tribe. Stephanus Byzantinus, f
lowing Strabo, places the Amardi near the Hyrcani, and adds, " The
are also Persian Mardi, without the a ," and, speaking of the Mardi,
mentions them as an Hyrcanian tribe, of predatory habits, and skilled
archery.
94 D'Anville supposes that the Euchata may have dwelt at the mod
Koten, in Little Bukharia. It is suggested, however, by Parisot, t
they may have possibly occupied a valley of the Himalaya, in the mi
of a country known as " Cathai," or the " desert."
95 The first extant notice of them is in Herodotus ; but before him th
was the poem of Aristeas of Proconnesus, of which the title was A
maspea ; and it is mainly upon the statements in it that the stories told
lative tothis people rest-such as their being one-eyed, and as to their steal
the gold from the Gryphes, or Griffins, under whose custody it was plac
Their locality is by some supposed to have been on the left bank of
Middle Volga, in the governments of Kasan, Simbirsk, and Saratov
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 35
Chap. 20. ]
Etei ; among them the Napai 96 " are said to have been destroyed
by the Palæi. The rivers in their country that are the best
known, are the Mandragæus and the Carpasus . Indeed upon
no subject that I know of are there greater discrepancies among
writers, from the circumstance, I suppose, of these nations
being so extremely numerous , and of such migratory habits .
Alexander the Great has left it stated that the water of this
sea" is fresh, and M. Varro informs us, that some of it, of a
similar character , was brought to Pompey, when holding the
chiefcommand in the Mithridatic war in its vicinity ; the salt,"
no doubt, being overpowered by the volume of water discharged
by the rivers which flow into it. He adds also, that under the
direction of Pompey, it was ascertained that it is seven days'
journey from India to the river Icarus ,99 in the country of the
Bactri, which discharges itself into the Oxus, and that the
merchandize of India being conveyed from it¹ through the
Caspian Sea into the Cyrus, may be brought by land to Phasis
in Pontus, in five days at most. There are numerous islands
throughout the whole of the Caspian sea : the only one that is
well known is that of Tazata.2

CHAP. 20.-THE SERES.

After we have passed the Caspian Sea and the Scythian

Ocean, our course takes an easterly direction, such being the
locality which is sufficiently near the gold districts of the Uralian chain
to account for the legends connecting them with the Gryphes, or guardians
of the gold.
96 The former reading was, " The Napai are said to have perished as
well as the Apellæi." Sillig has, however, in all probability, restored the
correct one. "Finding," he says, "in the work of Diodorus Siculus,
that two peoples of Scythia were called, from their two kings, who were
brothers, the Napi and the Pali, we have followed close upon the footsteps
of certain MSS. of Pliny, and have come to the conclusion that some
disputes arose between these peoples, which ultimately led to the destruction
of one of them."
97 Of the Caspian Sea.
98 Said on the supposition that it is a bay or gulf of the Scythian or
Septentrional Ocean.
99 Ansart suggests that this is the modern Rocsha.
1 Fromthe Oxus.
2 Ansart suggests that this island is that now called Idak, one of the
Ogurtchinski group.
D 2
36 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

turn here taken by the line of the coast. The first portion
of these shores, after we pass the Scythian Promontory, i
totally uninhabitable, owing to the snow, and the regions ad
joining are uncultivated, in consequence of the savage stat
of the nations which dwell there. Here are the abodes of th
Scythian Anthropophagi, who feed on human flesh. Henc
it is that all around them consists of vast deserts, inhabited by
multitudes of wild beasts, which are continually lying in wait
ready to fall upon human beings just as savage as themselves
After leaving these, we again come to a nation of the Scythians
and then again to desert tracts tenanted by wild beasts, unti
we reach a chain of mountains which runs up to the sea, an
bears the name of Tabis.5 It is not, however, before we hav
traversed very nearly one half of the coast that looks toward
the north-east, that we find it occupied by inhabitants.
6
The first people that are known of here are the Seres, s
famous for the wool that is found in their forests. After steep
ing it in water, they comb off a white down that adheres to th
leaves ; and then to the females of our part of the world the
give the twofold task ofunravelling their textures, and ofweav

3 This would apply to the north-eastern coasts of Siberia, if Pliny ha

had any idea of land situate in such high latitudes ; but, on the contrary
as already remarked, he appears to have supposed that the continent
Asia terminated a little above the northern extremity of the Caspian.
would be a loss of time to guess what locality meant by the Scythia
Promontory.
4 Or " man-eaters."
5 This, it would appear, he looks upon as the extreme north-easter
point of Asia. Parisot suggests that the word Tabis is allied to th
Mongol Daba, which signifies " mountain ;" or else that it may have som
affinity with " Thibet."
6 The people of Serica, which country with Ptolemy corresponds to th
north-western part of China, and the adjacent portions of Thibet and Chine
Tartary. The capital, Sera, is by most supposed to be Singan, on th
Hoang-ho, but by some Peking. Pliny evidently refers to the same peopl
and has some notion of the locality of their country.
7 This is generally supposed to bear reference to the cloths exported
the Seres, as Serica, and corresponding to our silks. On examination, how
ever, it will appear that he rather refers to some textures of cotton, such
calicos or muslins ; it being not unknown to Pliny that silks or bombycin
were the produce of the bombyx or silk-worm; see B. xi. c. 22. The u
of the word " canities " points strongly to cotton as being the substan
meant.
8 Whether it is silk or cotton that is here referred to, Pliny seems
ap. 20. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 37

g the threads afresh. So manifold is the labour, and so dis-

nt are the regions which are thus ransacked to supply a dress
rough which our ladies may in public display their charms.
he Seres are of inoffensive manners, but, bearing a strong re-
emblance therein to all savage nations, they shun all inter-
ourse with the rest of mankind, and await the approach 10 of
hose who wish to traffic with them. The first river that is
Known in their territory is the Psitharas, " next to that the
Cambari, and the third the Laros ; after which we come to the
Promontory of Chryse,12 the Gulf of Cynaba, the river Atianos,
and the nation of the Attacori on the gulf of that name, a people
protected by their sunny hills from all noxious blasts, and living
in a climate of the same temperature as that of the Hyper-
borei. Amómetus has written a work entirely devoted to the
history of these people, just as Hecatæus has done in his treatise
on the Hyperborei. After the Attacori, we find the nations
of the Phruri and the Tochari, and, in the interior, the Casiri ,
a people of India, who look toward the Scythians, and feed

this passage to allude to some peculiarity in the texture, which was perhaps
so close, that when brought to the Western world it was the custom to draw
out a portion of the threads. In such case it perhaps strongly resembled
the Chinese crapes of the present day. Speaking of Cleopatra in B. x.
141, of the Pharsalia, Lucan says, " Her white breasts are resplendent
through the Sidonian fabric, which, wrought in close texture by the sley
of the Seres, the needle of the workman of the Nile has separated, and has
loosened the warp by stretching out the web."
9 He either refers to dresses consisting of nothing but open work, or
what we may call fine lace, and made from the closely woven material im-
ported from China, or else to the Coan vestments ' which were so much
worn bythe Roman women, especially those of light character, in the
Augustan age. This Coan tissue was remarkable for its extreme trans-
parency. It has been supposed that these dresses were made of silk, as in
the island of Cos silk was spun and woven at an early period, so much so
as to obtain a high celebrity for the manufactures of that island. Seneca,
B. vii. De Benef. severely censures the practice of wearing these thin gar-
ments. For further information on this subject, see B. xi. c. 26, 27, and
B. xii. c. 22.
10 Meaning that they do not actively seek intercourse with the rest of
the world, but do not refuse to trade with those who will take the trouble
of resorting to them. This coincides wonderfully with the character of
the Chinese even at the present day.
11 Ptolemy speaks of it as the Echordas.
12 The headland of Malacca, in the Aurea Chersonnesus, was also
called by this name, but it is hardly probable that that is the place here
meant.
38 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

on human flesh. Here are also numerous wandering Noma

tribes of India. There are some authors who state that in
north-easterly direction these nations touch upon the Cicones
and the Brysari.

CHAP. 21. - THE NATIONS OF INDIA.

But we come now to nations as to which there is a more ge

neral agreement among writers. Where the chain of Emodus
rises, the nations of India begin, which borders not only on th
Eastern sea, but on the Southern as well, which we have al
ready mentioned 15 as being called the Indian Ocean. Tha
part which faces the east runs in a straight line a distance o
eighteen hundred and seventy-five miles until it comes to
bend, at which the Indian Ocean begins. Here it takes a tur
to the south, and continues to run in that direction a distanc
of two thousand four hundred and seventy-five miles, accord
ing to Eratosthenes, as far as the river Indus, the boundar
of India on the west.16 Many authors have represented th
entire length of the Indian coast as being forty days' an
nights' sail, and as being, from north to south, two thousan
eight hundred and fifty miles. Agrippa states its length to b
three thousand three hundred miles, and its breadth, two thou
sand three hundred . Posidonius has given its measurement a
lying from north-east to south- east, placing it opposite to Gau
of which country he has given the measurement as lyin
from north-west to south-west ; making the whole of Indi
to lie due west of Gaul. Hence, as he has shewn by un
doubted proofs, India lying opposite to Gaul must be refreshe
13 See B. iv. c. 18.
14 The Emodi Montes (so called probably from the Indian hemadri,
the " golden ") are supposed to have formed that portion of the gre
lateral branch of the Indian Caucasus, the range of the Himalaya, whic
extends along Nepaul, and probably as far as Bhotan.
15 In c. 14 of the present Book.
16 The whole of this passage seems very intricate, and it is difficult
make sense of it. His meaning, however, is probably this : that th
coast of India, running from extreme north-east to south-east, relatively
Greece, the country of Eratosthenes, is exactly opposite to the coast
Gaul, running from extreme north-west to south-west-India thus lyin
due west of Gaul, without any intervening land. This, it will be remen
bered, was the notion of Columbus, when contemplating the possibility
a western passage to India.
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 39
ap. 21.]

the blowing of that wind, " and derive its salubrity there-
om .
In this region, the appearance of the heavens is totally
hanged, and quite different is the rising of the stars ; there
re two summers in the year, and two harvests, while the winter
ntervenes between them during the time that the Etesian 18
winds are blowing : during our winter too, they enjoy light
breezes, and their seas are navigable. In this country there are
nations and cities whichwould be found to be quite innumerable,
if a person should attempt to enumerate them. For it has been
explored not only bythe arms of Alexander the Great and of the
kings who succeeded him, by Seleucus and Antiochus, who
sailed round even to the Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea, and by
Patrocles, 19 the admiral of their fleet, but has been treated of by
several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian
kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, and by Dionysius,
who wassentthither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose:
all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources
of these nations. Still, however, there is no possibility of
being rigorously exact, so different are the accounts given, and
often of a nature so incredible. The followers of Alexander
the Great have stated in their writings, that there were no less
than five thousand cities in that portion of India which they

17 This appears also to be somewhat obscure. It is clear that if India

lies to the west of Gaul, it cannot be Pliny's meaning that it is refreshed
by the west wind blowing to it from Gaul. He may possibly mean that
the west wind, which is so refreshing to the west of Europe, and Gaul in
particular, first sweeps over India, and thus becomes productive of that
salubrity which Posidonius seems to have discovered in India, but for
which we look in vain at the present day. Amid, however, such multiplied
chances of a corrupt text, it is impossible to assume any very definite po-
sition as to his probable meaning. The French translators offer no assist-
ance in solving the difficulty, and Holland renders it, " This west wind
which from behind Gaul bloweth upon India, is very healthsome," &c.
18 As to the Etesian winds, see B. ii. c. 48.
19 In the geographical work which Patrocles seems to have published,
he is supposed to have given some account of the countries bordering onthe
Caspian Sea, and there is little doubt that, like other writers of that period,
he regarded that sea as a gulf or inlet of the Septentrional Ocean, and pro-
bably maintained the possibility of sailing thither by sea from the Indian
Ocean. This statement, however, seems to have been strangely misinter-
preted by Pliny in his present assertion, that Patrocles had himself accom-
plished this circumnavigation.
40 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

vanquished by force of arms, not one of which was smaller tha

that of Cos ;20 that its nations were eight in number, that Indi
forms one-third of the whole earth, and that its population
are innumerable-a thing which is certainly far from impro
bable, seeing that the Indians are nearly the only race of peopl
who have never migrated from their own territories. From
the time of Father Liber21 to that of Alexander the Great, on
hundred and fifty-three kings of India are reckoned, extendin
over a period of six thousand four hundred and fifty-one year
and three months. The vast extent of their rivers is quit
marvellous ; it is stated that on no one day did Alexander th
Great sail less than six hundred stadia 22 on the Indus, and sti
was unable to reach its mouth in less than five months an
some few days : and yet it is a well-known fact that th
river is not so large as the Ganges.223 Seneca, one of our fellow
countrymen, who has written a treatise 24 upon the subject
India, has given its rivers as sixty-five in number, and i
nations as one hundred and eighteen. The difficulty too woul
be quite as great, if we were to attempt to enumerate its mour
tains . The chains of Emaüs, of Emodus, of Paropanisu
and of Caucasus, are all connected, the one with the other
and from their foot, the country of India runs down in th
form of a vast plain, bearing a very considerable resemblance
that of Egypt.
However, that we may come to a better understanding r
lative to the description of these regions, we will follow i
the track of Alexander the Great. Diognetus and Beton, whos
duty it was to ascertain the distances and length of h
expeditions, have written that from the Caspian Gates
Hecatompylon, the city of the Parthians, the distance is th
number of miles which we have already stated ; and that fro
thence to Alexandria,26 of the Arii, which city was founded byth
same king, the distance is five hundred and seventy-five miles
from thence to Prophthasia," the city of the Drange, or
20 See B. v. c. 36. 21 Or Bacchus.
22 Or seventy-five miles. 23 This is the statement of Arrian
24 Among the lost works of that philosopher.
25 In c. 17 of the present Book.
26 See c. 25 of the present Book.
27 See c. 25 of the present Book.
b. 21.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 41

dred and ninety-nine ; from thence to the city of the

chosii, 2 8 five hundred and sixty-five ; from thence to
29
cospanum, one hundred and seventy-five ; and from
ence to the city built by Alexander,30 fifty, miles . In some
pies, however, the numbers are found differently stated ;
d we find this last city even placed at the very foot of
ount Caucasus ! From this place to the river Cophes³¹ and
eucolaitis, a city of India, is two hundred and thirty- seven
iles ; from thence to the river Indus and the city of Tax-
la³2 sixty ; from thence to the famous river Hydaspes³ one
undred and twenty ; and from thence to the Hypasis,³4 a
iver no less famous, two hundred and ninety miles, and three
hundred and ninety paces. This last was the extreme limit
of the expedition of Alexander, though he crossed the river
and dedicated certain altars on the opposite side . The dis-
patches written by order of that king fully agree with the
distances above stated.
The remaining distances beyond the above point were as-
certained on the expedition of Seleucus Nicator. They are,
to the river Sydrus,36 one hundred and sixty-eight miles ; to
the river Jomanes, the same ; some copies, however, add

28 See c. 25 of the present Book.

29 A town placed by Strabo on the confines of Bactriana, and by Ptolemy
in the county of the Paropanisida.
30 See c. 25 of the present Book.
31 See c. 24 of the present Book.
32 The present Attok, according to D'Anville.
33 One of the principal rivers of that part of India known as the Pun-
jaub. It rises in the north-western Himalayah mountains in Kashmere, and
after flowing nearly south, falls into the Acesines or Chenab. Its present
most usual name is the Jhelum.
31 The most eastern, and most important of the five rivers which water
the country of the Punjaub. Rising in the western Himalaya, it flows in
two principal branches, in a course nearly south-west (under the names re-
spectively of Vipasa and Satadru), which it retains till it falls into the
Indus at Mittimkote. It is best known, however, by its modern name of
Sutlej, probably a corrupt form of the Sanscrit Satadru.
35 See c. 18 of the present Book. The altars there spoken of, as con-
secrated by Alexander the Great, appear to have been erected in Sogdiana,
whereas those here mentioned were dedicated in the Indian territory.
36 It does not appear that this river has been identified. In most of
the editions it is called Hesidrus ; but, as Sillig observes, there was a town
of India, near the Indus, called Sydros, which probably received its name
from this river.
 42 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

to this last distance five miles ; thence to the Ganges, o

hundred and twelve miles ; to Rhodapha, five hundred a
sixty-nine-though, according to some writers, this last d
tance is only three hundred and twenty-five miles ; tothe to
37
of Calinipaxa, one hundred and sixty-seven, according
some, two hundred and sixty-five ; thence to the confluen
of the river Jomaness and Ganges, six hundred and twent
five ; most writers, however, add thirteen miles to this l
39
distance ; thence to the city of Palibothra, four hundred a
twenty-five-and thence to the mouth of the Ganges, six hu
dred and thirty- seven miles and a half.
The nations whom it may be not altogether inopportune
mention, after passing the Emodian Mountains, a cross range
which is called " Imaus," a word which, in the language of t
natives, signifies " snowy," are the Isari, the Cosyri, the I
and, upon the chain of mountains, the Chisiotosagi, with
merous peoples, which havethe surname of Brachmana
among whom are the Maccocalinga. There are also
rivers Prinas and Cainas,42 which last flows into the Gang
both of them navigable streams. The nation of the Caling
37 It has been suggested that this place is the modern Kanouge, on
Ganges.
38 The modern Jumna. It must be borne in mind by the reader, t
the numbers given in this Chapter vary considerably in the different M
39 See the next Chapter.
40 The Sanscrit for "snowy" is " himarat." The name of Emod
combined with Imaüs, seems here to be a description of the knot
mountains formed by the intersections of the Himalaya, the Hindoo Ko
and the Bolor range ; the latter having been for many ages the bound
between the empires of China and Turkistan. It is pretty clear, th
like Ptolemy, Pliny imagined that the Imaüs ran from south to north ;
it seems hardly necessary, in this instance at least, to give to the w
"promontorium " the meaning attached to our word " promontory,"
to suppose that he implies that the range of the Imaüs runs down to
verge of the eastern ocean.
41 A name evidently given to numerous tribes of India, from the
cumstance that Alexander and his followers found it borne by the Brahm
or priestly caste of the Hindoos.
42 Still called the Cane, a navigable river of India within the Gan
falling into the Ganges, according to Arrian as well as Pliny, though
reality it falls into the Jumna.
43 The Calinga, who are further mentioned in the next Chapter, proba
dwelt in the vicinity of the promontory of Calingon, upon which was
town of Dandaguda, mentioned in c. 23 of the present Book. This
montory and city are usually identified with those of Calinapatnam, al
 22.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 43

s nearest to the sea, and above them are the Mandei and
Malli.44 In the territory of the last-named people is a
ntain called Mallus : the boundary of this region is the
r Ganges.

CHAP. 22. ( 18 . ) -THE GANGES.

Some writers have stated that this river, like the Nile,
es its rise from unknown sources,45 and, in a similar manner,
ters the neighbouring territory; others, again, say that it rises
the mountains of Scythia. They state also that nineteen
vers discharge their waters into it ; those among them that
e navigable, besides the rivers already mentioned,46 are the
48
ondochates,47 the Erannoboas," the Cosoagus,49 and the
onus. Other writers again say that it bursts forth at its
ery source with a loud noise, hurling itself over rocks and
precipices ; and that after it has reached the plains, its waters
become more tranquil, and it pauses for a time in a certain
ake, after which it flows gently on. They say also that it
is eight miles in breadth, where it is the very narrowest, and
half-way between the rivers Mahanuddy and Godavery ; and the territory
of the Calingæ seems to correspond pretty nearly to the district of Circars,
lying along the coast of Orissa.
44 By the Malli, Parisot is of opinion that the people of Moultan are
meant.
45 So much so, indeed, that its sources were unknown to the learned
world till the beginning of the present century, although the Chinese em-
peror Tang-Hi on one occasion sent a body of Llamas for the purpose of
inquiring into the subject. It is now ascertained that the river Ganges is
the result of the confluence of three separate streams, which bear the re-
spective names of the Gannavi, the Bhagirathi, and the Alakananda. The
second is ofthe most sacred character, and is the one to which the largest
concourse of pilgrims resort. The ancients held various opinions as to
the sources of the river.
46 The Cainas and the Jomanes, mentioned in the last Chapter.
47 The modern Gandaki or Gundûk is generally supposed to be repre-
sented bythe Condochates.
48 Represented as flowing into the Ganges at Palimbothra, the modern
Patna. There has been considerable discussion among the learned as to
what river is indicated by this name. It has, however, been considered
most probable that it is the same as the Sonus of Pliny, the modern Soane,
though both that author, as well as Arrian, speaks of two rivers, which
they call respectively Erannoboas and Sonus. The name was probably
derived from the Sanscrit Hyranyavahas, the poetical name of the Sonus.
49 Supposed to be the same as the river Cosi or Coravaha.
44 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Bool

one hundred stadia where it is but moderately wide,

that it is nowhere less than twenty paces in depth.
last nation situate on the banks of the Ganges is that of
Gangarides Calinga ; the city where their king dwells
the name of Protalis.51
(19. ) This king has sixty thousand foot- soldiers, one thou
horse, and seven hundred elephants, always caparisoned r
for battle. The people of the more civilized nations of I
are divided into several classes.52 One of these classes
the earth, another attends to military affairs, others a
are occupied in mercantile pursuits, while the wisest and
most wealthy among them have the management of the af
of state- act as judges, and give counsel to the king.
fifth class,53 entirely devoting themselves to the pursuit of
dom, which in these countries is almost held in the same ver
tion as religion, always end their life by a voluntary d
upon the lighted pile. In addition to these, there
class55 in a half- savage state, and doomed to endless lab
by means of their exertions, all the classes previously
tioned are supported . It is their duty to hunt the eleph
and to tame him when captured ; for it is by the aid of t
animals that they plough ; by these animals they are conv
50 The wide diffusion of the Calinga, and their close connection wit
Gangarida, are shown by the fact that Pliny here calls them " Ca
Gangarides," and mentions the Modogalingæ on a large island i
Ganges, and the Maccocalingæ on the upper course of that river. See
43, p. 42.
51 Called Parthalis in most of the editions.
52 Or castes, as we call them. These institutions prevail equally a
present day, and the divisions of the duties of the respective caste
pretty much as Pliny states them to be, except that the husbandmer
merchants form one class, called the Vaisya, the Brahmins being the min
of religion, the Kshatriya forming the warlike class, the Sudra c
tuting the menial or servant class. Pliny here represents the rulers
councillors as forming a distinct class. Such, however, does not app
be the fact; for we find that the sovereign is chosen from the Kshatri
military class, while from the Brahmins are selected the royal counci
judges, and magistrates of the country.
53 He alludes to the Brahmins, who seem to have been called by the
writers "Gymnosophists, " or " naked wise men." The Brahmir
lanus is a memorable example of this kind of self-immolation.
54 It is extremely doubtful if, even in his own day, Pliny was corr
venturing upon so sweeping an assertion .
55 The Sudra or menial caste.
56 He is incorrect here ; these duties devolve on the Vaisya class.
 22.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 45

place to place ; these in especial they look upon as

ituting their flocks and herds ; by their aid they wage
wars , and fight in defence of their territories. Strength,
and size, are the points usually considered in making
ce of these animals.
a the Ganges there is an island of very considerable
inhabited by a single nation ; it is called Modoga-
a.57 Beyond the Ganges are situate the Modubæ , the
lindæ, the Uberæ, with a magnificent city of the same
ne, the Modresi, the Preti, the Calos, the Sasuri, the
ssalæ, the Coloba, the Orumcolæ, the Abali, and the Tha-
æ. The king of the last-named people has fifty thousand
t- soldiers, four thousand horse, and four hundred armed
ephants. We next come to a still more powerful nation,
e Andaræ,58 who dwell in numerous villages, as well as thirty
ties fortified with walls and towers. They furnish for
eir king one hundred thousand foot, two thousand horse,
nd a thousand elephants. The country of the Darda59 is
he most productive of gold, that of the Setæ of silver.
But more famous and more powerful than any nation, not
only in these regions, but throughout almost the whole of
India, are the Prasii, who dwell in a city of vast extent and
of remarkable opulence, called Palibothra ;60 from which cir-
cumstance some writers have given to the people themselves
the name of Palibothri, and, indeed, to the whole tract of
country between the Ganges and the Indus. These people
keep on daily pay in their king's service an army, consisting of
six hundred thousand foot, thirty thousand horse, and nine
thousand elephants, from which we may easily form a con-
jecture as to the vast extent of their resources. Behind these

57 Inhabited, probably, by a branch of the Calinga previously mentioned.

55 Ansart suggests that this may be the modern kingdom of Pegu. He
thinks also that the preceding kingdom may be that now called Arracan.
59 These may possibly be the Daradræ of Ptolemy, but it seems impos-
sible to guess their locality.
60 Probably the present Patna. D'Anville, however, identifies it with
Allahabad, while Welford and Wahl are inclined to think it the same as
Radjeurah, formerly called Balipoutra or Bengala. The Prasii are pro-
bably the race of people mentioned in the ancient Sanscrit books under the
name of the "Pragi " or the Eastern Empire, while the Gangarides are men-
tioned in the same works under the name of " Gandaressa "" or Kingdom of
the Ganges.
46 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [ Book

people, and lying still more in the interior, are the Mone
61
and the Suari, among whom is a mountain known as Mal
upon which the shadow falls to the north in winter, an
the south in summer, six months alternately. In this dis
the Constellation of the Greater Bear62 is seen at only
period in the year, and then but for fifteen days, accor
to what Beton states. Megasthenes, however, inform
that the same is the case also in many other localities of I
The South Pole is by the Indians called Diamasa.
The river Jomanes runs into the Ganges through the t
tory of the Palibothri, between the cities of Methora6
Chrysobora. In the regions which lie to the south of
Ganges, the people are tinted by the heat of the sun, so
so as to be quite coloured, but yet not burnt black, like
66
Ethiopians . The nearer they approach the Indus,
deeper their colour, a proof of the heat of the climate.
leaving the nation of the Prasii, we immediately come t
Indus ; in the mountains of the Prasii a race of Pyg
is said to exist. Artemidorus says that between these
rivers there is a distance of two thousand one hur
miles.

CHAP. 23. (20. ) -THE INDUS.

The Indus, called Sindis by the natives, rises in that br

of the Caucasian range which bears the name of Paropani

61 Hardouin is of opinion that these nations dwelt in the localiti

cupied by the districts of Gwalior and Agra.
62 The Septentriones or " Seven Trions," in the original. Par
of opinion that under this name of Mount Maleus he alludes
Western Ghauts, and that the name still survives in the word M
He also remarks that this statement of Pliny is not greatly exaggera
63 Ansart says that this is the same as the modern town of Mu
Matra upon the Jumna, and to the north of Agra.
6 Or Clisobora, according to Hardouin. It does not appear to
been identified.
65 In the Indian Peninsula, constituting more especially the pres
of Madras.
66 It is clear that he looks upon the countries of the Indus as ly
the south of the Ganges.
67 Or Hindoo Koosh. In this statement he is supported by
Strabo, Mela, and Quintus Curtius. It rises, however, a considerab
tance on the north-east side of the Himalaya.
. 23.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 47

runs in an easterly direction, receiving in its course the

cers of nineteen rivers. The most famous of these are the
daspes,68 into which four other rivers have already dis-
arged themselves, the Cantaba, 69 which receives three other
ers, the Acesinus, and the Hypasis,70 which last two are
vigable themselves. Still however, so moderate, as it were,
the waters of this river show themselves in their course,
at it is never more than fifty stadia in width, nor does it
ver exceed fifteen paces in depth . Of two islands, which it
rms in its course, the one, which is known as Prasiane, is of
ery considerable size ; the other, which is smaller, is called
Patale. According to the accounts given by the most mode-
ate writers, this river is navigable for a distance of twelve
hundred and fifty miles, and after following the sun's course to
the west, in some degree, discharges itself into the ocean. I will
here give the distances of various places situate on the coast to
the mouth of this river, in a general way, just as I find them
stated, although they none of them tally with each other.
From the mouth of the Ganges to the Promontory of the
Calingi and the town of Dandaguda," is six hundred and
twenty-five miles ; from thence to Tropina twelve hundred and
twenty-five ; from thence to the promontory of Perimula,
where is held the most celebrated mart in all India, seven
hundred and fifty, and from thence to the city of Patala, in the
island just mentioned, six hundred and twenty miles.
The mountain races between the Indus and the Jomanes are
72
the Cesi, the Cetriboni, who dwell in the woods, and after them
the Megallæ, whose king possesses five hundred elephants, and
an army of horse and foot, the numbers of which are unknown ;
then the Chrysei, the Parasange, and the Asmagi,73 whose terri-
toryis infested by wild tigers ; these people keep in arms thirty
68 The modern Jhelum.
69 Some writers suppose that this must be the same as the Hydraotes,
or modern Ravi, because the latter is not otherwise found mentioned in the
list given by Pliny. The name, however, leaves but little doubt that Pliny
had heard of the Acesines under its Indian name of Chandabragha, and
out of it has made another river.
70 The modern Sutlej.
71 Probably in the vicinity of the modern Calingapatam ; none of the
other places seem to be identified.
72 Ansart suggests that the Cesi may be the same race as the modern
Sikhs.
73 Perhaps the people of modern Ajmere.
48 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

thousand foot, three hundred elephants, and eight hund

horse. They are bounded by the river Indus, and encircled
a range of mountains and deserts for a distance of six hund
and twenty-five miles. Below these deserts are the Dari
the Suræ, and then deserts again for one hundred and eigh
seven miles, sands in general encircling these spots just
islands are surrounded by the sea. Below these deserts, aga
are the Maltecore, the Singe, the Marchæ, the Rarung
and the Morontes. These last peoples, who possess
mountains throughout the whole range of country as
as the shores of the ocean, are free, and independent of
kings, and hold numerous cities upon the declivities of
mountains. After them come the Nareæ, 74 who are boun
by Capitalia, the most lofty of all the Indian peaks : the
habitants who dwell on the other side of it have extens
mines of gold and silver. After these again are the Oratæ, wh
king possesses only ten elephants, but a large army of fo
next come the Suarataratæ, who live under the rule of a k
as well, but breed no elephants, as they depend solely on th
horse and foot ; then the Odonbeores, the Arabastræ, and
Horacæ, which last inhabit a fine city fortified by trenches
in the marshes. It is quite impossible to approach the c
except by the bridge, as the water in the trenches is full
crocodiles, an animal most insatiate for human flesh. Th
is another city also in their territory, which has been grea
extolled, Automula by name, situate on the sea-shore
famous mart, lying at the point of confluence of five rive
their king possesses sixteen hundred elephants, one hund
and fifty thousand foot, and five thousand horse. The kin
the Charmæ is a less opulent potentate ; he has only si
elephants and some small remains of his former stren
After these we come to the nation of the Pandæ,75 the only
throughout all India which is ruled by women. It is
that Hercules had but one child of the female sex, for w
reason she was his especial favourite, and he bestowed u
her the principal one of these kingdoms. The sovereigns

74 These peoples are supposed by Hardouin to have occupied the sout

parts of the peninsula now known as Bisnagar, Calicut, and the De
with the Malabar and Coromandel coasts.
75 Hardouin suggests that this people dwelt on the present peninsu
Guzerat.
 49
ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC.
Chap. 23.]
derive their origin from this female, rule over three hundred
towns, and have an army of one hundred and fifty thousand
foot, and five hundred elephants . After passing through this
list of three hundred cities, we come to the Darangæ,76 the
Posingæ , the Butæ, the Gogarai , the Umbræ , the Nereæ, the
Brancosi, the Nobundæ , the Cocondæ , the Nesei , the Palatitæ,
the Salobriase, and the Olostræ, who reach up to the island
of Patala, from the extremity of whose shores to the Caspian
Gates it is a distance of nineteen hundred and twenty -five
miles.
After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is oc-
cupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the
Athoæ , the Bolingæ , the Gallitalutæ , the Dimuri , the Megari,
the Ardabæ, the Mesa, and after them, the Uri and the Silæ ;
beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance
of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations,
we come to the Organagæ , the Abortæ , the Bassuertæ, and,
after these last, deserts similar to those previously mentioned .
We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbæ,
the Marogomatræ, the Umbrittæ , of whom there are twelve na-
tions, each with two cities, and the Asini, a people who dwell
in three cities, their capital being Bucephala," which was
founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alex-
ander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are
some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the
Soseada and the Sondræ, and, after passing the Indus and
going down its stream, the Samarabriæ , the Sambraceni, the
Bisambritæ, the Orsi, the Anixeni, and the Taxilæ, with a
famous city,78 which lies on a low but level plain, the general
name of the district being Amenda : there are four nations

76 None of these appear to have been identified ; indeed, it appears to

be next to impossible, owing to the corrupt state in which they have come
down to us.
" Built onthe Hydaspes byAlexander after his victory over Porus, B.C.
326, at the spot where he had crossed the river before the battle, and in
memory ofhis celebrated charger Bucephalus, who had expired during the
battle from fatigue and old age, or from wounds. The exact site of this
place is not known, but the probabilities appear in favour of Jhelum, at
which place is the usual passage of the river, or else of Jellapoor, about
sixteen miles lower down.
78 Probably the same that is mentioned in c. 21 of the present Book.
VOL. 11. E
50 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

here, the Peucolaitæ,79 the Arsagalitæ, the Geretæ, and

Assoï.
The greater part of the geographers, in fact, do not 1
upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it
80 81
four Satrapies of the Gedrosi, the Arachotæ, the Arii,82
84
the Paropanisidæ,83 the river Cophes thus forming the extre
boundary of India. All these territories, however, accord
to other writers, are reckoned as belonging to the country
the Arii . (21. ) Many writers, too, place in India the city
Nysa,85 and the mountain of, Merus, sacred to Father Bacch
in which circumstances originated the story that he sprang fi
the thigh of Jupiter. They also plaće here the nation of
Astacani, whose country abounds in the vine, the laurel,
box-tree, and all the fruits which are produced in Greece.
to those wonderful and almost fabulous stories which are
lated about the fertility of the soil, and the various kinds
fruits and trees, as well as wild beasts, and birds, and of
sorts of animals, they shall be mentioned each in its pro
79 Parisot supposes that these were the inhabitants of the district w
now bears the name of Pekheli.
80 Gedrosia comprehended probably the same district as is now kr
by the name of Mekran, or, according to some, the whole of modern
loochistan.
81 The people of the city and district of Arachotus, the capital of
chosia. M. Court has identified some ruins on the Argasan river,
Kandahar, on the road to Shikarpur, with those of Arachotus ; but
fessor Wilson considers them to be too much to the south-east. Co
Rawlinson thinks they are those to be seen at a place called Ulan R
He states that the most ancient name of the city, Cophen, (mentione
Pliny in c. 25 of the present Book), has given rise to the territorial d
nation. See p. 57.
82 The people of Aria, consisting of the eastern part of Khorassan.
the western and north- western part of Afghanistan. This was one of
most important of the eastern provinces or satrapies of the Persian em
83 This was the collective name of several peoples dwelling on
southern slopes of the Hindoo Koosh, and of the country which the
habited, which was not known by any other name. It corresponded t
eastern part of modern Afghanistan and the portion of the Punjaub
to the west of the Indus.
81 It is supposed that the Cophes is represented by the modern riv
Kabul.
85 The place here alluded to was in the district of Goryæa, at
north-western corner of the Punjaub, near the confluence of the
Cophen and Choaspes. being probably the same place as Nagara or D
sopolis, the modern Nagar or Naggar.
86 The word unpoc, in Greek, signifying a " thigh."
p. 24.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 51

ce, in a future portion of this work. I shall also very

ortly have to make some further mention ofthe four Satrapies,
being at present my wish to hasten to a description of the
and of Taprobane .
But first there are some other islands of which we must
ake mention. Patala,86* as we have already stated, lies at
he mouth of the Indus : it is of a triangular figure, and is two
undred and twenty miles in breadth. Beyond the mouth of
87
he Indus are the islands of Chryse and Argyre, abounding in
metals, I believe ; but as to what some persons have stated,
hat their soil consists of gold and silver, I am not so willing
to give a ready credence
88 to that. After passing these islands
we come to Crocala, twenty miles in 89 breadth, and then, at
twelve miles' distance from it, Bibraga, abounding in oysters
and other shell-fish . At eight miles' distance from Bibraga we
find Toralliba, and many others of no note.

CHAP. 24. (22. ) - TAPROBANE.

90
Taprobane, under the name of the " land of the Antich-
thones," 91 was long looked upon as another world : the age and
the arms of Alexander the Great were the first to give satis-
factory proof that it is an island. Onesicritus, the commander of
his fleet, has informed us that the elephants of this island are
larger, and better adapted for warfare than those of India ; and
from Megasthenes we learn that it is divided by a river, that
the inhabitants have the name of Palæogoni," and that their
86 Supposed by some to have been Lower Scinde, and the vicinity of
Kurrachee, with its capital Potala.
87 Ansart suggests that these may be the Laccadives. Their name means
the " gold" and " silver" islands.
88 Probably an island near the mouths of the Indus.
69 Probably the same as the Bibacta of Arrian. The present name of it
is Chilney Isle.
90 Although Poinsinet will not admit its identity, it is now universally
agreed among the learned that the island of Taprobana is the modern
Ceylon. As Gosselin observes, in the accounts said to have been given of
Ceylon by the ambassadors to Claudius, great allowance must be made for
the wrong interpretation which, owing to their ignorance of the language,
the Romans must have given to much of their narrative.
91 From avri, "opposite," and x0wv, " the earth." Its people being
supposed to bethe antipodes of those of Europe.
92 66 The ancient race." As Ansart observes, the island contains a
mountain, the name of which is " Adam's" Peak.
E2
 52 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book V

country is more productive of gold and pearls of great size tha

even India. Eratosthenes has also giventhe dimensions
this island, as being seven thousand stadia in length, and fi
thousand in breadth : he states also that there are no cities, b
villages to the number of seven hundred.93 It begins at th
Eastern sea, and lies extended opposite to India, east and wes
This island was in former times supposed to be twenty day
sail from the country of the Prasii," but in later times, wher
as the navigation was formerly confined to vessels construct
of papyrus with the tackle peculiar to the Nile, the distan
has been estimated at no more than seven days' 95 sail, in r
ference to the speed which can be attained by vessels of of
construction. The sea that lies between the island and t
mainland is full of shallows, not more than six paces in depth
but in certain channels it is of such extraordinary depth, that
anchor has ever found a bottom . For this reason it is that t
vessels are constructed with prows at either end ; so that the
may be no necessity for tacking while navigating these channel
which are extremely narrow. The tonnage of these vessels
three thousand amphora.96 In traversing their seas, the peop
of Taprobane take no observations of the stars, and indeed t
Greater Bear is not visible to them ; but they carry birds o
to sea, which they let go from time to time, and so follow the
course as they make for the land. They devote only fo
months in the year to the pursuits of navigation, and are pa
ticularly careful not to trust themselves on the sea during t
next hundred days after our summer solstice, for in those se
it is at that time the middle of winter.

93 Elian makes the villages to be 750 in number.

94 A general term probably, as already stated, for the great peninsula
India, below the Ganges.
95 This expression has been relied upon by those who do not admit th
Ceylon is identical with the ancient Taprobana. But it is not improbal
that the passage here referred to is from Cape Comorin to Ceylon, and r
from Cape Ramanan Cor, the nearest part of the continent. In such ca
the distance would be sixty-five or sixty-six leagues, and we can eas
conceive that Greek vessels, sailing from nine to ten leagues per da
might occupy seven days in making the passage from Cape Comorin, p
Ramanan Cor, to the coasts of Ceylon.
96 The amphora, as a measure, contained eight congii, or forty-eig
sextarii.
97 Or " Septentrio ;" "the Seven Trions," which was more especia
employed by the nations of Europe for the purposes of navigation.
ap. 24. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 53

Thus much we learn from the ancient writers ; it has fallen

our lot, however, to obtain a still more accurate knowledge
these people ; for during the reign of the Emperor Claudius,
à embassy came from even this distant island to Rome . The
rcumstances under which this took place were as follow :
nnius Plocamus had farmed from the treasury the revenues
rising from the Red Sea. A certain freedman of his, while
ailing around Arabia, was carried away by a gale from the
north beyond the coast of Carmania. In the course of fifteen
days he had drifted to Hippuros, a port of Taprobane, where
he was most kindly and hospitably received by the king ; and
having, after a study of six months, become well acquainted
with the language, was enabled to answer all his enquiries re-
lative to the Romans and their emperor. But of all that he
heard, the king was more particularly struck with surprise at
our rigid notions of justice, on ascertaining that among the
money found on the captive, the denarii were all of equal
weight, although the different figures on them plainly showed
that they had been struck in the reigns of several emperors.
By this circumstance in especial, the king was prompted to form
an alliance with the Romans, and accordingly sent to Rome an
embassy, consisting of four persons, the chief of whom was
Rachias.98
From these persons we learned that in Taprobane there are
five hundred towns, and that there is a harbour that lies facing
the south, and adjoining the city of Palæsimundus," the most
famous city in the isle, the king's place of residence, and con-
taining a population of two hundred thousand . They also in-
formed us that inthe interior there is a lake called Megisba, three
hundred and seventy-five miles in circumference, and containing
islandswhich are fertile, though for pasturage only. In this lake
they informed us two rivers take their rise, one of which, called
Palæsimundus, flows into the harbour near the city of that name,
bythree channels, the narrowest of which is five stadia in width,
the largest fifteen ; while the other, Cydara by name, takes a di-
rection northward, towards the Indian coast. We learned also

98 Parisot suggests that the word " Radijah," or " Rajah," denoting
the rank which he held, may have been here taken by Pliny for his name.
99 Ptolemy says that the ancient name of the island was Simundi, or
Palæsimundi, but speaks of no such city as the one here mentioned, nor
indeed of any other of the localities described by Pliny.
 54 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

that the nearest point of the Indian coast is a promontor

known as Coliacum, ' distant from the island four days' sail, an
that midway between them lies the island of the Sun. The
stated also that those seas are of a deep green tint ; beside
which, there are numerous trees growing at the bottom, so muc
so, that the rudders of the vessels frequently break off portion
2
of their foliage. They were much astonished at the constel
lations which are visible to us, the Greater Bear and the Ple
ades, as though they had now beheld a new expanse of th
heavens ; and they declared that in their country the moo
can only be seen above the horizon from the eighth to it
sixteenth day. They also stated that Canopus, a large brigh
star, gives light to them by night. But what surprised ther
more than anything, was that the shadow of their bodies wa
thrown towards our hemisphere and not theirs, and that th
sun arose on the left hand and set on the right, and not in th
opposite direction. They also informed us that the side
their island which lies opposite to India is ten thousand stadi
in length, and runs in a south-easterly direction- that beyon
the Emodian Mountains they look towards the Seræ, whos

1 It is difficult to say whether by this name is meant the modern Ca

Comorin, or that known as Ramanan Cor, which is in reality the neare
point to the coast of Ceylon. Perhaps the latter is meant ; in which ca
it is not improbable that the Island of the Sun will be represented by t
islet called Rameserum in the maps, or else the one adjoining call
Manaar. It must not be confounded with the Island of the Sun, me
tioned in c. 26. See p. 60.
2 It is not improbable that he alludes to coral reefs.
3 This assertion Gosselin would either reject as a fabulous falsehood,
as having originated in some misconception on the part of the Roman
for, as he remarks, it is quite impossible that the Pleiades should be
constellation unknown at that time to the people of Ceylon ; but, on t
- other hand, it would be equally true that the Greater Bear was conceal
from them.
This was also a fable, or else originated in misapprehension of th
language on the part of the Romans.
5 Gosselin remarks that their story may have been that for abo
seven months in the year the shadows fell to the north, and during
remaining five to the south, which would not have been inconsistent w
the truth.
6 This also is classed by Gosselin under the head either of fabul
stories or misapprehensions.
7 "Seras- ab ipsis aspici." It is difficult to say whether this does
mean that they were in sight of the coast of the Seræ. Under any d
cumstances, the Seræ here spoken of must not be taken for the Seres
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 55 1
D. 24.]
uaintance they had also made in the pursuits of commerce ;
t the father of Rachias had frequently visited their country,
1 that the Seræ always came to meet them on their arrival.
ese people, they said, exceeded the ordinary human height,
d flaxen hair, and blue eyes , and made an uncouth sort of noise
way of talking, having no language of their own for the pur-
ose of communicating their thoughts . The rest of their infor-
ation 8 was of a similar nature to that communicated by our
merchants . It was to the effect that the merchandize on sale
was left by them upon the opposite bank of a river on their
coast, and it was then removed by the natives, if they thought
proper to deal on terms of exchange . On no grounds ought
luxury with greater reason to be detested by us , than if we only
transport our thoughts to these scenes , and then reflect, what
are its demands , to what distant spots it sends in order to
satisfy them, and for how mean and how unworthy an end !
But yet Taprobane even, isolated as it is by nature from the
rest of the world , is not exempt from our vices. Gold and
silver are held in esteem even there. They have a marble
which resembles tortoise-shell in appearance ; this, as well
as their pearls and precious stones , is highly valued ; all our
luxuries in fact, those even of the most exquisite nature , are
there carried to the very highest pitch. They asserted that their
wealth is much greater than ours , but admitted that we know
better than they how to obtain real enjoyment from opulence .
In this island no slavery exists ; they do not prolong their
sleep to day-break, nor indeed during any part of the day ;
their buildings are only of a moderate height from the ground ;
the price of corn is always the same ; they have no courts of
lawand no litigation . Hercules is the deity whom theyworship;

supposed Chinese . Gosselin remarks that under this name the people of
a district called Sera are probably referred to, and that in fact such is the
name of a city and a whole province at the present day, situate on the
opposite coast, beyond the mountains which terminate the plains of the
Carnatic . It is equally impossible that under the name of " Emodi "
Pliny can allude to the Himalaya chain , distant more than 2000 miles .
The mountains , on the verge of the plains of the Carnatic , are not im-
probably those here referred to, and it is not impossible that they may be
discerned from the shores of Ceylon . Gosselin is of opinion that the
name of the ancient Seræ may still be traced in that of Seringapatanı ,
and of the city of Seringham, situate on the river Godavery .
Relative to the Seræ, or inhabitants of the opposite shores.
56 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

and their king is chosen by the people, an aged man alway

distinguished for his mild and clement disposition, and witho
children. If after he has been elected king, he happens
become the father of children, his abdication is the consequenc
this is done that there may be no danger of the sovereign pow
becoming hereditary. Thirty advisers are provided for him
the people, and it is only by the advice of the majority of the
that any man is condemned to capital punishment. Even the
the person so condemned has a right of appealing to the peop
in which case a jury consisting of seventy persons is appointe
Should these acquit the accused, the thirty counsellors are
longer held in any estimation, but are visited with the greate
disgrace. The king wears the costume of Father Liber, wh
the rest of the people dress like the natives of Arabia. T
king, if he is found guilty of any offence, is condemned to deat
but no one slays him ; all turn their backs upon him, and refu
to hold any communication or even discourse with him. Th
festivals are celebrated 10 with the chase, the most valued spor
being the pursuit of the tiger and the elephant. The lan
are carefully tilled ; the vine is not cultivated there, but of oth
fruits there is great abundance. They take great delight
fishing, and especially in catching turtles ; beneath the shell
of which whole families find an abode, of such vast size a
they to be found. These people look upon a hundred years
a comparatively short life. Thus much have we learned
specting Taprobane.

CHAP. 25. -THE ARIANI AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

We will now proceed to give some further particula

9 Or " Bacchus." This means that he wears a long robe with a trai
much like the dress, in fact, which was worn on the stage by tragic acto
10 Festa venatione absumi, gratissimam eam tigribus elephantiso
constare." Holland gives this sentence quite a different meaning, fa
cying that it bears reference to the mode in which the guilty king comes
his end, which, indeed, otherwise does not appear to be stated. " But
doe him to death in the end, they appoint a solemne day of huntin
right pleasant and agreable unto tigres and elephants, before which bea
they expose their king, and so he is presently by them devoured." It
difficult to say, however, where he finds all this.
11 It is much more probable that they used the shells for the purpo
of making roofs for their habitations.
 25.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 57

ive to the four Satrapies, of which we have postponed

ner mention¹2 till the present occasion.
23 ) . After passing the nations in the vicinity of the Indus,
come to the mountain districts. The territory of Capi-
e formerly had a city, called Capisa,13 which was destroyed
Cyrus. Arachosia has a river and a city of the same
me ; the city was built by Semiramis ; by some writers
is called Cophen. The river Erymanthus¹5 flows past
rabeste,16 which belongs to the Arachosii. Writers make
e Dexendrusi come next, forming the boundary of the
rachota on the southern side, and of the Paropanisada on
he north. The city of Cartana" lies at the foot of Cau-
asus ; in later times it has been called Tetragonis.18 This
egion lies over against that of the Bactri, who come next,
and whose chief city is Alexandria,19 so called from the
20
name of its founder. We then come to the Syndraci, the

12 Mentioned already, towards the conclusion of c. 23 of the present

Book. See p. 51.
13 This place was included in the district of the Paropanisus or Hindoo
Koosh. It is doubtful whether Pliny is correct in saying that it was de-
stroyed by Cyrus, as we have no reason for supposing that he ever
advanced so far to the north-east. It is supposed by some that Capisene
represents the valley of the Kabul river, and Capisa the town on the
Indus, now known as Peshawar. Lassen, in his researches, has found in
the Chinese annals a kingdom called Kiapiche, in the valley of Ghurbend,
to the east of Bamian. It is not improbable that Capisa and Kiapiche
were different forms of the same name.
14 See the Notes in p. 50.
15 The principal river of Drangiana, which rises inthe lower range ofthe
Paropanisus or Hindoo Koosh, and enters Lake Zarah. Its present name
is Ilmend or Helmend. Burnouf has supposed it to be the same as the
Arachotus ; but Professor Wilson is of opinion that the Arachotus was
one of the tributaries of the Erymanthus or Erymandrus, and probably
the modern Arkand-Ab. **
16 Parisot takes the meaning of this word to be "valley," and is of
opinion that it is the modern Chabul ; not to be confounded, however,
with the country of Cabul, to the east of which it is situate.
17 Now called Birusen, according to Parisot, and not the city of Cabul,
as supposed by Hardouin.
18 Or the four-cornered city."
19 This place has not been identified. It has been suggested that it is
the same as the modern city of Candahar ; but that was really Alexandria
of the Paropanisadæ, quite a different place.
20 Inhabiting the district now called Arassen, according to Parisot.
58 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book
21
Dangala," the Parapinæ,22 the Catuces, and the Mazi ; &
then at the foot of Caucasus, to the Cadrusi, whose town23 v
built by Alexander.
Below all these countries, is the line of coast which we co
to after leaving the Indus. Ariana24 is a region parched by
sun and surrounded by deserts ; still, however, as the face
the country is every here and there diversified with well-sha
spots, it finds communities grouped together to cultivate
and more especially around the two rivers, known as
Tonberos25 and the Arosapes.26 There is also the town
Artacoana,27 and the river Arius,28 which flows past Al
andria,29 a city founded by Alexander ; this place is thi
stadia in extent. Much more beautiful than it, as well
of much greater antiquity, is Artacabane,30 fortified a sec
time by Antiochus, and fifty stadia in breadth. We t
come to the nation of the Dorisdorsigi, and the rivers Ph

21 Inhabiting the modern Danra, according to Parisot.

22 Inhabitants of the modern Parasan, according to Parisot.
23 The modern Candahar is generally supposed to occupy its site.
24 Pliny is thought to have here confounded the extensive distric
Ariana with the smaller province of Aria, which only formed a portio
it. Ariana comprehended nearly the whole of what had been previo
ancient Persia.
25 The river known in modern times as the Ilincut, according to
risot.
26 This is supposed by Forbiger to be the modern Arghasan, one of
tributaries of the Helmend. Parisot says that it was the same a
modern Sat.
27 Supposed to be the same as the " Aria civitas," or " city of Aria
other authors, which, however, is most probably represented by Alexan
the modern Herat, situate on the small stream now called the Heri-
At all events, Artacoana (proved by M. Court to be a word of Persian o
-Arde Koun) was, if not the same place, at a very small distance fro
M. Barbie de Bocage is of opinion that it occupied the site of Fus
a town on the Heri river, one stage from Herat ; and by M. Court
thought to have been at Obeh, near the same place.
28 Now called the Heri-Rud, which runs to the west of Herat.
29 It is said that, judging from a traditional verse still current a
the people of Herat, that town is believed to unite the claims o
ancient capital built by Alexander the Great, or indeed, more prop
repaired by him, as he was but a short time in Aria. The distance
from the Caspian Gates to Alexandria favours its identification with
modern Herat.
30 This place does not appear to have been identified.
25.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 591

32
cotis, and Ophradus ; and then to Prophthasia, a city of
33 34
araspades, the Drange, the Evergetæ, the Zaranga,
the Gedrusi ;35 the towns of Pucolis, Lyphorta, the desert
che Methorgi,36 the river Manais,37 the nation of the
tri, the river Eorum, the nation of the Orbi, the Pomanus,
avigable river in the territories of the Pandares, the Apirus
The country of the Suari, with a good harbour at its mouth,
city of Condigramma, and the river Cophes ; 38 into which
t flow the navigable streams of the Saddaros,39 the Pa-
pus, and the Sodanus . Some writers will also have it that
ritis40 forms part of Ariana, and give the length of them
th as nineteen hundred and fifty miles, and the breadth one
alf of that" of India. Others again have spread the Gedrusi
and the Pasires over an extent of one hundred and thirty-
ight miles, and place next to them the Ichthyophagi Oritæ, 42
people who speak a language peculiar to themselves, and not
he Indian dialect, extending over a space of two hundred miles.
Alexander forbade the whole of the Ichthyophagis to live any
31 Ansart suggests that the river Pharnacotis is the same as the modern
Ferrichround, and the Ophradus probably the Kouchround.
32 Ansart suggests that the modern name is Zarang. Parisot says that
it is Corcharistan.
33 The inhabitants of Drangiana, a district at the eastern end of the
modern kingdom of Persia, and comprehending part of the present
Sejestan or Seistan.
34 They gave its name to the modern Eudras, according to Parisot.
35 It is doubtful whether these are the same as the Gedrosi, mentioned
by Pliny in c. 23, 24. Parisot censures Hardouin for confounding them,
and says that these inhabited the modern Bassar. In Dr. Smith's Dic-
tionary, they are looked upon as the same people.
36 Parisot says that this is the desert region now known as Eremaier, to
the east of Mount Maugracot.
37 As Parisot remarks, our author is now approaching the sea-shore ;
these places, however, do not appear to have been identified.
38 Not thesame as the river Cophen or Cophes mentioned in c. 24, the
modern Kabul. Hardouin takes it to be the same as the Arbis or Arabius
of Ptolemy, the modern Hilmend or Ilmend.
39 Parisot seems to think that the modern names of these rivers are the Sal,
theGhir, and the Ilmentel, which, according to him, flow into the Ilmend.
40 Situate, according to Ptolemy, in the eastern parts of Media.
41 For this measurement see c. 21 .
42 Meaning the " Fish-eating Mountaineers." According to Parisot
they occupied the site of the modern Dulcidan, and Goadel, which are
bounded by mountains, whence the name.
43 Not onlythe Oritæ, but all those mentioned in the following Chap-
ter. For further particulars às to the Ichthyophagi, see B. vii. c. 2.
 60 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

longer on fish. Next after these the writers have placed

tensive deserts, and then Carmania, Persia, and Arabia.
CHAP. 26. -VOYAGES TO INDIA.

But before we enter into any details respecting th

countries, it will be as well to mention what Onesicrit
has stated, who commanded the fleet of Alexander, and sa
from India into the heart of Persia, and what has b
more recently related by Juba ; after which I shall speak of
route along these seas which has been discovered in later ye
and is followed at the present day. The journal of the voy
of Onesicritus and Nearchus has neither the names of
stations, nor yet the distances set down in it ; and, first of
it is not sufficiently explained where Xylenepolis was,
near what river, a place founded by Alexander, and f
which, upon setting out, they took their departure. Still, h
ever, the following places are mentioned by them , which
worthy of our notice. The town of Arbis, founded by
archus on the occasion of this voyage ; the river Nabr
navigable for vessels, and opposite to it an island, at a dista
of seventy stadia ; Alexandria, built by Leonnatus47 by or
of Alexander in the territories of this people ; Argenus, v
48
a very convenient harbour ; the river Tonberos, a naviga
stream, around whose banks are the Pasiræ ; then come the I
thyophagi, who extend over so large a tract of coast tha
took thirty days49 to sail past their territory ; and an isl
known by the names of the " Island ofthe Sun" 60 and the "I
44 See the Notes at the end of this Book.
45 By descending the Indus, and going up the Persian Gulf.
46 Near the mouth of the Indus, Hardouin says.
47 One of Alexander's most distinguished officers, and a native of P
He commanded the division of cavalry and light-armed troops which
companied the fleet of Alexander down the Indus, along the right ban
the river. The Alexandria here mentioned does not appear to have
identified. It is not to be confounded with Alexandria in Arachosia,
yet with a place of the same name in Carmania, the modern Kerman.
48 A river Tomerus is spoken of by Arrian as lying between the I
and the river Arabis or Arbis.
49 They seem to have dwelt along the shores of the modern Mul
south of Beloochistan, and probably part of Kerman.
50 Called Nosala by Arrian. Ansart suggests that it is the island
known by the name of Sengadip . It lay probably off the promontor
headland of the Sun, on the eastern coast of Arabia.
-26.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 61

ne Nymphs," the earth of which is red, and in which every

nal instantly dies ; the cause ofwhich, however, has not been
rtained.51 Next to these is the nation of the Ori, and then
Hyctanis,52 a river of Carmania, with an excellent harbour
its mouth, and producing gold ; at this spot the writers
te that for the first time they caught sight of the Great
ar .53 The star Arcturus too, they tell us, was not to be seen
te every night, and never, when it was seen, during the .
hole of it. Up to this spot extended the empire of the
hæmenidæ,54 and in these districts are to be found mines of
pper, iron, arsenic, and red lead.
They next came to the Promontory of Carmania, from
hich the distance across to the opposite coast, where the
[acæ, a nation of Arabia, dwell, is fifty miles ; and then to
aree islands, of which that of Oracla56 is alone inhabited, being
the only one supplied with fresh water ; it is distant from the
mainland twenty-five miles ; quite in the Gulf, and facing
Persia, there are four other islands. About these islands sea-
serpents57 were seen swimming towards them, twenty cubits
in length, which struck the fleet with great alarm . They
then came to the island of Athothradus, and those called the
Gauratæ, upon which dwells the nation of the Gyani ; the
river Hyperis,58 which discharges itself midway into the Per-
sian Gulf, and is navigable for merchant ships ; the river

66 51 Mela suggests the reason, but gives to the island a different locality-
over against the mouth of the Indus." He says that the air of the
island is ofsuch a nature as to take away life instantaneously, and appears
to imply that the heat is the cause.
52 Possibly that now known as the Rud Shur.
53 Properly the " Seven Trions."
54 The Persian kings, descendants of Achæmenes. He was said to have
been reared by an eagle.
55 Called the Promontory of Harmozon by Strabo. Hardouin says that
the modern name is Cape Jash, but recent writers suggest that it is repre-
sented by the modern Cape Bombaruk, nearly opposite Cape Mussendom.
56 Perhaps the modern Kishon, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf; or
that may be one of the four islands next mentioned.
57 The story of Pontoppidan's Kraken or Korven, the serpent of the Nor-
wegian Seas, is as old as Pliny, we find, and he derived his information
from older works.
58 Forbiger has suggested that this may be the same as the modern
Djayrah.
62 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book

Sitiogagus, from which to Pasargada is seven days' s

a navigable river known as the Phristimus, and an isl
without a name ; and then the river Granis, 6⁰ navig
for vessels of small burden, and flowing through Susia
the Deximontani, a people who manufacture bitumen, d
on its right bank. The river Zarotis comes next, difficul
entrance at its mouth, except by those who are well
quainted with it ; and then two small islands ; after which
fleet sailed through shallows which looked very much lil
marsh, but were rendered navigable by certain channels w
had been cut there. They then arrived at the mouth of
Euphrates, and from thence passed into a lake which is for
by the rivers Eulæus¹ and Tigris, in the vicinity of Char
after which they arrived at Susa,62* on the river Tigris. H
after a voyage of three months, they found Alexander cele
ting a festival, seven months after he had left them at Pata
Such was the voyage performed by the fleet of Alexander
In later times it has been considered a well- ascerta
64
fact that the voyage from Syagrus, the Promontory
Arabia, to Patale, reckoned at thirteen hundred and th
five miles, can be performed most advantageously with
59 Mentioned again in c. 29 of the present Book. Its modern na
Pasa or Fasa-Kuri, according to Parisot.
60 Supposed to be the stream called by D'Anville and Theveno
Boschavir, the river of Abushir or Busheer.
61 A river of ancient Susiana, the present name of which is K
Pliny states, in c. 31 of the present Book, that the Eulæus flowed
the citadel of Susa ; he mistakes it, however, for the Coprates, or,
strictly speaking, for a small stream now called the Shapúr river, th
cient name of which has not been preserved. He is also in error,
probably, in making the river Eulæus flow through Messabatene, it
most likely the present Mah- Sabaden, in Laristan, which is drained
Kerkbah, the ancient Choaspes, and not by the Eulæus.
62 Called, for the sake of distinction, Charax Spasinu, originally fo
by Alexander the Great. It was afterwards destroyed by a flood, a
built by Antiochus Epiphanes, under the name of Antiochia. It is
tioned in c. 31.
62 The Shushan of Scripture, now called Shu. It was the winte
dence of the kings of Persia, and stood in the district Cersia of the
vince Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river Choaspes. The
Susa is now marked by extensive mounds.
63 The island of Patala or Patale, previously mentioned in c. 23.
64 Most probably the Cape Ras-el- Bad, the most easterly penins
Arabia.
b. 26. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 63

of a westerly wind, which is there known by the name

Hippalus.
The age that followed pointed out a shorter route, and a
er one, to those who might happen to sail from the same
montory for Sigerus, a port of India ; and for a long time.
is route was followed, until at last a still shorter cut was
scovered by a merchant, and the thirst for gain brought
dia even still nearer to us. At the present day voyages are
ade to India every year : and companies of archers are carried
n board the vessels, as those seas are greatly infested with
irates.
It will not be amiss too, on the present occasion, to set forth
he whole of the route from Egypt, which has been stated to
s of late, upon information on which reliance may be placed,
and is here published for the first time. The subject is one well
worthy of our notice, seeing that in no year does India drain
our empire of less than five hundred and fifty millions 65 of
sesterces, giving back her own wares in exchange, which are
sold among us at fully one hundred times their prime cost. 66
Two miles distant from Alexandria is the town of Juliopolis. 6
The distance thence to Coptos, up the Nile, is three hundred
and eight miles ; the voyage is performed, when the Etesian
winds are blowing, in twelve days. From Coptos the journey
is made with the aid of camels, stations being arranged at
intervals for the supply of fresh water. The first of these
stations is called Hydreuma,67 and is distant68 twenty- two
miles ; the second is situate on a mountain, at a distance of one
day's journey from the last ; the third is at a second Hydreuma,
65 35,000,000 francs, according to Ansart, which would amount to
£1,400,000 of our money.
66 Pliny is the only writer that mentions this place among the towns of
Lower Egypt. Some suppose it to have been Nicopolis, or the City of
Victory, founded by Augustus B.c. 29, partly to commemorate the reduc-
tion of Egypt to a Roman province, and partly to punish the Alexandrians
for their adhesion to the cause of Antony and Cleopatra. Mannert, how-
ever, looks upon it as having been merely that suburb of Alexandria which
Strabo (B. xvii.) calls Eleusis.
67 From the Greek spevua, a " watering- place."
68 From Coptos, the modern Kouft or Keft. Ptolemy Philadelphus,
when he constructed the port of Berenice, erected several caravansaries or
watering-places between the new city and Coptos. Coptos was greatly
enriched bythe commerce between Lybia and Egypt onthe one hand, and
Arabia and India on the other.
64 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book

distant from Coptos ninety-five miles ; the fourth is on a mou

tain ; the next to that is at another Hydreuma, that of Apol
and is distant from Coptos one hundred and eighty-four mil
after which, there is another on a mountain. There is th
another station at a place called the NewHydreuma, distant fr
Coptos two hundred and thirty miles and next to it there
another, called the Old Hydreuma, or the Troglodytic, wher
detachment is always on guard, with a caravansary that affo
lodging for two thousand persons. This last is distant from
New Hydreuma seven miles. After leaving it we come to
city of Berenice,69 situate upon a harbour of the Red Sea, a
distant from Coptos two hundred and fifty-seven miles.
greater part of this distance is generally travelled by nig
on account of the extreme heat, the day being spent at
stations ; in consequence of which it takes twelve days to p
form the whole journey from Coptos to Berenice .
Passengers generally set sail at midsummer, before
rising of the Dog-star, or else immediately after, and in ab
thirty days arrive at Ocelis70 in Arabia, or else at Cane," in
region which bears frankincense. There is also a third
of Arabia, Muza72 by name ; it is not, however, used by pers
on their passage to India, as only those touch at it who
in incense and the perfumes of Arabia. More in the
terior there is a city ; the residence of the king there is ca
Sapphar,73 and there is another city known by the name
Save. To those who are bound for India, Ocelis is the
69 Belzoni found traces of several ofthe stations here mentioned.
site of Berenice, as ascertained by Moresby and Carless, 1830-3, was n
at the bottom of the inlet known as the Sinus Immundus, or Foul
Its ruins still exist.
70 Now called Gehla, a harbour and emporium at the south-we
point of Arabia Felix.
71 An emporium or promontory on the southern coast of Arabia, i
country of the Adramitæ, and, as Arrian says, the chief port o
increase-bearing country. It has been identified by D'Anville with
Canim Bay, near a mountain called Hissan Ghorab, at the base of
there are ruins to be seen.
72 Probably the modern Mosch, north of Mokha, near the sou
extremity of Arabia Felix.
73 Its ruins are now known as Dhafar. It was one of the chief
of Arabia, standing near the southern coast of Arabia Felix, opposi
modern Cape Guardafui.
p. 26. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 65
74
ce for embareation . If the wind, called Hippalus, hap-
as to be blowing, it is possible to arrive in forty days at the
rest mart of India, Muziris75 by name. This, however, is
- a very desirable place for disembarcation, on account ofthe
ates which frequent its vicinity, where they occupy a
ace called Nitrias ; nor, in fact, is it very rich in articles
merchandize. Besides, the road- stead for shipping is a
nsiderable distance from the shore, and the cargoes have to
e conveyed in boats, either for loading or discharging. At
e moment that I am writing these pages, the name of the
ing of this place is Cælobothras. Another port, and a much
more convenient one, is that which lies in the territory of the
people called Neacyndi, Barace by name. Here king Pandion
sed to reign, dwelling at a considerable distance from the
mart in the interior, at a city known as Modiera. The dis-
trict from which pepper is carried down to Barace in boats
hollowed out of a single tree,76 is known as Cottonara.77 None
of these names of nations, ports, and cities are to be found in
any of the former writers, from which circumstance it would
appear that the localities have since changed their names.
Travellers set sail from India on their return to Europe, at the
beginning of the Egyptian month Tybis, which is our Decem-
ber, or at all events before the sixth day of the Egyptian month
Mechir, the same as78 our ides of January : if they do this,
they can go and return in the same year. They set sail from
India with a south-east wind, and upon entering the Red Sea,
catch the south-west or south. We will now return to our
main subject.

74 Or Favonius, the west wind, previously mentioned in the present

Chapter.
16 The modern Mangalore, according to Du Bocage.
76 Or canoes.
77 The Cottiara of Ptolemy, who makes it the chief city ofthe Ei, atribe
who occupied the lower part of the peninsula of Hindostan. It has been
supposed to be represented by the modern Calicut or Travancore. Cochin,
however, appears to be the most likely.
78 Marcus observes that we may conclude that either Pliny or the author
from whom he transcribed, wrote this between the years of the Christian
era 48 and 51 ; for that the coincidence of the 6th of the month Mechir
with the Ides of January, could not have taken place in any other year
than those on which the first day of Thoth or the beginning of the year
fell onthe 11th of August, which happened in the years 48, 49, 50, and 51
of the Christian era.
VOL. II. F
66 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

CHAP. 27.-CARMANIA.

Nearchus states in his writings that the coast of Carmania

extends a distance of twelve hundred and fifty miles. Fro
its frontier to the river Sabis 80 is one hundred miles. At th
spot begins the cultivation of the vine ; which with the til
81
age of the fields, extends as far as the river Ananis, a di
tance of twenty-five miles. This region is known by the nan
of Armuzia. The cities of Carmania are Zetis and Alexa
dria.82

CHAP. 28. THE PERSIAN AND THE ARABIAN GULFS.

The sea then makes a two-fold indentation 83 in the la
66
upon these coasts, under the name of Rubrum 84 or Red
given to it by our countrymen ; while the Greeks have call
it Erythrum, from king Erythras,85 or, according to son
writers, from its red colour, which they think is produced
the reflection of the sun's rays ; others again are of opini
that it arises from the sand and the complexion of the so
others from some peculiarity in the nature of the wat
(24. ) Be this as it may, this body of water is divided into t
gulfs. The one which lies to the east is called the Persian Gu
and is two thousand five hundred miles in circumference,
cording to Eratosthenes. Opposite to it lies Arabia, the leng
of which is fifteen hundred miles. On the other side aga
Arabia is bounded by the Arabian Gulf. The sea as it ent
79 An extensive province of Asia, along the northern shores of the I
sian Gulf, supposed to have comprehended the coast-line of the mod
Laristan, Kirman, and Moghostan.
80 Ptolemy mentions an inland town of Carmania of the same name.
81 Supposed to be that known now as the Ibrahim Rud, which falls
the Persian Gulf.
82 These sites are unknown.
83 Forms two bays or gulfs in succession.
84 He gives this name to the whole expanse of sea that lies betw
Arabia and Africa on the west, and India on the east, including the
Sea and the Persian Gulf.
85 Or Erythrus. In all probability entirely a mythical personage.
sea having been called in Greek ipv@paia, or "red"-the legend
probably thence took its rise. No very satisfactory reason has yet
given for its being so called. The Hebrew name of it signifies the " Se
Sea."
■. 28.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 67
86
gulf is called the Azanian Sea. The Persian Gulf, at the
rance, is only five miles wide ; some writers make it four.
m the entrance to the very bottom of the gulf, in a straight
e, has been ascertained to be nearly eleven hundred and
enty-five miles : in outline it strongly resembles 88 the human ས་
ad.'" Onesicritus and Nearchus have stated in their works
at from the river Indus to the Persian Gulf, and from thence
Babylon, situate in the marshes of the Euphrates, is a dis-
nce of seventeen hundred miles.
In the angle of Carmania are the Chelonophagi," who cover
eir cabins with the shells of turtles, and live upon their
esh ; these people inhabit the next promontory that is seen
fter leaving the river Arbis ;90 with the exception of the head,
hey are covered all over with long hair, and are clothed in
he skins of fishes.
(25.) Beyond their district, in the direction of India, is said
to be the desert island of Caicandrus, fifty miles out at sea ; near
to which, with a strait flowing between them, is Stoidis, cele-
brated for its valuable pearls. After passing the promontory"
are the Armozei,92 joining up to the Carmani ; some writers,
however, place between them the Arbii, 93 extending along the
shore a distance of four hundred and twenty-one miles. Here
is a place called Portus Macedonum, and the Altars of Alex-
ander, situate on a promontory, besides the rivers Saganos,
Daras, and Salsa. Beyond the last river we come to the pro-
montory of Themisteas, and the island of Aphrodisias, which
is peopled. Here Persis begins, at the river Oratis,95 which

66 From Azania in Æthiopia, mentioned again in c. 34 of the present

Book.
87 The maps appear to make it considerably more.
se The only feature of resemblance appears to be its comparative nar-
rowness at the neck.
89 Or " turtle-eaters."
90 Different probably from the Cophis mentioned in c. 25, which was
also called Arabius or Arbis, and probably represented by the modern
Purali.
91 Of Harmozon, probably the modern Bombareek.
92 Their district is supposed to denote the vicinity of the modern Ormuz,
an island off this coast, which is now known as Moghostan.
93 Taking their name probably from the river Arbis, previously men-
tioned.
94 The " Port of the Macedonians."
95 Now the Tab, falling into the Persian Gulf.
 68 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

separates it from Elymais.96 Opposite to the coast of Persi

are the islands of Psilos, Cassandra, and Aracia, the la
sacred to Neptune,97 and containing a mountain of great heigh
Persis 98 itself, looking towards the west, has a line of coa
five hundred and fifty miles in length ; it is a country opule
even to luxury, but has long since changed its name for th
of " Parthia."99 I shall now devote a few words to the Parthi
empire.
CHAP. 29. THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE.

The kingdoms of Parthia are eighteen in all : such bei

the divisions of its provinces, which lie, as we have alrea
stated, along the Red Sea to the south, and the Hyrcanian
the north. Of this number the eleven, called the Higher p
vinces, begin at the frontiers of Armenia and the shores of
Caspian, and extend to the Scythians, whose mode of life
similar in every respect. The other seven kingdoms of Part
bear the name of the Lower provinces. As to the Par
themselves, Parthia' always lay at the foot of the mountai
so often mentioned, which overhang all these nations. On
east it is bounded by the Arii, on the south by Carmania a
the Ariani, on the west by the Pratitæ, a people of the M
and on the north by the Hyrcani : it is surrounded by des
on every side. The more distant of the Parthi are ca
Nomades ; on this side of them there are deserts. On
96 A district of Susiana, extending from the river Eulæus on the
to the Oratis on the east, deriving its name perhaps from the Elyma
Elymi, a warlike people found in the mountains of Greater Media. I
Old Testament this country is called Elam.
97 Ptolemy says that this last bore the name of " Alexander's Island
98 Persis was more properly a portion only or province of the an
kingdom of Persia. It gave name to the extensive Medo- Persian 1
dom under Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire, B.C. 559.
99 The Parthi originally inhabited the country south-east of the Cas
now Khorassan. Under Arsaces and his descendants, Persis and the
provinces of ancient Persia became absorbed in the great Parthian en
Parthia, with the Chorasmii, Sogdii, and Arii, formed the sixteent
trapy under the Persian empire. See c. 16 of this Book.
1 The provinces of Parthia have been already mentioned in det
the preceding Chapters, except Susiana and Elymais, which are ment
in c. 31.
2 The original Parthia, the modern Khorassan.
3 The so-called Caucasian chain. See c. 16 of the present Book.
Or "Wandering Parthians," lying far to the east.
 . 29. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 69

t are the cities of Issatis and Calliope, already mentioned,'

6
che north- east Europus, on the south- east Maria ; in the
7
dle there are Hecatompylos, Arsace, and Nisiæa, a fine
trict of Parthiene, in which is Alexandropolis, so called from
founder.
26. ) It is requisite in this place to trace the localities of the
edi also, and to describe in succession the features of the coun-
y as far as the Persian Sea, in order that the account which
lows may be the better understood. Medias lies crosswise to
e west, and so presenting itself obliquely to Parthia, closes the
9
trance of both kingdoms into which it is divided. It has,
hen, on the east, the Caspii and the Parthi ; on the south,
ittacene, Susiane, and Persis ; on the west, Adsiabene ; and
-n the north, Armenia. The Persæ have always inhabited
he shores of the Red Sea, for which reason it has received
the name of the Persian Gulf. This maritime region of Persis
has the name of Ciribo ;10 on the side on which it runs up
to that of the Medi, there is a place known by the name of
Climax Megale, " where the mountains are ascended by a
steep flight of stairs, and so afford a narrow passage which leads
to Persepolis ,12 the former capital of the kingdom, destroyed by

5 In c. 17 of the present Book.

6 Not to be confounded with the place in Atropatene, mentioned in
c. 21 of the present Book.
It has been supposed that the modern Damgham corresponds with 1
this place, but that is too near the Porta Caspiæ. It is considered most
probable that the remains of Hecatompylos ought to be sought in the
neighbourhood of a place now known as Jah Jirm. It is mentioned in
c. 17 and 21 of the present Book.
8 Media occupied the extreme west of the great table-land of the modern
Iran. It corresponded very nearly to the modern province of Irak- Ajemi.
9 The Upper and the Lower, as already mentioned.
10 Hardouin suggests that this should be Syrtibolos. His reasons for
so thinking will be found alluded to in a note to c. 31. See p. 80, Note 98.
11 Or the " Great Ladder." The Baron de Bode states, in his Travels
in Luristan and Arabistan, that he discovered the remains of a gigantic
causeway, in which he had no difficulty in recognizing one of the most
ancient and most mysterious monuments of the East. This causeway,
which at the present day bears the name of Jaddehi-Atabeg, or the " road
of the Atabegs," was looked upon by several historians as one of the
wonders oftheworld, who gave it the name of the Climax Megale or " Great
Ladder." At the time even of Alexander the Great the name of its con-
structor was unknown.
12 Which was rebuilt after it was burnt by Alexander, and in the
 70 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

Alexander. It has also, at its extreme frontier, Laodicea,

founded by Antiochus. To the east of this place is th
fortress of Passagarda, 14 held by the Magi, at which spot
the tomb of Cyrus ; also Ecbatana,15 a city of theirs, the inhabi
ants of which were removed by Darius to the mountain
Between the Parthi and the Ariani projects the territory
the Parætaceni.16 By these nations and the river Euphrat
are the Lower kingdoms of Parthia bounded ; of the othe
we shall speak after Mesopotamia, which we shall now d
scribe, with the exception of that angle of it and the peoples
Arabia, which have been already mentioned in a form
book,17
CHAP. 30. - MESOPOTAMIA.
The whole of Mesopotamia formerly belonged to the A
syrians, being covered with nothing but villages, with t
exception of Babylonials and Ninus.19 The Macedonia
middle ages had the name of Istakhar ; it is now called Takhti Jemshe
the throne of Jemsheed, or Chil-Minar, the Forty Pillars. Its foundat
is sometimes ascribed to Cyrus the Great, but more generally to his s
Cambyses. The ruins of this place are very extensive.
13 Its site is unknown ; but Dupinet translates it the " city of Lor."
14 The older of the two capitals of Persia, Persepolis being the la
one, It was said to have been founded by Cyrus the Great, on the s
where he gained his victory over Astyages. Its exact site is doubtful,
most modern geographers identify it with Murghab, to the north-east
Persepolis, where there are the remains of a great sepulchral monum
of the ancient Persians, probably the tomb of Cyrus. Others place it
Farsa or at Dorab- Gherd, both to the south-east of Persepolis, the di
tion mentioned by Strabo, but not in other respects answering his
scription so well as Murghab.
15 It is most probable that he does not allude here to the Ecbata
mentioned in c. 17 of this Book.
16 There were several mountainous districts called Parætacene in the P
sian empire, that being the Greek form of a Persian word signify
" mountainous."
17 In B. v. c. 21. He returns to the description of Susiana, Elym
and Characene in c. 31 of the present Book.
18 The great seat of empire of the Babylonio-Chaldæan kingdom.
either occupied the site, it is supposed, or stood in the immediate vici
of the tower of Babel. In the reign of Labynedus, Nabonnetus, or
shazzar, it was taken by Cyrus. In the reign of Augustus, a small
only of Babylon was still inhabited, the remainder of the space within
walls being under cultivation. The ruins of Babylon are found to comme
a little south of the village of Mohawill, eight miles north of Hillah.
19 Nineveh. See c. 16 of the present Book.
p. 30. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 71

med these communities into cities, being prompted thereto

the extraordinary fertility of the soil . Besides the cities
ready mentioned, it contains those of Seleucia,20 Laodicea,21
temita ;22 and in Arabia, the peoples 24 known as the
rei23 and the Mardani, besides Antiochia, founded by Nica-
or, the governor of Mesopotamia, and called Arabis. Join-
g up to these in the interior is an Arabian people, called
he Eldamani, and above them, upon the river Pallaconta, the
own of Bura, and the Arabian peoples known as the Sal-
nani and the Masei. Up to the Gordyæi 25 join the Aloni,
hrough whose territory runs the river Zerbis, which falls into
the Tigris ; next are the Azones, the Silici, a mountain
tribe, and the Orontes, to the west of whom lies the town of
Gaugamela, 26 as also Suë, situate upon the rocks. Beyond
these are the Silici, surnamed Classitæ, through whose dis-
trict runs the river Lycus on its passage from Armenia, the
Absithris 27 running south-east, the town of Accobis, and then in
the plains the towns of Diospage, Polytelia, 28 Stratonice, and
Anthermis. In the vicinity of the Euphrates is Nicephorion,
of which we have30 already stated that Alexander, struck with
20 On the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma ;
a fortress of considerable importance.
21 Its site is unknown. Dupinet confounds it with the place of this name
mentioned in the last Chapter, calling them by the name of Lor.
22 Pliny is wrong in placing Artemita in Mesopotamia. It was a city
of Babylonia, in the district of Apolloniatis. The modern Sherbán is
supposed to occupy its site.
23 Burnouf, having found the name of these people, as he supposes, in
a cuneiform inscription, written " Ayura," would have them to be called
Aroei. The Orei are also mentioned in B. v. c. 20.
24 This Antioch does not appear to have been identified.
25 The mountains of the Gordyæi are mentioned in c. 12.
26 This, as previously mentioned in a Note to c. 16, was the scene of
the last great battle between Alexander and Darius, and known as the
battle of Arbela. It has been suggested that it may perhaps be repre-
sented by a place now called Karnelis . See p. 27.
27 Accordng to Ansart, now called the Lesser Zab, and by the inha-
bitants the Altun-su, meaning the " Golden river."
28 According to Parisot, the modern name is Calicala.
29 Strabo speaks of the Aborras, or modern Khabur, as flowing in the
vicinity of Anthemusia, the district probably in which the town of An-
thermis was situate. According to Isidorus of Charax, it lay between
Edessa and the Euphrates. Its site does not appear to have been any
further identified. It is called Anthemusia in B. v. c. 21 .
30 In B. v. c. 21.
72 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

the favourable situation of the spot, ordered it to be built. W

have also similarly made mention³¹ of Apamea on the Zeugma
Leaving that city and going eastward, we come to Caphrena
a fortified town, formerly seventy stadia in extent, and calle
the " Court of the Satraps." It was to this place that th
tribute was conveyed ; now it is reduced to a mere fortres
Thabata is still in the same state as formerly : after whic
comes Oruros, which under Pompeius Magnus formed the ex
treme limit of the Roman Empire, distant from Zeugma tw
hundred and fifty miles. There are writers who say tha
the Euphrates was drawn off by an artificial channel by th
governor Gobares, at the point where we have stated that
branches off,33 in order that it might not commit damage in th
city of Babylonia, in consequence of the extreme rapidity
its course. The Assyrians universally call this river by th
name of Narmalcha,34 which signifies the " royal river.
At the point where its waters divide, there was in former tim
a very large city, called Agranis, which the Persæ have d
stroyed.
Babylon, the capital of the nations of Chaldæa, long e
joyed the greatest celebrity of all cities throughout t
whole world : and it is from this place that the remainin
parts of Mesopotamia and Assyria received the name of Bab
lonia. The circuit of its walls, which were two hundr
feet in height, was sixty miles. These walls were al
fifty feet in breadth, reckoning to every foot three finge
breadth beyond the ordinary measure of our foot. T
river Euphrates flowed through the city, with quays of ma
vellous workmanship erected on either side. The temp
there35 of Jupiter Belus 36 is still in existence ; he was the fi

31 In B. v. c. 21.
32 In B. v. c. 21.
33 This canal, leading from the Euphrates to the Tigris, is by so
thought, according to Hardouin, to have been the river Chobar, m
tioned in Ezekiel, c. i. v. 3.
34 For Arar-Melik, meaning the " River King," according to Parisot
35 As to the identity of this, see a Note at the beginning of this Chap
36 Meaning Jupiter Uranius, or " Heavenly Jupiter," according
Parisot, who observes that Eusebius interprets baal, or bel, " heave
According to one account, he was the father of king Ninus and son
Nimrod. The Greeks in later times attached to his name many of th
legendary fables.
 30.1 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 73

ntor of the science of Astronomy. In all other respects

1
as been reduced to a desert, having been drained of its
lation in consequence of its vicinity to Seleucia,37 founded
that purpose by Nicator, at a distance of ninety miles, on
confluence of the Tigris and the canal that leads from the
hrates. Seleucia, however, still bears the surname of
pylonia : it is a free and independent city, and retains the
tures of the Macedonian manners . It is said that the
pulation of this city amounts to six hundred thousand, and
at the outline of its walls resembles an eagle with expanded
ngs : its territory, they say, is the most fertile in all the East.
e Parthi again, in its turn, founded Ctesiphon,38 for the
rpose of drawing away the population of Seleucia, at a dis-
nce of nearly three miles, and in the district of Chalonitis ;
tesiphon is now the capital of all the Parthian kingdoms.
inding, however, that this city did not answer the intended
urpose, king Vologesus39 has of late years founded another
ity in its vicinity, Vologesocerta¹º by name. Besides the
bove, there are still the following towns in Mesopotamia : Hip-
parenum,“ rendered famous, like Babylon, by the learning of
1
37 The city of Seleucia ad Tigrin, long the capital of Western Asia,
until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphon. Its site has been a matter of consi-
derable discussion, but the most probable opinion is, that it stood on the
western bank of the Tigris, to the north of its junction with the royal
canal (probably the river Chobar above mentioned) , opposite to the mouth
of the river Delas or Silla (now Diala), and to the spot where Ctesiphon
was afterwards built by the Parthians . It stood a little to the south of
the modern city of Baghdad ; thus commanding the navigation of the
Tigris and Euphrates, and the whole plain formed by those two rivers.
38 Ammianus, like Pliny, has ascribed its foundation to the Parthians
under Varanes, or Vardanes, of whom, however, nothing is known. It
stood in the south of Assyria, on the eastern or left bank of the Tigris.
Strabo speaks of it as being the winter residence of the Parthian kings,
who lived there at that season, owing to the mildness of the climate. In
modern times the site of this place has been identified with that called by
the Arabs Al Madain, or the " two cities."
39 Or Vologeses. This was the name of five kings of Parthia, of the
race of the Arsacidæ, Arsaces XXIII., XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., xxx. It
was the first of these monarchs who founded the place here mentioned
by Pliny.
40 Or the "City of Vologesus ;" certa being the Armenian for " city."
41 Nothing appears to be known of this place ; but Hardouin thinks
that it is the same with one called Maarsares by Ptolemy, and situate on
the same river Narraga.
1 74 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [ Book V

the Chaldæi, and situate near the river Narraga,12 which fal
into the Narroga, from which a city so called has taken i
name. The Persæ destroyed the walls of Hipparenur
Orchenus also, a third place of learning of the Chaldæi,
situate in the same district, towards the south ; after whi
come the Notitæ, the Orothophanitæ, and the Grecichartæ
From Nearchus and Onesicritus we learn that the distance
water from the Persian Sea to Babylon, up the Euphrates,
four hundred and twelve miles ; other authors, however, w
have written since their time, say that the distance to S
leucia is four hundred and forty miles : and Juba says th
the distance from Babylon to Charax is one hundred a
seventy-five. Some writers state that the Euphrates co
tinues to flow with an undivided channel for a distance
eighty-seven miles beyond Babylon, before its waters are
verted from their channel for the purposes of irrigation ; a
that the whole length of its course is not less than twel
hundred miles. The circumstance that so many differe
authors have treated of this subject, accounts for all the
variations, seeing that even the Persian writers themselves
not agree as to what is the length of their schani and par
sanga, each assigning to them a different length.
When the Euphrates ceases, by running in its channel,
afford protection to those who dwell on its banks, which it d
when it approaches the confines of Charax, the country is i
mediately infested by the Attali, a predatory people of Arab
beyond whom are found the Scenitæ.45 The banks along t
river are occupied by the Nomades of Arabia, as far as
deserts of Syria, from which, as we have already stated,
takes a turn to the south, and leaves the solitary deserts
Palmyra. Seleucia is distant, by way of the Euphrates, fr
the beginning of Mesopotamia, eleven hundred and twen

42 Parisot says that this river is the one set down in the maps
falling into the Tigris below its junction with the Euphrates, and near
mouths ofthe two rivers. He says that near the banks of it is man
the town of Nabrahan, the Narraga of Pliny.
43 There is great doubt as to the correct spelling of these names.
44 Against the attacks of robbers dwelling on the opposite side ;
Attali, for instance.
45 Or " dwellers in tents," Bedouins, as we call them.
46 B. v. c. 20 and 21.
47 Towards Mahamedieh.
31.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC.. 75

from the Red Sea, by way of the Tigris, two hun-

and twenty ; and from Zeugma, seven hundred and
ty-three, miles. Zeugma is distant from Seleucia48 in
a, on the shores of our sea, one hundred and seventy-five49
s. Such is the extent of the land that lies in these parts
ween the two seas .50 The length of the kingdom of Parthia
ine hundred and eighteen miles.

CHAP. 31. -THE TIGRIS.

There is, besides the above, another town in Mesopotamia,

the banks of the Tigris and near its confluence with the
phrates, the name of which is Digba.51 (27. ) But it will be
well now to give some particulars respecting the Tigris
self. This river rises in the region of Greater Armenia,52
om a very remarkable source, situate on a plain. The name
f the spot is Elegosine,53 and the stream, as soon as it begins
o flow, though with a slow current, has the name of Diglito.54
When its course becomes more rapid, it assumes the name
55
of Tigris, given to it on account of its swiftness, that
word signifying an arrow in the Median language. It then
flows into Lake Arethusa,56 the waters of which are able to

48 Near Antioch and the Orontes : now Seleukeh, or Kepse, near

Suadeiah.
49 See B. v. c. 13.
50 The Mediterranean and the Red Sea ; the latter including the mo-
dern Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
51 Forbiger is of opinion that this is the same as the Didigua or Didugua
of Ptolemy. It was situate below Alpamea. D'Anville takes it to be the
modern Corna.
52 The modern Turcomania.
53 Now known as the Plain of Chelat, according to Parisot, extending
between Chelat, a city situate on a great lake and the river Rosso, falling
into the Caspian Sea.
54 Called Diglith by Josephus. Hardouin states that in his time the
name givento the river by the natives was Daghela. This name is also
supposed to be another form of the Hiddekel of Scripture. See Genesis
ii. 14.
55 According to Bochart, this was a corruption of the Eastern name
Deghel, from which were derived the forms Deger, Teger, and ultimately
Tigris.
56 Ritter has identified this with the modern lake Nazuk, in Armenia,
about thirteen miles in length and five in breadth. The water at the pre-
sent day is said to be sweet and wholesome.
76 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

support all weighty substances thrown into them, and exha

nitrous vapours. This lake produces only one kind of fis
which, however, never enter the current of the river in i
passage through the lake : and in a similar manner, th
fish of the Tigris will never swim out of its stream into th
waters of the lake. Distinguishable from the lake, both b
the rapidity and the colour of its waters, the tide of the river
hurried along ; after it has passed through and arrived
Mount Taurus, it disappears57 in a cavern of that mountai
and passing beneath it, bursts forth on the other side
' the spot bears the name of Zoroande."58 That the waters
either side of the mountain are the same, is evident from t
fact, that bodies thrown in on the one side will reappear on t
other. It then passes through another lake, called Thospite
and once more burying itself in the earth, reappears, aft
running a distance of twenty-two miles, inthe vicinity
Nymphæum.59 Claudius Cæsar informs us that, in the distri
of Arrene⁰ it flows so near to the river Arsanias,61 that wh
their waters swell they meet and flow together, but witho
however, intermingling. For those of the Arsani, as he say
being lighter, float on the surface of the Tigris for a distan
of nearly four miles, after which they separate, and the Ars
nias flows into the Euphrates. The Tigris, after flowing throu
Armenia and receiving the well-known rivers Parthenias a
Nicephorion, separates the Arabian Orei62 from the Adiabe
and then forms by its course, as previously mentioned, t
country of Mesopotamia. After traversing64 the mountains
the Gordyæi,63 it passes round Apamea, a town of Mesene,
57 Seneca, however, in his Quest. Nat. B. vi., represents the Tigris b
as gradually drying up and becoming gradually smaller, till it disappear
58 This spot is considered by Parisot to be the modern city of Betlis.
59 A spot where liquid bitumen or naphtha was found.
60 Or probably Arzarene, a province of the south of Armenia, situate
the left bank of the Tigris. It derived its name from the lake Arsene.
the town Arzen, situate on this lake. It is comprehended in the mod
Pashalik of Dyár Bekr.
61 Now called the Myrád-chaï. See B. v. c. 24. Ritter considers i
be the southern arm of the Euphrates.
62 Or Aroei, as Littré suggests. See Note to c. 30 in p. 71.
63 See c. 17 of the present Book.
64 The site of this place seems to be unknown. It has been remar
that it is difficult to explain the meaning of this passage of Pliny, o
determine the probable site of Apamea.
31.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 77

red and twenty-five miles on this side of Babylonian Se-

a, and then divides into two channels, one of which
southward, and flowing through Mesene, runs towards
cia, while the other takes a turn to the north and passes
ugh the plains of the Cauchæ ,66 at the back of the dis-
of Mesene . When the waters have reunited, the river
mes the name of Pasitigris. After this, it receives the
aspes,67 which comes from Media ; and then, as we have
ady stated,68 flowing between Seleucia and Ctesiphon, dis-
rges itself into the Chaldæan Lakes, which it supplies for a
tance of seventy miles. Escaping from them by a vast
annel, it passes the city of Charax to the right, and empties
elf into the Persian Sea, being ten miles in width at the
outh. Between the mouths of the two rivers Tigris and the
uphrates, the distance was formerly twenty-five, or, according
some writers, seven miles only, both of them being navi-
able to the sea. But the Orcheni and others who dwell on
s banks, have long since dammed up the waters of the
Euphrates for the purposes of irrigation, and it can only dis-
harge itself into the sea by the aid of the Tigris.
The country on the banks of the Tigris is called Parapo-
camia ;69 we have already made mention of Mesene, one of its
districts. Dabithac70 is a town there, adjoining to which is

65 Hardouin remarks that this is the right arm of the Tigris, by Ste-
phanus Byzantinus called Delas, and by Eustathius Sylax, which last he
prefers.
66 According to Ammianus, one of the names of Seleucia on the Tigris
was Coche.
67 A river of Susiana, which, after passing Susa, flowed into the Tigris,
below its junction with the Euphrates. The indistinctness of the ancient
accounts has caused it to be confused with the Eulæus, which flows nearly
parallel with it into the Tigris. It is pretty clear that they were not
identical. Pliny here states that they were different rivers, but makes the
mistake below, ofsaying that Susa was situate upon the Eulæus, instead of
the Choaspes. These errors may be accounted for, it has been suggested,
bythe fact that there are two considerable rivers which unite at Bund-i-
Kir, a little above Ahwaz, and form the ancient Pasitigris or modern
Karun. It is supposed that the Karun represents the ancient Eulæus, and
the Kerkhah the Choaspes.
68 In c. 26 of the present Book. The custom of the Persian kings
drinking only of the waters of the Eulæus and Choaspes, is mentioned in
B. xxxi, c. 21.
69 Or the country " by the river."
70 Pliny is the only writer who makes mention of this place. Parisot
78 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [ Book V

the district of Chalonitis, with the city of Ctesiphon," famous

not only for its palm-groves, but for its olives, fruits, and othe
shrubs. Mount Zagrus72 reaches as far as this district, and ex
tends from Armenia between the Medi and the Adiaben
above Parætacene and Persis. Chalonitis73 is distant from
Persis three hundred and eighty miles ; some writers sa
that by the shortest route it is the same distance from As
syria andthe Caspian Sea.
Between these peoples and Mesene is Sittacene, which
74
also called Arbelitis and Palæstine . Its city of Sittace75
of Greek origin ; this and Sabdata76 lie to the east, and on th
west is Antiochia," between the two rivers Tigris and Torna
dotus,78 as also Apamea,79 to which Antiochus gave this nam
being that of his mother. The Tigris surrounds this cit
which is also traversed by the waters of the Archoüs.
is of opinion that it is represented by the modern Digil-Ab, on the Tigr
and suggests that Digilath may be the correct reading.
71 Mentioned in the last Chapter.
72 Now called the Mountains of Luristan.
73 The name of the district of Chalonitis is supposed to be still pr
served in that of the river of Holwan. Pliny is thought, however, to ha
been mistaken in placing the district on the river Tigris, as it lay to t
east of it, and close to the mountains.
74 From Arbela, in Assyria, which bordered on it.
75 A great and populous city of Babylonia, near the Tigris , but not
it, and eight parasangs within the Median wall. The site is that probab
now called Eski Baghdad, and marked by a ruin called the Tower
Nimrod. Parisot cautions against confounding it with a place of a simil
name, mentioned by Pliny in B. xii. c. 17, a mistake into which, he sa
Hardouin has fallen.
16 Now called Felongia, according to Parisot. Hardouin considers
the same as the Sambana of Diodorus Siculus, which Parisot looks up
as the same as Ambar, to the north of Felongia.
77 Of this Antiochia nothing appears to be known. By some it
been supposed to be the same with Apollonia, the chief town of the d
trict of Apolloniatis, to the south of the district of Arbela.
78 Also called the Physcus, the modern Ordoneh, an eastern tributary
the Tigris in Lower Assyria. The town of Opis stood at its junction w
the Tigris .
79 D'Anville supposes that this Apamea was at the point where
Dijeil, now dry, branched off from the Tigris, which bifurcation he pla
near Samurrah. Lynch, however, has shown that the Dijeil branched
near Jibbarah, a little north of 34° North lat., and thinks that the Di
once swept the end of the Median wall, and flowed between it and J
barah. Possibly this is the Apamea mentioned by Pliny in c. 27.
80 The son of Seleucus Nicator.
 1.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 79

ows this district is Susiane, in which is the city of Susa, 2

ncient residence of the kings of Persia, built by Darius,
on of Hystaspes ; it is distant from Seleucia Babylonia
hundred and fifty miles, and the same from Ecbatana of
[edi, by way of Mount Carbantus.83 Upon the northern
84
nel of the river Tigris is the town of Babytace, distant
Susa one hundred and thirty-five miles. Here, for the
place in all the world, is gold held in abhorrence ; the
le collect it together and bury it in the earth, that it may
f use to no one.85 On the east of Susiane are the Oxii, a
latory people, and forty independent savage tribes of the
æi. Above these are the Mardi and the Saitæ, subject to
thia : they extend above the district of Elymais, which we
e already mentioned 86 as joining up to the coast of Persis.
sa is distant two hundred and fifty miles from the Persian
a. Near the spot where the fleet of Alexander came up the
sitigris to Susa, there is a village situate on the Chaldæan
ke, Aple by name, from which to Susa is a distance of sixty
les and a half. Adjoining to the people of Susiane, on the
st, are the Cossiæi ,88 and above them, to the north, is Mesa-
tene, lying at the foot of Mount Cambalidus,89 a branch of
e Caucasian chain : from this point the country of the Bactri
most accessible.
Susiane is separated from Elymais by the river Eulæus,
which rises in Media, and, after concealing itself in the
arth for a short distance, rises again and flows through Mesa-
atene . It then flows round the citadel of Susa 90 and the
81 More to the south, and nearer the sea.
82 Previously mentioned in c. 26.
83 A part of Mount Zagrus, previously mentioned, according to Hardouin.
84 Its site appears to be unknown. According to Stephanus, it was a
city of Persia. Forbiger conjectures that it is the same place as Badaca,
mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, B. xix. c. 19 ; but that was probably
nearer to Susa.
85 The buryer excepted, perhaps.
86 In c. 28 of the present Book.
87 As mentioned in c. 26 of the present Book.
88 A warlike tribe on the borders of Susiana and the Greater Media. In
character they are thought to have resembled the Bakhtiara tribes, who
now roam over the mountains which they formerly inhabited. It has been
suggested that their name may possibly be connected with the modern
Khuzistan.
89 Supposed to be the same as the modern Kirmánshah mountains.
90 As mentioned in a previous Note, (67 in p. 77), Pliny mistakes
80 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

temple of Diana, which is held in the highest veneration b

all these nations ; the river itself being the object of man
pompous ceremonials ; the kings, indeed, will drink of
other water," and for that reason carry it with them on the
journies to any considerable distance. This river receives th
waters of the Hedypnos,92 which passes Asylus, in Persi 93
and those of the Aduna, which rises in Susiane. Magoa
a town situate near it, and distant from Charax fifteen miles
some writers place this town at the very extremity of Susian
and close to the deserts.
Below the Eulæus is Elymais," upon the coast adjoining
Persis, and extending from the river Orates to Charax, a di
tance of two hundred and forty miles. Its towns are Seleucia
and Socrate,⁹7 upon Mount Casyrus. The shore which lies
front of this district is, as we have already stated, rendered i
accessible by mud,98 the rivers Brixa and Ortacea bringi
-
down vast quantities of slime from the interior, — Elym
itself being so marshy that it is impossible to reach Per
that way, unless by going completely round : it is a
greatly infested with serpents, which are brought down
the waters of these rivers. That part of it which is the m
inaccessible of all, bears the name of Characene, fr
Charax," the frontier city of the kingdoms of Arabia.

the Eulæus for the Choaspes. In c. 26 he says that Susa is on the ri

Tigris.
91 Pliny says this in B. xxxi. c. 21 of both the Eulæus and the Choas
92 Most probably the Hedyphon of Strabo, supposed to be the sam
that now called the Djerrabi.
93 Parisot thinks that this is the modern Jessed, in the vicinity of
desert of Bealbanet,
94 Previously mentioned in c. 28.
95 The modern Tab.
96 Now called Camata, according to Parisot.
97 The modern Saurac, according to Parisot. The more general rea
is " Sosirate."
98 Our author has nowhere made any such statement as this, for w
reason Hardouin thinks that he here refers to the maritime region r
tioned in c. 29 of the present Book (p. 69), the name of which Sillig
as Ciribo. Hardouin would read it as Syrtibolos, and would give i
meaning ofthe " muddy district of the Syrtes." It is more likely,
ever, that Pliny has made a slip, and refers to something which
inadvertence, he has omitted to mention.
99 Charax Spasinu, or Pasinu, previously mentioned in c. 26 (see p.
The name Charax applied to a town, seems to have meant a fortified
 31.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 81

place we will now make mention, after first stating the

Mons of M. Agrippa in relation to this subject. That
or informs us that Media, Parthia, and Persis, are bounded
he east by the Indus, on the west by the Tigris, on the
h by Taurus and Caucasus, and on the south by the Red
; that the length of these countries is thirteen hundred and
nty miles, and the breadth eight hundred and forty ; and
t, in addition to these, there is Mesopotamia, which, taken
itself, is bounded on the east by the Tigris, on the west
the Euphrates, on the north by the chain of Taurus, and
the south by the Persian Sea, being eight hundred miles in
ngth, and three hundred and sixty in breadth.
Charax is a city situate at the furthest extremity of the
rabian Gulf, at which begins the more prominent portion of
rabia Felix : it is built on an artificial elevation, having the
igris on the right, and the Eulæus on the left, and lies on
piece of ground three miles in extent, just between the con-
uence of those streams. It was first founded by Alexander
he Great, with colonists from the royal city of Durine, which
was then destroyed, and such of his soldiers as were invalided
and left behind. By his order it was to be called Alexandria,
and a borough called Pella, from his native place, was to be
peopled solely by Macedonians ; the city, however, was de-
stroyed by inundations of the rivers. Antiochus, the fifth king
of Syria, afterwards rebuilt this place and called it by his
own name ; and on its being again destroyed, Pasines, the son
of Saggonadacus, and king of the neighbouring Arabians,
whom Juba has incorrectly described as a satrap of king An-
tiochus, restored it, and raised embankments for its protection ,
calling it after himself. These embankments extended in
length a distance of nearly three miles, in breadth a little less .
It stood at first at a distance of ten stadia from the shore, and
even had a harbour³ of its own. But according to Juba, it is
fifty miles from the sea ; and at the present day, the am-
bassadors from Arabia, and our own merchants who have
visited the place, say that it stands at a distance of one hundred
and twenty miles from the sea-shore. Indeed, in no part of
1 Called " Eudæmon" by Pliny.
2 The Great, the father of Antiochus Epiphanes.
3 Though this passage is probably corrupt, the reading employed by
Sillig is inadmissible, as it makes nothing but nonsense. " Et jam Vip-
sanda porticus habet," " and even now, Vipsanda has its porticos."
VOL. II.
 82 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

the world have alluvial deposits been formed more rapidly by

the rivers, and to a greater extent than here ; and it is only
a matter of surprise that the tides, which run to a considerabl
distance beyond this city, do not carry them back again
At this place was born Dionysius, the most recent author o
a description of the world ; he was sent by the late empero
Augustus to gather all necessary information in the East, wher
his eldest son was about to set out for Armenia to take th
command against the Parthians and Arabians.
The fact has not escaped me, nor indeed have I forgotten
that at the beginning of this work"* I have remarked that eac
author appeared to be most accurate in the description of his ow
country ; still, while I am speaking of these parts of the world
I prefer to follow the discoveries made by the Roman arms, an
the description given by king Juba, in his work dedicated t
Caius Cæsar above-mentioned, on the subject of the same ex
pedition against Arabia.

CHAP. 32. ( 28 . ) —ARABIA.

Arabia, inferior to no country throughout the whole world
is of immense extent, running downwards, as we have pr
viously stated,6 from Mount Amanus, over against Cilicia an
Commagene ; many of the Arabian nations having been r
moved to those countries by Tigranes the Great,' while othe
again have migrated of their own accord to the shores of ou
sea and the coast of Egypt, as we have already mentioned.
The Nubei have even penetrated as far as Mount Libanus
the middle of Syria ; in their turn they are bounded by t
Ramisi, these by the Taranei, and these again by the Patami
As for Arabia itself, it is a peninsula, running out betwe
the Red and the Persian Seas ; and it is by a kind of desig
Dionysius of Charax. No particulars of him are known beyond the
mentioned by Pliny.
5 Caius, the son of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of A
gustus. He was the adopted son of Augustus.
5 See B. iii. c. 1, p. 151, in vol. 1. 6 In B. v. c. 21 and 2
7 Who called himself the King of kings, and was finally conquered
Pompey.
8 The Mediterranean . 8 See B. v. c. 12.
9 Salmasius thinks that this should be written " Nombei ;" but H
douin remarks that the Nombai were not of Arabian but Jewish extr
tion, and far distant from Mount Libanus.
-.32. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 83

arently on the part of nature, that it is surrounded by the

in
10 such a manner as to resemble very much the form and
of Italy, there being no difference either in the climate of
two countries, as they lie in the same latitudes.10* This,
, renders it equally fertile with the countries of Italy. We
ve already mentioned "¹ its peoples, which extend from our sea
far as the deserts of Palmyrene, and we shall now proceed to
escription
12 of the remainder . The Scenitæ, as we have already
ated , ¹2 border upon the Nomades and the tribes that ravage
e territories of Chaldæa, being themselves of wandering habits,
d receiving their name from the tents which constitute their
wellings ; these are made of goats' hair, and they pitch them
-herever they please. Next after them are the Nabatæi ,
ho have a city called Petra, " which lies in a deep valley,
omewhat less than two miles in width, and surrounded by
naccessible mountains, between which a river flows : it is
distant from the city of Gaza, on our shores, six hundred
miles, and from the Persian Gulf one hundred and thirty-five.
At this place two roads meet, the one leading from Syria to
Palmyra, and the other from Gaza. On leaving Petra we come
to the Omani, " who dwell as far as Charax, with their once
famous cities which were built by Semiramis, Besannisa and
Soractia by name ; at the present day they are wildernesses.
We next come to a city situate on the banks of the Pasitigris,
Fora by name, and subject to the king of Charax : to this
place people resort on their road from Petra, and sail thence
to Charax, twelve miles distant, with the tide. If you are
proceeding by water from the Parthian territories, you come
to a village known as Teredon ; and below the confluence of
the Euphrates and Tigris, you have the Chaldæi dwelling
10 The only resemblance between them is, that each is a peninsula ; that
of Arabia being of far greater extent than Italy. It will be remarked that
here, contrary to his ordinary practice, Pliny makes a distinction between
the Red Sea and the Persian Sea or Gulf.
10❝In eandem etiam cœli partem nulla differentia spectat." A glance
at the map will at once show the fallacy of this assertion.
11 In B. v. c. 12 and 21.
12 In c. 30 of the present Book.
13 Mentioned in B. v. c. 21 , if, indeed, that is the same Petra.
14 Omana or Omanum was their chief place, a port on the north-east
coast of Arabia Felix, a little above the promontory of Syagros, now Ras
el Had, on a large gulf of the same name. The name is still preserved in
the modern name Oman.
G 2
84 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

on the left side of the river, and the Nomadic tribes of the
Scenitæ on the right. Some writers also make mention
of two other cities situate at long intervals, as you sail along
the Tigris, Barbatia, and then Thumata, distant from Petra
they say, ten days' sail ; our merchants report that these places
are subject to the king of Charax. The same writers also state
that Apamea 15 is situate where the overflow of the Euphrates
unites with the Tigris ; and that when the Parthians meditat
an incursion, the inhabitants dam up the river by embankments
and so inundate their country.
We will now proceed to describe the coast after leaving
Charax, 16 which was first explored by order of king Epiphanes
We first come to the place where the mouth of the Euphrate
formerly existed, the river Salsus, " and the Promontory o
Chaldone,18 from which spot, the sea along the coast, for a
extent of fifty miles,19 bears more the aspect of a series
whirlpools than of ordinary sea ; the river Achenus, and then
desert tract for a space of one hundred miles, until we com
to the island of Ichara ; the gulf of Capeus, on the shores
which dwell the Gaulopes and the Chateni, and then the gu
of Gerra.20 Here we find the city of Gerra, five miles i
circumference, with towers built of square blocks of salt. Fift
miles from the coast, lying in the interior, is the region of A
15 In Sitacene, mentioned in the preceding Chapter.
16 Or rather, as Hardouin says, the shore opposite to Charax, and
the western bank of the river.
17 Called Core Boobian, a narrow salt-water channel, laid down for t
first time in the East India Company's chart, and separating a large l
island, off the mouth of the old bed of the Euphrates, from the mainland
18 The great headland on the coast of Arabia, at the entrance of t
bay of Doat-al-Kusma from the south, opposite to Pheleche Island.
19 This is the line of coast extending from the great headland last me
tioned to the river Khadema, the ancient Achenus.
20 So called from the city of Arabia Felix, built on its shores. Stra
says of this city. " The city of Gerra,lies in a deep gulf, where Chaldæ
exiles from Babylon inhabit a salt country, having houses built of sa
the walls of which, when they are wasted by the heat of the sun,
repaired by copious applications of sea-water.'" D'Anville first identif
this place with the modern El Khatiff. Niebuhr finds its site on
modern Koneit of the Arabs, called " Gran" by the Persians ; but Fos
is of opinion that he discovered its ruins in the East India Compan
Chart, situate where all the ancient authorities had placed it, at the e
of the deep and narrow bay at the mouth of which are situated the isla
of Bahrein. The gulf mentioned by Pliny is identified by Foster w
that of Bahrein.
 32.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 85

and opposite to Gerra is the island of Tylos, " as many miles

nt from the shore ; it is famous for the vast number of its
ls, and has a town of the same name ; in its vicinity there
smaller island,22 distant from a promontory on the larger
twelve miles and a half. They say that beyond this large
nds may be seen, upon which no one has ever landed :
circumference of the smaller island is one hundred and
elve miles and a half, and it is more than that distance from
▸ Persian coast, being accessible by only one narrow chan-
1. We then come to the island of Asclie, and the nations
the Nocheti, the Zurazi, the Borgodi, the Catharrei, the
omades, and then the river Cynos.23 24 Beyond this, the navi-
tion is impracticable on that side, according to Juba, on
ccount of the rocks ; and he has omitted all mention of Ba-
25
asave , a town of the Omani, and of the city of Omana,26
which former writers have made out to be a famous port of
Carmania ;27 as also of Homna and Attana, towns which at
he present day, our merchants say, are by far the most famous
ones in the Persian Sea. Passing the river Cynos,28 there is
a mountain , Juba says, that bears marks of the action of fire ;
also , the nation of the Epimaranitæ, then a nation of Ich-
thyophagi, and then a desert island, and the nation of the
Bathymi. We then come to the Eblitaan Mountains, the
island of Omoënus, the port of Mochorbe, the islands of
Etaxalos and Inchobrice, and the nation of the Cadæi. There
are many islands also that have no name, but the better known
ones are Isura, Rhinnea, and another still nearer the shore,
upon which there are some stone pillars with an inscription in
unknown characters. There are also the port of Goboea, the
desert islands called Braga, the nation of the Thaludæi, the
21 The modern island of Bahrein, according to Brotier, still famous for its
pearl-fishery.
22 Now Samaki, according to Ansart. Its ancient name was Aradus.
23 Hardouin takes this to be that which by the Arabians is called by the
name of Falg.
24 On the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf.
25 Considered by modern geographers to be identical in situation with
the Black Mountains and the Cape of Asabi, and still marked by a town
and district named Sabee, close to Cape Mussendom.
26 In the modern district still called Oman .
27 On the opposite coast.
28 He calls it Canis, evidently thinking that " Cynos" was its Greek
appellation only as meaning the " Dogs' " river.
86 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

region of Dabanegoris, Mount Orsa, with a harbour, the gulf of

Duatus, with numerous islands, Mount Tricoryphos,29 the region
of Cardaleon, and the islands called Solanades, Cachinna, and
that of the Ichthyophagi. We then find the Clari, the shore
of Mamæum, on which there are gold mines, the region of Ca
nauna, the nations of the Apitami and the Casani, the island o
Devade, the fountain of Coralis, the Carphati, the islands o
Calaëu and Amnamethus, and the nation of the Darræ. Also
the island of Chelonitis,30 numerous islands of Ichthyophagi
the deserts of Odanda, Basa, many islands of the Sabai, the
rivers Thanar and Amnume, the islands of Dorice, and the
fountains of Daulotos and Dora. We find also the islands o
Pteros, Labatanis, Coboris, and Sambrachate, with a town o
the same name³¹ on the mainland . Lying to the south are
great number of islands, the largest of which is Camari ; als
the river Musecros, and the port of Laupas. We then com
to the Sabæi, a nation of Scenitæ,32 with numerous islands, an
the city of Acila,33 which is their mart, and from which person
embark for India. We next come to the region of Amithos
cutta, Damnia, the Greater and the Lesser Mizi, and th
Drimati. The promontory of the Naumachæi, over agains
Carmania, is distant from it fifty miles . A wonderful circum
stance is said to have happened here ; Numenius, who wa
made governor of Mesena by king Antiochus, while fightin
against the Persians, defeated them at sea, and at low water
by land, with an army of cavalry, on the same day ; i
memory of which event he erected a twofold trophy on th
same spot, in honour of Jupiter and Neptune.34
Opposite tothis place, in the main sea, lies theisland of Ogyris,
29 Or the mountain " with the Three Peaks."
30 Stephanus mentions this as an island of the Erythræan Sea. Hard
any of these places appear to have been identified ; and there is great u
certainty as to the orthography of the names.
31 From which came the myrrh mentioned by Pliny in B. xii. c. 36.
32 Or the Tent-Dwellers, the modern Bedouins.
33 By some geographers identified with the Ocelis or Ocila, mention
in c. 26, the present Zee Hill or Ghela, a short distance to the south
Mocha, and to the north of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Hardouin say
however, that it was a different place, Acila being in the vicinity of t
Persian Gulf, in which he appears to be correct.
34 Nothing relative to Numenius beyond this fact has been recorded.
35 Hardouin and Ansart think that under this name is meant t
island called in modern times Mazira or Maceira.
- 32. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 87

ous for being the burial-place of king Erythras ; it is dis-

from the mainland one hundred and twenty miles, being
hundred and twelve in circumference. No less famous is
ther island, called Dioscoridu,37 and lying in the Azanian
38 it is distant two hundred and eighty miles from the
reme point of the Promontory of Syagrus.39
The remaining places and nations on the mainland, lying
Il to the south, are the Ausaritæ, to whose country it is seven
ys' journey among the mountains, the nations of the Laren-
ni and the Catabani, and the Gebanita, who occupy a great
umber of towns, the largest of which are Nagia, and Thomna
ith sixty-five temples, a number which fully bespeaks its size.
We then come to a promontory, from which to the mainland
f the Troglodyte it is fifty miles, and then the Thoani, the
Actæi, the Chatramotitæ, the Tonabei, the Antidalei, the Lex-
anæ, the Agræi, the Cerbani, and the Sabæi,40 the best known
of all the tribes of Arabia, on account of their frankincense ;
these nations extend from sea to sea.41 The towns which be-
long to them on the Red Sea are Marane, Marma, Corolia, and
Sabatha ; and in the interior, Nascus, Cardava, Carnus, and
Thomala, from which they bring down their spices for expor-
43
tation. One portion of this nation is the Atramitæ, whose

36 There seem to have been three mythical personages of this name ;

but it appears impossible to distinguish the one from the other.
37 Or Dioscoridis Insula," an island of the Indian Ocean, of con-
siderable importance as an emporium or mart, in ancient times. It lay
between the Syagrus Promontorium, in Arabia, and Aromata Promon-
torium, now Cape Guardafui, on the opposite coast of Africa, somewhat
nearer to the former, according to Arrian, which cannot be the case if it is
rightly identified with Socotorra, 200 miles distant from the Arabian
coast, and 110 from the north-east promontory of Africa.
38 So called from Azania, or Barbaria, now Ajan, south of Somauli, on
the mainland of Africa.
39 Now Cape Fartash, in Arabia.
40 Their country is supposed to have been the Sheba of Scripture, the
queen of which visited king Solomon. It was situate in the south-western
corner of Arabia Felix, the north and centre of the province of Yemen,
though the geographers before Ptolemy seem to give it a still wider
extent, quite to the south of Yemen. The Sabæi most probably spread
originally on both sides of the southern part of the Red Sea, the shores of
Arabia and Africa. Their capital was Saba, in which, according to their
usage, their king was confined a close prisoner.
41 The Persian Gulf to the Red Sea.
43 The modern district of Hadramaut derives its name from this people,
88 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

capital, Sabota, has sixty temples within its walls. But the
royal city of all these nations is Mariaba ; it lies upon a bay
ninety-four miles in extent, and filled with islands that produce
perfumes. Lying in the interior, 45and joining up to the Atra
mitæ, are the Minæi ; the Elamitæ dwell on the sea-shore, in a
city from which they take their name. Next to these are the
Chaculate ; then the town of Sibi, by the Greeks called Apate ;*
the Arsi, the Codani, the Vadei, who dwell in a large town
47
the Barasasæi, the Lechieni, and the island of Sygaros, int
the interior of which no dogs are admitted, and so being ex
posed on the sea- shore, they wander about there and are left t
die. We then come to a gulf which runs far into the in
terior, upon which are situate the Læenitæ, who have giver
to it their name ; also their royal city of Agra,48 and upor
the gulf that of Læana, or as some call it Ælana ;49 indeed
by some of our writers this has been called the Elanitic Gulf
and by others again, the Elenitic ; Artemidorus calls it th
Alenitic, and Juba the Lænitic. The circumference of Arabia
measured from Charax to Læana, is said to be four thousan
six hundred and sixty-six miles, but Juba thinks that it i
somewhat less than four thousand. Its widest part is at th
north, between the cities of Heroopolis and Charax. We wil
now mention the remaining places and peoples of the interio
of Arabia.
Up to the Nabatæi 50 the ancients joined the Thimanei ; a
present they have next to them the Taveni, and then the Suel
leni, the Arraceni,51 and the Areni,52 whose town is the centre

who were situate on the coast of the Red Sea to the east of Aden. Sa
bota, their capital, was a great emporium for their drugs and spices.
44 Still known as Mareb, according to Ansart.
45 Hardouin is doubtful as to this name, and thinks that it ought to b
Elaïtæ, or else Læanita, the people again mentioned below.66
46 A name which looks very much like " fraud," or cheating,"
Hardouin observes, from the Greek árárn.
47 Off the Promontory of Ras-el- Had.
48 Probably in the district now known as Akra. It was situate on th
eastern coast of the Red Sea, at the foot of Mount Hippus.
49 See B. v. c. 12, where this town is mentioned.
50 Whose chief city was Petra, previously mentioned.
51 Supposed by some writers to have been the ancestors of the Saracen
so famous in the earlier part of the middle ages. Some of the MSS. , i
deed, read " Sarraceni."
52 Their town is called Arra by Ptolemy.
- 32.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 89

he commerce of these parts. Next come the Hemnatæ,

Aualitæ, the towns of Domata and Hegra, the Tamudæi,53
n the town of Badanatha, the Carrei, with the town of
54
iati, the Achoali, with the town of Foth, and the Minæi,
55
o derive their origin, it is supposed, from Minos, king of
te, and of whom the Carmæi are a tribe. Next comes a
vn, fourteen miles distant, called Marippa, and belonging to
e Palamaces, a place by no means to be overlooked, and then
rnon. The Rhadamæi also—these too are supposed to derive
eir origin from Rhadamanthus, the brother of Minos- the
58
omeritæ,” with their city of Masala, the Hamirei, the Ged-
nitæ, the Amphyræ, the Ilisanitæ, the Bachilitæ, the Sam-
æi , the Amitai, with the towns of Nessa 59 and Cennesseris,
he Zamareni, with the towns of Sagiatta and Canthace, the
Bacascami, the town of Riphearma, the name by which they
call barley, the Autei, the Ethravi, the Cyrei and the Matha-
æi , the Helmodenes, with the town of Ebode, the Agacturi,
dwelling in the mountains, with a town twenty miles distant,
60
in which is a fountain called Ænuscabales, which signifies
"the town of the camels ." Ampelome 616 also, a Milesian
colony, the town of Athrida, the Calingii, whose city is called
62
Mariva, and signifies " the lord of all men ;" the towns of
Palon and Murannimal, near a river by which it is thought that
the Euphrates discharges itself, the nations of the Agrei and
the Ammonii, the town of Athenæ, the Caunaravi, a name
53 Their district is still called Thamud, according to Ansart.
54 Still called Cariatain, according to Ansart.
55 A ridiculous fancy, probably founded solely on the similarity of the
name.
56 A story as probable, Hardouin observes, as that about the descendants
of Minos.
57 The Arabs of Yemen, known in Oriental history by the name of
Himyari, were called by the Greeks Homeritæ.
58 An inland city, called Masthala by Ptolemy.
59 Agatharchides speaks of a town on the sea coast, which was so called
from the multitude of ducks found there. The one here spoken of was in
the interior, and cannot be the same.
60 Hardouin observes, that neither this word, nor the name Riphe-
arma, above mentioned, has either a Hebrew or an Arabian origin.
61 Probably the same place as we find spoken of by Herodotus as Ampe,
and at which Darius settled a colony of Miletians after the capture of
Miletus, B.C. 494.
62 Hardouin remarks that Mariaba, the name found in former editions,
has no such meaning in the modern Arabic.
90 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

which signifies " most rich in herds, " the Coranitæ , the ŒŒsani,
and the Choani.63 Here were also formerly the Greek towns
of Arethusa, Larisa, and Chalcis, which have been destroyed
in various wars.
64
Elius Gallus, a member of the Equestrian order, is the
sole person who has hitherto carried the Roman arms into these
lands, for Caius Cæsar, the son165 of Augustus , only had a dis-
tant view of Arabia. In his expedition, Gallus destroyed the
following towns, the names of which are not given by the
authors who had written before his time, Negrana, Nestum
Nesca, Masugum, Caminacum, Labecia, and Mariva6 above
mentioned, six miles in circumference, as also Caripeta, the
furthest point of his expedition. He brought back with him
the following discoveries- that the Nomades67 live upon mill
and the flesh of wild beasts, and that the other nations, lik
the Indians, extract a sort of wine from the palm-tree, and
oil from sesame ."68 He says that the most numerous of thes
tribes are the Homeritæ and the Minæi, that their lands ar
fruitful in palms and shrubs, and that their chief wealth i
centred in their flocks. We also learn from the same sourc
that the Cerbani and the Agræi excel in arms, but mor
particularly the Chatramotita ;69 that the territories of th
Carrei are the most extensive and most fertile ; but that th
Sabæi are the richest of all in the great abundance of thei
spice-bearing groves, their mines of gold,70 their streams fo
63 Mentioned by Ovid in the Metamorphoses, B. v. 1. 165, et se
Sillig, however, reads " Ciani."
64 An intimate friend of the geographer Strabo. He was prefect
Egypt during part of the reign of Augustus, and in the years B.C. 24 an
25. Many particulars have been given by Strabo of his expedition again
Arabia, in which he completely failed. The heat of the sun, the badnes
of the water, and the want of the necessaries of life, destroyed the greate
part of his army.
65 By adoption, as previously stated.
66 The town of the Calingii, mentioned above.
67 Or wandering tribes.
68 Its uses in medicine are stated at length in the last Chapter of B. xx
69 Another form of the name of Atramita previously mentioned, th
ancient inhabitants of the part of Arabia known as Hadramant, ar
settled, as is supposed, by the descendants of the Joctanite patriar
Hazarmaveth.
70 Arabia at the present day yields no gold, and very little silver. T
queen of Sheba is mentioned as bringing gold to Solomon, 1 Kings, x.
2 Chron. ix. i. Artemidorus and Diodorus Siculus make mention, on t
 16
.33. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 91

gation , and their ample produce of honey and wax. Of

r perfumes we shall have to treat more at large in the
k devoted to that subject. " The Arabs either wear the
ra,772 or else go with their hair unshorn, while the beard
shaved, except upon the upper lip : some tribes, however,
ve even the beard unshaved. A singular thing too, one half
these almost innumerable tribes live by the pursuits of com-
erce, the other half by rapine : take them all in all, they are
e richest nations in the world, seeing that such vast wealth
ows in upon them from both the Roman and the Parthian
mpires ; for they sell the produce of the sea or of their forests,
hile they purchase nothing whatever in return.

CHAP. 33. -THE GULFS OF THE RED SEA.

We will now trace the rest of the coast that lies opposite
to that of Arabia. Timosthenes has estimated the length of
the whole gulf at four days ' sail, and the breadth at two,
making the Straits 73 to be seven miles and a half in width.
Eratosthenes says that the length of the shore from the mouth
of the gulf is thirteen hundred miles on each side , while Ar-
temidorus states that the length on the Arabian side is seven-
teen hundred and fifty miles, (29.) and that along the Trog-
lodytic coast, to Ptolemais, the distance is eleven hundred
and thirty-seven and a half. Agrippa, however, maintains
that there is no difference whatever in the length of the two
sides, and makes it seventeen hundred and twenty-two miles.
Most writers mention the length as being four hundred and
seventy-five miles, and make the Straits to face the south - east,
being twelve miles wide according to some, fifteen accordingto
others.
The localities of this region are as follow : On passing the
Elanitic Gulf there is another gulf, by the Arabians called

Arabian Gulf, of the Debæ, the Alilæi, and the Gasandi, in whose terri-
tories native gold was found. These last people, who did not know its
value, were in the habit of bringing it to their neighbours, the Sabæi, and
exchanging it for articles of iron and copper.
71 B. xii.
72 The " mitra," which was a head-dress especially used by the Phry-
gians, was probably of varied shape, and may have been the early form of
the eastern turban.
73 The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
92 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI.

Soea, upon which is situate the city of Heroön.74 The town

of Cambysu75 also stood here formerly, between the Neli and
the Marchades, Cambyses having established there the in-
valids of his army. We then come to the nation of the Tyri ,
and the port of the Danei, from which place an attempt has
been made to form a navigable canal to the river Nile, at the
spot where it enters the Delta previously mentioned,76 the
distance between the river and the Red Sea being sixty-two
miles. This was contemplated first of all by Sesostris," king
of Egypt, afterwards by Darius, king of the Persians, and
still later by Ptolemy II.," who also made a canal, one hundred
feet in width and forty deep, extending a distance of thirty
seven miles and a half, as far as the Bitter Springs.79 He wa
deterred from proceeding any further with this work by ap
prehensions of an inundation, upon finding that the Red Se
was three cubits higher than the land in the interior of Egypt
Some writers, however, do not allege this as the cause, bu
say that his reason was, a fear lest, in consequence of intro
ducing the sea, the water of the Nile might be spoilt, that bein
the only source from which the Egyptians obtain water fo
drinking. Be this as it may, the whole of the journey from
the Egyptian Sea is usually performed by land one of th
three following ways :-Either from Pelusium across the sands
in doing which the only method of finding the way is by mean
of reeds fixed in the earth, the wind immediately effacing a
74 Or Heroöpolis, a city east of the Delta, in Egypt, and situate ne
the mouth of the royal canal which connected the Nile with the Red Se
It was of considerable consequence as a trading station upon the arm of th
Red Sea, which runs up as far as Arsinoë, the modern Suez, and w
called the " Gulf" or " Bay of the Heroes." The ruins of Heroöpol
are still visible at Abu- Keyscheid.
75 This place, as here implied, took its name from Cambyses, the son
Cyrus.
76 In c. 9 of the preceding Book. " Dictum," however, may only mea
" called" the Delta.
77 Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Tzetzes, mention this, not with r
ference to Sesostris, but Necho, the grandson of Sesostris.
78 Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, or Lagides.
79 Now known by the name of Scheib. They derived their name fro
the saline flavour and deposition of their waters. These springs we
strongly impregnated with alkaline salts, and with muriate of lime wash
from the rocks which separated the Delta from the Red Sea. The s
which they produced being greatly valued, they were on that account
garded as the private property of the kings.
. 34. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC 93

es of footsteps : by the route which begins two miles be-

d Mount Casius, and at a distance of sixty miles enters the
d from Pelusium, adjoining to which road the Arabian
be of the Autei dwell ; or else by a third route, which
ds from Gerrum, and which they call Adipsos,80 passing
rough the same Arabians, and shorter by nearly sixty miles,
t running over rugged mountains and through a district
stitute of water. All these roads lead to Arsinoë,8¹ a city
unded in honour of his sister's name, upon the Gulf of Ca-
ndra, by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who was the first to explore
roglodytice, and called the river which flows before Arsinoë
y the name of Ptolemæus. After this comes the little town
f Enum, by some writers mentioned as Philotera ; next to
which are the Abasæi, a nation sprung from intermarriages
with the Troglodyta, then some wild Arabian tribes, the islands
of Sapirine and Scytala, and after these, deserts as far as
Myoshormon, where we find the fountain of Tatnos, Mount
Eas, the island of Iambe, and numerous harbours. Berenice
also, is here situate, so called after the name of the mother of
Philadelphus, and to which there is a road from Coptos, as we
have previously stated ; then the Arabian Autei, and the Ze-
badei.
CHAP. 34.- TROGLODYTICE.
Troglodytice comes next, by the ancients called Midoë, and
by some Michoë ; here is Mount Pentedactylos, some islands
called Stenæ Deiræ,83 the Halonnesi,84 a group of islands
85
not less in number, Cardamine, and Topazos, which last has
given its name to the precious stone so called. The gulf is
full of islands ; those known as Mareu are supplied with
fresh water, those called Erenos, are without it ; these were
ruled by governors appointed by the kings. In the interior
80 The "not thirsty" route, so called by way of antiphrasis.
81 See B. v. c. 9.
82 In c. 26 of the present Book.
93 Or " narrow necks," apparently, from the Greek orηvai deipai. If
this be the correct reading, they were probably so called from the narrow
strait which ran between them.
84 An island called Halonnesus has been already mentioned in B. iv.
c. 23. None of these islands appear to have been identified.
85 See B. xxxvii. c. 32.
86 This seems to be the meaning, though, literally translated, it would
be, "# These were the prefects of kings."
94 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

are the Candei, also called Ophiophagi, a people in the habi

of eating serpents ; there is no region in existence more pro
ductive of them.
Juba, who appears to have investigated all these matters
with the greatest diligence, has omitted, in his description of
these regions -unless, indeed, it be an error in the copying-
another place called Berenice and surnamed Panchrysos,87 a
also a third surnamed Epidires, and remarkable for the
peculiarity of its site ; for it lies on a long projecting neck o
land, at the spot where the Straits at the mouth of the Red
Sea separate the coast of Africa from Arabia by a distanc
of seven miles only : here too is the island of Cytis,89 which
also produces the topaz.
Beyond this are forests, in which is Ptolemais,90 built by
Philadelphus for the chase of the elephant, and thence calle
Epitheras, situate near Lake Monoleus . This is the same regio
that has been already mentioned by us in the Second Book,
and in which, during forty-five days before the summer solstic
and for as many after, there is no shadow at the sixth hour, an
during the other hours of the day it falls to the south ; while a
other times it falls to the north; whereas at the Berenice
which we first 93 made mention, on the dayof the summer solstic
the shadow totally disappears at the sixth hour, but no othe
unusual phænomenon is observed . That place is situate at
distance of six hundred and two miles from Ptolemais, whic

87 It obtained this title of návxpvooc, or " all golden," from its v

cinity to the gold mines of Jebel Allaki, or Ollaki, from which the ancie
Egyptians drew their principal supply of that metal, and in the workin
of which they employed criminals and prisoners of war.
88 Or ini depñs, "uponthe neck." It was situate on the western si
of the Red Sea, near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
89 Ansart suggests that the modern island of Mehun is here mean
Gosselin is of opinion that Pliny is in error in mentioning two islands
the Red Sea as producing the topaz.
90 Called Theron, as well as Epitheras. It was an emporium on t
coast of the Red Sea for the trade with India and Arabia. It was chie
remarkable for its position in mathematical geography, as, the sun havi
been observed to be directly over it forty-five days before and after t
summer solstice, the place was taken as one of the points for determini
the length of a degree of a great circle on the earth's surface.
91 From the Greek ini Onpas, "for hunting." ,
92 In B. ii. c. 75.
93 In the same Chapter.
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 95
p. 34.] 1
thus become the subject of a remarkable theory, and has
moted the exercise of a spirit of the most profound investi-
ion ; for it was at this spot that the extent of the earth was
st ascertained, it being the fact that Erastosthenes, beginning
this place by the accurate calculation of the length of the
adow, was enabled to determine with exactness the dimen-
ons of the earth.
91
After passing this place we come to the Azanian Sea, a
romontory by some writers called Hispalus, Lake Mandalum,
nd the island of Colocasitis, with many others lying out in
he main sea, upon which multitudes of turtles are found95.
We then come to the town of Suche, the island of Daphnidis, "
nd the town of the Adulitæ," a place founded by Egyptian
unaway slaves. This is the principal mart for the Troglodytæ , 1
is also for the people of Ethiopia : it is distant from Ptolemais
ive days' sail. To this place they bring ivory in large quan-
tities, horns of the rhinoceros, hides of the hippopotamus, tor-
toise-shell, sphingiæ," and slaves. Beyond the Ethiopian Aro-
teræ are the islands known by the name of Aliau,98 as also those
of Bacchias, Antibacchias, and Stratioton . After passing these,
on the coast of Ethiopia, there is a gulf which remains unex-
plored still ; a circumstance the more to be wondered at, seeing
that merchants have pursued their investigations to a greater
distance than this. We then come to a promontory, upon
which there is a spring called Cucios, much resorted to by
94 So called from Azania, the adjoining coast of Africa, now known as
that of Ajan. It was inhabited by a race of Ethiopians, who were en-
gaged in catching and taming elephants, and supplying the markets of the
Red Sea coast with hides and ivory.
95 Now called Seyrman, according to Gosselin.
96 Its name was Adule, being the chief haven of the Adulitæ, of mixed
origin, in the Troglodytic region, situate on a bay of the Red Sea, called
Aduliticus Sinus. It is generally supposed that the modern Thulla or
Zulla, still pronounced Azoole, occupies its site, being situate in lat. 15"
35' N. Ruins are said to exist there. D'Anville, however, in his map
of the Red Sea, places Adule at Arkeeko, on the same coast, and considerably
to the north of Thulla. According to Cosmas, Adule was about two
miles in the interior.
97 Pliny gives a further description of this ape in B. viii. c. 21., and B. x.
c. 72. They were much valued by the Roman ladies for pets, and very
high prices were given for them.
98 Now called Dahal-Alley, according to Gosselin.
99 Hardouin, from Strabo, suggests that the reading ought to be Co-
racios.
96 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

mariners. Beyond it is the Port of Isis, distant ten days

rowing from the town of the Adulitæ : myrrh is brought to this
port by the Troglodyte. The two islands before the harbour
are called Pseudepylæ ,' and those in it, the same in number
are known as Pylæ ; 2 upon one of these there are some ston
columns inscribed with unknown characters. Beyond these i
the Gulf of Abalites, the island of Diodorus,³ and other de
sert islands ; also, on the mainland, a succession of deserts, an
then the town of Gaza, and the promontory and port of Mos
4
sylum, to the latter of which cinnamon is brought for ex
portation : it was thus far that Sesostris led his army.
Some writers place even beyond this, upon the shore, on
town of Ethiopia, called Baricaza. Juba will have it that a
6
the Promontory of Mossylum the Atlantic Sea begins, and tha
witha north-west wind' we may sail past his native country, th
Mauritanias, and arrive at Gades. We ought not on this occa
sion to curtail any portion of the opinions so expressed by him
He says that after we pass the promontory of the Indians
known as Lepteacra, and by others called Drepanum, the di
tance, in a straight line, beyond the island of Exusta an
Malichu, is fifteen hundred miles ; from thence to a pla
called Sceneos two hundred and twenty-five ; and from thence
the island of Adanu one hundred and fifty miles ; so that the di
1 The " False Gates." 2 The "Gates."
3 D'Anville and Gosselin think that this is the island known as t
French Island.
4 Ansart thinks that this promontory is that known as Cape de Me
and that the port is at the mouth of the little river called Soul or Soal.
5 In his Ethiopian expedition. According to Strabo, he had altars a
pillars erected there to record it.
6 Under the impression entertained by the ancients, that the south
progress of the coast of Africa stopped short here, and that it began at t
point to trend away gradually to the north-west.
7 Coro. Salmasius seems with justice, notwithstanding the censures
Hardouin, to have found considerable difficulty in this passage. If i
Pliny's meaning that by sea round the south of the Promontory of M
sylum there a passage to the extreme north-western point of Africa
is pretty clear that it is not by the aid of a north-west wind that it co
be reached. " Euro," " with a south-east wind," has been very prope
suggested.
By this name he means the Ethiopian Troglodytæ. Of course
would be absurd to attempt any identification of the places here nam
as they must clearly have existed only in the imagination of the Afri
geographer.
p . 35. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 97

ce to the open sea is altogether eighteen hundred and

enty-five miles. All the other writers, however, are of
nion that, in consequence of the intensity of the sun's heat,
s sea is not navigable ; added to which, commerce is
atly exposed to the depredations of a piratical tribe of
abians called Ascita, 10 who dwell upon the islands : placing
o inflated skins of oxen beneath a raft of wood, they ply their
ratical vocation with the aid of poisoned arrows. We learn
so from the same author that some nations of the Troglodytæ
ve the name of Therothoæ, " being so called from their skill
hunting. They are remarkable for their swiftness, he says,
ist as the Ichthyophagi are, who can swim like the animals
-hose element is the sea. He speaks also of the Bangeni, the
angoræ, the Chalybes, the Xoxinæ, the Sirechæ , the Daremæ,
nd the Domazames . Juba states, too, that the inhabitants
who dwell on the banks of the Nile from Syene as far as Meroë,
re not a people of Æthiopia, but Arabians ; and that the city
of the Sun, which we have mentioned 12 as situate not far
from Memphis, in our description of Egypt, was founded by
Arabians . There are some writers who take away the fur-
ther bank of the Nile from Ethiopia, ¹² * and unite it to
Africa ;13 and they people its sides with tribes attracted thither
by its water. We shall leave these matters, however, to the
option of each, to form his opinion on them, and shall now
proceed to mention the towns on each side¹ in the order in
which they are given.
CHAP. 35.-ETHIOPIA.
On leaving Syene, 15 and taking first the Arabian side, we
find the nation of the Catadupi, then the Syenitæ, and the
The supposed commencement of the Atlantic, to the west of the Pro-
montory of Mossylum.
10 From the Greek ȧoròç, a " bladder," or " inflated skin." It is not
improbable that the story as to their mode of navigation is derived only
from the fancied origin of their name.
11 Apparently meaning in the Greek the "jackal-hunters," Onpolwes.
For an account of this animal, see B. viii. c. 52, and B. xv. c. 95.
12 Heliopolis, described in B. v. c. 4.
12" Considering it as part of Asia.
13 Conformably with the usage of modern geographers, and, one would
almost think, with that of common sense.
14 Of the river Nile.
15 As to Syene and the Catadupi, see B. v. c. 10.
VOL. II. H
98 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [ Book VI.

town of Tacompsos, 16 by some called Thatice, as also Aramasos,

Sesamos, Sanduma, Masindomacam, Arabeta and Boggia,
Leupitorga, Tantarene, Mecindita, Noa, Gloploa, Gystate, Me-
gada, Lea, Renni, Nups, Direa, Patiga, Bacata, Dumana,
Rhadata, at which place a golden cat was worshipped as a
god, Boron, in the interior, and Mallos, near Meroë ; this is
the account given by Bion.
Juba, however, gives another account ; he says that ther
is a city on Mount Megatichos, " which lies between Egyp
and Ethiopia, by the Arabians known as Myrson, after which
come Tacompsos, Aramus, Sesamos, Pide, Mamuda, Orambis
situate near a stream of bitumen, Amodita, Prosda, Parenta
Mama, Tesatta, Gallas, Zoton, Graucome, Emeus, the Pidi
botæ, the Hebdomecontacometæ, 18 Nomades, who dwell in
tents, Cyste, Macadagale, Proaprimis, Nups, Detrelis, Patis
the Ganbreves, the Magasnei, Segasmala, Crandala, Denna
Cadeuma, Thena, Batta, Alana, Mascoa, the Scammi, Hora
situate on an island, and then Abala, Androgalis, Sesecre
the Malli, and Agole.
On the African side' we find mentioned, either what
another place with the same name of Tacompsos, or else a par
of the one before-mentioned, and after it Moggore, Sæa, Edo
Plenariæ, Pinnis, Magassa, Buma, Linthuma, Spintum, Sydo
the Censi, Pindicitora, Acug, Orsum, Sansa, Maumarun
Urbim, the town of Molum, by the Greeks called Hypaton ,
Pagoarca, Zmanes, at which point elephants begin to be foun
the Mambli, Berressa, and Acetuma ; there was formerly
town also called Epis, over against Meroë, which had, howeve
been destroyed before Bion wrote.
These are the names of places given as far as Meroë ; b
at the present day hardly any of them on either side
the river are in existence ; at all events, the prætorian troo
16 This place was also called in later times Contrapselcis. It w
situate in the Dodecaschoenus, the part of Ethiopia immediately abo
Egypt, on an island near the eastern bank of the river, a little abo
Pselcis, which stood on the opposite bank. It has been suggested that t
may have been the modern island of Derar. The other places do
appear to have been identified, and, in fact, in no two of the MSS. do
names appear to agree.
17 Or the " Great Wall."
18 Meaning, "the people who live in seventy villages."
19 Or western side of the Nile, between Syene and Meroë.
20 'Yπarov, the " supreme," or perhaps the " last."
ap. 35. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 99

at were sent by the Emperor Nero21 under the command

a tribune, for the purposes of enquiry, when, among
s other wars, he was contemplating an expedition against
Ethiopia, brought back word that they had met with nothing
ut deserts on their route. The Roman arms also penetrated
nto these regions in the time of the late Emperor Augustus,
nder the command of P. Petronius,22 a man of Eques-
rian rank, and prefect of Egypt. That general took the
ollowing cities, the only ones we now find mentioned there,
n the following order ; Pselcis,23 Primis, Abuncis, Phthuris,
Cambusis, Atteva, and Stadasis, where the river Nile, as
it thunders down the precipices, has quite deprived the in-
habitants of the power of hearing : he also sacked the town
of Napata 24 The extreme distance to which he penetrated
beyond Syene was nine hundred and seventy miles ; but still,
it was not the Roman arms that rendered these regions a
desert. Ethiopia, in its turn gaining the mastery, and then
again reduced to servitude, was at last worn out by its con-
tinual wars with Egypt, having been a famous and powerful
country even at the time of the Trojan war, when Memnon 25
was its king ; it is also very evident from the fabulous stories
about Andromeda,26 that it ruled over Syria in the time of
king Cepheus, and that its sway extended as far as the shores
of our sea.
In a similar manner, also, there have been conflicting
accounts as to the extent of this country : first by Dalion,

21 Dion Cassius also mentions this expedition. From Seneca we learn

that Nero dispatched two centurions to make inquiry into the sources of
the Nile.
22 Dion Cassius calls him Caius Petronius. He carried on the war in
B.C. 22 against the Ethiopians, who had invaded Egypt under their queen
Candace. He took many of their towns.
23 Du Bocage is of opinion that this place stood not far from the
present Ibrim.
24 Supposed by Du Bocage to have stood in the vicinity of the modern
Dongola.
25 He was clearly a mythical personage, and nothing certain is known
with respect to him. Tombs of Memnon were shown in several places,
as at Ptolemais in Syria, on the Hellespont, on a hill near the mouth of
the river Esepus, near Palton in Syria, in Ethiopia, and elsewhere.
2e Her story has been alluded to in the account of Joppa, B. v. c. 34.
Cepheus, the father of Andromeda, though possessing the coasts of Syria,
was fabled to have been king of Ethiopia.
100 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VI

who travelled a considerable distance beyond Meroë, and after

him by Aristocreon and Basilis, as well as the younger Simo-
nides, who made a stay of five years at Meroë,27 when he
wrote his account of Ethiopia. Timosthenes, however, the
commander of the fleets of Philadelphus, without giving any
other estimate as to the distance, says that Meroë is sixty
days' journey from Syene ; while Eratosthenes states that the
distance is six hundred and twenty-five miles, and Artemi-
dorus six hundred. Sebosus says that from the extreme point
of Egypt, the distance to Meroë is sixteen hundred and
seventy-five miles, while the other writers last mentioned
make it twelve hundred and fifty. All these differences, how-
ever, have since been settled ; for the persons sent by Nerd
for the purposes of discovery have reported that the distance
from Syene to Meroë is eight hundred and seventy-one
miles, the following being the items. From Syene to Hiera
Sycaminos they make to be fifty-four miles, from thence
to Tama seventy-two, to the country of the Evonymitæ,
the first region of Ethiopia, one hundred and twenty, to
Acina fifty-four, to Pittara twenty-five, and to Tergedu
one hundred and six. They state also that the island o
Gagaudes lies at an equal distance from Syene and Meroë
and that it is at this place that the bird called the parrot wa
first seen ; while at another island called Articula, the anima
known as the sphingium30 was first discovered by them, and
after passing Tergedus, the cynocephalus. The distance from
thence to Napata is eighty miles, that little town being th
only one of all of them that now survives. From thence t
the island of Meroë the distance is three hundred and sixt
miles. They also state that the grass in the vicinity of Mero
becomes of a greener and fresher colour, and that there is som
slight appearance of forests, as also traces of the rhinoceros an
elephant. They reported also that the city of Meroë stand
at a distance of seventy miles from the first entrance of th
island of Meroë, and that close to it is another island, Tad
by name, which forms a harbour facing those who enter th
27 See B. v. c. 10, where Meroë is also mentioned.
28 Or the sacred " sycamore tree."
29 Situate beyond the Great Cataract, and on the western bank.
20 See the Notes to the preceding Chapter, in p. 95.
31 Or dog's-headed ape, described in B. viii. c. 80. It is supposed to b
the baboon.
5. 35.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 101

nt hand channel of the river. " The buildings in the city,

y said, were but few in number, and they stated that a
ale, whose name was Candace, ruled over the district,
t name having passed from queen to queen for many
ars. They related also that there was a temple of Jupiter
ammon there, held in great veneration, besides smaller
rines erected in honour of him throughout all the country.
I addition to these particulars, they were informed that in
e days of the Ethiopian dominion, the island of Meroe
joyed great renown, and that, according to tradition, it
as in the habit of maintaining two hundred thousand armed
hen, and four thousand artisans . The kings of Ethiopia
re said even at the present day to be forty-five in number.
(30. ) The whole of this country has successively had the
ames of Etheria,32 Atlantia, and last of all, Æthiopia, from
Æthiops, the son of Vulcan. It is not at all surprising that
towards the extremity of this region the men and animals
assume a monstrous form, when we consider the change-
ableness and volubility of fire, the heat of which is the
great agent in imparting various forms and shapes to bodies .
Indeed, it is reported that in the interior, on the eastern
side, there is a people that have no noses, the whole face
presenting a plane surface ; that others again are destitute of
the upper lip, and others are without tongues. Others again ,
have the mouth grown together, and being destitute of nostrils,
breathe through one passage only, imbibing their drink
through it by means of the hollow stalk of the oat, which
there grows spontaneously and supplies them with its grain
for food. Some of these nations have to employ gestures
by nodding the head and moving the limbs, instead of speech.
Others again were unacquainted with the use of fire be-
fore the time of Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. Some
writers have also stated that there is a nation of Pygmies,
which dwells among the marshes in which the river Nile takes
33
its rise ; while on the coast of Ethiopia, where we paused,

32 Hesychius says that it was also called Aëria, probably from the time
of its king Egyptus, who was called Aërius.
33 "Ubi desiimus." This appears to be a preferable reading to " ubi
desinit," adopted by Sillig, and apparently referring to the river Nile.
It is not improbable that our author here alludes, as Hardouin says, to his
words in the preceding Chapter, " Hinc in ora Æthiopia," &c . See p. 96.
 102 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

there is a range of mountains, of a red colour, which have the

appearance of being always burning.
All the country, after we pass Meroë, is bounded by the
Troglodyte and the Red Sea, it being three days' journey from
Napata to the shores of that sea ; throughout the whole of
9 this district the rain water is carefully preserved at severa
places, while the country that lies between is extremely pro-
ductive of gold . The parts beyond this are inhabited by the
Adabuli, a nation of Ethiopia ; and here, over against Meroë
are the Megabarri,34 by some writers called the Adiabari ; they
occupy the city of Apollo ; some of them, however, are No
mades, living on the flesh of elephants. Opposite to them, or
the African side, dwell the Macrobii,35 and then again, beyon
the Megabarri, there are the Memnones and the Dabeli, and, a
a distance of twenty days' journey, the Critensi. Beyond thes
are the Dochi, and then the Gymnetes, who always go naked
and after them the Andetæ, the Mothitæ, the Mesaches, an
the Ipsodoræ, who are of a black tint, but stain the body al
over with a kind of red earth. On the African side again ther
are the Medimni, and then a nation of Nomades, who live o
the milk of the cynocephalus, and then the Aladi and th
Syrbotæ,36 which last are said to be eight cubits in height.
Aristocreon informs us that on the Libyan side, at a dis
tance of five days' journey from Meroë, is the town of Tolle
and then at a further distance of twelve days' journey, Esar,
town founded by the Egyptians who fled from Psamm
tichus ;37 he states also that they dwelt there for a period
three hundred years, and that opposite, on the Arabian sid
there is a town of theirs called Daron.38 The town, howeve
which he calls Esar, is by Bion called Sape, who says that th
name means "the strangers :" their capital being Sembobiti
situate on an island, and a third place of theirs, Sinat in Arabi
Between the mountains and the river Nile are the Simbari
the Palugges, and, on the mountains themselves, the Asacha
34 Ansart thinks that the country of this people was the modern K
dofan. This, however, could not be the case, if the Macrobii, opposite
them, dwelt on the African side of the river.
35 Or "long-livers."
36 Mentioned again in c. 2 of the next Book.
37 Who is mentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 19.
38 Ptolemy, however, speaks of Esar and Daron as the names of tow
situate on the island of Meroë.
 . 35. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 103

o are divided into numerous peoples ; they are said to be

cant five days' journey from the sea, and to procure their
sistence by the chase of the elephant. An island in the
e, which belongs to the Semberritæ, is governed by a
een ; beyond it are the Ethiopian Nubei,39 at a distance of
ht days' journey : their town is Tenupsis, situate on the
le. There are the Sesambri also, a people among whom
1 the quadrupeds are without ears, the very elephants even.
n the African side are the Tonobari, the Ptoenphæ, a people
ho have a dog for their king, and divine from his move-
ents what are his commands ; the Auruspi, who have a
own at a considerable distance from the Nile, and then the
Archisarmi, the Phaliges, the Marigerri, and the Casmari.
Bion makes mention also of some other towns situate
on islands, the whole distance being twenty days' journey
from Sembobitis to Meroë ; a town in an adjoining island, under
the queen of the Semberritæ, with another called Asara, and
another, in a second island, called Darde. The name of a third
island is Medoë, upon which is the town of Asel, and a fourth
is called Garodes, with a town upon it of the same name. Pass-
ing thence along the banks of the Nile, are the towns of Navi,
Modunda, Andatis, Secundum, Colligat, Secande, Navectabe,
Cumi, Agrospi, Egipa, Candrogari, Araba, and Summara.40
Beyond is the region of Sirbitum, at which the mountains
41
terminate, and which by some writers is said to contain
the maritime Ethiopians, the Nisacæthæ, and the Nisyti, a
word which signifies " men with three or four eyes,"
not that the people really have that conformation, but be-
cause they are remarkable for the unerring aim of their
arrows . On that side of the Nile which extends along the
borders of the Southern Ocean beyond the Greater Syrtes, 2
Dalion says that the people, who use rain-water only, are
called the Cisori, and that the other nations are the Longompori,
39 On the eastern side of the Nile, and bearing no reference, as Har-
douin remarks, to the people of modern Nubia.
40 There is considerable doubt as to the correctness of these names, as
they are differently spelt in the MSS.
41 Marcus thinks that these mountains are those which lie to the west
of the Nile, in Darfour, and Dar-Sale, or Dizzela, mentioned by Salt, in
his Travels in Abyssinia.
42 From this it would appear that Pliny, with Dalion, supposed that the
Nile randownto the southern ocean, and then took a turn along the coast
in a westerly direction ; the shore being skirted by Syrtes, or quicksands,
similar to those in the north of Africa.
104 FLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

distant five days' journey from the Ecalices, the Usibalci, th

Isbeli, the Perusii , the Ballii, and the Cispii, the rest being
deserts, and inhabited by the tribes of fable only. In a mor
westerly direction are the Nigrom, whose king has only one eye
and that in the forehead, the Agriophagi, 43 who live principally
on the flesh of panthers and lions, the Pamphagi, " who will ea
anything, the Anthropophagi, who live on human flesh, the Cy
namolgi, " a people with the heads of dogs, the Artabatitæ, whe
have four feet, and wander about after the manner of wil
beasts ; and, after them, the Hesperiæ and the Perorsi, whom w
have already spoken of as dwelling on the confines of Mauri
tania. Some tribes, too, of the Æthiopians subsist on nothing
but locusts," which are smoke-dried and salted as thei
provision for the year ; these people do not live beyond thei
fortieth year .
M. Agrippa was of opinion that the length of the whol
country of the Ethiopians, including the Red Sea, was tw
thousand one hundred and seventy miles, and its breadth
including Upper Egypt, twelve hundred and ninety- seven
Some authors again have made the following divisions of it
length ; from Meroë to Sirbitum eleven days' sail, from Sir
bitum to the Dabelli fifteen days' , and from them to the Ethi
opian Ocean six days' journey. It is agreed by most authors
48
that the distance altogether, from the ocean to Meroë, is six
hundred and twenty-five miles, and from Meroë to Syene
that which we have already mentioned . Ethiopia lies from
south- east to south-west. Situate as it is, in a souther
hemisphere, forests of ebony are to be seen of the brightes
verdure ; and in the midst of these regions there is a moun
tain of immense height, which overhangs the sea, and emits
perpetual flame. By the Greeks this mountain is called
Theon Ochema," and at a distance of four days' sail from i
43 So called from the Greek-" Eaters of wild beasts."
44 The " all-eaters."
45 Or the "livers on the milk of the dog."
46 In c. 8 of the preceding Book.
47 They were thence called by the Greeks " Acridophagi." Accordin
to Agatharchides, these people dwelt in what is modern Nubia, wher
Burkhardt found the people subsisting on lizards.
47* Hardouin remarks, that the length is measured from south-east t
south-west ; and the breadth from south to north.
48 The supposed Southern Ocean, which joins the Atlantic on the west.
49 Or the " Chariot of the gods," mentioned also in Book ii. c. 110, an
 36.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 105

promontory, known as Hesperu Ceras,50 upon the confines

Africa, and close to the Hesperia, an Ethiopian nation.
re are some writers who affirm that in these regions there
hills of a moderate height, which afford a pleasant shade
the groves with which they are clad, and are the haunts of
ipans and Satyrs.

CHAP. 36. (31 . )- ISLANDS OF THE ETHIOPIAN SEA.

We learn from Ephorus, as well as Eudoxus and Timos-
enes, that there are great numbers of islands scattered all
er this sea ; Clitarchus says that king Alexander was in-
med of an island so rich that the inhabitants gave a talent
gold for a horse, and of another52 upon which there was
und a sacred mountain, shaded with a grove, the trees of
hich emitted odours of wondrous sweetness ; this last was
tuate over against the Persian Gulf. Cerne53 is the name
f an island situate opposite to Ethiopia, the size of which
as not been ascertained, nor yet its distance from the main
and it is said that its inhabitants are exclusively Ethi-
pians. Ephorus states that those who sail from the Red
Sea into the Ethiopian Ocean cannot get beyond the Col-
54
umnæ 4 there, some little islands so called. Polybius says
B. v. c. 1. It is supposed to have been some portion of the Atlas chain ;
but the subject is involved in the greatest obscurity.
50 Or the " Western Horn." It is not known whether this was Cape
de Verde, or Cape Roxo. Ansart thinks that it is the same as Cape Non.
It is mentioned in c. 1 of B. v. as the " promontorium Hesperium .
51 See notes to B. v. c. 1 , in vol. i . p. 378.
52 Marcus says that these islands are those called the " Two Sisters,"
situate to the west of the Isle of Socotra, on the coast of Africa. They
are called by Ptolemy, Cocionati.
53 The position of this island has been much discussed by geographers,
as beingintimately connected with the subject of Hanno's voyage to the
south of Africa. Gosselin, who carries that voyage no further south than
Cape Non, in about 28° north lat. , identifies Cerne with Fedallah, on the
coast of Fez, which, however, is probably much too far to the north. Major
Rennell places it as far south as Arguin, a little to the south of the southern
Cape Blanco, in about 20° 5' North latitude. Heeren, Mannert, and others,
adopt the intermediate portion of Agadir, or Souta Cruz, on the coast of
Morocco, just below Cape Ghir, the termination of the main chain of the
Atlas. If weare to trust to Pliny's statement, it is pretty clear that nothing
certain was known about it in his day.
54 The "Pillars." Marcus thinks that these were some small islands
near the Isle of Socotra.
 106 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY, [Book V

that Cerne is situate at the extremity of Mauritania, ov

against Mount Atlas, and at a distance of eight stadia fro
the land ; while Cornelius Nepos states that it lies ver
nearly in the same meridian as Carthage, at a distance from th
mainland of ten miles, and that it is not more than two mil
in circumference. It is said also that there is another islan
situate over against Mount Atlas, being itself known by th
name of Atlantis.55 Five days' sail beyond it there are desert
as far as the Æthiopian Hesperia and the promontory, whic
we have mentioned as being called Hesperu Ceras, a point
which the face of the land first takes a turn towards the we
and the Atlantic Sea. Facing this promontory are also sa
to be the islands called the Gorgades,56 the former abodes
the Gorgons, two days' sail from the mainland, according
Xenophon of Lampsacus. Hanno, a general of the Carth
ginians, penetrated as far as these regions, and brought ba
an account that the bodies of the women were covered wi
hair, but that the men, through their swiftness of foot, ma
their escape ; in proof of which singularity in their ski
and as evidence of a fact so miraculous, he placed the skin
of two of these females in the temple of Juno, which we
to be seen there until the capture of Carthage. Beyond the
even, are said to be the two islands of the Hesperides ; b
so uncertain are all the accounts relative to this subject, th
Statius Sebosus says that it is forty days' sail, past the co
of the Atlas range, from the islands of the Gorgons to the
of the Hesperides, and one day's sail from these to t
Hesperu Ceras. Nor have we any more certain informati
relative to the islands of Mauritania. We only know, as
fact well-ascertained, that some few were discovered by Ju
over against the country of the Autololes, upon58 which he
tablished a manufactory of Gætulian purple.

55 Hardouin says that this is not the Atlantis rendered so famous

Plato, whose story is distantly referred to in B. ii. c. 92 of this work.
is difficult to say whether the Atlantis of Plato had any existence at
except in the imagination.
56 Medusa and her sisters, the daughters of Phorcys and Ceto.
identity of their supposed islands seems not to have been ascertained.
the poetical aspect of their story, see Ovid's Met., B. iv.
57 It is not improbable that these were the skins of a species of u
outang, or large monkey.
58 The Purpurariæ, or " Purple Islands," probably the Madeira grou
 37.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 107

CHAP. 37. (32 . ) —THE FORTUNATE ISLANDS.

here are some authors who think that beyond these are the
unate Islands,59 and some others ; the number of which
osus gives, as well as the distances, informing us that Juno-
60 is an island seven hundred and fifty miles distant from
les. He states also that Pluvialia¹ and Capraria are the
he distance from Junonia, to the west ; and that in Pluvi-
a the only fresh water to be obtained is rain water. He
en states that at a distance of two hundred and fifty miles
om these, opposite the left of Mauritania, and situate in the
rection of the sun at the eighth hour, are the Fortunate
lands,63 one of which, from its undulating surface, has the
64
ame of Invallis, and another that of Planasia,65 from the pe-
66
aliarity of its appearance. He states also that the circumfe-
ence of Invallis is three hundred miles, and that trees grow
a height of one hundred and fourteen feet.
Relative to the Fortunate Islands, Juba has ascertained the
ollowing facts : that they are situate to the south in nearly a
lue westerly direction, and at a distance from the Purple
Islands of six hundred and twenty-five miles, the sailing being
made for two hundred and fifty miles due west, and then three
hundred and seventy-five towards the east." He states that
the first is called Ombrios,68 and that it presents no traces of
buildings whatever ; that among the mountains there is a lake,
69
and some trees, which bear a strong resemblance to giant
59 Or Islands of the Blessed- the modern Canaries.
60 Supposed to be the modern island of Fuerteventura.
61 Supposed to be that now called Ferro.
52 Probably the modern Gomera. In B. iv. c. 36, Pliny mentions them
as six in number, there being actually seven.
63 He does not appear on this occasion to reckon those already men-
tioned as belonging to the group of the Fortunatæ Insula.
64 The present Isle of Teneriffe.
65 Supposed to be that now called Gran Canaria.
66 The smoothness of its surface.
67 It is impossible to see clearly what he means. Littré says that it
has been explained by some to mean, that from the Purpurariæ, or Madeira
Islands, it is a course of 250 miles to the west to the Fortunate or Canary
Islands; but that to return from the Fortunate to the Purpurariæ, required
a more circuitous route in an easterly direction.
69 Or Pluvialia, the Rainy Island, previously mentioned.
* Salmasius thinks that the sugar-cane is here alluded to. Hardouin
108 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

fennel, and from which water is extracted ; that drawn fro

those that are black is of a bitter taste, but that produced b
the white ones is agreeable and good for drinking. He state
also that a second island has the name of Junonia, but tha
it contains nothing beyond a small temple of stone : also th
in its vicinity there is another, but smaller, island 70 of th
same name, and then another called Capraria, which is in
fested by multitudes of huge lizards. According to the sam
author, in sight of these islands is Ninguaria," which has r
ceived that name from its perpetual snows ; this island aboun
also in fogs. The one next to it is Canaria ;72 it contains va
multitudes of dogs of very large size, two of which we
brought home to Juba : there are some traces of buildings to
seen here. While all these islands abound in fruit and bir
of every kind, this one produces in great numbers the date pal
which bears the caryota, also pine nuts. Honey too aboun
here, and in the rivers papyrus, and the fish called silurus
are found. These islands, however, are greatly annoyed
the putrefying bodies of monsters, which are constantly throw
up by the sea.

CHAP. 38. - THE COMPARATIVE DISTANCES OF PLACES ON TH

FACE OF THE EARTH.

Having now fully described the earth, both without74

well as within, it seems only proper that we should succinct
state the length and breadth of its various seas.
(33. ) Polybius has stated, that in a straight line from t
Straits of Gades to the mouth of the Mæotis, it is a distance
says that in Ferro there still grows a tree of this nature, known as
$6 holy tree."
70 Or the Lesser Junonia ; supposed to be the same as the modern La
zarote.
71 Or " Snow Island," the same as that previously called Invallis,
modern Teneriffe, with its snow- capped peak.
72 So called from its canine inhabitants.
73 As to the silurus, see B. ix. c. 17.
74 Hardouin takes this to mean, both as to the continent, with
places there situate, and the seas, with the islands there found ; the c
tinent being the interior, and the seas the exterior part. It is much m
likely, however, that his description of the interior of the earth is t
given in the 2nd Book, while the account of the exterior is set forth in
geographical notices contained in the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th.
38. ] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 109

thousand four hundred and thirty-seven miles and a half,

that, starting from the same point," the distance in a
ght line to Sicily is twelve hundred and fifty miles, from
ce to Crete three hundred and seventy-five, to Rhodes one
red and eighty- seven and a half, to the Chelidonian Islands
same distance, to Cyprus two hundred and twenty-five,
from thence to Seleucia Pieria, in Syria, one hundred and
en miles : the sum of all which distances amounts to two
sand three hundred and forty miles. Agrippa estimates
same distance, in a straight line from the Straits of Gades
he Gulf of Issus, at three thousand three hundred and forty
es ; in which computation, however, I am not certain that
re is not some error in the figures, seeing that the same
hor has stated that the distance from the Straits of Sicily to
exandria is thirteen hundred and fifty miles. Taking the
ole length of the sea-line throughout the gulfs above -men-
ned, and beginning at the same point,76 he makes it ten
ousand and fifty-eight miles ; to which number Artemidorus
s added seven hundred and fifty-six : the same author, in-
uding in his calculation the shores of the Mæotis, makes the
hole distance seventeen thousand three hundred and ninety
iles. Such is the measurement given by men who have
enetrated into distant countries, unaided by force of arms,
d have, with a boldness that exhibits itself in the times of
eace even, challenged, as it were, Fortune herself.
I shall now proceed to compare the dimensions of the various
arts of the earth, however great the difficulties which may
rise from the discrepancy of the accounts given by various
uthors : the most convenient method, however, will be that
of adding the breadth to the length." Following this mode
of reckoning, the dimensions of Europe will be eight thou-
sand two hundred and ninety-four miles ; of Africa, to adopt
a mean between all the various accounts given by authors, the
length is three thousand seven hundred and ninety-four miles,
while the breadth, so far as it is inhabited, in no part exceeds

75 The Straits of Gades or Cadiz.

76 The Straits of Gades.
77 Littré has the following remark : " Is it possible that Pliny can have
imagined that the extent of a surface could be ascertained by adding the
length to the breadth ?" It is just possible that such may not have been
his meaning ; but it seems quite impossible to divine what it was.
110 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book V

two hundred and fifty miles." . But, as Agrippa, including i

deserts, makes it from Cyrenaica, a part of it, to the country
the Garamantes, so far as was then known, a further distance
nine hundred and ten miles, the entire length, added togethe
will make a distance of four thousand six hundred and eig
miles. The length of Asia is generally admitted 79 to be s
thousand three hundred and seventy-five miles, and the breadt
which ought, properly, to be reckoned from the Ethiopian S
to Alexandria,80 near the river Nile, so as to run through Mer
and Syene, is eighteen hundred and seventy-five. It appea
then that Europe is greater than Asia, by a little less than o
half of Asia, and greater than Africa by as much again of Afri
and one-sixth. If all these sums are added together, it w
be clearly seen that Europe is one-third , and a little more th
one-eighth part of one-third, Asia one-fourth and one-fou
teenth part of one-fourth, and Africa, one-fifth and one- sixtie
part of one-fifth of the whole earth.81

CHAP. 39.- DIVISION OF THE EARTH INTO PARALLELS AND

SHADOWS OF EQUAL LENGTH.
To the above we shall add even another instance of ingeni
discovery by the Greeks, and indeed of the most minute sl
fulness ; that so nothing may be wanting to our investigation
the geographical divisions of the earth, and the various countr
thereof which have been pointed out ; that it may be
better understood , too, what affinity, or relationship as it we
exists between one region and another, in respect to the len
of their days and nights, and in which of them the shado
are of equal length, and the distance from the pole is the sa
I shall therefore give these particulars as well, and sl
state the divisions of the whole earth in accordance with
various sections of the heavens. The lines or segments wh

78 He means to say that the interior is not inhabited beyond a dist

of 250 miles from the sea-coast. 79 See B. v. c. 9.
80 He is probably speaking only of that part of Asia which incl
Egypt, on the eastern side of the river Nile, according to ancient geogra
His mode, however, of reckoning the breadth of Asia, i.e. from sout
north, is singular. See p. 104.
81 On a rough calculation, these aliquot parts in all would make 42
parts of the unit. It is not improbable that the figures given above a
dimensions are incorrect, as they do not agree with the fractional re
here given by Pliny.
 39.] ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, ETC. 111
•
le the world are many in number ; by our people they
known as " circuli " or circles, by the Greeks they are
ed " paralleli " or parallels .
34. ) The first begins at that part of India which looks to-
ds the south, and extends to Arabia and those who dwell
n the borders of the Red Sea. It embraces the Gedrosi,
Carmanii, the Persæ, the Elymæi, Parthyene, Aria, Susi-
, Mesopotamia, Seleucia surnamed Babylonia, Arabia as far
Petra, Cole Syria, Pelusium, the lower parts of Egypt called
e Chora of Alexandria, the maritime parts of Africa, all the
ies of Cyrenaica, Thapsus, Adrumetum, Clupea, Carthage,
cica, the two Hippo's, Numidia, the two Mauritanias, the
tlantic Sea, and the Pillars of Hercules. Within the me-
lian of this parallel, on the middle day of the equinox, the
n of the dial, usually called the gnomon, if seven feet in
ngth, throws a shadow at mid-day no more than four feet long :
he longest day and night are fourteen equinoctial hours
espectively, the shortest being only ten.
The next circle or parallel begins with the western parts of
India, and runs through the middle of Parthia, through Per-
sepolis, the nearer parts of Persis, the nearer Arabia, Judæa, and
the people who live near Mount Libanus, and it embraces Baby-
lon, Idumæa, Samaria, Hierosolyma, Ascalon, Joppa, Cæsarea
in Phoenicia, Ptolemais, Sidon, Tyre, Berytus, Botrys, Tripolis,
Byblus, Antiochia, Laodicea, Seleucia, the maritime parts of
Cilicia, the southern parts of Cyprus, Crete, Lilybæum in
Sicily, and the northern parts of Africa and Numidia. In these
regions, at the time of the equinox, a gnomon of thirty-five
feet in length gives only a shadow twenty-four feet long ; and
the longest day and night are respectively fourteen equinoctial
hours, and one-fifth of an hour, in length.
The third circle or parallel begins at the part of India
which lies in the vicinity of Mount Imaüs, and runs through
the Caspian Gates and the nearer parts of Media, Cataonia,
Cappadocia, Taurus, Amanus, Issus, the Passes of Cilicia,
Soli, Tarsus, Cyprus, Pisidia, Side in Pamphylia, Lycaonia,
Patara in Lycia, Xanthus, Caunus, Rhodes, Cos, Halicar-
nassus, Cnidos, Doris, Chios, Delos, the middle of the Cyclades,
Gythium, Malea, Argos, Laconia, Elis, Olympia, Messenia in
Peloponnesus, Syracuse, Catina, the middle of Sicily, the
southern parts of Sardinia, Carteia, and Gades. A gnomon,
 112 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

one hundred inches in length, throws a shadow seventy

seven inches long ; the length of the longest day is fourtee
equinoctial hours and a half, plus one thirtieth of an hour.
Under the fourth circle or parallel lie those parts of Ind
which are on the other side of the Imaüs, the southern par
of Cappadocia, Galatia, Mysia, Sardis, Smyrna, Sipylu
Mount Tmolus, Lydia, Caria, Ionia, Tralles, Colopho
Ephesus, Miletus, Chios, Samos, the Icarian Sea, the norther
part of the Cyclades, Athens, Megara, Corinth, Sicyon, Achai
Patræ, the Isthmus, Epirus, the northern parts of Sicily, th
eastern parts of Gallia Narbonensis, and the sea-coast of Spai
from New Carthage westward. In these districts a gnom
of twenty-one feet throws a shadow of sixteen feet in length
the longest day contains fourteen equinoctial hours and tw
thirds of an hour.
Under the fifth zone are included, from the entrance to t
Caspian Sea, the Bactri, Iberia, Armenia, Mysia, Phrygia, t
Hellespont, Troas, Tenedos, Abydos, Scepsis, Ilium, Mour
Ida, Cyzicus, Lampsacus, Sinope, Amisus, Heraclea in Pont
Paphlagonia, Lemnos, Imbros, Thasos, Cassandria, Thessal
Macedonia, Larissa, Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, Edess
Bercea, Pharsalia, Carystus, Euboea in Boeotia, Chalcis, Delpl
Acarnania, Ætolia, Apollonia, Brudisium, Tarentum, Thur
Locri, Rhegium, the Lucani, Neapolis, Puteoli, the Tuscan Se
Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the middle of Spain.
gnomon, seven feet in length, in these countries gives a shad
of six feet, and the length of the day is fifteen equinoctial hou
The sixth division, in which Rome is included, embrac
the Caspian nations, Caucasus, the northern parts of A
menia, Apollonia on the Rhyndacus, Nicomedia, Nica
Chalcedon, Byzantium, Lysimachia, the Chersonnesus, t
Gulf of Melas, Abdera, Samothracia, Maronea, Enus, Bessi
Thracia, Mædica, Pæonia, the Illyrii, Dyrrhachium, Can
sium, the extreme parts of Apulia, Campania, Etruria, Pis
Luna, Luca, Genua, Liguria, Antipolis, Massilia, Nar
Tarraco, the middle parts of Hispania Tarraconensis, a
thence through Lusitania. A gnomon of nine feet h
throws a shadow eight feet long ; the greatest length of t
day is fifteen equinoctial hours, plus one-ninth part of an ho
or, according to Nigidius, one-fifth.
The seventh division begins on the other side of the Caspi
p . 39.j ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 113

, and the line runs above Callatis, and through the Bos-
us, the Borysthenes, Tomi, the back part of Thrace, the
balli , the remainder of Illyricum, the Adriatic Sea, Aquileia,
inum, Venetia, Vicetia, Patavium, Verona, Cremona, Ra-
ana, Ancona, Picenum, the Marsi, the Peligni, the Sabini,
nbria, Ariminum, Bononia, Placentia, Mediolanum, all the
stricts at the foot of the Apennines, and, beyond the Alps,
allia Aquitanica, Vienna, the Pyrenæan range, and Celti-
ria. A gnomon thirty-five feet in length here throws a
adow of thirty-six feet, except in some parts of Venetia,
here the shadow just equals the length of the gnomon ; the
ngest day is fifteen equinoctial hours, plus three-fifths of an
our.
Thus far we have set forth the results of observations made
y the ancients . The remaining part of the earth has been
livided, through the careful researches of those of more recent
imes, by three additional parallels. The first runs from the
Tanais through the Mæotis and the country of the Sarmatæ,
as far as the Borysthenes, and so through the Daci and part of
Germany, and the Gallic provinces, as far as the shores of the
ocean, the longest day being sixteen hours.
The second parallel runs through the country of the Hyper-
borei and the island of Britannia, the longest day being
seventeen hours in length .
The last of all is the Scythian parallel, which runs from the 82
Riphæan range to Thule, in which, as we have already stated ,
the year is divided into days and nights alternately, of six
months' duration. The same authors have also placed before
the first parallel, which we have here given,83 two other parallels
or circles ; the first running through the island of Meroë and
the city of Ptolemais which was built on the Red Sea for
the chase of the elephant ; where the longest day is twelve
hours and a half in length ; and the second passing through
Syene in Egypt, in which the longest day is thirteen hours in
length. The same authors have also added half an hour to
each of the parallels, till they come to the last.
Thus far on the Geography of the earth.

SUMMARY. -Towns mentioned, eleven hundred and ninety-

four. Nations, five hundred and seventy-six. Noted rivers,
82 B. iv. c. 26. 83 In p. 111 .
VOL. II. 1 I
114 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI.

one hundred and fifteen. Famous mountains, thirty-eight.

Islands, one hundred and eight. Peoples or towns no longer
in existence, ninety- five. Remarkable events, narratives, and
observations, two thousand two hundred and fourteen.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED. -M. Agrippa, M. Varro, Varro

86
Atacinus,85 Cornelius Nepos, Hyginus, L. Vetus, Mela
Pomponius, Domitius Corbulo," Licinius Mucianus,91 Clau-
93
dius Caesar, Arruntius, Sebosus, Fabricius Tuscus,95 T.
Livius,96 Seneca," Nigidius. "
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED. - King Juba," Hecatæus,
2
Hellenicus, Damastes, Eudoxus, Dicæarchus," Bæton,
83 See end of B. iii. 8 See end of B. ii.
85 See end of B. iii. 86 See end of B. ii.
87 See end of B. iii. 88 See end of B. iii.
69 See end of B. iii. 90 See end of B. v.
91 See end of B. ii. 92 See end of B. v.
93 See end of B. iii. 94 See end of B. ii.
95 See end of B. iii.
96 The famous Roman historian, a native of Padua. He died at hi
native town, in the year A.D. 17, aged 76. Of his Annals, composed i
142, only 35 Books have come down to us. 1
97 L. Annæus Seneca, the Roman philosopher and millionnaire. He wa
put to death by Nero.
98 P. Nigidius Figulus, a Roman senator, and Pythagorean philosopher
skilled in astrology and other sciences. He was so celebrated for hi
knowledge, that Aulus Gellius pronounces him, next to Varro, the mos
learned of the Romans. He was an active partisan of Pompey, and wa
compelled by Cæsar to live at a distance from Rome. He died in exil
B.C. 44. There is a letter of consolation addressed to him by Cicero in h
Epistles " ad Familiares," which contains a warm tribute to his worth an
learning. 99 See end of B. v.
1 For Hecatæus of Miletus, see end of B. iv. Hecatæus of Abdera w
a contemporary of Alexander the Great and Ptolemy Lagides. He
thought to have accompanied the former in his Asiatic expedition as f
as Syria. He was a pupil of the sceptic Pyrrho, and is called a philosophe
critic, and grammarian. He was the author of a History ofEgypt, a wo
onthe Hyperborei, and a History of the Jews.
2 See end of B. iv. 3 See end of B. iv.
4 For Eudoxus of Cnidos, see end of B. ii. Eudoxus of Cyzicus was
geographer and a native of Egypt, who was employed by Ptolemy Eue
getes and his wife Cleopatra in voyages to India. He made attempts
circumnavigate Africa by sailing to the south, but without success. H
is supposed to have lived about B.c. 130. See B. ii. c. 67 of the prese
work.
5 See end of B. ii. See end of B. v.
 ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES , ETC. 115
p. 39. ]
mosthenes ,7 Patrocles, 8 Demodamas, " Clitarchus, 10
atosthenes, " Alexander the Great, 12 Ephorus, 13 Hip-
rchus, 14 Panatius,15 Callimachus,16 Artemidorus,17 Apol-
orus, 18 Agathocles, 19 Polybius, 20 Eumachus, 21 Ti-
eus Siculus,22 Alexander Polyhistor,23 Isidorus,24 Amome-
25 27 Onesicritus,28 Nearchus,29
s, Metrodorus, 26 Posidonius,
egasthenes,30 Diognetus,31 Aristocreon,32 Bion, 33 Dalion,34

7 See end of B. iv.

8 He commanded the fleets of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and of Seleucus Ni-
tor, by whose orders he paid a visit to the coasts of India. Strabo speaks
E his account of India as the best guide to the geography of that country.
9 A native ofMiletus -see the tenth Chapter of this Book. He appears
o have written a geographical work on Asia, from which Pliny derived
onsiderable assistance.
10 Son of Deinon, the historian ; he accompanied Alexander in his
Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of it. Quintus Curtius censures
him for his inaccuracy. Cicero, Quintilian, and Longinus, also speak in
slighting terms of his performance.
11 See end of B. ii.
12 He alludes to the letters of that monarch, and the journals which
were kept on the occasion of his expeditions. In the middle ages several
forged works were current under his name.
13 See end of B. iv. 14 See end of B. ii.
15 See end of B. v. 16 See end of B. iv.
17 See end of B. ii. 18 See end of B. iv.
19 See end of B. iv. 20 See end of B. iv.
21 See end of B. iv. 22 See end of B. iv.
23 See end ofB. iii. 24 See end of B. ii.
25 A Greek writer ofuncertain date, who wrote, as Pliny tells us, (c. 20 of
the present Book) , a work on the people called Attaci, or Attacori. He also
wrote another, describing a voyage, commenced at Memphis in Egypt.
26 See end of B. iii. 27 See end of B. ii.
28 See end of B. ii.
29 The admiral of Alexander, who sailed down the river Indus, and up
the Persian Gulf. It is not known when or where he died. After the
death of Alexander, he supported the cause of Antigonus. He left a
history or journal of his famous voyage.
30 See end of B. v.
31 Mentioned by Pliny in c. 21. He measured the distances of the
marches of Alexander the Great, and wrote a book on the subject.
32 See end of B. v.
33 A native of Soli . He is mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, asthe author
ofa work on Æthiopia, ofwhich some few fragments are preserved. Varro
and Plinymention him, also, as a writer on agriculture.
34 Awriter on geography and botany, again mentioned by Pliny in B. xx.
c. 73. He is supposed to have lived in the first century after Christ. See
also c. 35.
116 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI.

the Younger Simonides,35 Basilis,36 Xenophon37 of Lamp-

sacus.

35 Said to have been a native of Meroë, and to have written a History

of Ethiopia ; nothing else seems to be known of him.
36 The author of a work on India, of which the second Book is quoted by
Athenæus. From what Pliny says, in c. 35, he seems to have also writter
on Ethiopia. He is mentioned by Agatharchides as one of the writers o
the East : but nothing more seems to be known of him.
37 See end of B. iii.
 117

BOOK VII.¹

MAN , HIS BIRTH, HIS ORGANIZATION, AND THE INVEN-

TION OF THE ARTS.

CHAP. 1.- MAN.

SUCH then is the present state of the world, and of the coun-
tries, nations, more remarkable seas, islands, and cities which it
contains.2 The nature of the animated beings which exist
upon it, is hardly in any degree less worthy of our contem-
plation than its other features ; if, indeed, the human mind
is able to embrace the whole of so diversified a subject. Our
first attention is justly due to Man, for whose sake all other
things appear to have been produced by Nature ; though, on
the other hand, with so great and so severe penalties for the
enjoyment of her bounteous gifts, that it is far from easy to
determine, whether she has proved to him a kind parent, or a
merciless step-mother.
In the first place, she obliges him alone, of all animated
beings, to clothe himself with the spoils of the others ; while, to
all the rest, she has given various kinds of coverings, such as
shells, crusts, spines, hides, furs, bristles, hair, down, feathers,
scales, and fleeces.³ The very trunks of the trees even, she has
protected against the effects of heat and cold by a bark, which
is, in some cases, twofold . Man alone, at the very moment of

1 We here enter upon the third division of Pliny's Natural History,

which treats of Zoology, from the 7th to the 11th inclusive. Cuvier
has illustrated this part by many valuable notes, which originally appeared
in Lemaire's Bibliotheque Classique, 1827, and were afterwards incorporated,
with some additions, by Ajasson, in his translation of Pliny, published in
1829 ; Ajasson is the editor of this portion of Pliny's Natural History,
in Lemaire's Edition.- B.
2 This remark refers to the five preceding books, in which these sub-
jects have been treated in detail.— B.
3 We have a similar remark in Cicero, De. Nat. Deor. ii. 47.-B.
4 Ajasson remarks, that trees have two barks, an outer, and an inner and
thinner one ; but seems to think that by the word " gemino" here, Pliny
only means that the bark of trees is sometimes double its ordinary
thickness.
 118 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII
5
his birth cast naked upon the naked earth, does she abandon
to cries, to lamentations, and, a thing that is the case with no
other animal whatever, to tears : this, too, from the very mo-
ment that he enters upon existence." But as for laughter
why, by Hercules !-to laugh, if but for an instant only, has
never been granted to man before the fortieth day' from his
birth, and then it is looked upon as a miracle of precocity
Introduced thus to the light, man has fetters and swathing
8
instantly put upon all his limbs, a thing that falls to the lo
of none of the brutes even that are born among us. Born to
such singular good fortune," there lies the animal, which i
destined to command all the others, lies, fast bound hand and
foot, and weeping aloud ! such being the penalty which h
has to pay on beginning life, and that for the sole fault o
having been born. Alas ! for the folly of those who can thinl
after such a beginning as this, that they have been born for th
display of vanity !
The earliest presage of future strength, the earliest bount
of time, confers upon him nought but the resemblance to
quadruped.10 How soon does man gain the power of walking
How soon does he gain the faculty of speech ? How soon is hi
mouth fitted for mastication ? How long are the pulsations o
the crown of his head to proclaim him the weakest of all ani

5 It seems to have been the custom among the ancients to place the new
born child upon the ground immediately after its birth.
6 Pliny appears to have followed Lucretius in this gloomy view of th
commencement of human existence. See B. v. 1. 223, et seq.
7 This term of forty days is mentioned by Aristotle, in his Natur
History, as also by some modern physiologists.- B.
8 We may hence conclude, that the practice of swathing young infan
in tight bandages prevailed at Rome, in the time of Pliny, as it still do
in France, and many parts of the continent ; although it has, for son
years, been generally discontinued in this country. Buffon warmly co
demned this injurious system, eighty years ago, but without effect.-B.
9 "Feliciter natus ;" this appears so inconsistent with what is stated
the text, that it has been proposed to alter it into infeliciter, althoug
against the authority of all the MSS.; but it may be supposed, th
Pliny, as is not unusual with him, employs the term ironically.- B.
10 This reminds us of the terms of the riddle proposed to Edipus
the Sphinx : " What being is that, which, with four feet, has two feet a
three feet, and onlyone voice; but its feet vary, and where it has most it
weakest?" to which he answered, That it is man, who is a quadrup
(going on feet and hands) in childhood, two-footed in manhood, a
moving with the aid of a staff in old age.
ap . 1. ] OF MAN. 119

ated beings 11 And then, the diseases to which he is subject,

e numerous remedies which he is obliged to devise against
is maladies, and those thwarted every now and then by new
orms and features of disease.12 While other animals have
n instinctive knowledge of their natural powers ; some, of
heir swiftness of pace, some of their rapidity of flight, and
ome again of their power of swimming ; man is the only one
hat knows nothing, that can learn nothing without being
aught ; he can neither speak, nor walk, nor eat, ¹³ and, in
short, he can do nothing, at the prompting of nature only, but
weep. For this it is, that many have been of opinion, that it
were better not to have been born, or if born, to have been anni-
hilated¹¹ at the earliest possible moment.
To man alone, of all animated beings, has it been given, to
grieve, ¹ to him alone to be guilty of luxury and excess ; and
that in modes innumerable, and in every part of his body.
Man is the only being that is a prey to ambition, to avarice, to

11 He alludes to the gradual induration of the bones of the head which

takes place in the young of the human species, and imparts strength to it.
Aristotle, in his Hist. Anim., states the general opinion of the ancients,
that this takes place with the young of no other class of animated beings.
12 There is little doubt that new forms and features of disease are con- ļ
tinually making their appearance among mankind, and even the same
peoples, and have been from the earliest period ; it was so at Rome, in the
days of the Republic and of the Emperors. It is not improbable that these
new forms of disease depend greatly upon changes in the temperature and
diet. The plagues of 1348, 1666, and the Asiatic cholera of the present
day, are not improbably various features of what may be radically the same
disease. At the first period the beverage of the English was beer, or
rather sweet-wort, as the hop does not appear to have been used till a
later period. At the present day, tea and coffee, supported by ardent
spirits, form the almost universal beverage.
13 Pliny forgets, however, that infants do not require to be taught how
to suck.
14 According to Cicero, this opinion was more particularly expressed by
Silenus and Euripides. Seneca also, in his Consolation to Marcia, ex-
presses a very similar opinion. It was a very common saying, that " Those
whom the gods love, die young." It will be observed that Pliny here
uses the significant word " aboleri," implying utter annihilation after
death. It will be seen towards the end of this Book, that he laughed to
scorn the notion of the immortality of the soul.
i5 By the use of the word "luctus" he may probably mean 'tears ;"
but there is little doubt that all animals have their full share of sorrows,
brought upon them either by the tyranny and cruelty of man, or their own
unrestrained passions.
120 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VII.

an immoderate desire of life,16 to superstition," he is the only

one that troubles himself about his burial, and even what is to
become of him after death.18 By none is life held on a tenure
more frail ;19 none are more influenced by unbridled desires for
all things ; none are sensible of fears more bewildering ; none
are actuated by rage more frantic and violent. Other animals,
in fine, live at peace with those of their own kind ; we only
see them unite to make a stand against those of a different
species. The fierceness of the lion is not expended in fight-
ing with its own kind ; the sting of the serpent is not aimed
at the serpent ;20 and the monsters of the sea even, and the
fishes, vent their rage only on those of a different species. But
with man,-by Hercules ! most of his misfortunes are occasioned
21
by man.
(1. ) We have already given22 a general description of the
human race in our account of the different nations. Nor, in-
deed, do I now propose to treat of their manners and customs,
which are of infinite variety and almost as numerous asthevarious
groups themselves, into which mankind is divided ; but yet
there are somethings, which, I think, ought not to be omitted
16 This is said hyperbolically by Pliny. The brutes of the field have as
strong a love of life as man, although they may not be in fear of death, not
knowing what it is. That they know what pain is, is evident from
their instinctive attempts to avoid it.
17 Under this name he evidently intends to include all systems of re-
ligion, which he held in equal contempt..
18 Ajasson seems to think that he alludes to man's craving desire for
posthumous fame ; but it is pretty clear that he has in view the then pre-
valent notions of the life of the soul after the death of the body.
19 Pascal has a similar thought ; he says that " Man is a reed, and the
weakest reed of nature." The machinery of his body is minute and com-
plex in the extreme, but it can hardly be said that his life is exposed to as
many dangers dependent on the volition of, or on accidents arising from
other animated beings, as that of minute insects.
20 Ajasson refers to various classical authors for a similar statement
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that it is contrary to many well-known
facts.- B. The cravings of hunger and of the sexual appetite, are quite
sufficient to preclude the possibility of such a happy state of things among
the brutes as Pliny here describes.
21 It was this feeling that prompted the common saying among the an-
cients, " Homo homini lupus"-"Man to man is a wolf;" and most tru
it is, that
"Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn."
22 He alludes to the description already given in his geographica
Books, of man taken in the aggregate, and grouped into nations.
 1.] OF MAN. 121

more particularly, in relation to those peoples which dwell

- considerable distance from the sea ;23 among which, I
e no doubt, that some facts will appear of an astounding
ure, and, indeed , incredible to many. Who, for instance,
ld ever believe in the existence of the Ethiopians, who
not first seen them ? Indeed what is there that does not ap-
r marvellous, when it comes to our knowledge for the first
e 24 How many things, too, are looked upon as quite im-
sible, until they have been actually effected ?25 But it is
e fact, that every moment of our existence we are distrust-
g the power and the majesty of Nature, if the mind, instead
grasping her in her entirety, considers her only in detail.
ot to speak of peacocks, the spotted skins of tigers and pan-
ers, and the rich colours of so many animals, a trifling thing
parently to speak of, but of inestimable importance, when
e give it due consideration, is the existence of so many lan-
ages among the various nations, so many modes of speech,
o great a variety of expressions ; that to another, a man who
of a different country, is almost the same as no man at all.26
nd then, too, the human features and countenance, although
omposed of but some ten parts or little more, are so fashioned,
hat among so many thousands of men, there are no two in
existence who cannot be distinguished from one another, a
result which no art could possibly have produced, when con-
fined to so limited a number of combinations. In most points,
however, of this nature, I shall not be content to pledge my
own credit only, but shall confirm it in preference by referring
to my authorities, which shall be given on all subjects of a
nature to inspire doubt. My readers, however, must make no
objection to following the Greeks, who have proved them-

23 These are less known, as being less easy of access to travellers, and
it is accordingly in connection with these, that we always meet with the
most wonderful tales .- B.
24 This feeling is well expressed in the old and hackneyed adage, “ Omne
ignotum pro mirifico” —“ Everything that is unknown is taken for mar-
vellous."
25 Cuvier remarks, that Pliny generally employs this kind of oratorical
language when he is entering upon a part of his work in which he be-
trays a peculiar degree of credulity, and a total want of correct judgment
on physical topics.-B.
28 Being debarred from holding converse, the first great tie of sociality.
122 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

selves the most careful observers, as well as of the longe

standing.28

CHAP. 2.--THE WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS.

We have already stated, that there are certain tribes of t

Scythians, and, indeed, many other nations, which feed up
human flesh.29 This fact itself might, perhaps, appear i
credible, did we not recollect, that in the very centre of t
earth, in Italy and Sicily, nations formerly existed with the
monstrous propensities, the Cyclopes, 30 and the Læstrygones,
example ; and that, very recently, on the other side of the Al
it was the custom to offer human sacrifices, after the mann
of those nations ;31 and the difference is but small betwe
sacrificing human beings and eating them.32
In the vicinity also of those who dwell in the northern

28 Ajasson does not hesitate to style this remark, " ridiculum san
as every one knows that the Greeks were more noted for their lively in
gination, than for the correctness of their observations. - B. Surely Aj
son must have forgotten the existence of such men as Aristotle and Th
phrastus !
29 Pliny has previously denominated the Scythians " Anthropophag
and in B. iv. c. 26, and B. vi. c. 20, he employs the word as the pro
name of one of the Scythian tribes.-B.
30 See B. iii. c. 9.
31 See B. xxxvi. c. 5.
32 There can be no doubt, that cannibalism has existed at all tim
and that it now exists in some of the Asiatic and Polynesian islands ;
we must differ from Pliny in his opinion respecting the near connect
between human sacrifices and cannibalism ; the first was strictly a religi
rite, the other was the result of very different causes ; perhaps, in so
cases, the want of food ; but, in most instances, a much less pardona
motive.-B. Still, however, if nations go so far as to sacrifice hun
beings, there is an equal chance that a religious impulse may prompt th
to taste the flesh ; and when once this has been done, there is no tell
how soon it may be repeated, and that too for the gratification of the pala
According to Macrobius, human sacrifices were offered at Rome, down
the time of Brutus, who, on the establishment of the Republic, abolis
them. We read, however, in other authorities, that in 116, B.C. , two Ga
a male and a female, were sacrificed by the priests in one of the str
of Rome, shortly after which such practices were forbidden by the sen
except in those cases in which they had been ordered by the Sibyll
books. Still we read, in the time of Augustus, of one hundred knig
being sacrificed by his orders, at Perusia, and of a similar immolation
the time of the emperor Aurelian, A.D. 270. These, however, were all
ceptional cases, and do not imply a custom of offering hurnan sacrifices.
 2.] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 123

s , and not far from the spot from which the north wind
33
es, and the place which is called its cave, and is known
he name of Geskleithron, the Arimaspi are said to exist,
34
-m I have previously mentioned, a nation remarkable for
ing but one eye, and that placed in the middle of the fore-
d. This race is said to carry on a perpetual warfare with
Griffins, a kind of monster, with wings, as they are common-
represented, for the gold which they dig out of the mines,
I which these wild beasts retain and keep watch over with
ingular degree of cupidity, while the Arimaspi are equally
sirous to get possession of it.36 Many authors have stated to

3 Pliny, in describing the Riphæan mountains, B. iv. c. 26, calls them

elida Aquilonis conceptacula," "the cold asylum of the northern
sts ;" but we do not find the cavern mentioned in this or any other passage.
e name here employed has been supposed to be derived from the Greek
rds, yns Kλεpov, signifying the limit or boundary of the earth.- B.
Specuque ejus dicto," most probably means "the place called its cave,"
d not the " cave which I have described," as Dr. B. seems to have
ought:
34 They are merely enumerated among other tribes of Scythians, in-
abiting the country beyond the Palus Mæotis. See B. iv. c. 26, and
. vi . c . 19.—B.
35 The figures of the Gryphons or Griffins are found not uncommonly
on the friezes and walls at Pompeii. In the East, where there were no 10
afe places of deposit for money, it was the custom to bury it in the earth ;
ence, for the purpose of scaring depredators, the story was carefully cir-
culated that hidden treasures were guarded by serpents and dragons.
There can be little doubt that these stories, on arriving in the western
world, combined with the knowledge of the existence of gold in the Ura-
lian chain and other mountains of the East, gave rise to the stories of the
Griffins and the Arimaspi. It has been suggested that the Arimaspi were
no other than the modern Tsheremis, who dwelt on the left bank of the
Middle Volga, in the governments of Kasan, Simbirsk, and Saratov, not far
from the gold districts of the Uralian range.
36 It has been conjectured, that these fabulous tales of the combats of
the Arimaspi with the Griffins, were invented by the neighbouring tribes
of the Issedonæ or Essedones, who were anxious to throw a mystery over
the origin ofthe gold, that they might preserve the traffic in their own
hands. The Altai Mountains, in the north of Asia, contain many gold
mines, which are still worked, as well as traces of former workings. The
representation of an animal, somewhat similar to the Griffin, has been
found among the sculptures of Persepolis, and is conceived to have had
some allegorical allusion to the religion of the ancient inhabitants of
the place. Elian, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 27, gives an account of the
Griffin, and its contests with the Indians, for the gold, similar to that
here given.- B.
 124 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

this effect, among the most illustrious of whom are Herodotu

and Aristeas of Proconnesus.33
Beyond the other Scythian Anthropophagi, there is a countr
called Abarimon, situate in a certain great valley of Mour
Imaus, the inhabitants of which are a savage race, whos
feet are turned backwards,40 relatively to their legs : they pos
sess wonderful velocity, and wander about indiscriminate
with the wild beasts. We learn from Beeton, whose duty
was to take the measurements of the routes of Alexander th
Great, that this people cannot breathe in any climate exce
their own, for which reason it is impossible to take them b
fore any of the neighbouring kings ; nor could any of the
be brought before Alexander himself.
The Anthropophagi, whom we have previously mentioned
as dwelling ten days' journey beyond the Borysthenes, accor
ing to the account of Isigonus of Nicæa, were in the habit
drinking out of human skulls, 2 and placing the scalps, wi
the hair attached, upon their breasts, like so many napkin
The same author relates, that there is, in Albania, a certa
race of men, whose eyes are of a sea-green colour, and wh
43
have white hair from their earliest childhood, and that the
people see better in the night than in the day. He states al

38 We have an account of the Arimaspi, and of Aristeas, in Herod

tus, B. iv. cc. 13, 15, and 27. Most of the wonderful tales related in th
Chapter may be found in Aulus Gellius, B. ix. c. 4. We have an accou
also, of the Arimaspi in Solinus, very nearly in the words of Pliny. V
have some valuable remarks by Cuvier, on the account given by Pliny
the Arimaspi and the Griffins, and on the source from which it appea
to have originated, in Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 16, and Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 16
165.-B.
39 The modern Himalaya range.
40 Aulus Gellius relates this, among other wonderful tales, which a
contained in his Chapter " On the Miraculous Wonders of Barbaro
Nations," B. ix. c. 4. He cites, among his authorities, Aristeas and I
gonus, whom he designates as " writers of no mean authority." -B.
41 In B. iv. c. 26, and B. vi. c. 29.
42 One of the pleasures promised to the Gothic warriors, in the parad
of Odin, was to drink out of the skulls of their enemies.- B.
43 The variety of the human species to which the term Albino
been applied, from the whiteness of their hair and skin, is supposed
Cuvier to be more frequently found in the close valleys of mountain
districts, and may therefore have been very often met with in Alban
which is composed of valleys in the Caucasian range. -B.
 2.] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS . 125

the Sauromatæ , who dwell ten days' journey beyond the

sthenes, only take food every other day. "
rates of Pergamus relates, that there formerly existed in
vicinity of Parium, in the Hellespont, a race of men whom
calls Ophiogenes, and that by their touch they were able to
e those who had been stung by serpents, extracting the
son by the mere imposition of the hand.45 Varro tells us,
t there are still a few individuals in that district, whose
va effectually cures the stings of serpents. The same, too,
s the case with the tribe of the Psylli,46 in Africa, according
the account of Agatharchides ; these people received their
me from Psyllus, one of their kings, whose tomb is in exist-
ce, in the district of the Greater Syrtes. In the bodies of
ese people there was by nature a certain kind of poison,
hich was fatal to serpents, and the odour of which over-
owered them with torpor : with them it was a custom to ex-
ose children immediately after their birth to the fiercest ser-
ents, and in this manner to make proof of the fidelity of their
vives, the serpents not being repelled by such children as were
he offspring of adultery." This nation, however, was almost
entirely extirpated by the slaughter made of them by the

44 " Tertio die ;" literally, " on the third day." In reckoning the time
between two periods, the Romans included both of those periods in the
computation, whereas we include but one of them.
45 In countries where serpents abound, there have been, at all times,
jugglers, who profess to have a supernatural power, by which they are ren-
dered insensible to the poison of these animals. This is the case with the
Egyptians, and some of the oriental nations. They remove the poison-
fang from the serpent, and in this way render it perfectly harmless. Some
of the feats which were performed by the magicians in the court of Pha-
raoh, seem still to be practised in Egypt ; by pressing upon the upper part
of the spine, the animal is rendered rigid, while on removingthe pressure,
the animal is restored to its original state. These jugglers were also in the
habit, much to the surprise of the ignorant spectators, of sucking the
poison from the wounds produced by the bite of the serpent, which they
accompanied by various ceremonies and incantations : but it is a well-
knownfact, that this may be done with perfect safety, in reference to poisons
of all kinds, provided there be no breach in the cuticle of the mouth or
lips.-B.
46 See B. xxviii. c. 7. The best account, probably, of the Psylli, is that
found in Lucan's Pharsalia, B. ix. c. 890, et. seq.
47 This custom is referred to by Lucan, in his account of the Psylli,
B. ix. 1. 890, et seq.; and by Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 57, and B. xvi .
c. 27, 28.-B.
126 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VI

Nasamones, who now occupy their territory.48 This race, how

ever, still survives in a few persons who are descendants
those who either took to flight or else were absent on the o
casion of the battle. The Marsi, in Italy, are still in possessio
of the same power, for which, it is said, they are indebte
to their origin from the son of Circe, from whom they acquire
it as a natural quality. But the fact is, that all men posse
in their bodies a poison which acts upon serpents, and th
human saliva, it is said, makes them take to flight, as thoug
they had been touched with boiling water. The same su
stance, it is said, destroys them the moment it enters the
throat, and more particularly so, if it should happen to be th
saliva of a man who is fasting ."49
Above the Nasamones,50 and the Machlyæ, who border upd
them, are found, as we learn from Calliphanes, the nation
the Androgyni, a people who unite the two sexes in the san
individual, and alternately perform the functionsof each
Aristotle also states, that their right breast is that of a mal
the left that of a female.51
Isigonus and Nymphodorus inform us that there are
Africa certain families of enchanters,52 who, by means of the
charms, in the form of commendations, can cause cattle
perish, trees to wither, and infants to die. Isigonus adds, th
48 Herodotus, B. iv. c. 173, gives a somewhat different account ; see al
Aulus Gellius, B. xvi. c. 11, who follows the narrative of Herodotus. G
lius also gives an account of the Marsi, which is similar to that of Pliny.--
49 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this alleged effect of the hum
saliva is without foundation. The saliva of a person who has fasted
some time, is still, in this country, a popular remedy for ophthalmia.
contains a greater proportion of saline matter than saliva under ordina
circumstances.- B.
50 The Nasamones have been enumerated among the inhabitants of t
northern part of Africa, near the Greater Syrtis, v. 5. See also Herodot
B. ii. c. 32, and B. vi. c. 172 and 190.-B.
51 Certain individuals are occasionally met with, whose generative orga
exhibit an unusual formation, so as to give the idea of their uniting bo
sexes in the same person ; and there are instances, where parts peculiar
both sexes actually appear to exist, but always in an imperfect or rudimenta
state ; all beyond this is undoubtedly fabulous. See Todd's Cyclop.
Anat. in loco.-B.
52 There are, at the present day, individuals among the negroes, w
profess to have the power of enchantment, which, however, appears
consist in their possessing the knowledge of various poisons, which th
not unfrequently administer, and by these means obtain great influen
over the minds of the people. - B.
 2.] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS . 127

are among the Triballi and the Illyrii, some persons of

description, who also have the power of fascination with
eyes, and can even kill those on whom they fix their gaze
ny length of time, more especially if their look denotes
er ; the age of puberty is said to be 53particularly obnoxious
ne malign influence of such persons.
I still more remarkable circumstance is, the fact that these
-ons have two pupils in each eye.54 Apollonides says, that
e are certain females of this description in Scythia, who
known as Bythiæ, and Phylarchus states that a tribe of the
bii in Pontus, and many other persons as well, have a
ble pupil in one eye, and in the other the figure of a horse.55
also remarks, that the bodies of these persons will not sink
56
water, even though weighed down by their garments.
This power of the eye is referred to by Virgil, Ecl. iii. 1. 103 :
What eye is it that has fascinated my tender lambs ?"
e evil eye is still an article of belief in Egypt and in some parts of the
st . Witchcraft, in various forms, was greatly credited in the most en-
htened parts of Europe, not more than two centuries ago, and is not yet
cluded from the vulgar creed. -B.
54 It is well known that nothing of this kind was ever observed in any
man eye, nor have we any method of accounting for the origin of this
ngular notion.- B. Brand, in his Popular Antiquities, says that he
s no doubt whatever that the common expression " no one can say ' black
my eye"" [or rather " black is the white of my eye"]-meaning that no
ne can justly speak ill of me, was derived from the notion of the en-
anting, or bewitching, eye. He quotes from Reginald Scott's " Dis-
overy of Witchcraft :" " Many writers agree with Virgil and Theocritus
n the effect of bewitching eyes, affirming that in Scythia there are wo-
en called the Bythiæ, having two balls, or rather blacks, in the apples of
heir eyes.' These, forsooth, with their angry looks, do bewitch and hurt,
not only young lambs, but young children." See Brand's Popular An-
iquities, vol. iii. pp. 44-46. See also Ennemoser's Hist. of Magic,
wol. ii. pp. 160, 161. Bohn's Editions.
55 Some of the commentators have supposed, that Pliny, or Phylarchus,
from whom he borrows, was misled by the ambiguity of the Greek term
ίππος, which signifies either a horse, or a tremulous motion of the eye.
But, even admitting this to be the case, the wonder is scarcely diminished ;
for we have the double pupil in one eye, while this supposed tremulous
motion is confined to the other. -B.
56 In all ages, it has been a prevalent superstition, that those endowed
with magical qualities will not sink in water, encouraged, no doubt, by the
cunning of those who might wish to make the charge a means of wreak-
ing their vengeance. If they sank, they were to be deemed innocent, but
were drowned; if, on the other hand they floated, they were deemed guilty,
and handed over to the strong arm of the law. In reference to this usage,
128 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII

Damon gives an account of a race of people, not very much

unlike them, the Pharnaces of Ethiopia, whose perspiration
is productive of consumption 57 to the body of every person tha
it touches. Cicero also, one of our own writers, makes the re
mark, that the glances of all women who have a double pupi
is noxious.58
To this extent, then, has nature, when she produced in man
in common with the wild beasts, a taste for human flesh
thought fit to produce poisons as well in every part of hi
body, and in the eyes even of some persons, taking care tha
there should be no evil influence in existence, which was no
to be found in the human body. Not far from the city o
Rome, in the territory of the Falisci, a few families are found
who are known by the name of Hirpi. These people perfor
a yearly sacrifice to Apollo, on Mount Soracte, on which occa
sion they walk over a burning pile of wood, without bein
scorched even . On this account, by virtue of a decree of th
senate, they are always exempted from military service, an
from all other public duties.59
Some individuals, again, are born with certain parts of th
body endowed with properties of a marvellous nature. Su
was the case with King Pyrrhus, the great toe of whose rigl
foot cured diseases of the spleen, merely by touching the p
tient.60 We are also informed, that this toe could not be r
Brand says (" Popular Antiquities," vol. iii.), " Swimming a witch was a
other kind of popular ordeal. By this method she was handled not l
indecently than cruelly for she was stripped naked and cross bound, t
right thumb to the left toe, and the left thumb to the right toe. In th
state she was cast into a pond or river, in which, if guilty, it was thoug
impossible for her to sink."
57 This is probably the meaning of the word " tabem ” here ; though
may possibly signify " rottenness," or " putrefaction."
5 This remark is not contained in any of the works of Cicero now e
tant.-B.
59 Cuvier observes, that these people probably exercise some decepti
analogous to that practised by a Spaniard, who exhibited himself in Par
and professed to be incombustible, but who, eventually, was the dupe
his own quackery, and paid the penalty with his life. It would appe
that the Hirpi were not confined to one district, but dispersed over diff
ent parts of Italy. See the note of Heyne, on the prayer of Aruns, A
B. xi. 1. 785, et seq.-B.
60 Plutarch relates these supposed facts in his life of Pyrrhus ; this sta
ment may be considered analogous to what has been recorded in mod
times, respecting the efficacy of the royal touch in curing certain diseas
especially what has been termed the " King's evil." -B.
p . 2.] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS . 129

ed to ashes together with the other portions of his body ;

on which it was placed in a coffer, and preserved in a
aple.
India, and the region of Ethiopia more especially, abounds
wonders.61 In India the largest of animals are produced ;
eir dogs,62 for example, are much bigger thanthose of any
mer country .63 The trees, too, are said to be of such vast
eight, that it is impossible to send an arrow over them. This
the result of the singular fertility of the soil, the equable
mperature of the atmosphere, and the abundance of water ;
hich, if we are to believe what is said, are such, that a single
g- tree is capable of affording shelter to a whole troop of
orse. The reeds here are also of such enormous length, that
ach portion of them, between the joints, forms a tube, of
which a boat is made that is capable of holding three men.65
t is a well-known fact, that many of the people here are more
han five cubits in height.66 These people never expectorate,
are subject to no pains, either in the head, the teeth, or the
eyes, and rarely in any other parts of the body ; so well is the
heat of the sun calculated to strengthen the constitution.
Their philosophers, who are called Gymnosophists, remain in
one posture, with their eyes immovably fixed upon the sun,
ļ
from its rising to its setting, and, during the whole of the day,
they are accustomed to stand in the burning sands on one is
foot, first one and then the other.67 According to the ac-
61 Horace, Odes, B. i. O. 22, characterises the Hydaspes, a river of India,
by the title of " fabulosus."- B.
62 See B. viii. c. 40.
63 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xvi. c. 11, and B. xvii. c. 26, refers to the
large size of many of the animals of India ; and in B. iv. c. 19, he especially
describes the size and fierceness of the Indian dog.-B.
6 The Ficus religiosa of Linnæus, the branches of which have the
property of taking root when they are bent down to the ground, and of
forming new stems, which again produce other branches, that may be bent
down in the same way, so as to cover an indefinite space.- B. More popu-
larly known as the " banyan tree." See B. xii . c. 11 .
65 The bambos arundinacea, or bamboo cane, is a reed or plant of the
gramineous kind, which frequently grows to the height of the tallest trees.
The stem is hollow, and the parts of it between the joints are used by the
natives to form their canoes. We have an account of them in Herodotus,
B. iii. c. 98.-B. See also B. xvi. c. 65 of this work.
66 It does not appear that the stature of the Indians exceeds that of the
inhabitants of the temperate zones. - B.
67 Some practices very similar to these exist in certain parts of India,
VOL. 11. K
 130 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII

count of Megasthenes, dwelling upon a mountain called Nulo

there is a race of men who have their feet turned backwards,
with eight toes on each foot.69
On many of the mountains again, there is a tribe of mer
who have the heads of dogs,70 and clothe themselves with
the skins of wild beasts . Instead of speaking, they bark ; and
furnished with claws, they live by hunting and catching birds
According to the story, as given by Ctesias, the number of thes
people is more than a hundred and twenty thousand and th
same author tells us, that there is a certain race in India, o
1 which the females are pregnant once only in the course of thei
lives, and that the hair of the children becomes white the in
stant they are born. He speaks also of another race of men
who are known as Monocoli," who have only one leg, but ar
able to leap with surprising agility.72 The same people ar
also called Sciapodæ,73 because they are in the habit of lyin
on their backs, during the time of the extreme heat, and protec
themselves from the sun by the shade of their feet. Thes
.74
people, he says, dwell not very far from the Troglodyte ;7
the west of whom again there is a tribe who are withou
necks, and have eyes in their shoulders.75
by the Fakirs, a peculiar class of devotees, and are regarded either in th
light of religious ceremonies, or of modes of performing penance. -B.
68 Henderson states, in his " Biblical Researches," that there is a ra
of people found in the Caucasus, and known as the Ingusch, and that it
their belief that a race of dæmons exists, which assume the appearance
armed men, and have the feet inverted.
69 Cuvier remarks, that these wonderful tales are generally related of t
inhabitants of mountainous districts, as being less known and less acce
sible to travellers .- B .
70 This account probably originated in a species of monkey, with a pr
jecting
66 Dog's muzzle, called, from this circumstance, " cynocephalus," or t
head." This account of the cynocephali is repeated by Aul
Gellius, B. ix. c. 4.-B. The cynocephalus is generally considered to
the baboon.
71 So called, άò rov μovov kúλov, " from having but one leg." It
not improbable that these stories were first told of these nations from t
resemblance of their names to the Greek words having these signification
72 We have no method of explaining the origin of this story. It is
be regretted, that Pliny should have adopted so many ridiculous fables,
the doubtful authority of Ctesias.-B.
73 From ExiaToÜç, " making a shadow with his foot." -B.
74 Or " dwellers in caves."
75 It has been conjectured, that this account may have originated in
dwarfish stature and short necks of the northern tribes, according to t
hap . 2. ] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS . 131

Among the mountainous districts of the eastern parts of

dia, in what is called the country of the Catharcludi, we
nd the Satyr," an animal of extraordinary swiftness. These
o sometimes on four feet, and sometimes walk erect ; they
ave also the features of a human being. On account of their
wiftness, these creatures are never to be caught, except when
hey are either aged or sickly. Tauron gives the name of
Choromandæ to a nation which dwell in the woods and have
o proper voice. These people screech in a frightful manner ;
heir bodies are covered with hair, their eyes are of a sea-green
colour, and their teeth like those of the dog." Eudoxus tells
us, that in the southern parts of India, the men have feet a +
cubit in length ; while those of the women are so remarkably
small, that they are called Struthopodes.78
Megasthenes places among the Nomades " of India, a people
who are called Scyritæ. These have merely holes in their
faces instead of nostrils, and flexible feet, like the body of
the serpent. At the very extremity of India, on the eastern
side, near the source of the river Ganges, there is the nation
of the Astomi, a people who have no mouths ; their bodies
are rough and hairy, and they cover themselves with a down80
plucked from the leaves of trees. These people subsist only
by breathing and by the odours which they inhale through the
usual exaggerated statements of the ancient travellers. Aulus Gellius
also repeats this fable, B. ix. c. 4.—B.
76 These are the great apes, which are found in some of the Oriental
islands ; this name was given them from their salacious disposition, which,
it would seem, they have manifested in reference to even the human spe-
cies. We have an account of the Satyrs in Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xvi.
c. 21.-B.
77 We may suppose that this description is taken from some incorrect
account of a large kind of ape ; but it seems impossible to refer it to any
particular species . -B.
78 " Sparrow," or " ostrich-footed ;" it does not appear that the com-
mentators have attempted to explain this passage ; may we not conjecture
that it refers to the Chinese ? With respect to the word employed, it has
been generally derived from στρουθος, 66 a sparrow ;" Dalechamps, how-
ever, as it would appear, with much plausibility, thinks that it is derived
from "struthio," the ostrich.- B. It is not improbable, however, that
these were so called, from the resemblance of their gait to that of a spar-
row, as they would be unable to step out, and be obliged to jump from
place to place.
79 Or "wandering tribes."
80 On this subject see B. vi. c. 20. It is clear that either silk or cotton
is here alluded to.
K 2
 132 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII.

nostrils. They support themselves upon neither meat nor

drink ; when they go upon a long journey they only carry with
them various odoriferous roots and flowers, and wild apples,81
that they may not be without something to smell at. But an
odour, which is a little more powerful than usual, easily de-
stroys them,82
Beyond these people, and at the very extremity of the moun-
tains, the Trispithami 83 and the Pygmies are said to exist ; two
races which are but three spans in height, that is to say, twenty-
seven inches only. They enjoy a salubrious atmosphere, and a
perpetual spring, being sheltered by the mountains from the
84
northern blasts ; it is these people that Homer 4 has mentioned
as being waged war upon by cranes. It is said, that they are
in the habit ofgoing down every spring to the sea-shore, in a large
body, seated on the backs of rams and goats, and armed with
arrows, and there destroy the eggs and the young of those
birds ; that this expedition occupies them for the space of thre
months, and that otherwise it would be impossible for them to
withstand the increasing multitudes of the cranes. Thei
cabins, it is said, are built of mud, mixed with feathers and
egg-shells. Aristotle, indeed, says, that they dwell in caves
but, in all other respects, he gives the same details as othe
writers.85
Isigonus informs us, that the Cyrni, a people of India, liv
to their four hundredth year ; and he is of opinion that th
same is the case also with the Ethiopian Macrobii,86 the Sera
and the inhabitants of Mount Athos.87 In the case of thes

81 In Eastern stories we find not uncommonly, wonderful effects attr

buted to the smell of the apple. See the Arabian Nights, passim.
82 Cuvier remarks, that these accounts of the Struthopodes, the Scyrita
and the Atomi, are not capable of any explanation, being mere fables.-
83 From rosis, " three," and σauai, " spans," the span being abo
nine inches English.
84 He alludes to the wars between the Cranes and the Pygmies in t
Iliad, B. iii. 1. 3-6. Their story is also referred to by Ovid and Juvena
85 On the subject of the Pygmies, Cuvier remarks, " I am not surpris
at finding the Pygmies in the works of Homer ; but to find them in Plin
I am surprised, indeed ." - B.
86 Or the "long livers," from the Greekpaxpòs, "long," and Bios, "life
87 Of course, there is no truth in this statement ; there are, no dou
various circumstances in these countries favourable to longevity ; but the
are more than counter-balanced by certain peculiarities in their mode
life, and by the fatal epidemics to which they are occasionally subject.-
hap. 2.] WONDERFUL FORMS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 133

ast, it is supposed to be owing to the flesh of vipers, which

hey use as food ;88 in consequence of which, they are free also
from all noxious animals, both in their hair and their gar-
ments.
According to Onesicritus, in those parts of India where there
is no shadow, the bodies of men attain a height of five cubits
and two palms,90 and their life is prolonged to one hundred and
thirty years ; they die without any symptoms of old age, and
just as if they were in the middle period of life. Crates of
Pergamus calls the Indians, whose age exceeds one hundred
years, by the name of Gymnetæ ;91 but not a few authors style
them Macrobii. Ctesias mentions a tribe of them, known by
the name of Pandore, whose locality is in the valleys, and who
live to their two hundredth year ; their hair is white in youth,
and becomes black in old age.⁹2 On the other hand, there are
some people joining up to the country of the Macrobii, who
never live beyond their fortieth year, and their females have
children once only during their lives. This circumstance is
also mentioned by Agatharchides, who states, in addition, that
they live93 on locusts, and are very swift of foot. Clitarchus
and Megasthenes give these people the name of Mandi, and
enumerate as many as three hundred villages which belong to
them. Their women are capable of bearing children in the
seventh year of their age, and become old at forty.95

88 Pliny, in B. xxix. c. 38, speaks of the use of vipers' flesh as an

article of diet, and gives some minute directions for its preparation. It
was supposed to be peculiarly nutritive and restorative, and it has been
prescribed for the same purpose by modern physicians. There is a medal
in existence, probably struck by the Emperor Commodus, in order to com-
memorate the benefit which he was supposed to have derived from the use
of the flesh of vipers.- B.
89 See B. ii. c. 75.
90 The cubitus and the palmus of the Romans, estimated, respectively, at
about one foot and-a-half and three inches ; this would make the height of
these people eight feet.-B.
91 From the Greek Tuµvnτns, " one who takes much exercise of the
body."
92 There appears to be no foundation for this statement.- B.
93 See B. vi. c. 35.
94 In many of the warmer climates, where the locusts are of large size
and in great abundance, they are occasionally used as food ; but we have
no reason to believe that they constitute the sole, or even the principal
article ofthe food of any tribe or people.- B.
95 In warm climates, the females arrive at maturity considerably earlier
134 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII.

Artemidorus states that in the island of Taprobane, life is

prolonged to an extreme length, while, at the same time, the
body is exempt from weakness. According to Durisis, some of
the Indians have connection with beasts, and from this union
a mixture of half man, half beast, is produced." Among the
Calinga, a nation also of India, the women conceive at five
years of age, and do not live beyond their eighth year.98 In
other places again, there are men born with long hairy tails,99
and of remarkable swiftness of foot; while there are others that
have ears so large as to cover the whole body. '
The Oritæ are divided from the Indians by the river
Arabis ; they are acquainted with no food whatever except
fish, which they are in the habit of tearing to pieces with their
nails, and drying in the sun.³ Crates of Pergamus states, that
the Troglodyte, who dwell beyond Ethiopia, are able to out-
run the horse ; and that a tribe of the Ethiopians, who are
known as the Syrbotæ, exceed eight cubits in height.
There is a tribe of Ethiopian Nomades dwelling on the
banks of the river Astragus, towards the north, and about

than in the more temperate regions, but the age here mentioned is an ex-
aggeration. The female also, in such climates, ceases to bear at an earlier
age, probably before the fortieth year.-B.
96 This is the Island of Ceylon, of which Pliny has given an accoun
in the last Book, c. 24.
97 Such unnatural unions may have taken place occasionally, but no
thing has ever been produced from them.-B.
98 This is a still greater exaggeration than that mentioned above, in
Note 95.-B.
99 Cuvier remarks that this story must have been originally told with re
ference to the race of large apes. He says, however, that some men hav
the 66 os coccygis " greatly prolonged, and mentions a painter of celebrity
in Paris who had this malformation. "But from this to an actual tail,'
says he, "the distance is very great." In these times we have the (per
haps doubtful) account by M. de Couret, of the Niam Niams, a race in
Abyssinia or Nubia, with tails at least two inches in length. Few wil
fail to recollect Lord Monboddo's theory, that mankind originally ha
tails, but wore them off in lapse of time by climbing up the trees.
1 As far as there is any truth in this account, it must refer to certai
kinds of apes : but with respect to the size of the ears, it is, of course
greatly exaggerated.-B.
2 Or Cophes, see B. vi. c. 25.
3 There are many tribes who live on the sea-coast, and who inhabit
barren country, with a bad climate, whose diet is almost confined to fish
and who feed their cattle on it. This is the case in some parts of Iceland
and even, to a certain extent, among the people of the Hebrides.-B.
 ap. 3.] MARVELLOUS BIRTHS. 135

venty days' journey from the ocean. These people are called
Ienismini ; they live on the milk of the animal which we call
ynocephalus, and rear large flocks of these creatures, taking
are to kill the males, except such as they may preserve for the
purpose of breeding. In the deserts of Africa, men are fre-
quently seen to all appearance, and then vanish in an instant."
Nature, in her ingenuity, has created all these marvels in the
human race, with others of a similar nature, as so many amuse-
ments to herself, though they appear miraculous to us. But
who is there that can enumerate all the things that she brings
to pass each day, I may almost say each hour ? As a striking
evidence of her power, let it be sufficient for me to have cited
whole nations in the list of her prodigies.
Let us now proceed to mention some other particulars con-
nected with Man, the truth of which is universally admitted.

СНАР. 3..-MARVELLOUS BIRTHS.

(3.) That threechildren are sometimes produced at one birth, is

a well-known fact ; the case, for instance, of the Horatii and
the Curiatii. Where a greater number of children than this is
produced at one birth, it is looked upon as portentous, except,
indeed, in Egypt, where the water of the river Nile, which is
6
used for drink, is a promoter of fecundity. Very recently,
towards the close of the reign of the Emperor Augustus, now
deified, a certain woman of the lower orders, at Ostia, whose
name was Fausta, brought into the world, at one birth, two
male children and two females, a presage, no doubt, of the fa-
mine which shortly after took place. We find it stated, also,
that in Peloponnesus, a woman was delivered of five chil-
dren at a birth four successive times, and that the greater part
of all these children survived . Trogus informs us, that in

4 Or dog's-headed ape, the baboon : see B. vi. c. 35, and Note 70,
p. 130.
5 Perhaps these appearances may be referred to effects of what is termed
"mirage," a phenomenon which is described by travellers in different parts
of the torrid zone.-B. And in the temperate regions as well ; Switzer-
land and the Hartz mountains, for instance.
6 Columella, B. viii. c. 8, speaks of the fecundity of the Egyptians, but
without ascribing any particular cause for it.-B.
7 "Quinos." The old reading was 66 binos," "two " children only ;
but Aristotle, in reference, no doubt, to the same circumstance, says, Hist.
 136 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VII .
8
Egypt, as many as seven children are occasionally produced at
one birth ."
Individuals are occasionally born, who belong to both sexes
such persons we call by the name of hermaphrodites ; 10 they
were formerly called Androgyni, and were looked upon as
monsters, ¹¹ but at the present day they are employed for sensual
purposes.12
Pompeius Magnus, among the decorations of his theatre,13
erected certain statues of remarkable persons, which had been
executed with the greatest care by artists of the very highest

Anim. B. vii., " One woman, at four births, gave birth to twenty children .
For she brought forth five at a time, and the greater part of them were
reared."
8 It was a very general opinion, that the waters of the Nile possess the
property of promoting fecundity. Seneca mentions it as an acknowledged
fact, Nat. Quæst. B. iii. c. 25.-B.
9 There are well-authenticated accounts of four children having been
produced at one birth ; but, beyond this, we have no statements in which
we can place much confidence. In a note by Dalechamps, we have an
example of the credulity of the authors who have treated on this topic, as
well modern as ancient. -B. In the recent volumes, however, of " Notes
and Queries," we find some apparently well-authenticated cases of women
being delivered of five children at a birth . Nathaniel Wanley, in his
"Wonders of the Little World," also gives some apparently authentic in-
stances of as many as five children being born at a birth : but we must be
excused giving credit to the story, quoted by him, of Matilda or Margaret,
Countess of Henneberg, who was said to have been delivered, on the Fri-
day before Palm- Sunday, in 1276, " of 365 children, half sons and half
daughters, with the exception of one, which was an hermaphrodite, all
complete and well-fashioned, of the bigness of chickens new hatched ,
saith Camerarius."
10 From Hermaphroditus, the son of Hermes or Mercury, and Aphrodite
or Venus. According to the poetic story as told by Ovid, Met. B. iv., he
was united in one body, which bore the characteristics of both sexes, with
the nymph Salmacis.
11 Two cases of this description are mentioned by Livy, B. xxvii. c. 37,
and B. xxxi. c. 12. In this latter passage, Livy enumerates the following
prodigious births ; among the Sabines, two children of doubtful sex ; at
Frusino, a lamb with a sow's head ; at Sinuessa, a pig with a human
head ; and among the Lucani, a foal with five feet. He informs us that
the hermaphrodites were thrown into the sea.-B.
12 Cuvier says, " From time to time we do see persons of this nature
and it is not long ago that such a being was exhibited in Paris, though
certainly not of a nature to have been in deliciis, ' at the present day."
13 Pliny gives further particulars of this theatre in B. xxxvi. c. 24. It
was the first stone theatre erected at Rome, and was built B.C. 55, and
contained 40,000 spectators.
p . 3.] MARVELLOUS BIRTHS . 137

utation . Among others, we here read an inscription to the

owing effect: " Eutychis, " of Tralles, 15 was borne to the
"eral
16 pile by twenty of her children, having had thirty in
Also, Alcippe " was delivered of an elephant¹8-but then
at must be looked upon as a prodigy ; as in the case, too,
mere, at the commencement of the Marsian war,19 a female
ave was delivered of a serpent.20 Among these monstrous
rths, also, there are beings produced which unite in one body
e forms of several creatures. For instance, Claudius Cæsar
forms us, in his writings, that a Hippocentaur was born in
hessaly, but died on the same day : and indeed I have seen
ne myself, which in the reign of that emperor was brought
o him from Egypt, preserved in honey." We have a case,
14 Solinus, the ape of Pliny, absolutely takes the meaning of this pas-
age to be, that Eutychis herself was exhibited on the stage by the orders
f Pompey.
15 For Tralles, in Asia Minor, see B. v. c. 29.
16 Cuvier speaks of the wife of a porter at the Jardin du Roi, at Paris,
who, to his knowledge, had been the mother of thirty children.
17 It seems doubtful whether Pliny means that the statue of Alcippe was
also to be seen in the Theatre of Pompey. Tatianus tells the same story
of one Glaucippe, and it is not improbable that under that name he refers
to the same person. He says that a bronze statue of her was made by
Niceretus, the Athenian. Hardouin suggests that this is the story alluded
to by Livy, B. xxvii., and by Valerius Maximus, B. i. c. 6, in their state-
ment that, among other portents, a boy was born with the head of an ele-
phant.
18 Cuvier remarks, that it is not an uncommon circumstance, both in
man and in other animals, for an atrophy of the maxillary bones to cause the
nose to sink down, and produce some resemblance to the trunk of an
elephant. To this circumstance, he refers the tales met with, of women,
sows, and dogs having produced elephants ; see also Val. Maximus, B. vi.
c. 5.-B.
19 As to this war, see B. ii. c. 85. The portents observed on this oc-
casion were collected by the historian Sisenna, as we learn from Cicero, De
Divin. B. ii.
20 We find that this incredible tale is not only told by Julius Obse-
quens, but, according to Dalechamps, by Cornelius Gemma, a compara-
tively modern writer. - B.
21 Cuvier remarks, that, in certain quadrupeds, individuals are occa-
sionally born with the upper jaw preternaturally small, so much so, that
the lower jaw, by its projection, bears some resemblance to a human chin.
He had seen a case of this description at Geneva, in a calf, supposed, even
by persons of information, to be the produce of an unnatural connection of
a cow with a Savoyard shepherd. This subject is treated very philoso-
phically by Lucretius, B. v. c. 876, et seq. With respect to the sup-
posed Hippocentaur of Thessaly, Cuvier remarks upon the successive
138 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book V

also, of a child at Saguntum, which returned immediately in

its mother's womb, the same year in which that place w
destroyed by Hannibal.
(4. ) The change of females into males is undoubtedly
fable. We find it stated in the Annals, that, in the consulsh
of P. Licinius Crassus and C. Cassius Longinus,22 a girl, w
was living at Casinum23 with her parents, was changed into
boy ; and that, by the command of the Aruspices, he was co
veyed away to a desert island . Licinius Mucianus informs u
that he once saw at Argos a person whose name was then Ar
con, though he had been formerly called Arescusa : that this p
son had been married to a man, but that, shortly after, a bea
and marks of virility made their appearance, upon which
24
took to himself a wife. He had also seen a boy at Smyrna,2
whom the very same thing had happened. I myself saw
Africa one L. Cossicius, a citizen of Thysdris,25 who had be
changed into a man the very day on which he was marri
to a husband.26 When women are delivered of twins, it rar

additions which the story had gained, in the writings of various auth
Cicero, in various parts of his writings, refers to the account of the Hip
centaur as a fabulous tale ; Tusc. Quæst. B. i. c. 27 ; de Nat. Deor. B.
38, and B. ii. c. 2 ; De Divin. B. ii. c. 21.-B.
22 Consuls A.U.C. 581.
23 See B. iii. c. 9. Hardouin remarks that Aulus Gellius, in copy
from this passage, seems to have read the word " Casini," as though
were C. Asinii, meaning that the boy belonged to one C. Asinius. H
ever, it is pretty clear that the reading adopted is the right one, Pl
having been careful to give the various localities at which these wonde
facts occurred.
24 Phlegon tells us that this happened in the first year of Nero, and
the name of the youth, while supposed to be a girl, was Philotis.
25 See B. v. c. 4, 5.
26 A case of this description is mentioned by Ambrose Paré. The in
vidual was brought up as a girl, but, in consequence of a sudden musc
exertion, the organs of the male were developed, which had previo
been concealed internally. It may be remarked, that a great propor
of the well-authenticated cases of a supposed change of sex have been f
the female to the male, evidently of the kind mentioned by Paré, w
the male organs have been concealed in childhood, and become subseque
developed. Cases, however, have occasionally occurred of the cont
kind, arising probably from the unusual size of the clitoris ; there are
certain cases, where, from the malformation of the parts, the sex is actu
doubtful, or where even a certain degree of the two may exist, as
been stated above, in Note 51 to Chapter 2. This paragraph of Plin
quoted by Aulus Gellius, B. ix. c. 4.-B.
b . 4.] . GENERATI
ON OF MAN , ETC. 139

pens but that either the mother herself, or one, at least, of

27
twins perishes. If, however, the twins should happen to
of different sexes, it is less probable that both of them will
vive . Female children are matured more quickly than
les , 28 and become old sooner. Of the two, male children
st frequently are known to move in the womb ;29 they mostly
on the right side of the body, females on the left.3º

AP. 4. ( 5 .) —THE GENERATION OF MAN ; UNUSUAL DURATION

OF PREGNANCY ; INSTANCES OF IT FROM SEVEN TO TWELVE
MONTHS .

In other animals the period of gestation and of birth is fixed

nd definite, while man, on the other hand, is born at all sea-
31
ons of the year,³¹ and without any certain period of gestation ;32
or one child is born at the seventh month, another at the
eighth, and so on, even to the beginning of the tenth and
eleventh. Those children which are born before the seventh
month are never known to survive ;33 unless, indeed, they hap-

27 This does not correspond with the fact, as it exists in our time ; a
circumstance which may probably depend upon our improvement in the
obstetrical art. Nor is the opinion, that both twins are less likely to live,
if of different sexes , sanctioned by modern experience.- B.
28 " Feminas gigni celerius quam mares ;" there has been much discus-
sion among the commentators, both with respect to the meaning of these
words, and the fact to which they are supposed to refer. Hardouin inter-
prets the phrase, " crescere, perfici, vigere, adolescere ;" Cuvier translates
it, "les filles sont portées moins long-temps par leur mere." There is,
however, no foundation for this opinion as to a difference in the period of
the gestation.- B.
29 There may be some ground for this opinion ; it is maintained by
Aristotle in his Hist. Anim.-B. As also by Galen.
30 This statement is made upon the authority of Hippocrates, Aphor.
B. v. c. 48, and Aristotle, Hist. Anim.; but is probably without founda-
tion.-B.
31 Animals have a certain period for generation, because they are more
immediately affected by the seasons, whereas, in the human race, the arts
of life render these fixed terms unnecessary.- B.
32 Notwithstanding all the observations of the moderns, the question is
scarcely decided respecting the length of time to which pregnancy may be
prolonged. Cuvier says, that the experiments of Tessier have shewn, that
there is a greater latitude in animals than had previously been supposed ;
he also remarks, that the same animals when domesticated, become less
regular in this respect than in the wild state. - B.
33 Dalechamps has collected authorities to prove, that a child may
140 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

pen to have been conceived the day before or the

full moon, or at the change of the moon. In Eg
an uncommon thing for children to be born a
month ; and in Italy, too, children that are
period live just as long as others, notwithstanding
of the ancients to the contrary. There are great
this respect, which occur in numerous ways.
instance, who was the wife of C. Herdicius, and w
34
married, first, to Pomponius, and then to Orfitu
nent citizens, after having brought forth four chi
at the seventh month, had Suillius Rufus at the ele
and then Corbulo at the seventh, both of whom
suls ; after which, at the eighth month, she
who became the wife of the Emperor Caius.35 A
who are born at the eighth month, the greatest
36
them is to get them over the first forty days.3
men, on the other hand, are in the greatest dang
fourth and the eighth month, and abortions during
are fatal. Masurius informs us, that L. Papiriu
on one occasion, when the next but one in successi
his suit at law, decided against him, in favour
although his mother declared that her period of
lasted thirteen months- upon the ground that it
that there was any fixed and definite period of g

survive, when born even at an earlier period ; but this, a

solutely impossible, is improbable in the highest degree.-
34 Ajasson expresses himself at a loss to identify this
thinks that it may have been either Julius Pomponius
A.U.C. 759, or L. Pomponius, consul A.U.c. 794, A.D. 41.
35 Caius Caligula. The name of this woman, who was
and then his wife, was Milonia Cæsonia. She was neith
young when Caligula first admired her : but was noted for
tiousness, and at the time when she first became intima
had already had three children. She and her daughter,
to death on the day on which he was murdered. Corbul
tioned in B. vi. c. 8.
36 Celsus, B. ii. c. 1, speaks of the fortieth day, as or
periods of childhood ; the others are the seventh month,
and the period of puberty.- B.
37 Who appears to have urged the great lapse of time
vened between the death of the alleged father and the b
nent.
38 Questions of this nature, of great importance, invol
title, have been the subject of judicial consideration in
VII. 141
Chap. 5. ] INDICATIONS OF THE SEX, ETC.
the
not -INDICATIONS OF THE SEX OF THE CHILD DURING
hth CHAP. 5. (6. )-—
THE PREGNANCY OF THE MOTHER."39
this
ions On the tenth day after conception, pains are felt in the head,
as in vertigo, and dimness of the sight ; these signs, together with
-, for loathing of food and rising of the stomach, indicate the forma-
vards tion of the future human being. If it is a male that is con-
emi- 40
ceived, the colour of the pregnant woman is more healthy, and
ways the birth less painful : the child moves in the womb upon the
month , fortieth day. In the conception of a child of the other sex,
è con- all the symptoms are totally different : the mother experiences
sonia, an almost insupportable weight, there is a slight swelling of
ildren the legs and the groin, and the first movement of the child is
7 with not felt until the ninetieth day. But, whatever the sex of the
at wo- child, the mother is sensible of the greatest languor at the
ng the time when the hair of the foetus first begins to grow, and at
periods the full moon ; at which latter time it is that children newly
prætor , born are exposed to the greatest danger. In addition to this,
urging the mode of walking, and indced everything that can be men-
heir,37 tioned, is of consequence in the case of a woman who is preg-
on had nant. Thus, for instance, women who have used too much
appear salted meat will bring forth children without nails : parturition,
38 too, is more difficult, if they do not hold their breath. It is
fatal, too, to yawn during labour ;41 and abortion ensues, if the
not ab- female should happen to sneeze just after the sexual congress.
(7. ) It is a subject for pity, and even for a feeling of shame,
ius ; but when one reflects that the origin of the most vain of all ani-
s, consul mated beings is thus frail : so much so, indeed, that very often
s mistress the smell even of a lamp just extinguished is a cause of abor-
some nor tion. 42 From such beginnings as these springs the tyrant,
eme licen-
Caligula, longest period to which pregnancy may be protracted seems still not to be
were put determined, but the general result has been to shorten it. Aulus Gellius,
been men- B. iii. c. 16, has collected the opinions of many of the ancients on this
subject.- B.
he critical 39 Most of the statements made in this Chapter appear to be taken from
enth year, Aristotle's History of Animals ; they are, however, either without founda-
tion or much exaggerated, and very incorrect.- B.
had inter- 40 This opinion, although without foundation, is supported by the autho-
his oppo- rity of Hippocrates, Aphor. B. v. c. 42.-B.
41 This singular opinion is referred to by Aulus Gellius, B. iii . c. 16.-B.
operty and 42 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 54, mentions the smell of an extin-
imes ; the guished lamp, as producing abortion in a mare.-B.
142 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

from such the murderous dispositions of men. Th

placest thy confidence in the strength of thy bod
dost embrace the gifts of Fortune, and look upon
only as her fosterling, but even as her own born
whose mind is ever thirsting for blood,43 thou wh
with some success or other, dost think thyself a g
trifling a thing might thy life have been cut s
this very day, something still less even may ha
effect, the puncture, for instance, of the tiny stin
pent ; or even, as befell the poet Anacreon," th
of the stone of a raisin, or of a single hair in a dra
by which the prætor and senator, Fabius, was
so met his death. He only, in fact, will be a
just estimate of the value of life, who will alv
mind the extreme frailty of its tenure.

CHAP. 6. (8 . )- MONSTROUS BIRTHS.

It is contrary to nature for children to come in
with the feet first, for which reason such child
Agrippa, meaning that they are born with dif
46
this manner, M. Agrippa is said to have bee

43 Tinctoria mens ;" there has been much discussion,

does not require correction here ; and various conjectural en
been proposed, but not with much success. If the word
employed by Pliny, it may be regarded as one of those bold
metaphorical expressions, which are not unfrequently
writings.- B.
44 Valerius Maximus makes the same statement as t
Anacreon, and says that " having lived to an extreme
supporting his decayed strength by chewing raisins, when
obstinate than the rest, stuck in his parched throat, and so
This story has been looked upon by some of the mode
fiction of the poets.
45 This explanation of the name is given by Aulus Gell
-B. It is very doubtful what are the roots from whic
though Pliny evidently thinks that the word is only a co
Latin " ægre partus," " born with difficulty ;" a notion s
surdity.
46 M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus,
his dissolute daughter, Julia. He was the son of Lucius A
descended from a very obscure family. He divorced his v
marry Julia, the widow of Marcellus, and the daughter
his third wife, Scribonia.
VII. Chap. 7. ] OF THOSE CUT OUT OF THE WOMB. 143

who only instance, almost, of good fortune, out of the number of

who all those who have come into the world under these circum-
- not stances. And yet, even he may be considered to have paid
hou, the penalty of the unfavourable omen produced by the un-
dup natural mode of his birth, in the unfortunate weakness of his
how legs, the misfortunes of his youth, a life spent inthe very midst
Even of arms and slaughter, and ever exposed to the approaches of
same death ; in his children, too, who have all proved a very curse to
eser- the earth, and more especially, the two Agrippinas, who were the
wing mothers respectively of Caius and of Domitius Nero,47 so many
firebrands hurled among the human race. In addition to all
milk,
, and this, we may add the shortness of his life, he being cut off
Form a in his fifty-first year, the 48distress which he experienced from
ear in the adulteries of his wife, and the grievous tyranny to which
he was subjected by his father-in-law. Agrippina, too, the
mother of Nero, who was lately Emperor, and who proved
himself, throughout the whole of his reign, the enemy of the
human race, has left it recorded in writing, that he was born
with his feet first. It is in the due order of nature that man
world should enter the world with the head first, and be carried to
called the tomb in a contrary fashion.
45 In
; the CHAP. 7. (9. ).-OF THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN CUT OUT OF THE WOMB.
the text Those children, whose birth has cost the mother her life, are
ons have
ria" was evidently born under more favourable auspices ; for such was
omewhat the case with the first Scipio Africanus ; the first, too, of the
in his Cæsars was so named, from his having been removed by an in-
cision in his mother's womb. For a similar reason, too, the
death of 49
Casones were called by that name. Manilius, also, who en-
he was tered Carthage with his army, was born in a similar manner.
ain, more
his life." 47 Agrippina, the daughter of Agrippa and Julia, was the mother of
lars as a the Emperor Caligula ; and of a second Agrippina, who became the
mother of Nero, by whose order she was put to death.- B.
xvi. c. 6. 4 Julia, the daughter of Augustus, so notorious for her depravity, who,
s formed ; as already stated, was the wife of Agrippa.- B. See c. 46 of the present
on of the Book.
g of ab- 49 From cædo, " to cut," apparently. The Cæsones were a branch of
the Fabian family. There has been considerable difference of opinion
married among the commentators respecting the individuals referred to in this
, and was Chapter. The subject is discussed at length in the Notes of Hardouin,
arcella, to Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 62.-B. So in Macbeth, act v. sc . 7, Macduff says to
ustus, by Macbeth-
144 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 8. ( 10 .) - WHO WERE CALLED VOPI

A child used to be called Vopiscus,50 who, whe
been conceived, had been retained in the womb a
the other having perished by abortion. There,
very remarkable instances of this kind, although
gularly rare and uncommon.

CHAP. 9. ( 11 . ) - THE CONCEPTION AND GENERATI

Few animals, except the female of the huma
ceive the male when pregnant. In only one or tw
no more, does superfotation ever take place."
be found stated in the journals of physicians, and
have paid particular attention to the subject, in
embryos52 have been removed at a single abort
however, but a very short time has intervened
conceptions, the embryos both of them proceed
as was seen to be the case with Hercules an
53
Iphicles. This was the case also with the woma
forth two children at a birth, one of whom bore
to her husband, and the other to her paramour.
a female slave in Proconnesus,54 who was deli
children at one birth, one of whom bore a strong
to her master, and the other to her master's
both of whom she had had connection on the sa
another woman who was delivered of two child
the one after the usual period of gestation, the

"And let the angel whom thou still hast serv

Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother's w
Untimely ripp'd."
50 The commentators are not agreed respecting the orig
Dalechamps suggests, that it was originally Opiscus, from
cause one follows close upon another." -B.
51 Hardouin says, that this is the case with the hare
which is a species of hare ; but there is probably no fo
statement. Pliny repeats it in a subsequent passage, B.
52 Pliny evidently considers this a case of superfotation
it as not uncommon in the human species : whereas it i
impossible.
53 This refers to the mythological tale of Jupiter and
1 See B. v. c. 44.
- VII. INSTANCES OF RESEMBLANCE. 145
Chap. 10.]

bryo only five months old : and again, with another female,
who, having been delivered of one child at the end of seven
shad months, in due course, two months afterwards, brought forth
twins.55
alive,
some
ce sin- CHAP. 10.- STRIKING INSTANCES OF RESEMBLANCE.

It is universally known that well-formed parents often pro-

IAN. duce defective children ; and on the other hand, defective
parents children who are well formed, or else imperfect in the
es, re-
es, and same part of the body as the parents. It is a well-known fact
also, that marks, moles, and even scars, are reproduced in mem-
s are to
bers of the same family in successive generations. The mark
rs who
which the Daci make on their arms for the purpose of de-
twelve noting their origin, is known to last even to the fourth genera-
When, tion.56
en two
( 12. ) We have heard it stated that three members of the
turity ; family of the Lepidi have been born, though not in an unin-
brother
terrupted succession, with one of the eyes covered with a
brought membrane.57 We observe, too, that some children strongly re-
mblance
semble their grandfather, and that of twins one child is like the
00, with
father, while the other resembles the mother ; and have known
of two cases where a child that was born a year after another, re-
mblance
sembled him as exactly as though they had been twins . Some
rd, with women have children like themselves, some like their husband,
y; with
while others again bear children who resemble neither the
a birth, one nor the other. In some cases the female children resemble
an em- the father, and the males the mother. The case of Nicæus,
the celebrated wrestler of Byzantium, is a well-known and un-

55 Most of these statements appear to be taken from Aristotle, Hist.

Anim.-B.
this name ; 56 There has been much discussion respecting the meaning of this pas-
Biov, " be- sage and the fact to which it refers. Aristotle, Hist. Anim., says, that
marks made on the arm are transmitted for three generations ; and Pliny,
e dasypus , in B. xxii. c. 2 , informs us, that the Daci and the Sarmata " make
on for the written marks upon their bodies." The same custom prevails among the
81.-B. lower orders, sailors especially, in our own times. We may also remark
looks upon the analogy which it bears to the practice of tattooing, so general among
considered the Polynesian and other barbarous nations. - B.
57 The reader may be amused by a perusal of the collection of wonder-
itryon. -B. ful cases of this kind, which has been made by Dalechamps ; see Lemaire,
vol. iii. p. 65, note 4.-B.
VOL. II. L
 146 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

doubted instance. His mother was the produce of

adultery, committed with a male of Ethiopia ; and
she herself differed in no way from the ordinary
of other females, he was born with all the sw
plexion of his Æthiopian grandfather.58
These strong features of resemblance proceed, no
the imagination of the parents, over which we may
believe that many casual circumstances have a ver
influence ; such, for instance, as the action of th
ears, orthe memory, or impressions received at the
conception. A thought even, momentarily passi
the mind of either of the parents, may be supposed
a resemblance to one of them separately, or else
combined. Hence it is that the varieties are much
merous in the appearance of man than in that of
mals ; seeing that, in the former, the rapidity of th
quickness of the perception, and the varied powers
tellect, tend to impress upon the features peculiar an
marks ; while in the case of the other animals, t
immovable, and just the same in each and all in
the same species.60 A man named Artemon, one of
people,61 bore so strong a resemblance to Antioch
of Syria, that his queen Laodice, after her husban
was slain, acted the farce of getting this man62 to
58 Aristotle, in his History of Animals, relates a similar
same, story; he says that it occurred in Sicily, though he aft
of it as having happened in Elis. It is conjectured by Aj
individual might have been born in Sicily, and have exhibi
Elis, as a wrestler. If we are really to believe that his c
that of an Ethiopian, it is much more probable that his m
had connection with a negro.-B.
59 Few readers will fail here to recall to mind the story a
in the opening chapter of "Tristram Shandy."
60 Dalechamps refers us to a remark of the same kind in
Quæst. B. i. c. 80 ; but Ajasson remarks, that the resembla
by Cicero refers to the mind and manners, not to the b
vol. iii. p. 67.-B.
61 Aulus Gellius says, that he was one of the royal family.
62 This man resembled Antiochus III., surnamed the G
degree, that when that monarch had been slain in a tumult
his wife, Laodice, daughter of Mithridates V., King c
Artemon into a bed, pretending that he was the king, but
Many persons were admitted to see him ; and all believed
listening to the words of their king, when he recommended 1
and her children.
 I. Chap. 10.] INSTANCES OF RESEMBLANCE . 147

of her as the successor to the crown. Vibius, a member of the

gh plebeian order, and Publicius as well, a freedman who had
on formerly been a slave, so strongly resembled Pompeius Magnus
m- in appearance as to be scarcely distinguishable from him ; they
both had that ingenuous countenance of his, and that fine
rom forehead, which so strongly bespoke his noble descent. It
bly was a similar degree of resemblance to this, that caused the
rful surname of his cook, Menogenes, to be given to the father
the of Pompeius Magnus, he having already obtained that of
66
at of Strabo, on account of the cast in his eye, a defect which he
ough had contracted through imitating a similar one in his slave.
duce Scipio, too, had the name of Serapion given him, after the vile
two slave of a pig-jobber : and after him, another Scipio of the
nu- same family was surnamed Salvitto, after a mime67 of that
name. In the same way, too, Spinther and Pamphilus, who
ani-
s, the were respectively actors of only second and third rate parts,
e in- gave their names to Lentulus and Metellus, who were at that
sified time colleagues in the consulship ; so that, by a very curious
but disagreeable coincidence, the likenesses of the two consuls
nd is
were to be seen at the same moment on the stage.
als of
mmon On the other hand again, L. Plancus, the orator, bestowed
his surname on the actor Rubrius : the player, Burbuleius,
king again, gave his name to the elder Curio, and the player, Meno-
iochus genes, to Messala, the censor."68 There was a certain fisher-
mend
man, too, a native of Sicily, who bore a strong resemblance to
not the the proconsul, Sura, not onlyin his features, but in the mode even
s speaks
that the
mself in 63 This circumstance is related by Valerius Maximus, but he speaks of
xion was Vibius as being “ ingenuæ stirpis ," " of good family." -B.
may have 64 Hardouin expands the words " os probum," into " liberale, venus-
tum, gratum, venerandum, probandum," B. xxxvii . c. 6.—B.
65 See B. xxxvii . c. 6.
he clock,
66 The Latin word " strabo," means " squinting," or " having a cast" or
ro, Tusc. " defect in the eye."
mentioned 67 The word " mimus" was applied by the Romans to a species of dra-
Lemaire, matic performance, as well as to the persons who acted in them. The
Roman mimes were imitations of trivial and sometimes indecent occur-
rences in life, and scarcely differed from comedy, except in consisting more
to such a of gestures and mimicry than of spoken dialogue. Sylla was very fond
of these performances, andthey had more charms for the Roman populace
is people, than the regular drama. As to the mime Salvitto, here mentioned, see
ntus, put B. xxxv. c. 2.
rously ill. 68 This anecdote, and the one respecting Spinther and Pamphilus, are
chey were mentioned also by Val. Maximus, B. ix. c. 24.-B.
nLaodice
148 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

of opening his mouth, and the spasmodic contracti

tongue, and his hurried and indistinct utterance when
Cassius Severus,70 the celebrated orator, had it throw
teeth how strongly he resembled Armentarius, the g
Toranius, a slave-dealer, sold to Antony, while he w
the Triumvirs, two boys of remarkable beauty, as bei
so strong was their resemblance ; whereas, in reality, o
was born in Asia, and the other beyond the Alps.
however, having been soon afterwards discovered th
difference in the language of the youths, Antony,
greatly exasperated, violently upbraided the dealer, a
other things, complained that he had fixed the price
a sum as two hundred thousand sesterces.72 The cra
merchant, however, made answer that that was the v
for his having set so high a price upon them ; for, a
there would have been nothing particularly striking
semblance of the boys, if they had been born of the
ther, whereas, children found to be so exactly like e
though natives of different countries, ought to
above all price ; an answer which produced such a
feeling of surprise and admiration in the mind of
scriber,73 that he who was but just before frantic
injury he had received, was led to set a higher va
part whatever of all the property in his possession.

CHAP. 11. (13 . ) -WHAT MEN ARE SUITED FOR GE

INSTANCES OF VERY NUMEROUS OFFSPRING

There exists a kind of peculiar antipathy between

70 A celebrated orator and satirical writer of the time of A
Tiberius. He is mentioned in the Index of authors at the end
where he is called Longulanus, as being a native of Longul
Latium. It was even thrown in his teeth, that he was the
adultery, and that this low-born person was his father.
71 " Mirmillonis." Many of the editions make this word t
name, and " Armentarius" to signify the calling of the pers
as being a herdsman . The " Mirmillones" were a peculiar
ators, said to have been so called from their having the ima
called " mormyr," on their helmets.
72 We assume the sestertium to be equivalent to somewha
eight pounds sterling ; this sum will be about £ 1600. - B.
73 Proscripter animus." According to Hardouin, this me
ing in proscription," alluding to the well-known proscri
triumvirate, in which Antony acted so conspicuous a part.-
 Chap. 11.] INSTANCES OF NUMEROUS OFFSPRING. 149

of certain persons, which, though barren with respect to

each other, are not so when united to others ; such, for in-
1 stance, was the case with Augustus and Livia.75 Certain in-
f dividuals, again, both men and women, produce only females,
others males ; and, still more frequently, children of the two
5,
sexes alternately ; the mother of the Gracchi, for instance,
n
who had twelve children, and Agrippina, the mother of Ger-
1, manicus, who had nine. Some women, again, are barren in
ne
as their youth, while to others it is given to bring forth once only
during their lives. Some women never go to their full time,
ng or if, by dint of great care and the aid of medicine, they do
gh give birth to a living child, it is mostly a girl. Among other
-e-
instances of rare occurrence, is the case of Augustus, now
on
deified, who, in the year in which he departed this life, wit-
id, nessed the birth of M. Silanus,76 the grandson of his grand-
re- daughter : having obtained the government of Asia, after
10- his consulship, he was poisoned by Nero, on his accession to the
er, throne.
ned Q. Metellus Macedonicus," leaving six children, left eleven
ble grandsons also, with daughters-in-law and sons - in - law,78
oro- twenty-seven individuals in all, who addressed him by the
the name and title of father. In the records of the times of the
no Emperor Augustus, now deified, we find it stated that, in his
twelfth consulship, Lucius Sylla being his colleague, on the

ON.
74 This opinion is maintained by Hippocrates, and by Aristotle, Hist.
Anim. B. vii. c. 8, and is referred to by Lucretius, B. iv. c. 1242, et
odies seq.-B.
75 The case of Livia and that of Agrippina, referred to by Pliny, are
s and mentioned by Suetonius, in the Life of Augustus, c. 63 ; and that of Ca-
xxvi. , ligula, c. 7.-B.
vn of 76 M. Junius Silanus, consul under Claudius, A.D. 46, with Valerius
ng of Asiaticus. He was poisoned by order of the younger Agrippina, that he
might not stand in the way of Nero.
roper He is first mentioned in B.c. 168, when he was serving in the army
ribed, of Æmilius Paulus, in Macedonia, and was sent to Rome with two other
gladi- envoys to announce the defeat of Perseus. He united with the aristocracy
fish, in opposing the measures of the Gracchi ; and the speech which he delivered
against Tiberius Gracchus, is spoken of by Cicero in high terms, as replete
than with true eloquence.
78 He left four sons and two daughters ; some writers say three: The
light- ten individuals, over and above his children and grandchildren, may have
of the consisted of the wives and husbands of his sons and daughters then living,
as also of others who had died in his lifetime.
150 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

third day before the ides of April,79 C. Crispinus

man of a respectable family of the plebeian order,
Fæsulæ,80 came to the Capitol, to offer sacrifice, at
eight children (of whom two were daughters) , twe
grandsons, nineteen great-grandsons, and eight grandd
who all followed him in a lengthened train.

CHAP. 12. ( 14. )- AT WHAT AGE GENERATION CE

Women cease to bear children at their fiftieth
with the greater part of them, the monthly discharg
the age of forty. But with respect to the male
well-known fact, that King Masinissa, when he w
eighty-sixth year, had a son born to him, whom
Metimanus,81 and that Cato the Censor, after he had
his eightieth year, had a son by the daughter of
Salonius : a circumstance from which, while the d
of his other sons were surnamed Liciniani, those o
were called Saloniani, of whom Cato of Utica was or
equally well known, too, that L. Volusius Saturni
lately died while prefect of the city, had a son wh
past his seventy- second year,84 by Cornelia, a mem
family of the Scipios, Volusius Saturninus, who was
consul. Among the lower classes of the people,
commonly meet with men who become the fathers
after the age of seventy-five.

CHAP. 13. (15. ) - REMARKABLE CIRCUMSTANCES CONN

THE MENSTRUAL DISCHARGE.
Among the whole range of animated beings, the

79 11th of April. 80 See B. iii. c. 8.

81 This fact is mentioned by Valerius Maximus, B. viii. c
is some variation in the spelling of the name of the son
Solinus calls him Mathumannus.-B.
82 Hardouin gives a detailed account of the children of C
it appears that the Licinian branch descended from the issue
Licinia, and the Saloniani, of whom Cato of Utica was one
Salonianus, by his second wife, Salonia.- B
83 Volusius Saturninus is again mentioned in the 49th Ch
markable instance of longevity ; also by Tacitus, B. xiii. c.
84 This reading seems preferable to sixty-second, adopted
there would be nothing very remarkable in a man becoming
sixty-two years of age.
 di

Chap. 13.] THE MENSTRUAL DISCHARGE. 151

a male is the only one that has the monthly discharge, and in
+45

at whose womb are found what we term " moles." These moles
y consist of a shapeless mass of flesh, devoid of all life, and ca-
at pable of resisting either the edge or the point of the knife ;
they are movable in the body, and obstruct the menstrual
discharge ; sometimes, too, they are productive of fatal conse-
quences to the woman, in the same manner as a real foetus ;
while, at other times, they remain in the body until old age ;
d, in some cases, again, they are discharged, in consequence of an
at increased action of the bowels.86 Something of a very similar
sa nature is produced in the body of the male, which is called a
his " schirrus ;;"' this was the case with Oppius Capito, a man of
med prætorian rank.
ted It would indeed be a difficult matter to find anything which
is productive of more marvellous effects than the menstrual
ent,
ants discharge.88 On the approach of a woman in this state,
son must will become sour, seeds which are touched by her
It is become sterile, grafts wither away, garden plants are parched
who up, and the fruit will fall from the tree beneath which she
was sits. Her very look, even, will dim the brightness of mirrors,
the blunt the edge of steel, and take away the polish from ivory.
ards A swarm of bees, if looked upon by her, will die immediately ;
- un-
dren 85 Some ofthe " simia " are subject to a periodical discharge, analogous
to that of the human female ; but, according to Cuvier, it is in smaller
quantity, and not at stated periods. The females of various other animals,
when in a state to receive the male, have a discharge from the same parts,
WITH but totally different in its properties, and the mode in which it makes its
appearance. Virgil, Geor. B. iii . 1. 280, et seq., refers to this subject.-B.
86 Pliny makes some further remarks on these substances in a subsequent
an fe- place, see B. x. c. 84 ; where he says they are produced without the inter-
course of the male ; this point has been much discussed, and is perhaps
scarcely yet decided. — B.
There 87 There is no actual resemblance between moles and schirri ; they are
nissa ; produced by different causes, and exist in different parts of the body. Moles
are always formed in the womb, and probably have some connection with
which the generative functions ; while schirri are morbid indurations, which make
is wife their appearance in various parts of the body. Hippocrates gives some
his son account of moles, in his work on the Diseases of Women. They are also
noticed by Aristotle.- B.
as a re- 88 All the poisonous and noxious effects which were attributed bythe
ancients to the menstrual discharge, are without the slightest foundation .
lig ; as The opinions entertained on this point by the Jews, may be collected from
er when Leviticus, c. xv. ver. 19, et seq. Pliny enlarges uponthis subject in a sub-
sequent place. See B. xxviii. c. 23.-B.
 152 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

brass and iron will instantly become rusty, and emit an

odour ; while dogs which may have tasted of the matt
charged are seized with madness, and their bite is
and incurable.
In addition to this, the bitumen which is found
periods of the year, floating on the lake of Judæa,
Asphaltites, a substance which is peculiarly tenac
adheres to everything that it touches, can only be di
separate pieces by means of a thread which has be
in this virulent matter.89 It is said that the ant
insect so extremely minute, is sensible of its pre
rejects the grains which it has been carrying, and w
turn to them again.90
This discharge, which is productive of such grea
gular effects, occurs in women every thirty days,
greater degree every three months.91 In some i
it occurs oftener than once a month, and in oth
it never takes place. Women of this nature, howev
capable of bearing children, because it is of this subs
the infant is formed.92 The seed of the male, actin
of leaven, causes it to unite and assume a form,
time it acquires life, and assumes a bodily shape.
quence is, that if the flow continues during preg
child will be weak, or else will not live ; or if it d
be full of gross humours, Nigidius says.
( 16. ) The same author is also of opinion, that the
woman who is giving suck will not become impure, if
happen to become pregnant again by the same man.

89 Both Josephus, Bell. Jud. B. iv. c. 9, and Tacitus, His

give an account of this supposed action of this fluid on th
Lake Asphaltites ; the statement is no doubt entirely unfounde
curious instance of popular credulity.- B.
90 There are still somewhat similar superstitions in exist
this country among others ; it is not uncommonly believed th
not take salt from the hands of a female during the disc
catamenia.
91 This statement is without foundation.-B.
92 The fact is true, that females in whom the menstrual di
not take place, are seldom, if ever, capable of conception ; bu
depend on the cause here assigned. See the remarks of Cuv
vol. iii. p. 82, and Ajasson, vol. vi . p. 173.-B.
94 Pliny clearly alludes to an opinion expressed by Galen, in
1. OF THE TEETH, ETC. 153
Chap. 15.]
ve
S- CHAP. 14. - THE THEORY OF GENERATION.
us
Conception is generally said to take place the most readily, 95
in either at the beginning or the end of the menstrual discharge."
as It is said, too, that it is a certain sign of fecundity in a woman,
and when her saliva becomes impregnated with any medicament
nto which has been rubbed upon her eye-lids.⁹6
ped
an CHAP. 15.-
5.— SOME ACCOUNT OF THE TEETH, AND SOME FACTS CON-
and CERNING INFANTS. MA
- re-
It is a matter beyond doubt, that in young children the
sin- front teeth are produced at the seventh month, and, nearly al-
in a ways, those in the upper jaw the first. These are shed in the
seventh year, and are then replaced by others."7 Some infants
duals are even born with teeth :98 such was the case with Manius
gain, Curius, who, from this circumstance, received the name of
e not
- that Dentatus ; and also with Cn. Papirius Carbo, both of them dis-
tinguished men. When this phenomenon happened in the case
a sort
of a female, it was looked upon in the time of the kings as an
due omen of some inauspicious event. At the birth of Valeria,
onse- under such circumstances as these, it was the answer of the
y, the
t will "that if women while giving suck, have sexual intercourse, the milk
becomes tainted." Hardouin remarks, that Pliny shows considerable caution
here in bringing forward Nigidius as the propounder of these opinions, the
k of a truth of which he himself seems to have doubted.
should 95 It is generally admitted, that the female is more disposed to conceive
just after the cessation of each periodical discharge. We are informed by
the French historians, that their king, Henry II., and his wife Catharine,
v. c. 6, having been childless eleven years, made a successful experiment of this
umen of description, by the advice of the physician Fernel ; see Lemaire, vol. iii.
t it is a p. 83.-B.
96 This is one of the many idle tales referred to by Pliny, entirely with-
even in out foundation. - B.
eat will 97 This account is correct, to the extent that the first teeth that appear
e of the are the two central incisors of the upper jaw ; the next are the two lower
central incisors, then the upper lateral incisors, the lower lateral incisors,
and the upper and lower canines. The molars follow a different order, the
rge does lower ones appearing before the upper.-B.
98 Hardouin mentions a number of authors who relate cases of this
does not
nature. It is said to have taken place with our king Richard III. See
Lemaire, Shakespeare, Richard III., Act i. Scene 4. An individual of very different
character and fortune, Louis XIV., is said to have been born with two teeth
he says, in the upper jaw.-B.
 154 PLINT'S NATURAL HISTORY.

soothsayers, that any city to which she might ha

carried, would be destroyed ; she was sent to Suess
at that time a very flourishing place, but the pre
ultimately verified by its destruction . Some fem
are born with the sexual organs closed,2 a thing of
vourable omen ; of which Cornelia, the mother of t
is an instance. Some persons are born with a cont
in the mouth, in place of teeth ; this was the cas
upper jaw of the son of Prusias, the king of Bith
The teeth are the only parts of the body which
action of fire, and are not consumed along with the
Still, however, though they are able thus to resist
become corroded by a morbid state of the saliva. T
5
whitened by certain medicinal agents. They are
by use, and fail in some persons long before any ot
the body. They are necessary, not only for the m
the food, but for many other purposes as well. It
of the front teeth to regulate the voice and the sp
certain arrangement, they receive, as if in concer
communicated by the tongue, while by their struct
regular order, and their size, they cut short, modera

1 A town of Latium · we learn from Livy, B. i. c. 53, tha

tured and plundered by Tarquinius Superbus, but he makes
Valeria. See B. iii. c. 9.
2 It is stated by Seneca, De Consol. c. 16, that Cornelia su
family of children, all of whom were carried off early in lif
two celebrated Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius, met with violent
peculiarity here referred to, probably consisted in an imperfor
mal-formation which not very unfrequently exists, and requ
operation.- B.
This circumstance is mentioned by Val. Maximus, B. i.
learn from Plutarch, that the same was the case also with Py
Epirus : Euryphæus also, the Cyrenian, and Euryptolemus
Cyprus. Herodotus, B. ix., speaks of a skull found on the
tæa, with a similar conformation.
Although the teeth, and especially their enamel, form th
structible substance which enters into the composition of t
not absolutely so ; a certain proportion of them consisting o
ter, which is consumed, when exposed to a sufficient heat ; t
may also be dissolved by the appropriate chemical re-agents
Powerful acids for instance ; but they destroy the enamel
recommends the ashes of tobacco as a whitener of the teeth
been found to have a similar effect.
II. EXAMPLES OF UNUSUAL SIZE. 155
Chap. 16.]
be
the utterance of the words. When they are lost, the articula-
a, ¹ tion becomes altogether confused and indistinct."
vas
In addition to this, it is generally supposed that we may
ren
fa- form prognostics from the teeth . The number of teeth allotted
to all men, with the exception of the nation of the Turduli,7 is
chi,
thirty-two ; those persons who have a greater number, are
one
thought to be destined to be long-lived. Women have fewer
the 8
teeth than men. Those females who happen to have two canine
teeth on the right side of the upper jaw, have promise of being
the the favourites of fortune, as was the case with Agrippina,"
it.* the mother of Domitius Nero : when they are on the left side,
chey it is just the contrary. It is the custom of most nations not
are
to burn the bodies of children who die before they have cut
own their teeth . We shall have more to say on this subject when
t of we give an account of the different parts of the body.10
on of We find it stated that Zoroaster was the only human being
Office who ever laughed on the same day on which he was born. We
by a hear, too, that his brain pulsated so strongly that it repelled
troke the hand when laid upon it, a presage of his future wisdom.
such
often
CHAP. 16.. EXAMPLES OF UNUSUAL SIZE.

s cap It is a well-known fact, that, at the age of three years, the

tion of body of each person is half the height that it will ever attain.
Taking it all in all, it is observed that in the human race, the
a large
esethe stature is almost daily becoming less and less, and that sons
. The are rarely taller than their parents, the fertility of the seed
men , a
6 We find in Haller, El. Phys. B. ix. c. 2, 4, 8, and in other physiolo-
urgical gists, a minute account of the effects produced by the teeth in the articu
. We lation of the various letters which compose the alphabet.- B.
xing of 7 See B. iii. c. 3, and B. iv. c. 35. He does not say how many teeth
ing of the Turduli naturally had, but no doubt he is mistaken .
s Pliny repeats this statement in B. xi. c. 63, and extends it to the
f Pla-
females of the sheep, goat, and hog. In the natural condition of the mouth,
inde- the number of the teeth is the same in both sexes ; but, according to the
observations of Cuvier, what are called the " wisdom " teeth, though oc-
, it is
casionally deficient in both sexes, are most frequently so in the female. -B.
al mat- 9 He seems to allude to the younger Agrippina, the mother of the em-
hy part peror Domitius Nero ; neither her life, her character, nor her ultimate
fate seem, however, to have entitled her to be called a favourite of Fortune.
Bacon Her mother, the first Agrippina, grand-daughter of Augustus, appears, on
at has the other hand, to have been a woman of virtuous character, and spotless
chastity, without a vice, with the exception, perhaps, of ambition.
10 See B. x. c. 10.
156 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

being dried up by the heat of that conflagration to

world is fast approaching. " A mountain of th
Crete having been burst asunder by the action of an
a body was found there standing upright, forty- si
height ;12 by some persons it is supposed to have
of Orion ;13 while others again are of opinion that
of Otus.14 It is generally believed, from what
ancient records, that the body of Orestes, which
terred by command of an oracle, was seven cubits
It is now nearly one thousand years ago, that that
Homer was unceasingly complaining, that men
stature in his day than they had formerly been.16

11 It was one of the tenets of the Stoics, that the world w

nately destroyed by water and by fire. The former element
waste on the occasion of the flood of Deucalion, the next gre
according to them, is to be produced by fire. Pliny has pre
to this opinion, B. ii . c. 110.-B.
12 Cuvier remarks, that in the alluvial tracts throughou
beria, and America, and probably also in other parts of th
have been found, which have belonged to very large an
elephants, mastodons, and whales ; and when discovered
people, and sometimes even anatomists, have mistaken them
of giants. He especially mentions the case of the bones o
found near Lucerne, in the sixteenth century, and suppos
have belonged to a man seventeen feet in height. Cuvier
no man in modern times has exceeded the height of seven
these cases are extremely rare ; for further information
Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles. Some of the best auth
of unusually tall men are in Buffon, Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 2
p. 427.-B. The skeleton of O'Brien, in the Museum of
Surgeons, in London, is about seven feet and a half in heig
13 The story of the birth of Orion is beautifully told
B. v. 1. 493. et seq. He was often represented by the poets
stature, and after his death was fabled to have been plac
stars, where he appears as a giant. It is not improbable
Cyclopes, Hercules, and Atlas, he may have been one of th
factors of mankind, and an assiduous improver of their con
the story of his gigantic size.
14 A gigantic son of Poseidon or Neptune, and Iphimed
Alöeidæ.
15 We have an account of this supposed discovery of the
in Herodotus, B. i . c. 68, and a reference to it, with som
marks, in Aulus Gellius, B. iii. c. 10.-B.
16 Il. B. v. 1. 303, 4, B. xii. 1. 449 : this opinion of Hom
by many of the Latin poets ; for example, byVirgil, B. xii.
venal, Sat. xv. 1. 69, 70 ; and by Horace, Od. B. iii. O. 6,
 Book VII. EXAMPLES OF UNUSUAL SIZE. 157
Chap. 16. ]
hich the do not inform us what was the height of Nævius Pollio ;" but
island of we learn from them that he nearly lost his life from the rush
rthquake, of the people to see him, and that he was looked upon as a
cubits in prodigy. The tallest man that has been seen in our times, was
Deen that one Gabbaras 18 by name, who was brought from Arabia by
was that the Emperor Claudius ; his height was nine feet and as many
statedin inches.19 In the reign of Augustus, there were two persons,
as disin- Posio and Secundilla by name, who were half a foot taller
height.15 than him ; their bodies have been preserved as objects of curi-
vine poet osity in the museum of the Sallustian family.20
e of less In the reign of the same emperor, there was a man also,
ur Annals remarkable for his extremely diminutive stature, being only
two feet and a palm in height ; his name was Conopas, and he
to bealter- was a great pet with Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus.
vinglaidit There was a female also, of the same size, Andromeda by name,
-atastrophe, a freed-woman of Julia Augusta. We learn from Varro, that
slyalluded Manius Maximus and M. Tullius, members of our equestrian
urope, Si order, were only two cubits in height ; and I have myself
orld, bones seen them, preserved in their coffins.21 It is far from an un-
s, such as known fact, that children are occasionally born a foot and a
e common half in height, and sometimes a little more ; such children,
thebones
however, have finished their span of existence by the time they
elephant, are three years old.22
Plater to
Zeives that
, and even 17 Columella speaks of Cicero as mentioning this Pollio, and stating that
efers to his he was a foot taller than any one else. It is most probably in Cicero's lost
cated facts book, " De Admirandis," that this mention was made of him.
nd vol. iii. 18 Hardouin supposes that this was not an individual name, but a term
College of derived from the Hebrew, descriptive of his remarkable size.-B. He
supposes also that not improbably this was the same individual that is men-
id, Fasti, tioned
19 by Tacitus, Annals, B. xií. c. 12, as Acharus, a king of the Arabians.
fgigantic According to our estimate of the Roman measures, this would corre-
mong the spond to about nine feet four and a half inches of our standard.- B.
, like the 20❝Conditorio Sallustianorum." The more general meaning attributed
est bene- to the word " conditorium," is " tomb" or burial-place. We learn from
; whence other sources that the famous " gardens of Sallust" belonged to the em-
me of the e that there
peror Augustus, and it is not improbablskeletons was a museum there of
curiosities, in which these remarkable were kept.
21 "Loculis." It is not quite clear whether this word has the meaning
ofOrestes hereb.of chest,or coffin, or of a niche or cavity made in the wall of the
inent re- tom
22 Among the objects of curiosity which were exhibited by Augustus to
adopted the Roman people, as related by Suetonius, c. 43, was a dwarf named
; by Ju- Lucius, who is there described ; but he would appear to be a different per-
em. son from any of those here mentioned.- B.
158 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 17.- CHILDREN REMARKABLE FOR THEIR P

We find it stated by the historians, that the so

menes of Salamis had grown to be three cubits
the age of three years ; that he was slow of gait
comprehension ; that at that age he had attained
and his voice had become strong, like that of a
hear, also, that he died suddenly of convulsions
at the completion of his third year.23 I myself,
ago, was witness to exactly similar appearances ,
ception of the state of puberty, in a son of Corn
a member of the equestrianorder, and procurat
Gaul.25 The Greeks call such children as these,
we have no name for them in Latin.
(17.) It has been observed, that the height of
the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, is
distance between the tips of the middle fingers of
when extended in a straight line ; the right side
too, is generally stronger than the left ; though
strength of the two sides is equal ; while in oth
left side is the strongest. This, however, is nev
the case in women.26

CHAP. 18.- SOME REMARKABLE PROPERTIES OF

Males are heavier than females, and the bodi

mals are heavier when they are dead than wher
also weigh more when asleep than when awak
bodies of men float upon the back, those of wo

23 Seneca also mentions him in his Consolation to Mar

24 The procurator of a province was an officer appointed
perform the duties discharged by the quæstor in the other
25 We have an ingenious dissertation by Ajasson, the d
to show, that the Tacitus here referred to, is not the
father, and consequently, that the boy prematurely born
the historian's brother, not his son.-B.
26 It is not clear whether Pliny intended to apply all
vations to the female, or only the last of them ; it appea
the remark is, in either case, without foundation.- B.
tend that his observations should apply more especially
the arm.
 II. REMARKABLE PROPERTIES OF THE BODY . 159
Chap. 18. ]

face downwards ; as if, even after death, nature were desirous

of sparing their modesty.27
(18. ) We find it stated, that there are some men whose
thy- bones are solid, and devoid of marrow,28 and that one mark of
t, at such persons is the fact that they are never thirsty, and emit
lof no perspiration. At the same time, we know that by the ex-
even, ercise of a resolute determination, any one may resist the
We feeling of thirst ; a fact which was especially exemplified in the
mbs, case of Julius Viator, a Roman of equestrian rank, but by birth
long one of the Vocontii, a nation on terms of alliance with us.
e ex- Having, in his youth, been attacked by dropsy, and forbidden
itus, the use of liquids by his physicians,29 use with him became a
Belgic second nature, and so, in his old age, he never took any drink
πέλοι ; at all. Other persons also, have, by the exercise of a strong
determination, laid similar restraints upon themselves.
from (19.) It is said that Crassus, the grandfather of Crassus, who
o the was slain by the Parthians, was never known to laugh ; from
hands which circumstance he obtained the name of Agelastus.30 There
body, are other persons again, who have never been seen to weep .
e, the Socrates, who was so famous for his wisdom, always appeared
in, the with the same countenance, and was never known to appear
to be either more gay or more sad than ordinary. This even tenor
of the mind, however, sometimes degenerates into a sort of
harshness, and a rigorous and inflexible sternness of nature,
entirely effacing all the human affections . The Greeks, among
DY. whom there have been many persons of this description, are in
ll ani
; they 27 This is incorrect ; the human body, after death, does not float until
e dead decomposition has commenced, when it becomes more or less buoyant, in
consequence of the formation of gases, which partially distend the cavities ;
ith the but we do not observe any difference in the two sexes in this respect .- B.
28 This statement is altogether incorrect. - B.
29 The total abstinence from liquids in dropsy, was a point much insisted
Cæsar to upon by medical practitioners, even in modern times ; but it is now gene-
rally conceived to have been derived from a false theory, and not to be
which is essential to the cure of the disease, while it imposes upon the patient a most
- but his severe privation. A moderate use of fluids is even favourable to the ope-
ave been ration of the remedies that are employed in this disease. - B.
30 From the Greek ayɛλaoros, " one who does not laugh." Cicero re-
ee obser- fers to this peculiarity in the character of Crassus, in his treatise De Fini-
ever, that bus, B. v. c. 92 ; and in the Tusc. Quest. B. iii . c. 3, he informs us, onthe
ars to in- authority of Lucilius, that Crassus never laughed but once in his life.-B.
And then, on seeing a donkey eating thistles ; upon which he exclaimed,
Crength of “ Similem habent labia lactucam," " Like lips, like lettuce."
 160 YPLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

the habit of calling them ' ATαlεiç.31 A very

thing, too, is the fact, that among these persons are
some of the greatest masters of philosophy. Di
Cynic, for instance, Pyrrho, Heraclitus, and Timon,
allowed himself to be so entirely carried away by
as to become a hater of all mankind. Less impor
liarities of nature, again, are to be observed in ma
Antonia,32 for instance, the wife of Drusus, was ne
to expectorate ; and Pomponius, the poet, a man
rank, was never troubled with eructation. Those ra
of men,33 whose bones are naturally solid and with
are known to us as men " of horn." 34

CHAP. 19. (20. )- INSTANCES OF EXTRAORDINARY

Varro, speaking of persons remarkable for the
gives us an account of Tributanus, a celebrate
and skilled in the use of the Samnite 35 arms ;3
man of meagre person, but possessed of extraordina
Varro makes mention of his son also, who se
army of Pompeius Magnus. He says, that in all
body, even in the arms and hands, there was a
sinews,37 extending across and across . The latter
having been challenged by an enemy, with a sin
the right hand, and that unarmed,38 vanquished h
31 "Without passion ;" equivalent to our English word " ap
32 The daughter of M. Antony by Octavia. She was the
manicus Cæsar, and the grandmother of the emperor Calig
lived to see on the throne, and who is supposed to have hast
She was celebrated for her beauty and chastity-a rare
days.
33 Pliny, B. xxxi. c. 45, says, that this state of the b
fishermen, from their being exposed to the action of the sea
but both the fact and the supposed cause are without found
34 "Cornei."
35 It would appear that the Samnites were not only o
warlike people, with whom the Romans had to contest in the
state, but that they were particularly celebrated as gladiato
36 The gladiators, called Samnites, were armed with the
tum," or oblong shield, used by the Samnites, a greave or
sponger on the breast, and a helmet with a crest.
37 The term " nervus " was generally applied by the
sinews or tendons ; they had a very indistinct knowledge o
perly called the " nerves."-B.
39 Pintianus suggests another reading here, which wo
I. Chap. 20. ] INSTANCES OF REMARKABLE AGILITY. 161

le seized and dragged him to the camp. Vinnius Valens, who

ad served as a centurion in the prætorian guard of Augustus, was
he in the habit of holding up waggons laden with casks, until
ast they were emptied ; and of stopping a carriage with one hand,
-it, and holding it back, against all the efforts of the horses to
cu-
drag it forward. He performed other wonderful feats also, an
ns ; account of which may still be seen inscribed on his monument.
wn Varro, also, gives the following statement : " Fusius, who
ılar used to be called the bumpkin39 Hercules,' was in the habit
aces of carrying his own mule ; while Salvius was able to mount
cow, a ladder, with a weight of two hundred pounds attached to his
feet, the same to his hands, and two hundred pounds on each
shoulder." I myself once saw, -a most marvellous display of
H. strength,--a man of the name of Athanatus walk across the
stage, wearing a leaden breast-plate of five hundred pounds
ngth, weight, while shod with buskins of the same weight. When
ator, Milo, the wrestler, had once taken his stand, there was not a
as a
person who could move him from his position ; and when he
ngth.
the grasped an apple in his hand , no one could so much as open
of his one of his fingers.
-rk of CHAP. 20. - INSTANCES OF REMARKABLE AGILITY.
men,
ger of It was considered a very great thing for Philippides to run
I then one thousand one hundred and sixty stadia, the distance between
1."-B. Athens and Lacedæmon, in two days, until Amystis, the Lace-
of Ger- dæmonian courier, and Philonides, the courier of Alexander
om she the Great, ran from Sicyon to Elis in one day, a distance of thir-
r death. teen hundred and five stadia.41 In our own times, too, we are
n those
much more consistent with probability. " Inermi dextrâ superatum, et
Found in uno digito postremo correptum in castra," &c.-" Conquered him with the
= water ; right hand, and that unarmed, and then with a single finger dragged him
-B. to the camp."
39 Rusticellus."
he most 40 Philonides has been already mentioned, B. ii. c. 73, as being in the
of their habit of going from Sicyon to Elis in nine hours.- B.
41 We may consult the learned notes of Ajasson, Lemaire, vol. iii. p.
r " scu- 99, respecting the exact distances here indicated by Pliny. We may re-
ft leg, a mark, that a stadium is about one-eighth of a mile, according to which esti-
mate, Philippides must have gone 142 miles in two days, and the other 150
s to the miles in one day ; as it is implied, that these journeys were performed on
are pro- foot, even the former of them is obviously impossible. -B. Query, how-
ever, as to this last assertion ; according to recent pedestrian feats, it does
ear to be not appear to be absolutely impossible.
VOL. II. M
162 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

fully aware that there are men in the Circus, who a

keep on running for a distance of one hundred and s
and that lately, in the consulship of Fonteius and V
there was a child eight years of age, who, between m
evening, ran a distance of seventy-five miles.43 We
the more sensible of these wonderful instances of
upon reflecting that Tiberius Nero, when he made
haste to reach his brother Drusus, who was then si
many, reached him in three stages, travelling day
on the road ; the distance of each stage was tw
miles.44

CHAP. 21. (21 . )- INSTANCES OF ACUTENESS OF

Instances of acuteness of sight are to be found sta
indeed, exceed all belief. Cicero informs us,45 tha
of Homer was written on a piece of parchment so s
enclosed in a nut-shell . He makes mention also o
could distinguish objects at a distance of one hundred
five miles.46 M. Varro says, that the name of t
Strabo ; and that, during the Punic war, from Li
promontory of Sicily, he was in the habit of see
come out of the harbour of Carthage, and could ev
number of the vessels.47 Callicrates48 used to car
42 See B. ii. c. 72.
43 This feat is no less incredible than those mentioned ab
44 We have an account of this journey of Tiberius in
Val. Maximus, B. v. c. 6, also enumerates this among the
examples of fraternal affection .- B. We learn also from
on learning the accident, a fall from his horse, which had
brother Drusus, Tiberius took horse at Ticinum, and trav
day till he reached his brother, who was then in Germany,
He accompanied the body to Rome, preceding it on foot all
is extant a " Consolation to Livia Augusta," written on this
have thought, by Pedo Albinovanus, but it is more likely t
work of Ovid.
45 This statement must have been in some of his lost wo
46 Pliny probably here refers to a passage in the Acad.
81, where Cicero speaks of a person who could see objects.
a distance of 1800 stadia, equal exactly to 125 miles.-B.
47 The actual distance between the promontory of Sicily
part of Carthage is between fifty and sixty miles. The
Strabo is mentioned by Val. Maximus, B. i. c. 8.-B.
48 See also B. xxxvi. c. 4. He was a Lacedæmonia
according to Athenæus, also executed embossed work on va
 I. Chap . 22. ] INSTANCES OF ACUTENESS OF HEARING . 163

to other small animals in ivory, so minute in size, that other

es 2; parts.
8,4
persons were49 unable to distinguish their individual
Myrmecides 19 also was famous in the same line ;50 this man
and made, of similar material, a chariot drawn by four horses,
e all which a fly could cover with its wings ; as well as a ship which
ess, might be covered by the wings of a tiny bee.51
ible
Ger- CHAP. 22. (22 . )- INSTANCES OF REMARKABLE ACUTENESS OF
ight HEARING.
dred
We have one instance on record of remarkable acuteness of
hearing ; the noise of the battle, on the occasion when Sybaris 52
was destroyed, was heard, the day on which it took place, at
Olympia.53 But, as to the victory over the Cimbri, and that
hich, over Perseus, the news of which was conveyed to Rome by the
Iliad 55
Castors, they are to be looked upon in the light of visions and
s to be presages proceeding immediately from the gods.
n who
Chirty- 49 His works in ivory were said to have been so small, that they could
an was scarcely be seen without placing them on black hair.
50 Cicero, Acad. Quæst. B. iv. c. 120, speaks of " one Myrmecides, a
m, the maker of minute objects of art ;" Elian, Vac. Hist. B. i. c. 17, also speaks
he fleet of these minute performances of Myrmecides, and styles them "a waste
unt the of time." Pliny, in a subsequent part of his work, B. xxxi. c. 4 , speaks
ats and of similar minute works, executed by these artists in marble ; but the ac-
count which he gives is scarcely credible. - B.
51 See B. xxxvi. c. 5.
-B. 52 It would appear that there is a little confusion here of events. Sy-
Cassius. baris, so noted for its luxury and effeminacy, was destroyed by the people of
aordinary Crotona, under the command of the athlete Milo, B.c. 510. In B.c. 360,
nius, that the Crotoniats were defeated at the river Sagras, by the Locrians and Rhe-
ned to his gians, 10,000 in number, although they are said to have amounted to
night and 130,000. Now it was on the occasion of this latter battle, that, according
he Rhine. to Cicero, De Nat. Deor. B. ii., the noise was heard at Olympia, where the
ay. There games were being celebrated. Be it as it may, the story is clearly fabulous.
ion, some Evelyn is much more deserving of credit, where we find him stating in his
e been the Diary, that in his garden, at Say's Court, at Deptford, he heard the guns
fired in one of our engagements with the Dutch fleet, at a distance thence
of nearly 200 miles.
. B. iv. c. 53 Ajasson discusses at some length, the possibility of the fact here men-
as said, at tioned, and concludes, that it is not to be credited : he estimates the dis-
tance between these two places at 120 miles.-B .
the nearest 54 As to the miraculous annunciation of the victory of Marius and
- vision of Catulus over the Cimbri, see B. ii. c. 58.
55 Meaning, thereby, the twin brothers, Castor and Pollux ; who were
Iptor, who, said to have announced at Rome the victory gained the day before by
Paulus Æmilius over King Perseus.
 164 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 23. (23 . )- INSTANCES OF ENDURANCE OF

Of patience in enduring pain, that being too fre
lot of our calamitous fate, we have innumerable i
lated. One of the most remarkable instances among
sex is that of the courtesan Leæena, who, although
torture, refused to betray the tyrant-slayers, Har
Aristogiton.56 Among those of men, we have th
archus, who, when put to the torture for a simila
off his tongue and spit it into the face of the
destroying the only hope57 of his making any bet

CHAP. 24. (24 . )- MEMORY.

It would be far from easy to pronounce what pe
the most remarkable for the excellence of his n
blessing so essential for the enjoyment of life, t
been so many who have been celebrated for it.
knew all the soldiers of his army by name :58 I
names of all the Roman people. Cineas, the a
king Pyrrhus, knew by name all the members
and the equestrian order, the day after his arriv
56 This circumstance is mentioned by Pausanias, in his A
an Athenian hetæra, or courtesan, beloved by Aristogiton,
Athenæus, by Harmodius . On the murder of Hipparchus
istratus, she was put to the torture, being supposed to h
to the conspiracy; but she died under her sufferings witho
disclosure, and, according to one account, bit off her tongu
might be betrayed by her. The Athenians erected in her
statue of a lioness (in reference to her name) , without a
vestibule of the Acropolis.
57 This story is related by Val. Maximus, B. iii. c. 3, it
to by Cicero, Tus. Quæst. B. ii. c. 22, and De Nat. Deor.
he only speaks of his tortures, without mentioning what P
biting off his tongue.-B. He was a philosopher of Abde
of Democritus, and flourished about B.c. 340. Towards
Great, whom he accompanied into Asia, he acted the
flatterer. He was pounded to death in a mortar, by orde
king of Cyprus.
58 This statement is also made by Val. Maximus, B. vii
phon, Cyropædia, B. v., speaks of the retentive memory of
siderably qualifies the account here given : he says that
names of all his commanders or prefects, and of all those
occasion to give particular orders.-B.
VII. Chap. 24. ] MEMORY. 165

Mithridates, who was king of twenty-two nations, adminis-

tered their laws in as many languages, and could harangue
each of them, without employing an interpreter. There was
r the in Greece a man named Charmidas, who, when a person
s re-
male asked him for any book in a library, could repeat it by heart,
just as though he were reading. Memory, in fine, has been
- the
made an 60art ; which was first invented by the lyric poet, Si-
s and
monides, and perfected by Metrodorus of Scepsis, so as to
Anax-
n, bit enable persons to repeat word for word exactly what they have
heard.661 Nothing whatever, in man, is of so frail a nature as
thus
the memory ; for it is affected by disease, by injuries, and even
by fright ; being sometimes partially lost, and at other times
entirely so. A man, who received a blow from a stone, forgot
the names of the letters only ;62 while, on the other hand,
another person, who fell from a very high roof, could not so
as been
much as recollect his mother, or his relations and neighbours .
y, that Another person, in consequence of some disease, forgot his
having own servants even ; and Messala Corvinus, the orator, lost all
Cyrus recollection of his own name. And so it is, that very often the
pio the memory appears to attempt, as it were, to make its escape from
ador of
us, even while the body is at rest and in perfect health .
e senate
When sleep, too, comes over us, it is cut off altogether ; so
Rome. much so, that the mind, in its vacancy, is at a loss to know
where we are."63
She was
ording to
on of Pis- 59 This account is similar to that given by Val. Maximus, B. viii. c. 7,
een privy and by Aulus Gellius, B. xvii. c. 7. We have a learned dissertation by
aking any Ajasson, in which he discusses the possibility of one individual under-
- no secret standing so great a number of languages, as well as the question, whether
- a bronze it is possible that so great a number of languages were spoken by the sub-
e, in the jects of Mithridates. His conclusions greatly tend to prove both these
points ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 295.-B.
so alluded 60 This invention is referred to by Cicero, De Nat. Deor., B. ii. c. 86.
2.33 ; but Cicero also speaks of the remarkable powers of memory possessed by Char-
ates of his midas and Metrodorus, De Oratore, B. ii. c. 88, and Tusc. Quæst. B. i. c.
the school 24.-B.
ander the 61 Ajasson gives an account of some of the principal writers in what
of a base has been termed the science of Mnemonics, or artificial memory : he par-
Nicocreon, ticularly commends the lectures of Aimé of Paris on the subject ; Lemaire,
vol. iii. p. 310, et seq.-B.
7. Xeno- 62 This circumstance is related by Val. Maximus, B. i. c. 8.-B.
s, but con- 63 This is not always the case. In dreams we often recollect past events
knew the and localities ; we know in what part of the world we are, and even re-
om he had member the substance of former dreams, and the fact that we have dreamt
of a similar subject before.
166 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 25. (25. )- VIGOUR OF MIND.

The most remarkable instance, I think, of vigou
any man ever born, was that of Cæsar, the Dictator
at present alluding to his valour and courage, nor
alted genius, which was capable of embracing every
the face of heaven, but I am speaking of that in
of mind, which was so peculiar to him, and that
which seemed to act like a flash of lightning. We
that he was able to write or read, and, at the sa
dictate and listen. He could dictate to his sec
letters at once, and those on the most important bu
indeed, if he was busy about nothing else, as ma
He fought as many as fifty pitched battles, being t
mander who exceeded M. Marcellus,64 in this respe
fought only thirty-nine.65 In addition, too, to
gained by him in the civil wars, one million one
ninety-two thousand men were slain by him in
For my own part, however, I am not going to set
subject for high renown, what was really an outra
upon mankind, even though he may have been
the strong influence of necessity ; and, indeed
confesses as much, in his omission to state the num
who perished by the sword in the civil wars.

CHAP. 26.- CLEMENCY AND GREATNESS OF

With much more justice we may award credit

Magnus, for having taken from the pirates66 no l
hundred and forty-six vessels : though at the sa
and above the great qualities previously mentio
with equal justice give Cæsar the peculiar credit
64 The conqueror of Syracuse, and five times consul at
born B.C. 268, and was slain in an engagement with Ha
in the vicinity of Venusia.
65 Ajasson remarks concerning the number of battles in
said to have been engaged, that it has probably been mu
some of the great warriors of later times. He says tha
"who was raised over our heads and over all Europe, and
too long," was personally engaged in nearly 300 battles.-
66 Who infested the coasts of Cilicia, and whom he disl
strongholds, and almost utterly extirpated.
 Chap. 27.1 HEROIC EXPLOITS . 167
VII.

able degree of clemency, a quality, in the exercise of which,

even to repentance, he excelled all other individuals whatso-
ever. The same person has left us one instance of magna-
nd in
n not nimity, to which there is nothing that can be at all com-
pared. While one, who was an admirer of luxury, might per-
is ex-
haps on this occasion have enumerated the spectacles which he
under
exhibited, the treasures which he lavished away, and the mag-
igour
nificence of his public works, I maintain that it was the
otness
great proof, and an incomparable one, of an elevated mind, for
stated
him to have burnt with the most scrupulous carefulness the
me, to papers of Pompeius, which were taken in his desk at the battle
s four
of Pharsalia, and those of Scipio, taken at Thapsus, without so
; and , much as reading them.67
seven.
y com- CHAP. 27. (26 . )- HEROIC EXPLOITS.
having
ictories But now, as it belongs fully as much to the glorious renown
red and of the Roman Empire, as to the victorious career of a single
battles . individual, I shall proceed on this occasion to make mention of
wn as a all the triumphs and titles of Pompeius Magnus : the splendour
mmitted of his exploits having equalled not only that of those of Alex-
g under ander the Great, but even of Hercules, and perhaps of Father
Liberts even. After having recovered Sicily, where he first
himself
commenced his career as a partizan of Sylla, but in behalf of
f persons
the republic, after having conquered the whole of Africa, and
reduced it to subjection, and after having received for his share
of the spoil the title of " Great," he was decreed the honours
of a triumph ; and he, though only of equestrian rank, " a
Pompeius thing that had never occurred before, re-entered the city in the
an eight triumphal chariot : immediately after which, he hastened to the
ime, over west, where he left it inscribed on the trophy which he raised
we must upon the Pyrenees, that he had, by his victories, reduced to
a remark- subjection eight hundred and seventy-six cities, from the Alps
to the borders of Farther Spain ; at the same time he most
. He was 67 This fact is mentioned by Seneca, de Ira, B. ii. c. 26. Plutarch
1, B.C. 208, mentions a similar circumstance with respect to Pompey. - B.
68 Or Bacchus. " Father Liber " is the name always given to him by
ch Cæsar is Pliny.
xceeded by 69 " Magnus." Plutarch states, that, on his return from Africa, Sylla
individual, saluted him with the name of " Magnus," which surname he ever after-
gned much wards retained.- B.
70 Plutarch says, that the law did not allow a triumph to be granted to
from their any one who was not either consul or prætor.-B.
 168 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

magnanimously said not a word about Sertorius.

having put an end to the civil war, which indeed
primary cause of all the foreign ones, he,, though st
equestrian rank, again entered Rome in the triumph:
having proved himself a general thus often before ha
72
a soldier. After this, he was dispatched to the sh
the various seas, and then to the East, whence he bro
to his country the following titles of honour, resembli
those who conquer at the sacred games-for, be i
bered, it is not they that are crowned, but their
countries.73 These honours then did he award to
in the temple of Minerva," which he consecrated
spoils that he had gained : " Cneius Pompeius Ma
perator, having brought to an end a war of thirty y
tion, and having defeated, routed, put to the sw
ceived the submission of, twelve millions two hu
seventy-eight thousand men, having sunk or captu
hundred and forty-six vessels, having received as
thousand five hundred and thirty-eight cities and
and having conquered all the country from the Ma
Red Sea, dedicates this shrine as a votive offeri
Minerva." Such, in few words, is the sum of his
the East. The following are the introductory wor
tive of the triumph which he obtained, the third
the calends of October,76 in the consulship of M

71 Sertorius had joined the party of Marius and Cinna, in

that of Sylla. He fled into Spain, and maintained the war s
that country, until he was treacherously assassinated by one of
partisans. This may appear a sufficient reason for his not bei
by Pompey.- B.
72 Toties imperator antequam miles." He had been
highest rank without passing through the various gradation
life.-B.
73 Speaking of this honorary crown, Pliny says, B. xvi.
present day it is not given to the victor himself, but proclama
that he confers the crown upon his country."
74 It is noticed by the commentators, that Aulus Gellius
this building, calls it the Temple of Victory, B. x. c. 1 ; th
supposed, may have arisen from Pompey having placed a stat
in the Temple. - B.
75 29th of September.
76 Pliny, referring to these events, in a subsequent place,
says that it took place " pridie Kalend. Octob. die natalis su
informs us, that the triumph lasted two days, a circumstan
 Chap. 28.1 UNION OF HIGH QUALITIES, ETC. 169
er 1
M. Messala ;" " After having delivered the sea-coast from
e
the pirates, and restored the seas to the people of Rome, he
Ay enjoyed a triumph over Asia, Pontus, Armenia, Paphlagonia,
ot, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, the Scythians, Judæa, the Alba-
en
nians, Iberia, the island of Crete, the Basterni, and, in addition
all
to all these, the kings Mithridates and Tigranes."
ck
The most glorious, however, of all glories, resulting from
ein
these exploits, was, as he himself says, in the speech which he
m-
made in public relative to his previous career, that Asia,
ve
which he received as the boundary of the empire, he left its
ty, centre.78 If any one should wish, on the other hand, in a
the similar manner, to pass in review the exploits of Cæsar, who
m- has shown himself greater still than Pompeius, why then he
ra- must enumerate all the countries in the world, a task, I may
re- say, without an end.
and
ght CHAP. 28. ( 27. ) -UNION
— IN THE SAME PERSON OF THREE OF THE
one HIGHEST QUALITIES WITH THE GREATEST PURITY.
sses,
the Many other men have excelled in different kinds of virtues.
e to Cato, however, who was the first of the Porcian family,79 is
ts in generally thought to have been an example of the three greatest
of human endowments, for he was the most talented orator,
crip-
efore the most talented general, and the most talented politician ;80
and all which merits, if they were not perceptible before him,
still shone forth, more refulgently even, in my opinion, in Scipio
on to Æmilianus, who besides was exempted from that hatred on the
allyin part of many others under which Cato laboured :.81 8 in conse-
oposed
tioned assist us in reconciling these dates. The same author gives a very minute
detail of all the transactions here referred to.-B.
to the 77 According to the chronology ordinarily adopted, this would be in the
ilitary year of the City 692.-B.
78 By Asia, as we see from the geographical portion of this work, the
At the ancients often designated not the large tract to which we now apply the
made name, but a comparatively small district lying on the east of the Egean
sea.-B.
ing of 79 See B. xiv. c. 5.
it is 80 Val. Maximus adds, that he was the best lawyer of his time.-B.
Victory 81 We meet with a passage in Livy, B. xxxix. c. 44, illustrative of this
view of Cato's character. In Cicero's treatise, De Senectute, where Cato
bears a prominent part, frequent allusion is made to the strictness and even
5. c. 6, severity of his principles, although the general impression which we re-
utarch ceive of his character and manners is highly interesting, and, upon the
h may whole, not unamiable. - B .
 170 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

quence of which it was, what must be owned to

liarity in Cato's career, that he had to plead his ow
less than four and forty times ;82 and yet, though
was so frequently accused, he was always acquitted

CHAP. 29. (28 .)- INSTANCES OF EXTREME COUR

A minute enquiry by whom the greatest valou
been exhibited, would lead to an endless discussion,
cially if all the fables of the poets are to be taken f
Q. Ennius admired T. Cæcilius Denters and his broth
degree, that on their account he added a sixteenth
Annals. L. Siccius Dentatus, who was tribune of
in the consulship of Spurius Tarpeius and A. A
long after the expulsion of the kings, has also very
testimonies in his favour. This hero fought one h
twenty battles, was eight times victorious in single c
was graced with forty-five wounds in the front of
without one on the back. The same man also
thirty-four spoils,85 was eighteen times presented w
tor's spear, and received twenty-five pendants,87 e
82 Plutarch says, that nearly fifty impeachments were bro
him, the last when he was eighty-six years of age.-B.
83 There has been considerable difficulty in ascertaining
individual here referred to ; the subject is discussed at so
Hardouin, who shows that it is probable, that it was Lucius
was slain in a battle with the Gauls, A.U.c. 470, and in the
Dolabella and Domitius .- B.
84 The name of this consul has been the subject of mu
among the commentators. Livy, B. iii. c. 31, has been
calling him Atermius ; but in some of the best editions, he i
rius. The tribunate of Dentatus took place A.U.c. 299, fifty-f
the expulsion of the kings.- B.
85 When a Roman overcame an enemy with whom he had
nally engaged, he took possession of some part of his armo
which might bear testimony to thevictory ; this was termed th
-B.
86 " Hasta pura ;" these words, according to Hardouin, si
without an iron head. We are told that it was given to hin
the first victory in a battle ; it was also regarded as an emble
power, and as a mark of the authority which one nation
another.-B.
87 " Phaleris." These were bosses, discs or crescents of
times gold. They were mostly used in pairs, and as orna
helmet ; but we more commonly read of them as attached t
11 .
Chap . 29. ] OF EXTREME COURAGE . 171
cu-
torcs,88 one hundred and sixty bracelets,89 twenty- six crowns,
no
(of which fourteen were civic, eight golden, three mural, and
Son
one obsidional) , a fisc⁹ of money, ten prisoners, and twenty
oxen altogether." He followed in the triumphal processions
of nine generals, who mainly owed their victories to his exer-
tions ; besides all which, a thing that I look upon as the most
important of all his services, he denounced to the people T.
ever
Romilius," one of the generals of the army, at the end of his
espe- consulship, and had him convicted of having made an improper
ted. use of his authority.9
uch a The military honours of Manlius Capitolinus would have
o his been no less splendid than his, if they had not been all effaced
eople at the close of his life . Before his seventeenth year, he had
84 not
erous of horses, and worn as pendants from the head, so as to produce a terrific
d and effect when shaken by the rapid movements of the horse.
t, and 88 The " torques" was an ornament of gold, twisted spirally and bent
body, into a circular form, and worn among the upper classes of the Persians,
ed off the Gauls, and other Asiatic and northern nations. They are often found
both in France and Ireland, as well as in this country, but varying greatly
ne vic- in size and weight.
-three 89 Golden " armillæ," or bracelets, were worn by the Gauls on the arms
and the legs. The Sabines also wore them on the left arm, at the time of
against the foundation of Rome.
90 The word " fiscus" signifies a wicker basket or pannier, probably of
was the peculiar construction, in which the Romans were accustomed to keep and
ngth by carry about large sums of money. In process of time the word came to
ius, who signify a treasure or money-chest.
lship of 91 We have nearly the same detail of the honours bestowed on Dentatus
by Val. Maximus, B. iii. c. 2. Pliny again speaks of Dentatus, and the
iscussion honours bestowed upon him, B. xxii . c. 5 ; and especially notices the " co-
-ed to, as rona graminea,” the grass or obsidional crown, as the highest of his ho-
ned Ate- nours. The different kinds of honorary crowns are very fully described in
ears after B. xvi. c. 3, 4, and 5 ; in B. xxii. c. 4, we have a particular account of
the " corona graminea ;" in c. 5, mention is made of its having been given
to Dentatus, and, in the next, other individuals are enumerated to whom it
n perso-
nd dress, had been presented.- B.
92 T. Romilius Rocus Vaticanus was consul B.C. 455. Having de-
polium. " feated the Equi, and gained immense booty, instead of distributing it
a lance among the soldiers, he and his colleague sold it, on account of the poverty
o gained of the treasury. They were, in consequence, brought to trial, and Veturius
was sentenced to pay 10,000 asses. He was, however, elected augur in
suprenie 453, as some compensation for the ill-treatment he had experienced.
med over
93 Livy, B. iii. c. 31 , gives an account of the conviction of Romilius, but
al, some- says, that it was effected by C. Claudius Cicero, the tribune of the people.
ts for the To obviate the discordance in the names, some commentators have pro-
e harness posed to substitute the words " Lucio Siccio " for " Claudio Cicerone." -B.
 172 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

gained two spoils, and was the first of equestrian ranl

ceived a mural crown ; he also gained six civic crown
seven donations, and had twenty-three scars on the for
his body. He saved the life of P. Servilius, the mast
horse, receiving wounds on the same occasion in the
and the thigh. Besides all this, unaided, he saved the
when it was attacked by the Gauls, and through
state itself ; a thing that would have been the most
act of all, if he had not so saved it, in order that he
94
its king, become its master. But in all matters of th
although valour may effect much, fortune does still m
No person
95 living, in my opinion at least, ever ex
Sergius, although his great- grandson, Catiline, tarn
honours of his name. In his second campaign he lost
hand ; and in two campaigns he was wounded three an
times ; so much so, that he could scarcely use either
or his feet ; still, attended by a single slave, he a
served in many campaigns, though but an invalide
He was twice taken prisoner by Hannibal, (for it wa
ordinary enemy that he would engage, ) and twice did
from his captivity, after having been kept, without
day's intermission, in chains and fetters for twenty
On four occasions he fought with his left hand alone, t
being slain under him. He had a right hand made
and attached to the stump, after which he fought a b
raised the siege of Cremona, defended Placentia,
twelve of the enemy's camps in Gaul . All this we l
an oration of his, which he delivered when, in his pr
his colleagues attempted to exclude
96 him from the sac
on the ground of his infirmities. What heaps upon
crowns would he have piled up, if he had only had o
mies ! For, in matters of this nature, it is of the fir
tance to consider upon what times in especial the
94 We have an account of the victories, honours, and unfortu
Manlius in Livy, B. vi. c. 14-20. In enumerating the honou
upon him, the numbers are given somewhat differently in c
spoils of enemies slain, forty donations from the generals, two
eight civic crowns. - B.
He was one of the city prætors B.C. 19
96 M. Sergius Silus.
95
Among the Jews and other nations of antiquity, it was co
essential point for the priests to be without blemish, perfect an
disease.-B.
I.
Chap. 30.] MEN OF REMARKABLE GENIUS . 173
re-
each man has fallen. What civic crowns did Trebia, what
y-
Cof did the Ticinus, what did Lake Thrasymenus afford ? What
the crown was there to be gained at Canne, where it was deemed
ers the greatest effort of valour to have escaped 97 from the enemy ?
tol, Other persons have been conquerors of men, no doubt, but
the Sergius conquered even Fortune herself. 98*
ous
- as
ure, CHAP. 30. ( 29 . ) - MEN OF REMARKABLE GENIUS.

I M. Among so many different pursuits, and so great a variety of The

the works and objects, who can select the palm of glory for tran-
-ight scendent genius ? Unless perchance we should agree in opinion
that no more brilliant genius ever existed than the Greek poet
enty
ands Homer, whether it is that we regard the happy subject of his
-ards work, or the excellence of its execution. For this reason it
dier. was that Alexander the Great- and it is only by judges of
ch no such high estate that a sentence, just and unbiassed by envy,
can be pronounced in the case of such lofty claims- when he
scape
found among the spoils of Darius, the king of Persia, a casket
ingle
nths. for perfumes,99 enriched with gold, precious stones, and pearls,
covered as he was with the dust of battle, deemed it beneath a
horses
warrior to make use of unguents, and, when his friends were
iron,
e, and pointing out to him its various uses, exclaimed, “ Nay, but by
Hercules ! let the casket be used for preserving the poems of
took
Homer ;" that so the most precious work of the human mind
from might be placed in the keeping of the richest work of art. It
rship, was the same conqueror, too, who gave directions that the
rites,
aps of
rene- 97 In allusion to the compliment paid by the senate to the consul, M.
Terentius Varro, by whose rashness the battle of Canna was lost. On his
mpor- escape and safe return to Rome, instead of visiting him with censure,
ur of he received the thanks of the senate, 66 that he had not despaired of the
republic."
fate of 98 It appears somewhat remarkable, considering the extraordinary acts
ferred of valour here enumerated, as performed by Sergius, that we hear so little
thirty of him from other sources .- B.
al and 98* Hardouin takes the meaning to be, that though ill fortune overtook
the Romans in their wars with Hannibal, nevertheless Sergius defeated
Fortune herself, in dying before his country was overwhelmed by those
ered an calamities.
ee from 99 Pliny informs us, B. xiii. c. 1 , that the art of making perfumes origi-
nated with the Persians. - B.
 174 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

descendants and house of the poet Pindar¹ should be

the taking of Thebes. He likewise rebuilt the nativ
Aristotle, uniting to the extraordinary brilliancy of hi
this speaking testimony of his kindliness of dispositio
Apollo impeached by name the assassins of the pc
lochus at Delphi . While the Lacedemonians were
Athens, Father Liber ordered the funeral rites to be
for Sophocles, the very prince of the tragic bus
peatedly warning their king, Lysander, in his sleep
of the burial of his favourite. Upon this, the king
quiry who had lately died in Athens ; and understandin
any difficulty from the Athenians to whom the god re
allowed the funeral rites to be performed without m

CHAP. 31. (30 . )-MEN WHO HAVE BEEN REMARKA

WISDOM.

Dionysius the tyrant, who otherwise manifested

propensity for cruelty and pride, sent a vessel crow
garlands to meet Plato, that high-priest of wisdon
his disembarcation, received him on the shore, in
drawn by four white horses. Isocrates was able
single oration of his for twenty talents . Eschines
Athenian orator, after he had read to the Rhodians
which he had made on the accusation of Demosth
the defence made by Demosthenes, through whic
been driven into exile among them. When they
their admiration of it, " How much more," said h
you have admired it, if you had heard him deliv

1 The city was taken by him by assault, and all its buildin
exception of the house of Pindar, levelled to the ground ; mo
habitants were slaughtered, and the rest sold as slaves.
2 Stagirus, or Stagira, a town of Macedonia, in Chalcidice,
monic Gulf. It was a colony of Andros, founded B.C. 656, a
called Orthagoria. It was destroyed by Philip, and, accor
accounts, was rebuilt by him, as having been the native place
3 Archilochus of Paros was one of the earliest Ionian lyr
was the first who composed in Iambic verse according to fixe
flourished about 714-676 B.C. Pliny speaks here of his m
it is generally stated by historians that he was murdered by or
by some called Calondas, or Corax, a Naxian, by others Arch
4 We may here refer to some remarks by Hardouin and Aj
actual sum obtained by Isocrates ; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 126,
II. MEN REMARKABLE FOR WISDOM.
Chap. 31. ] 175
at
self;" a striking testimony, indeed, given in adversity, to the
of
its merit of an enemy ! The Athenians sent their general, Thu-
cydides, into banishment, but recalled him as their historian,
hi- admiring his eloquence, though they had punished his want
of valour. A strong testimony, too, was given to the merit
ing
ned of Menander, the famous comic poet, by the kings of Egypt
and Macedonia, in sending to him a fleet and an embassy ;
re-
though, what was still more honourable to him, he preferred
low
enjoying the converse of his literary pursuits to the favour of
en-
kings.
out
The nobles too of Rome have given their testimonies in favour
, he
tion. of foreigners , even. Cn. Pompeius, after having finished the
war against Mithridates, when he went to call at the house of
Posidonius, the famous teacher of philosophy, forbade the
OR lictor to knock at the door, as was the usual custom ;" and he,
to whom both the eastern and the western world had
yielded submission, ordered the fasces to be lowered before the
tural door of a learned man. Cato the Censor, after he had heard
with 8
the speech of Carneades, who was one of the embassy sent
ad on
hariot 5 This anecdote is related by Cicero, De Oratore, B. iii. c. 56, and by
sell a Val. Maximus, B. viii. c. 10.-B.
great 6 This is rather a strong expression, and it is doubtful if the great his-
torian at all deserves it. The facts of the case seem to have been as follow.
peech Thucydides was employed in a military capacity, and was in command of
read an Athenian squadron of seven ships at Thasos, B.C. 424, when Eucles,
e had who commanded in Amphipolis, sent for his assistance against Brasidas,
ressed who was before that town with an army. Fearing the arrival of a superior
would force, Brasidas offered favourable terms to Amphipolis, which were readily
accepted, as there were but few Athenians in the place. Thucydides ar-
him- rived at Eion, on the mouth of the Strymon, the evening of the same day
on which Amphipolis surrendered : and though too late to save Amphipolis,
with the prevented Eion from falling into the hands of the enemy. It was in con-
the in- sequence of this failure, that he became voluntarily an exile, perhaps to
avoid the still severer punishment of death, which appears to have been
e Stry- the penalty of such a failure as that which he had, though unavoidably,
ginally committed. It is most probable that he returned to Athens about B.c. 403,
to some the period of its liberation by Thrasybulus.
-istotle. 7 The following passage in Livy, B. vi. c. 34, may serve to illustrate this
ets , and remark of Pliny "The lictors of Sulpicius, the military tribune, when
es. He he went home from the forum, knocked at the door with his staff, as the
ers ; but usual custom is."
ividual, 8 Of Cyrene, the Academic philosopher. In B.c. 155, being then fifty-
eight years old, he was chosen with some others to deprecate the fine of
= on the 500 talents which had been imposed on the Athenians for the destruction
-B. of Oropus. It was then that, in presence of Cato the Elder, he delivered
176 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

from Athens, of three men famous for their learning,

his opinion, that the ambassadors ought to be dismiss
as possible, because, in consequence of his ingenious
arguing, it became extremely difficult to distinguish t
falsehood . What an extraordinary change too in ou
thinking ! This Cato constantly gave it out as his de
nion that all Greeks ought to be expelled from Italy,
the other hand, his great-grandson, Cato of Utica,
return from his military tribuneship, brought back
philosopher, and a second one 10 when he returned
embassy to Cyprus ; " and it is a very remarkable
the same language which had been proscribed by
Cato's, was introduced among us by the other. But
give some account of the honours of our own countr
The elder Africanus ordered that the statue of Enr
be placed in his tomb, and that the illustrious surn
he had acquired, I may say, as his share of the s
conquest of the third part of the world, should b
12
his ashes, along with the name of the poet. Th
Augustus, now deified, forbade the works of Virgil t
in opposition to the modest directions to that effect,
poet had left in his will : a prohibition which wa
compliment paid to his merit, than if he himself h
mended his works.
M. Varro¹³ is the only person, who, during his lif
his famous orations on Justice. The first oration was in com
the virtue, and on the ensuing day the next was delivered, by
arguments of the first were answered, and justice shown to be
but only a matter of compact for the maintenance of civil s
honesty of Cato was greatly shocked at this, and he moved
send the philosopher back to his school, and save the Roman
his demoralizing doctrines. He lived twenty-eight years a
died at Athens B.C. 129, aged eighty-five, or, according to Ci
This is related by Plutarch, in his Life of Cato. His g
of the Grecian character is again mentioned , B. xxix. c. 7.--
10 See B. xxxiv. c. 19.
11 We have an account of this embassy in Plutarch. Plin
B. xxxiv. c. 20, that the only article which Cato retained, of
art that he brought from Cyprus, was the statue of Zeno, "
trinsic merit, but because it was the statue of a philosoph
Paterculus, B. ii. c. 45, and Plutarch refer to this transaction
12 This circumstance is related by Valerius Maximus, B. v
is referred to by Cicero in his defence of Archias, sec. 9.- H
13 M. Varro, the philosopher, sometimes called " the mos
I. Chap. 31. ] MEN REMARKABLE FOR WISDOM . 177
as
his own statue erected. This was placed in the first public
оп
library that was ever built, and which was formed by Asinius
of Pollio with the spoils of our enemies.¹4 The fact of this dis-
m tinction being conferred upon him by one who was in the first
of rank, both as an orator and a citizen, and at a time, too, when
pi- there was so great a number of men distinguished for their
on genius, was not less honourable to him, in my opinion, than
his the naval crown which Pompeius Magnus bestowed upon him
na in the war against the pirates. The instances that follow
his among the Romans, if I were to attempt to reckon them,
hat would be found to be innumerable ; for it is the fact that this
the one nation has furnished a greater number of distinguished
now men in every branch than all the countries of the world taken
together.15
ould But what atonement could I offer to thee, Marcus Tullius, "
hich were I to be silent respecting thy name ? or on what ground
the am I to pronounce thee as especially pre-eminent ? On what,
over indeed, that can be more convincing than the most abundant
peror testimony that was offered in thy favour by the whole Roman
urnt , people? Contenting myself with the selection only of such ofthe
h the great actions of the whole of your life, as were performed during
reater your consulship.-You speak, and the tribes surrender the
ecom- Agrarian law, or, in other words, their very subsistence ;.17 you
advise them to do so, and they pardon Roscius,18 the author of the
, saw
the Romans. His command under Pompey, in the war against the Pirates,
tion of has been already mentioned in B. iii. c. 16. He also served under him
all the against Mithridates, and was his legatus in Spain, at the first outbreak of
virtue, the civil wars.
The 14 Pliny refers to the same subject : in B. xxxv. c. 2, he speaks of Pollio
nate to as 66 qui primus, bibliothecam dicando, ingenia hominum rempublicam fe-
h from cit" The first who, by forming a public library, made public property the
is, and genius of learned men .' Aulus Gellius, B. vi. c. 18, informs us, that the
ninety. first library, formed for the use of the public, was that collected at Athens
dislike by Pisistratus.- B. Ptolemy Philadelphus, the kingof Pergamus, and
Lucullus, had formed extensive libraries, but solely for their own use, and
not that of the public.
orms us, 15 Some of these are given by Val. Maximus, B. viii. c. 15.-B. It is
works of very doubtful, however, if Greece did not greatly excel Rome in this respect.
r its in- 16 Meaning Cicero, the orator and philosopher.
Valerius 17 Cicero, in an Epistle to Atticus, B. ii . c. i. , enumerates what he styles
his consular orations : the total number is twelve, and among them we find
14, and all those here referred to by Pliny.-B.
18 The individual referred to is L. Roscius Otho ; by his lawthe Roman
ned " of equites, who, before this time, sat mingled with the people generally, had
VOL. II. N
178 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

law for the regulation of the theatres, and, without an

of resentment, allow a mark to be put upon themselve
ting them an inferior seat ; you entreat, and the so
scribed men blush at having canvassed for public ho
fore your genius, Catiline took to flight, and it was
proscribed M. Antonius. Hail then to thee, who wa
of all to receive the title of Father of thy country, 19
the first of all, while wearing the toga, to merit
and who didst obtain the laurel for oratory. Gr
thou, of eloquence and of Latin literature ! as th
Cæsar, once thy enemy, wrote in testimony of
didst require a laurel superior to every triumph
greater and more glorious to have enlarged so immea
boundaries of the Roman genius, than those of its s
(31.) Those persons among the Romans, who
others in wisdom, have the surnames of Catus and
given to them. Among the Greeks, Socrates w
by the oracle of the Pythian Apollo to be superior
in wisdom .

CHAP. 32. ( 32 . ) - PRECEPTS THE MOST USEFUL I

Again, men have placed on an equality with
oracles the precepts uttered by Chilon," the Lac
These have been consecrated at Delphi in letters
are to the following effect : " That each person oug
himself, and not to desire to possess too much; "' 23
misery is the sure companion of debt and litigation .'
appropriate seats allotted to them. Cicero designates this
Othone."- B.
19 This title was bestowed upon him by the general accla
people, at the end of his consulship. We have an account
tarch.-B.
20 This remark is not found in any of Caesar's works now
21 These terms signify " acute " and " judicious ;" they
spectively from " cautus " and " cor."-B.
22 Son of Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages. H
wards the beginning of the sixth century B.C. Herodot
held the office of Ephor Eponymus in Ol. 56. He was a m
for his wisdom and his sententious brevity, so characteristic
origin.
23 It appears somewhat doubtful to which of the Grecian
of this maxim is due.-B.
11. Chap. 34.] THE MOST EXCELLENT MAN. 179

gs joy, on hearing that his son had been victorious in the Olympic
ot- games, and all Greece assisted at his funeral rites .
ro-
be- CHAP. 33. (33 .)— DIVINATION .
vho
irst A spirit of divination, and a certain communion with the
vast gods, of the most exalted nature, was manifested- among
ph, women, in the Sibyl, and among men, in Melampodes," the
her, Greek, and in Marcius,25 the Roman.
ator
thou CHAP. 34. ( 34 . ) - THE MAN WHO WAS PRONOUNCED TO BE THE
far MOST EXCELLENT.
y the
Scipio Nasica is the only individual who, since the com-
ss all mencement of the Roman era, has been declared, by a vote of
ilusa the senate, confirmed by oath, to be the most excellent of
men.26 And yet, the same person, when he was a candidate
lared
Others for office, was twice stigmatized by a repulse of the Roman
people. He was not allowed, in fine, to die in his native
country, -no, by Hercules ! no more than Socrates, who
was declared by Apollo to be the wisest of men, was per-
mitted to die outside of a prison.
of the
onian . 24 We have an account of Melampus, probably the same as the person
d, and here styled Melampodes, in Herodotus, B. ii. c. 49, and B. ix. c. 34 ; Ajas-
know son, in Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 135, has given a list of writers who have re-
ferred to him as an eminent soothsayer. Pliny mentions him in a subse-
That quent passage, B. xxv. c. 21 , as celebrated for his skill in the art of divi-
died of nation.-B.
25 Marcius is said by Cicero, De Divin. B. i . c. 50, to have given his pre-
dictions in verses.- B.
on, "De 26 We have an account of this in Livy, B. xxix. c, 14, and B. xxxvi. c.
on of the 40; it is also referred to by Valerius Maximus, B. viii . c. 15.-B.
t in Plu- 27 In consequence of the number of eminent men who bore the name
of Scipio, it is not easy, in all cases, to decide to which of them certain
at.-B. transactions ought to be referred . In this instance, it has been doubted,
erived re- whether it was the same Scipio who was twice an unsuccessful candidate for
the consulship , and who died in a foreign country. Livy, B. xxxv. c. 24,
ished to- remarks, " P. Corn. Cn. F. Scipio " had been an unsuccessful candidate
ys that he for the consulship ; and afterwards, B. xxxix. c. 40, that " P. and L. Sci-
markable pio" were unsuccessful candidates for the office of censor. Val . Maximus
expressly states, B. v. c. 3, that it was Scipio Nasiea, who, in consequence
Spartan of the little estimation in which he was held by his fellow-citizens, went
the credit to Pergamus, and " lived there the remainder of his life, without feeling
any regrets for his ungrateful country." - B.
180 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 35. (35 . )— THE MOST CHASTE MATRON

Sulpicia, the daughter of Paterculus, and wife
Flaccus, has been considered, in the judgment of
have been the chastest of women. She was selecte
hundred Roman ladies, who had been previously
dedicate a statue of Venus, in obedience to the pr
tained in the Sibylline books.28 Again, Claudia g
proof of her piety and virtue, on the occasion of th
tion into Rome of the Mother of the gods.29

CHAP. 36. (36 . )- INSTANCES OF THE HIGHEST D

AFFECTION.

Infinite is the number of examples of affection

been known in all parts of the world ; but one i
occurred at Rome, to which no other can possib
pared. A woman of quite the lower class, and w
has consequently not come down to us, having
birth to a child, obtained permission to visit her m
was confined in prison ; but was always carefully
the gaoler before being admitted, to prevent her
28 We have this anecdote related by Valerius Maximus ,
He informs us, that it was the statue of Venus Verticordi
ordered to be consecrated ; the more readily to win the
maidens and matrons from wanton thoughts to a life of chas
29 Her story is told at great length by Ovid, in the Fasti
et seq. Her name was Claudia Quinta, and she is supposed
the sister of Appius Claudius Pulcher, and grand-daughter o
dius Cæcus. The vessel which was conveying the statue o
Pessinus to Rome having stuck fast on a shallow at the mou
the soothsayers declared that none but a really chaste woma
it. Claudia, who had been previously accused of unchastit
number of the matrons who had accompanied Scipio to Ostia
statue, immediately presented herself, and calling upon the
dicate her innocence, seized the rope, and the vessel moved
statue was afterwards erected to her in the vestibule of the
goddess.
30 Solinus and Festus differ somewhat from Pliny, in
was her father whose life was thus saved by the affectio
Valerius Maximus, who tells the story, says that the famil
sanguinis," meaning " of genteel origin." Such families
sometimes reduced, even among the Romans, to a level wi
classes.
II. INSTANCES OF AFFECTION. 181
Chap. 36.]

ducing any food. At last, however, she was detected nourish-

ing her mother with the milk of her breast ; upon which, in
ius consideration of the marvellous affection of the daughter, the
to mother was pardoned, and they were both maintained for the
one rest of their days at the public charge ; the spot, too, was
to consecrated to Piety, a temple to that goddess being built on
con- the site of the prison, in the consulship³¹ of C. Quintius and
M. Acilius, where the theatre of Marcellus 32 now stands.
Fong
duc- The father of the Gracchi, on finding [ two ] serpents in his
house, consulted the soothsayers, and received an answer to
the effect, that he would survive if the serpent of the other
sex was put to death.- " No , " said he, " rather kill the ser-
OF pent of my own sex, for Cornelia is still young, and may
yet bear children." 33 Thus did he shew himself ready, at
have the same moment, to spare his wife and to benefit the state ;
cular and shortly after, his wish was accomplished. M. Lepidus
com- died of regret for his wife, Apuleia, after having been divorced
from her.34 P. Rupilius, who was at the time affected by a
name
slight disease, instantly expired, upon news being brought to
given him that his brother had failed in obtaining the consulship .
who
P. Catienus Plotinus was so much attached to his patron, that on
Led by
intro- finding himself named heir to all his property, he threw him-
self on the funeral pile.
c. 15. 31 A.U.C. 604.
ch was
of the 32 This theatre is again mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 12. It was built of
B. stone, and erected by Augustus in honour of his nephew Marcellus.
1. 305, 32 This is related by Valerius Maximus, B. v. c. 8, somewhat more in
ve been detail, and with a degree of animation, which is not frequently to be met
us Clau- with in that author.- B.
ele from 33 Cicero, De Divin. B. i. c. 18, Val. Maximus, B. iv. c. 6, and Plutarch,
eTiber, relate this more circumstantially. The serpents were of different sexes ; if
d move the male serpent was killed, his own death was to be the consequence ; if
ng in the the female, that of his wife, Cornelia. - B.
ceive the 34 Pliny gives an account of the circumstances which attended the death
s to vin- of Lepidus, in the 54th Chapter. He was the father of the triumvir. —B.
with. A 35 Or Rutilius, consul B.C. 132, the year after the death of Tiberius
e of the Gracchus, whose adherents he prosecuted with the greatest cruelty. He
also obtained a triumph for bringing to a conclusion the Servile war. He
that it was an intimate friend of the younger Scipio Africanus, who obtained the
daughter. consulship for him, but failed in gaining that honour for his brother Lucius.
'ingenui About the same period, he was condemned, in the tribuneship of Caius
however, Gracchus, for his illegal acts in the prosecution of the adherents of Tibe-
rius Gracchus. It has been suggested that this indignity may have had a
plebeian
greater share than the ill success of his brother in causing his death.
182 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP, 37. (37. )- NAMES OF MEN WHO HAVE EXCELL

ARTS, ASTROLOGY, GRAMMAR, AND MEDICIN
Innumerable are the men who have excelled in
arts ; we may, however, take a cursory survey o
citing the names of the principal ones. Berosus
astrology ; and on account of his divinations and I
a public statue was erected in his honour by the
Apollodorus, for his skill as a grammarian, had pub
decreed him by the Amphictyonic Council of Gre
pocrates excelled in medicine ; before its arriva
dicted the plague, which afterwards came from
sent his pupils to various cities, to give their
As an acknowledgment of his merit, Greece decre
same honours as to Hercules.36 36 King Ptolemy
similar degree of skill in the person of Cleombrot
by a donation of one hundred talents, at the 1
games,37 he having succeeded in saving the life of
ochus.38 Critobulus also rendered himself extrem
by extracting an arrow39 from the eye of King Ph
36 Pliny again speaks of the great talents of Hippocrates,
and B. xxix. c. 2.-B.
37 We have an account of the origin of these games in Li
14.-B.
38 Cleombrotus is supposed to be the same person who is m
xxix. c. 3, as Erasistratus, the grandson of Aristotle. Fr
learn that a near relative of his was called Cleombrotus, th
perplexed language, it is impossible to say whether father
story to which Pliny is supposed here to refer is a curious
chus, the son of Seleucus Nicator, fell in love with Strato
father had married in his old age, but struggled to concea
The skilful physician discovered the nature of his disease ;
reported to Seleucus that it was incurable, for that he was
was impossible that his passion could be gratified. The
surprised, inquired who the lady was ; to which Erasistrat
it was his own wife ; whereupon Seleucus began to try and
to give her up to his son. The physician upon this asked h
do so himself, if it were his own wife. Seleucus declared
npon which Erasistratus disclosed to him the truth. Sele
gave up Stratonice to his son, but resigned to him sev
Erasistratus was one of the most famous physicians and
antiquity.
39 It was on this occasion that a label was said to have b
the arrow, inscribed, " To Philip's right eye." The inhab
 VII. GEOMETRY AND ARCHITECTURE . 183
Chap. 38. ]

much skill, that, although the sight was lost, there was no
THE defect to be seen.41 Asclepiades of Prusa, however, acquired
the greatest fame of all-he founded a new sect, treated with
rious disdain the promises of King Mithridates conveyed to him
by an embassy, discovered a method of successfully treating
m, by diseases by wine,42 and, breaking in upon the funeral ceremony,
ed in
saved the life of a man, who was actually placed on the fune-
tions,
nians. ral pile. He rendered himself, however, more celebrated than
nours all, by staking his reputation as a physician against Fortune
herself, and asserting that he did not wish to be so much as
Hip- looked upon as a physician, if he should ever happen in any
= pre- way to fall sick ; and he won his wager, for he met his death
a, and 44
at an extreme old age, by falling down stairs. *
stance.
im the
rded a CHAP. 38.- GEOMETRY AND ARCHITECTURE.
Ceos,
lensian M. Marcellus, too, at the taking of Syracuse, offered a re-
g Anti- markable homage to the sciences of geometry and mechanics,
Famous, by giving orders that Archimedes was to be the only person
who should not be molested ; his commands, however, were
with so
disregarded, in consequence of the imprudence of one of the
46
xvi. c. 6, soldiers. Chersiphron, also, the Cnossian, was rendered fa-
. xxix. c. mitted to depart, however, when the city was taken, with one garment to
each person.
ned in B. 41 This accident occurred to Philip, at the siege of Methone, of which
Suidas we we have a brief account in Diodorus Siculus, B. xvi. c. 7, and in Justin,
from his B. vii. c. 6 ; but neither of these authors makes any mention of Critobulus.
cle. The Quintus Curtius, B. ix. c. 5, informs us, that Critobulus exhibited great skill
Antio- in relieving Alexander the Great from the effects of a dangerous wound,
whom his which he received in India ; but he does not refer to the fact here men-
s passion. tioned.- B.
which he 42 At the present day, this mode of treatment would have figured as the
Ove, and it " wine-cure."
g, greatly 43 See B. xxvi. c. 8.
plied that 44 Pliny again speaks of Asclepiades, in B. xxvi. c. 7, and B. xxix. c. 5.
suade him The anecdote respecting the man who was saved from the funeral pile is
f he would referred to by Celsus, B. ii. c. 6.-B. Pliny says, in B. xxvi. c. 7, that
he would ; Asclepiades first came to Rome as a teacher of rhetoric, and that being un-
s not only successful, he turned his attention to medicine. Bruce, the Abyssinian
provinces. traveller, also met his death by falling down stairs. Rabelais, in the pro-
tomists of logue to his Fourth Book, refers to this peculiar death of Asclepiades.
45 This is related more at large by Val. Maximus, B. viii. c. 7, and by
Fastened on Plutarch. -B.
were per- 46 Mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 31 .
 184 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

mous by the admirable construction of the temple of

Ephesus ; Philon, by the construction of the basin
which was capable of containing one thousand vess
sibius, by the invention of pneumatics and hyd
chines ; and Dinochares,48 by the plan which he made
of Alexandria, founded by Alexander in Egypt.
monarch, too, by public edict, declared that no o
paint his portrait except Apelles, and that no one sho
marble statue of him except Pyrgoteles, or a bronze
Lysippus.49 These arts have all been rendered g
many illustrious examples.

CHAP. 39. (38 . )- OF PAINTING ; ENGRAVING ON BRONZ

AND IVORY ; OF CARVING.

King Attalus gave one hundred talents,50 at a publ

for a single picture of Aristides, the Theban painter.
the Dictator, purchased two pictures, the Medea and
of Timomachus, for eighty talents,52 it being his in
dedicate them in the temple of Venus Genetrix.
daules gave its weight in gold for a large picture by
the subject of which was the destruction of the
115
Demetrius, who was surnamed the " taker of cities,"
47 Val. Maximus refers to Philon and his public works, in I
-B. He was an architect of eminence in the reign of the
Alexander. He built for Demetrius Phalereus, about B.C. 318
of twelve Doric columns to the great temple at Eleusis. He
a basin in the Piraeus, which was destroyed at the taking of A
Romans under Sylla.
48 See B. v. c. 11, and B. xxxiv. c. 42.
49 Plutarch, in his life of Alexander, mentions the restrict
favour of Lysippus, but does not extend it to Apelles ; he does
Pyrgoteles. We have an apposite allusion to this circumstand
Ep. B. i. 1. 239, 240. Boileau has elegantly imitated Horace,
cours au Roi."- B. For further particulars of him, see B.
and 19. He was a native of Sicyon, and at first a simple work
but eventually obtained the highest rank among the Grecian s
50 According to the usual estimate of the value of the
£ 193 128., the sum given for this picture would be about £ 19
51 Nearly all the topics here treated of are again n
B. xxxv., which is devoted to the fine arts. The 34th
36th Chapters of that Book, contain an account of all the cele
ters of antiquity, and their principal works.- B.
52 Between £15,000 and £16,000 .- B.
53 Poliorcetes."
VII. Chap. 40.] SLAVES SOLD FOR A HIGH PRICE. 185

na at
set fire to the city of Rhodes, lest he should chance to destroy
ens, a picture of Protogenes, which was placed on that side of the
Cte- walls against which his attack was directed . Praxiteles 54 has
ma- been ennobled by his works in marble, and more especiallyby his
city Cnidian Venus, which became remarkable from the insane love
Same 55
which it inspired in a certain young man, and the high value
ould set upon it by King Nicomedes, who endeavoured to procure it
ake a
from the Cnidians, by offering to pay for them a large debt
cept which they owed. The Olympian Jupiter day by day bears
s by testimony to the talents of Phidias," and the Capitoline Jupiter
and the Diana of Ephesus to those of Mentor ;57 to which
deities, also, were consecrated vases made by this artist.
RBLE,

CHAP. 40. ( 39 . ) - SLAVES FOR WHICH A HIGH PRICE HAS BEEN

ction, GIVEN.
æsar,
Ajax The highest price ever given for a man born in slavery, so
on to far as I am able to discover, was that paid for Daphnus, the
Can- grammarian, who was sold by Natius of Pisaurum58 to M.
chus, Scaurus, the first man in the state, for seven hundred thou-
netes. sand sesterces.59 In our day, no doubt, comic actors have
sed to fetched a higher price, but then they were purchasing their own
freedom . In the time of our ancestors, Roscius, the actor,
- c. 12.
Ssors of gained five hundred thousand sesterces annually. Perhaps,
portico too, a person might in the present instance refer to the case of
formed
= bythe 54 We have a further account of this artist in B. xxxiv. c. 19, B. xxxv.
c. 39 and 40, and B. xxxvi. c. 4.
made in 55 This is referred to by Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 4, and by Valerius Maximus,
B. viii. c. 4.—B.
peak of 56 He is again mentioned in B. xxxiv. c. 19, B. xxxv. c. 34, and B.
Horace, xxxvi. c. 4.-B.
"Dis-
57 Mentor is noticed for his skill in carving, B. xxxiii . c. 55.—B. Lit-
7. c. 17 trè says, on referring to that passage, 66'we find that he was a worker in silver,
bronze , and a maker of vases of great value." He seems disinclined to believe that
ries.
talent, he was a statuary. As Pliny tells us, ubi supra, none of his public works
were in existence in Pliny's time. Some small cups, however, existed,
-B. which were highly prized, though some were undoubtedly spurious.
ned in 58 Now Pesaro.
ch, and
59 We have the same difficulty in ascertaining the sums here mentioned,
d pain- as in all former cases. Holland estimates the sum given for Daphnus
at 300,700 sesterces, vol. i. p. 175.-B.
186 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

the army commissary in the Armenian war, which

years undertaken in favour of Tiridates ; which off
own time, received his manumission from Nero for
thirteen million sesterces ;62 but, in this case, the co
was the profit to be derived from the war,63 and
the value of the man that was paid for. And so
Lutorius Priscus bought of Sejanus, the eunuch, Pæz
million sesterces, the price was given, by Hercule
gratify the passion of the purchaser, than in comm
the beauty of the slave. Universal sorrow and co
then reigning, the public were too much pre-occup
to put a stop to a bargain of so scandalous a nature

CHAP. 41. (40 . )- SUPREME HAPPINESS.

Of all nations of the earth, the Romans have, wit
66 T
excelled every other in the display of valour."
judgment cannot, however, possibly decide what
joyed the highest degree of happiness, seeing tha
defines a state of prosperity in a way different fro
and entirely in conformity with his own notions.
to form a true judgment and come to a decision, c
all the allurements and illusions of fortune, we ar
say that no mortal is happy. Fortune has dealt w
deed, indulgently, to him who feels that he has a
that he is not unhappy. For if there is nothing
events, there is the fear lest fortune should fail at
fear itself, when it has once fastened upon us, our
no longer unalloyed. And then, too, is it not the cas
is no mortal who is always wise ? Would that

61 "Dispensator ;" we have an explanation of this term

13.-B.
62 Holland estimates the sum paid for the enfranchisemen
at 120,000 sesterces, vol. i. p. 175.-B.
63 In his capacity, probably, of contractor for provisions a
64 Holland estimates the price paid on this occasion at 3
ubi supra, thus differing exceedingly from Ajasson's estimat
65 Quam quidam injuriam lucri fecit ille mercatus in
quoniam arguere nulli vacabat." We can see the meaning
but a literal translation of it, as it stands, is out of the ques
es "Virtus"-" manliness," that being esteemed by the
ideal of true virtue.
ok VII. INSTANCES OF GOOD FORTUNE . 187
Chap. 42 ]
of late
many to be found, who could feel a conviction that this is false,
in our
and that it had not been enunciated by an oracle itself, as it
sum of
were ! Mortals, vain as they are, and ingenious in deceiving
eration
themselves, calculate in the same way as the Thracians, who,
as not according to their experience of each day, deposit in an urn
- when
a black or a white pebble ; at the close of their life, these
or fifty pebbles are separated, and from the relative number of each
ther to kind, they form their conclusions.67 But really, may not that
tion of
very day that has been complimented with a white pebble, have
rnation contained in itself the germ of some misfortune ? How many
with it a man has got into trouble by the very power which has been
bestowed upon him ? How many have been brought to ruin
and plunged into the deepest misery by their own blessings ? or
rather, by what have been looked upon too fondly as blessings,
for the hour during which they were in the full enjoyment of
doubt, them . But most true it is, that it is the day after, that is the
human judge of the day before ; and after all, it is only the last day
has en- that is to set its stamp on the whole ; the consequence is,
ery one that we can put our trust in none of them. And then, too,
another, is it not the fact that the blessings of life would not be equal
we wish to its evils, even though they were equal in number ? For
ng aside what pleasure is there that can compensate for the slightest
ound to grief ? Alas ! what a vain and unreasonable task we impose
and, in- upon ourselves ! We trouble ourselves with counting the
t to say number of days, when it is their weight that ought to be
e, at all taken into consideration.
; which
piness is CHAP. 42. ( 41 . )— RARE INSTANCES OF GOOD FORTUNE CONTINUING
hat there IN THE SAME FAMILY.
ere were
During the whole course of ages, we find only one woman,
xxxiii. c. and that, Lampido, the Lacedæmonian, who was the daughter
of a king, the wife of a king, and the mother of a king."
this man
67 It appears that a similar custom prevailed among the Scythians, ac-
stores. cording to Phylarchus, from whom Pliny probably took his account of it ;
O sesterces , Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 151 .
B. 68 As being fraught with an intensity of pain, which no number of days
civitatis, passed in pleasure can compensate.
passage, 69 She was the daughter of Leotychides, and the wife of Archidamas,
and mother of Ægis. Ajasson expresses his surprise, that so diligent a
omans the collector of facts as Pliny, should have been acquainted with only one ex-
ample of this kind.—B. "The following are additional instances collected
188 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Berenice was the only woman who was daughter, s

mother of conquerors in the Olympian games."70 T
of the Curios 7 has been the only one to produce thr
in succession ; that of the Fabii alone has given th
of the senate in succession, Fabius Ambustus, his so
Rullianus, and his grandson Quintus Fabius Gurges.

by Ajasson :-1. Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of

of Philip II., king of Macedon, and mother of Alexander the
of Macedon. 2. Roxana, daughter of king Darius Codomann
of Alexander the Great ; her son by whom was proclaimed kin
generals of Alexander, but was shortly after slain at Amphipoli
dice the Younger, daughter of king Antiochus Soter, sister a
Antiochus Theös, and mother of king Seleucus Callinicus.
daughter of king Ptolemy Philadelphus ; married to her b
Ptolemy Euergetes, and mother of Ptolemy Philopater, by wh
putto death. 5. Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Great, ki
she became the wife of king Ptolemy Epiphanes, and was mot
Ptolemy Philometor. 6. Cleopatra Cocce, daughter of Ptol
metor, married her uncle, king Ptolemy Physcon, and becam
kings Ptolemy Lathyrus and Alexander I. 7. Cleopatra, anoth
of Ptolemy Philometor, married first to Alexander Balas, the
the throne of Scythia, then to king Demetrius Nicator, and th
tiochus Venator. Her sons by Nicator were Seleucus V. and
Gryphus, both of whom became kings of Syria ; and her son
by Antiochus Venator, likewise became king of Syria. 8. Sel
patra, daughter of king Ptolemy Physcon, was married, fir
Ptolemy Lathyrus, secondly, to king Antiochus Gryphus, and
king Antiochus Eusebes. She was mother of king Antiochu
In all, she had nine kings as her near relations or connections
tonice, daughter of king Demetrius Poliorcetes, was married f
Seleucus Nicator, and then to king Antiochus Soter, and was
king Antiochus Therös.
70 Val. Maximus, B. viii. c. 15, gives nearly the same accou
son whom he calls Pherenice ; from the resemblance of the na
been supposed, that they may both refer to the same individual
71 He alludes to the three persons, father, son, and grandson
the name of C. Scribonius Curio. The first was prætor B.C
of the most distinguished orators of his time. His son, wh
some reputation as an orator, was tribune of the people B.C.
B.C. 82, and consul in B.c. 76, with Cn. Octavius. He is rep
being possessed of great eloquence, and of extreme purity and
diction, but to have had none of the other requisites of an orator
son, he enjoyed the friendship of Cicero. The younger Curio w
of great talents, which, from want of industry, he left uncultiva
endeavoured to direct his talents into a proper channel, but a
and he remained to the end a man of worthless and profligate
He was married to Fulvia, who afterwards became the wife of
72 Hardouin observes, that M. Fabius Ambustus was three ti
 VII. Chap. 44.] REMARKABLE EXAMPLES OF HONOURS . 189

and
mily CHAP. 43. (42 . ) — REMARKABLE EXAMPLE OF VICISSITUDES.
ators
hiefs As to examples of the vicissitudes of Fortune, they are
innumerable. For what great pleasures has she ever given
abius
us, which have not taken their rise in misfortunes ? And what
extraordinary misfortunes have not taken their first rise in
, wife great pleasures ? (43.) It was fortune that preserved the
, king Senator, M. Fidustius," who had been proscribed by Sylla,
d wife for a period of thirty-six years. And yet he was proscribed a
Certain
Lao- second time ; for he survived Sylla, even to the days of An-
vife of tony, and, as it appears, was proscribed by him, for no other
renice, reason but because he had been proscribed before.
king
he was CHAP. 44. -REMARKABLE EXAMPLES OF HONOURS.
Syria:
f 'king Fortune has determined that P. Ventidius alone should enjoy
Philo- the honour of a triumph over the Parthians, and yet the same
ther of
ughter individual, when he was a child, she led in the triumphal
per of procession of Cneius Pompeius, the conqueror of Asculum."
to An- Indeed, Masurius says, that he had been twice led in triumph ;
tiochus and according to Cicero, he used to let out mules for the bakers
icenius of the camp .'75 Most writers, indeed, admit that his younger
Or Cleo-
o king days were passed in the greatest poverty, and that he wore the
hob-nailed shoes76 of the common soldier. Balbus Cornelius,
edly, to
siaticus.
. Stra- Quintus Fabius Rullianus five times, and Q. Fabius Gurges three
times.-B.
to king 73 We have a similar account of the fate of Fidustius in Dion Cassius,
ther of by whom he is named Filuscius. —B. He was at length slain by order of
Antony.
a per- 74 We have an account of the vicissitudes in the life of Ventidius Bassus
s, it has
in A. Gellius, B. xv. c. 4, and in Valerius Paterculus, B. ii. c. 65. We
3. learn from these writers, that Ventidius was a native of Picenum, and that,
own by when that city was taken by Cneius Pompeius, in the Social war, Ventidius,
21, one then an infant, was carried in his mother's arms, before the car of the con-
cquired queror.-B.
prætor 75 The passage of Cicero referred to, occurs in a letter to Plancus, Ep.
nted as ad Fam. B. x. Ep. 18, where, speaking of Ventidius, who had united him-
ancy of · self to the party of Antony, he says, " And I look down upon the camp of
Like his the mule-driver, Ventidius."
n orator 76 4 Caliga." A strong heavy sandal worn by the Roman soldiers and
Cicero centurions ; but not by the superior officers. The term " a caligâ," there-
n vain, fore, had the same meaning as our expression, " from the ranks." The
aracter. Emperor Caligula received that surname when a boy, in consequence of
ony. wearing the caliga, and being inured to the life of a common soldier.
consul,
190 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

also, the elder, was elected to the consulate ; bu

previously been accused, and the judges had been
to discuss the point whether he could or not lav
scourged with rods ; he being the first foreigner,78-
on the very shores of the ocean, -who obtained tha
which our ancestors denied even to the people of
Among other remarkable instances, also, we have t
Fulvius,80 the consul of the rebellious Tusculani, w
diately upon his coming over to the Romans, obta
them the same honour. He is the only individua
the same year in which he had been its enemy, en
honour of a triumph in Rome, and that too, over t
whose consul he had previously been.
Down to the present time, L. Sylla is the only ma
claimed to himself the surname of " Happy ;"81 a na
he derived, forsooth, from the bloodshed of the cit
the oppression of his country ! But what claim
which to found his title to this happiness ? Was it
which he had of proscribing and massacreing so I
sands of his fellow- citizens ? Oh interpretation mos
82
ful, and which must stamp him as " Unhappy " to
time ! Were not the men who perished in those
the two, to be looked upon as the more fortunate-
with them we sympathize, while there is no one wh
77 In the year A.U.C. 704.
78 He was a native of Gades, in Spain . A party of the F
induced an inhabitant of Gades to accuse him of having illeg
the privileges of a Roman citizen. The cause was tried B.C
was supported by Pompey and Crassus, and defended by Cice
the tests of the being a Roman citizen, was the immunity
scourged, according to the provisions of the Porcian law.
who, as a citizen of Tarsus, enjoyed the rights of a Roman
to the centurion, Acts xxii. 25, " Is it lawful for you to s
that is a Roman, and uncondemned ?"
79 The accusation against Balbus appears to have been his
pation of the rights of a Roman citizen, being born a forei
has previously informed us, B. v, c. 5, that he was a native
Cadiz. He was elected consul A.U.c. 713.-B.
80 L. Fulvius Curius, consul B.C. 322. In B.C. 313 he w
the horse to the dictator, L. Æmilius.
81 66 Felix." Hardouin informs us, that he transmitted
to his descendants ; among them was Felix, the governor of
whom St Paul was taken for judgment.- B.
82 " Infelix ."
 II. TEN FORTUNATE CIRCUMSTANCES. 191
Chap. 45.]
ad
detest Sylla ? And then, besides, was not the close of his life
ged more horrible than the sufferings which had been experienced
be by any of those who had been proscribed by him ? his very flesh
ven
eating into itself, and so engendering his own punishment.84
our, And this, although he may have thought proper to gloss it
m.79 over by that last dream of his,85 in the very midst of which
L. he may be said, in some measure, to have died ; and in which,
me- as he pretended, he was told that his glory alone had risen
from superior to all envy ; though at the same time, he confessed that
, in it was still wanting to his supreme happiness, that he had not
the dedicated the Capitol.8
ople
CHAP. 45.--TEN VERY FORTUNATE CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH HAVE
o has
HAPPENED TO THE SAME PERSON.
Thich
= and Q. Metellus, in the funeral oration which he made in praise
he on of his father, L. Metellus, who had been pontiff, twice consul,87
power dictator, master of the horse, one of the quindecemvirs for
thou- 88
dividing the lands, and the first who had elephants in his tri-
grace- umphal procession,89 the same having been taken in the first
future
es, of 81 According to Pliny, B. xi. c. 39, and Plutarch, Sylla was affected by
what has been termed the " Morbus pediculosus" or " Lousy disease." Plu-
3 that tarch, however, ascribes his death to the bursting of an internal abscess ;
es not and the same cause is assigned by Val. Maximus, B. ix. c. 3.-B. It was
probably of a similar disease that Herod Agrippa died, whom we find
mentioned in Acts xii. 23, as being eaten of worms.
nobles 85 Plutarch refers to a dream which Sylla had a short time before his
assumed death, but it does not seem to correspond to the one here alluded to.-B.
andhe " Plutarch relates that shortly before his death, Sylla dreamed that his
One of son Cornelius, who died before his wife, Cecilia Metella, appeared to him,
n being and summoned him away to join his mother. Appian also states that just
. Paul, before his death, Sylla beheld a spirit in a dream, which summoned him by
en, says name ; upon which he called together his friends, made his will, and died
re a man soon after of a fever. Only two days before his death he finished the
twenty-second book of his Memoirs, in which, foreseeing his end, he
al usur- boasted of the prediction of the Chaldæans, that it was his fate to die after
Pliny a happy life, and in the height of his prosperity.
Gades or 86 This is referred to by Tacitus, Hist. B. iii . c. 73.-B. Plutarch tells
us that Catulus performed this ceremony of dedication.
aster of 87 His consulships were A.U.c. 502 and 506 - B.
88 Hardouin informs us, that a certain number of public officers, which
surname varied from three to twenty, were appointed to divide the lands of the
-a, before conquered people among the Roman colonists. Lemaire, vol. iii.
p. 159.-B.
89 The commentators have endeavoured to prove, and not without some
192 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Punic war, has left it written to the effect that his

attained the ten greatest and best things, in the s
which wise men have spent all their lives. For, a
he was anxious to become the first warrior, the
the bravest general, that the most important of a
should be entrusted to his charge, that he should enj
highest honours, that he should possess consumma
that he should be regarded as the most distinguish
that he should by honourable means acquire a lar
that he should leave behind him many children, a
should be the most illustrious person in the state.
this assertion, would be tedious and indeed unneces
that it is contradicted more than sufficiently by
fact, that Metellus passed his old age, deprived of
which he had lost in a fire, while rescuing the
from the temple of Vesta ;90 a glorious action, no
though the result was unhappy : on which accoun
although he ought not to be called unfortunate, sti
be called fortunate. The Roman people, howev
him a privilege which no one else had ever obtaine
foundation of the city, that of being conveyed to
house in a chariot whenever he went to the senate
distinction, no doubt, but bought at the price of hi
(44. ) The son also, of the same Q. Metellus, wh
the above account of his father, is considered him
been one of the rarest instances of human felicity.92

success, that Pliny is not correct in the remark, that the

brought to Rome, were those which followed in the triumph
He has himself informed us, B. viii. c. 6, that they were
Curius Dentatus, in his triumph over Pyrrhus, some years
Metellus. The same fact is also stated by Florus, B. i. c. 18
50 Ovid, Fast. B. vi. 1. 436, et seq., and Val. Maximu
allude to this circumstance.- B.
91 This fact has been supposed by Hardouin to be contro
statement of Aulus Gellius, who says, B. iii. c. 18, that all the
had passed the curule chair, were carried to the curia or sen
chariot. But, as Ajasson correctly observes, Aulus Gellius
that the senators were carried at the public expense, which
with Metellus.-B.
92 Val. Maximus, B. vii. c. 1, details the various fortunate
which occurred to Q. Metellus ; he makes no mention, howe
lent attack made upon him by Labeo ; indeed, he express
his good fortune continued to the last moments of his life.-
VII. Chap. 45.] TEN FORTUNATE CIRCUMSTANCES , ETC. 193
had dition to the very considerable honours which he obtained, and
after the surname which he acquired from the conquest ofMacedonia,
cates, he was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons, 93 one of
ator, whom had been prætor, three of them consuls, two had ob-
iness tained triumphs, and one had been censor ; each of which
very honours falls to the lot of a very few only. And yet, in the
sdom , very full-blown pride of his dignity, as he was returning from
nator, the Campus Martius at mid-day, when the Forum and the Ca-
tune, pitol are deserted, he was seized by the tribune, Caius Atinius
at he Labeo, 94 surnamed Macerion, whom, during his censorship, he
refute had ejected from the senate, and was dragged by him to the
Seeing Tarpeian rock, for the purpose of being precipitated therefrom.
single The numerous band, however, who called him by the name of
sight, father, flew to his assistance, though tardily, and only just, as it
adium were, at the very last moment, to attend his funeral obse-
bt, al- quies, seeing that he could not lawfully offer resistance, or repel
s, that force by force in the sacred case of a tribune ;95 and he was just
cannot on the very point of perishing, the victim of his virtues and
ranted the strictness of his censorship, when he was saved by the in-
ce the 1
tervention of another tribune, -only obtained with the great-
Senate- est difficulty, and so rescued from the very jaws of death.
a great He afterwards had to subsist on the bounty of others, his pro-
96
ht. perty having been consecrated by the very man whom he had
s given
to have 53 Val. Maximus, ubi supra, and Velleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 11 , speak of
the honours obtained by the four sons of Q. Metellus ; they are also
, inad- alluded to by Cicero in his 8th Philippic, sec. 4. , and his Tusc. Quæst. B. i.
c. 35.-B.
9 Dalechamps remarks, that we find in the ancient historians a similar
elephants
Metellus. account relative to M. Drusus, who, when tribune of the people, hurried
duced by off the consul Philippus with such violence to prison, that the blood started
e that of from his nostrils : also of P. Sempronius, the tribune of the people, who,
had it not been for the opposition offered by his colleague, would have
i. c. 4, carried the censor Appius Claudius to prison.
95 This attack of Labeo on Metellus is mentioned in the Epitome ofLivy,
d by the B. lix. The tribunes of Rome were styled " sacrosancti," and it was con-
tors, who sidered a capital crime to offer personal violence to them, under any cir-
ouse, in a cumstances. Hardouin remarks, that the tribune who came to the rescue
not assert of Metellus must have been a military tribune, who, in virtue of his office,
the case had a right to claim the services of Metellus for the army.-B.
96 Cicero, in his oration " Pro Domo suâ," sec. 47, refers to the conse-
mstances cration of the property of Metellus, as a case analogous to that of his own
fthe vio- house, which had been similarly consecrated by Clodius.- B. It seems to
ates, that have been the custom, when a person had been capitally condemned, for
the tribune of the people to consecrate his property, with certain formali-
VOL. II.
194 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

degraded ; and who, as if that had not satiated his

still farther wreaked his malice upon him, by t
rope around his neck, and twisting it with suc
violence that the blood flowed from out of his ea
for my part, too, I should look upon it as in the nu
misfortunes, to have been the enemy of the second
indeed, Macedonicus, in this instance, bears testim
himself ; for he said to his sons, " Go, my childr
the last duties to Scipio ; you will never witness
of a greater citizen than him ;" and this speech
his sons, one of whom had already acquired the
Balearicus, and another of Diadematus, he himself
bearing that of Macedonicus.
Now, if we take into account the above injury
any one justly pronounce that man happy, whose l
endangered by the caprice of an enemy, and that
sides, not an Africanus ? What victories over ene
possibly be counterbalanced by such a price as th
honours, what triumphs, did not Fortune cancel, in
censor to be dragged through the middle of the ci
that was his only resource for gaining time2 -drag
ties, to some god or goddess ; after which it could not, u
circumstances, be recovered, whether the sentence was re
Cicero had been capitally condemned through the instr
Clodius, and obliged to fly from Rome.
98 It was a common expression among the Romans, for a
torto collo ad prætorem trahi," " to be dragged to the pr
neck wrenched ; " and we meet with it repeatedly in th
Plautus. It would appear that it was customary for the lic
of justice to seize criminals in a peculiar manner, perhaps w
with the exercise of great violence, whatever their rank.
99 According to the remark of Dalechamps, it appears to
unusual with the Roman magistrates, when resistance was
order, to seize the party by the throat, as is here stated to 1
by Labeo. - B.
1 There has been considerable difficulty in ascertaining th
should be given to the sons of Metellus, as the MSS. differ,
pears to be no means of coming to any accurate decision, by
other authorities. The essential circumstance, however, is,
sons had obtained the honour of a triumph, and had acqui
surnames.-B. Metellus Diadematus has been much confo
cousin, Metellus Dalmaticus. Diadematus was so called, fro
for a long time, a bandage round his forehead, in conseque
He was consul B.C. 117.
2
By being dragged, and not proceeding willingly, in ord
 VIL
Chap. 46.] THE MISFORTUNES OF AUGUSTUS . 195
ance,
Capitol, whither he himself, in his triumph, had forborne to
ng a
drag in a similar manner even the very captives whom he had
reme
And taken in his conquests ? This crime, too, must be looked upon
of his as all the greater, from its having so nearly deprived Mace-
donicus of the honours of his funeral, so great and so glorious, 1
anus ;
in which he was borne to the pile by his triumphant children,
gainst he himself thus triumphing, as it were, in his very obsequies.
ender
Most assuredly, there is no happiness that can be called un-
ineral
alloyed, when the terror of our life has been interrupted by
ade to any outrage, and much more by such an outrage as this. As
me of
for the rest, I really am at a loss whether we ought most to
e time commend the manners of the age,³ or to feel an increased degree
of indignation, that, among so many members of the family of
ne, can the Metelli, such wicked audacity as that of C. Atinius re-
as thus mained unpunished .
ay, be-
s could
CHAP. 46. - THE MISFORTUNES OF AUGUSTUS .
What
Fering a In the life of the now deified emperor Augustus even, whom
indeed, the whole world would certainly agree to place in this class, *
to that if we carefully examine it in all its features, we shall find
ordinary remarkable vicissitudes of human fate. There was his rejec-
d or not. tion from the post of master of the horse, by his uncle," and
ntality of the preference which was given to Lepidus, and that, too, in
opposition to his own requests ; the hatred produced by the
son, "ob-
- with his proscription ; his alliance in the Triumvirate with some among
the very worst of the citizens, and that, too, with an unequal
ritings of
or officers
rope, and for succour, and so save himself from being hurled from the Tarpeian
rock.
e been not 3 Which allowed the laws to take their course, even against an individual
red to their of the first consequence in the state.- B.
been done 4 In the class ofthose who were considered peculiarly fortunate ; " hâc
censurâ," literally, " in this assessment," in allusion to the classification of
ames which the citizens of Rome, according to the estimate of their property.- B.
there ap- 5 In B.C. 45, when, being but about eighteen years of age, he had the
eference to presumption to ask his uncle for the office of " magister equitum ;" upon
t two ofthe which Julius Cæsar bestowed it on M. Lepidus, probably being of opinion
appropriate that his nephew was not yet fit for the office.
ed with his 6 In his triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, he showed himself no
is wearing, less cruel than his colleague, Antony, notwithstanding the gloss which
of an ulcer. Pliny attempts to throw over his actions. Two thousand equites and
three hundred senators are said to have been put to death during this
o gain time proscription.
0 2
196 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

share of influence, he himself being entirely borne

the power of Antony ; his illness at the battle of
his flight, and his having to remain three days con
8
marsh, though suffering from sickness, and, accord
account of Agrippa and Mecenas, labouring under
his shipwreck on the coast of Sicily, where he
under the necessity of concealing himself in a cave
peration, which caused him even to beg Proculei
him to death, when he was hard -pressed by the e
naval engagement ; " his alarm about the rising at
his anxiety at the battle of Actium ; 13 the extreme
was in from the falling of a tower during the Pannon
seditions so numerous among his soldiers ; so many
dangerous diseases ; 15 the suspicions which he

7 Augustus was detained at Dyrrhachium for some time bef

of Philippi by illness, and had not recovered when the battle
8 In the first engagement at Philippi, Brutus defeated the
gustus, while Cassius was defeated by Antony. Appian speak
concealment in a marsh to the south of Philippi.
9 In his war against Sextus Pompeius, his fleet was twice
shipwreck off the coast of Sicily, and he suffered several def
10 C. Proculeius, a member of the equestrian order, and a fa
of Augustus. It is of him that Horace speaks in the lines (I
"Vivet extento Proculeius ævo
Notus in fratres animi paterni."
He was one of the Romans to whom Augustus thought o
daughter Julia in marriage. The mode of his death is mer
xxxvi. c. 59.
11 This circumstance is stated more fully by Suetonius in
Augustus ; he tells, that " in crossing from Sicily to Italy to rej
Augustus was unexpectedly attacked by Demochares and
two of Pompey's captains, and only escaped in a small ve
greatest difficulty."
12 L. Antonius having raised an army at Præneste, took
the town of Perusia, which was blockaded by Augustus, and
at last obliged to surrender. During this siege Augustus
several dangers, and was once nearly killed while sacrificin
walls, by a band of gladiators, who came upon him unawares
13 The victory was long doubtful, and it was only the sud
Cleopatra, that finally ensured it to Augustus.
14 The exact nature of the accident here alluded to, is disc
douin, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 169 ; he concludes, from the ac
tonius and of Dion Cassius, that it was owing to the fall of a
extended between two towers .- B.
15 These are fully described by Suetonius, in his Life of A
and 81.
= VII.
Chap. 46.] THE MISFORTUNES OF AUGUSTUS . 197
-n by
ippi ; respecting the intentions of Marcellus ; 16 the disgraceful banish-
1 in a ment, as it were, of Agrippa ; 17 the many plots against his
co the life ; 18 the deaths of his own children, 19 of which he was
Opsy ; accused, and his heavy sorrows, caused not merely by their
again loss ;20 the adultery of his daughter, and the discovery of her
s des- parricidal designs ; the insulting retreat of his son - in-law,
put Nero 22 another adultery, that of his grand-daughter ; to
in a
16 M. Claudius Marcellus, the son of Octavia, sister of Augustus. He
sia ; 12 was adopted by Augustus. Tacitus seems to hint that he was greatly be-
ger he loved by the Roman people, and it is not improbable that Augustus may
var ;1.14 have become suspicious or jealous of him ; his decease took place in his
twentieth year.
eks by 17 To Mitylene. This refers to the jealousy between Marcellus and his
tained brother-in-law, M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Pliny probably uses the term
" pudenda," implying that Augustus showed neither firmness nor gratitude
e battle on this occasion ; for anxious, at any cost, to prevent these differences, he
place. sent Agrippa, against his will, as proconsul to Syria ; immediately on which
of Au- Agrippa left Rome, but stopped at Mitylene, and left the government of
of his Syria to his legatus. Upon the death of Marcellus, Agrippa returned to
Rome.
ered by 18 Dion Cassius mentions three conspiracies, the first by Fabius Cæpio
y sea. and Muræna, a second, of which he does not name the authors, and a
ar friend third by Cornelius Cinna.
de 2), 19 Said in allusion to the suspicious deaths of his grandchildren Lucius
and Caius, the children of his daughter Julia by Agrippa. They were
probably removed by the criminal acts of Livia ; but some historians have
ving his hinted that Augustus was privy to their destruction, the object of which
ed in B. was to remove all obstacles that lay in the way of Tiberius to the throne.
20 Implying that he was conscience-stricken at his share in their death ,
Life of as well as struck with sorrow and remorse.
is forces, 21 She was his only child ; Scribonia was her mother. She was first
ophanes, married to her cousin Marcellus ; on his death to L. Vipsanius Agrippa,
with the and after his decease to Tiberius Nero, the son of Livia. Her profligacy
was universally known, and Augustus did not scruple to enlarge upon it
ession of before the senate ; but Pliny is the only writer who states that she con-
onius was templated an attempt on the life of his father ; though Suetonius says
ountered that she became, at a late period of her reign, an object of interest to those
neath the who were disaffected. Julia was first banished to Pandataria, off the coast
of Campania, and then to Rhegium, which she was never allowed to leave.
panic of Her death took place A.D. 14.
22 Tiberius Nero, afterwards emperor. Pliny here alludes to his re-
by Har- tirement to Rhodes, where he remained seven years. Tacitus represents
of Sue- that his chief reason for leaving Rome was to escape the society of his
Ty, which wife Julia, who treated him with the utmost contempt, and whose licen-
tious life was not unknown to him. During this retreat he devoted him-
self to the study of astrology. He left Rome without the consent of Au-
tus, c. 80 gustus, who was equally unwilling to allow of his return.
23 Julia, one of the daughters of Julia and Agrippa, and the wife of L.
198 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

which there were added numerous other evils, s

want of money to pay his soldiers ; the revolt o
the necessity of levying the slaves ; the sad de
young men ; 25 the pestilence that raged in the
famine in Italy ; the design which he had formed
an end to his life, and the fast of four days, wh
him within a hair's breadth of death. And ther
all this, the slaughter of Varus ; 27 the base sland
pered against his authority ; the rejection of
Agrippa, after his adoption," and the regret to
gustus was a prey after his banishment ; 30 the su
respecting Fabius, to the effect that he had betr
crets ; and then, last of all, the machinations of h
of Tiberius, the thoughts of which occupied his la
In fine, this same god,31 who was raised to heaven,

Emilius Paulus. She fully inherited the vices of her mo

adulterous intercourse with D. Silanus she was banished, by
Tremerus, off the coast of Apulia, where she survived twe
pendent on the bounty of the empress Livia. A child born
grace, was, by order of Augustus, exposed as spurious. Sh
by some to be the Corinna of Ovid's amatory poems.
24 He probably alludes to the rising of some tribes in
on the north-eastern coast of the Adriatic, in B.C. 35, v
pay their tribute. They were finally vanquished by Sta
B.C. 33.
25 After the defeat of his general Varus, by Arminius, in
26 This pestilence is also mentioned by Dion Cassius ;
A.U.C. 732.-B.
27 We have an account of the disastrous expedition of V
B. iv. c. 12.-B.
28 Suetonius speaks of calumnious pamphlets (libelli), th
lated about, even in the senate-house, to his extreme dispar
29 A posthumous son of M. Vipsanius Agrippa by Julia,
of Augustus, by whom he was adopted together with Tiber
afterwards banished to Planaria, off the coast of Corsica,
his savage and intractable character, though guilty of no o
tus is said to have privately visited him there, which, com
of Livia, increased her enmity against this youth, and he wa
her orders or those of Tiberius.
30 Tacitus, Ann. B. i. c. 3, says that he was banished by
Nero.-B.
31 After his death his solemn apotheosis took place in the
tius. In some of the coins which were struck even during
was called " Divus," or " the god."
k VII. Chap . 48. ] THE MAN ORDERED TO BE WORSHIPPED. 199

as the loss to say whether deservedly or not, died, leaving the son of
32
ria ;2 his own enemy his heir.3
ncy of
;26 the
CHAP. 47. (46 . ) — MEN WHOM THE GODS HAVE PRONOUNCED TO BE
utting THE MOST HAPPY.
rought
ded to In reference to this point, two oracles of Delphi may come
whis- under our consideration, which would appear to have been
umius pronounced as though in order to chastise the vanity of man.
zh Au. These oracles were the following : by the first, Pedius was
ons too pronounced to be the most happy of men, who had just before
his se- fallen in defence of his country.33 On the second occasion ,
fe and when it had been consulted by Gyges, at that time the most
Oments . powerful king in the world, it declared that Aglaüs of
m at a Psophis was a more happy man than himself.35 This Aglaüs
was an old man, who lived in a poor petty nook of Arcadia,
For an and cultivated a small farm, though quite sufficient for the
gustus to supply of his yearly wants ; 36 he had never so much as left it,
ears, de- and, as was quite evident from his mode of living, his desires
rher dis-
supposed being of the most limited kind, he had experienced but an ex-
tremely small share of the miseries of life.
provinces
-efused to
Taurus, CHAP. 48. ( 47 . )-THE MAN WHOM THE GODS ORDERED TO BE
WORSHIPPED DURING HIS LIFE-TIME ; A REMARKABLE FLASH OF
any. LIGHTNING.
Look place
While still surviving, and in full possession of his senses,
in Florus, by the command of the same oracle, and with the sanction of
37
Jupiter, the supreme Father of the gods, Euthymus, the
were circu-
ent. pugilist, who had always, with one exception, been victorious
daughter in the Olympic games, was deified . He was a native of Locri,
He was
account of 32 For Tiberius Nero, the father of Tiberius Cæsar, took the side of
. Augus- M. Antonius in the Civil War.-B.
to the ears 33 We have no mention of Pedius, or Phedius, as he is named in some of
rdered by the MSS., in any of the ancient authors: A story of the same import is
related of Solon and Tellus, by Herodotus, B. i. c. 30, and by Plutarch. - B.
artifices of 34 A town of Arcadia. See B. iv. c. 10.
35 This is also related by Valerius Maximus, B. vii . c. 1.—B.
mpus Mar- 36 This is very similar to Virgil's beautiful description of the old man
e-time, he Corycius, in the Georgics, B. iv. 1. 125, et seq.
37 We have some account of Euthymus in Pausanias, B. vi., and in
Elian, Var. Hist. B. viii. c. 18.-B.
 200 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

in Italy. I find that Callimachus,38 considering

wonderful circumstance than any he had ever know
two statues which had been erected to him, one at
the other at Olympia, were struck by lightning on
day, ordered sacrifices to be offered up to him,
accordingly done, both during his life-time, and
death . Nothing, indeed, has appeared to me so r
as this mark of approval given by the gods.

CHAP. 49. (48 . ) - THE GREATEST LENGTH OF L

Not only the differences of climate, but the m
instances named, and the peculiar destiny attached
us from the moment of his birth,39 tend to render or
certain in forming any general conclusion respecting
and duration of human life. Hesiod , who was
make mention of this subject, while he states ma
stances about the age of man, which appear to me t
lous, gives to the crow nine times the ordinary dura
life, to the stag four times the length of that of th
the raven three times the length of that of the st
other particulars with reference to the phoenix and t
of a still more fabulous nature. The poet Anacr
one hundred and fifty years to Arganthonius," the
Tartessii ; ten more to Cinaras, 2 the king of Cypru
38 It has been conjectured by Poinsiret, that the word "
does not refer to the well-known poet of that name, nor to an
vidual, but that it was the title of the president of the Oly
The opinion is not without plausibility, but is scarcely sanctio
cient authority.- B.
39 Pliny here alludes to the doctrine of astrology, whic
especial subject of the next Chapter. - B.
40 These statements are not found in any of the works of
extant; it is scarcely necessary to observe, that they are ent
foundation, and contrary to all observation and experience.-
41 The great age of Arganthonius is referred to by Lucian,
"De Macrobiis," " on Long-lived Men ;" by Herodotus, B.
Cicero, de Senect. sec. 19 ; and by Valerius Maximus, B. vi
three latter writers agree in making his age 120 years, and
assigns to him the same age in the next page.-B. St. A
Civitate Dei, B. xv., quotes this passage of Pliny, and ment
of Arganthonius, as stated by him, to have been 152 years.
in Spain, see B. iii. c. 3, and B. iv. c. 36.
42 His story is told by Ovid, Met. B. x., where he is said to
VII.
Chap. 49. ] THE GREATEST LENGTH OF LIFE. 201
more
hundred to Ægimius. 43 Theopompus gives one hundred and
the
fifty-three years to Epimenides of Cnossus ; according to Hel-
and
lenicus, some of the nation of the Epii, in Ætolia, have com-
same
was pleted their two hundredth year ; and his account is confirmed
by Damastes, who relates that Pictoreus, one of this nation,
his
who was remarkable for his size and strength, lived even to his
able, three hundredth year. Ephorus says that some kings of Ar-
cadia have lived three hundred years ; Alexander Cornelius, that
there wasone Dandon , in Illyricum, who lived five hundred years.
Xenophon, in his Periplus, gives to a king of the island of
the Lutmii six hundred years, and, as though in that instance
de of he had lied too sparingly, to his son eight hundred. " All these
ch of statements, however, have originated in a want of acquaint-
y un- ance with the accurate measurement of time. For some nations
ength reckon the summer as one year, and the winter as another ;
st to others again, consider each of the four seasons a year ; the
rcum- Arcadians, for instance, whose years were of three months each.
fabu- Others, such as the Egyptians, calculate by the moon, and
of our hence it is that some individuals among them are said to have
Ow, to lived as many as one thousand years .
esides Let us proceed, however, to what is admitted to be true.
ymphs It is pretty nearly certain, that Arganthonius of Gades reigned
gives 40 eighty years, and he is supposed to have commenced his reign
of the when he was forty. Masinissa, beyond a doubt, reigned
nd two sixty years, and Gorgias, the Sicilian, lived one hundred and
machus"
er indi- unwittingly the father of Adonis, by his own daughter Myrrha (or Smyr-
games. na) , in consequence of the anger of Venus or Aphrodite. He was said
by suffi- to have founded the city of Cinyra in Cyprus.
43 Callimachus mentions a person of this name, who wrote a treatise on
ms the the art of making cheesecakes . There was also a physician so called, who
flourished in the fifth century B.C. , and who is said by Galen to have been
iod now the first who wrote a treatise on the probe. Whether either of these in-
without dividuals is the person here alluded to, is unknown.
44 We have the same statement as to the age of Epimenides, in Valerius
= treatise Maximus, B. viii. s. 13 ; he also, in the same section, gives an account of
163 ; by the Epii, of Pictoreus, of Dandon, and of the king of the island of the
13 ; the Tyrians, all of which agree with the present statement, except that the
person mentioned by Damastes is called Literius, and the last-named indi-
ce Pliny vidual is styled the king of the island of the Lutmii.- B.
tine, De
45 The king of the Tartessi, mentioned above.- B.
the age 46 Pliny has already spoken of the vigorous old age of Masinissa, in the
artessus, 12th Chapter of the present Book.-B.
become
202 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

eight.47 Quintus Fabius Maximus was an augu

three years .48 M. Perperna, and more recently,
Saturninus, survived all those whose suffrages each
on the occasion of his consulship ;49 Perperna li
eight years, and left after him only seven of
names, when censor, he had enrolled. Connecte
fact, it also suggests itself, and deserves to be re
it has happened only once, that five successive
ever passed without the death of a senator taking
was the case from the occasion on which the cen
and Albinus performed the lustration, in the year
50
579, until the time of the succeeding censors.5
Corvinus completed one hundred years, forty-six
tervened between his first and sixth consulship.51
the curule chair twenty-one times,52 a thing tha
the case with any one besides. The pontiff Met
tained the same age."53
Among women also, Livia, the wife of Rutili
her ninety-sixth year ; during the reign of Claud
a member of a noble family, died at the age of
Terentia, the wife of Cicero, lived one hundre
years, and Clodia, the wife of Ofilius, one hundre
she had fifteen children.54
Lucceia, an actress in the mimes, performed
47 We have an account of Gorgias in Cicero, de Senect.
rius Maximus, B. viii. c. 13, and in Lucian.-B.
48 Valerius Maximus, ubi supra, reduces this to sixty-tw
49 We have the same statement respecting Peperna in Val
but he does not mention his age.-B.
50 The names of the succeeding censors were C. Claudi
T. Sempronius Gracchus.
51 V. Maximus gives the same account of the age of Corvin
the interval between his consulships to have been forty-se
cording to the Fasti, in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Antiqui
was forty-eight years, from A.U.c. 406 to A.U.c. 455.-B.
52 The honour of the curule-chair-" sella curulis." It
the offices of consul, prætor, and ædile ; Corvinus had,
elected to one or other of these offices twenty-one times.-
53 Valerius Maximus gives the same account of Metellus
forms us that Metellus, although of an advanced age when
held the office for twenty-two years ; so also Cicero, de Se
54 We have the same account of these females in Val
He adds, that Clodia survived all her children ; Seneca, Epi
to the great age of Statilia.- B.
Dok VII. THE VARIETY OF DESTINIES . 203
Chap. 50.] 1
- sixty- when one hundred years old, and Galeria Copiola returned to
olusius
the stage, to perform in the interludes,55 at the votive games
olicited which were celebrated for the health of the deified Augustus, in
ninety- the consulship of C. Poppæus and Q. Sulpicius.56 She had
whose
made her first appearance when eight years of age, just ninety-
th this one years before that time, when M. Pomponius was ædile of
ed, that the people, in the consulship of C. Marius and Cn. Carbo.57 When
rs have Pompeius Magnus dedicated his great theatre, he brought her
ze ; this upon the stage, as being quite a wonder, considering her old
Flaccus age. Asconius Pedianus informs us, that Sammula also lived
he City one hundred and ten years. I consider it less wonderful that
Valerius Stephanio, who was the first to dance on the stage in comedy
hich in- descriptive of Roman manners, should have 58 danced at the
Occupied two secular games, those celebrated by the deified Au-
as never gustus, and by Claudius Cæsar, in his fourth consulship, consi-
also at- dering that the interval that elapsed between them was no more
than sixty-three years ;59 indeed, he lived a considerable time
exceeded after the last period. We are informed by Mutianus, that, on
Statilia, the peak of Mount Tmolus, which is called Tempsis, the people
ety-nine ; live one hundred and fifty years, and that T. Fullonius, of
nd three Bononia, was set down as of the same age, in the registration
d fifteen ; which took place under the censorship of Claudius Cæsar ; and
this appeared to be confirmed by comparing the present with
the stage former registrations, as well as many other proofs that he
had been alive at certain periods-for that prince greatly in-
; in Vale- terested himself in ascertaining the exact truth of the matter.
ars.-B.
Maximus, CHAP. 50. ( 49 . ) — THE VARIETY OF DESTINIES AT THE BIRTH OF
MAN.
Fulcher, and
The present conjuncture would appear to demand from me
Out he states 55 66' Emboliaria," an actress in the " embolium," or interlude of the
years. Ac- Roman stage ; also called " acroama, " by Cicero. It appears to have been
the interval a concert of musical instruments, perhaps accompanied by dancing.
attached to ! 56 Their consulship was A.U.c. 761.-B.
57 Their consulship was A.U.c. 671 , which would leave an interval of
efore, been ninety years between her first appearance and her appearance at the votive
games .-B.
He also in- 58 6"Togatus saltare instituit." He acted in the " togatæ fabulæ," co-
ted pontif.f, medies representing Roman life, or the life of those who wore the toga, the
sec. 9.-B civic costume of the Romans. The Greek comedies were called " palliatæ."
s Maximus. 59 The secular games of Augustus are stated by Suetonius, in his Life
, also refers of Augustus, c. 31, and by Dion Cassius, to have taken place A.U.C.
739.-B.
 204 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

some opinion upon the science of the stars. Epi

to maintain that human life could not be possibly
one hundred and twelve years, and Berosus62 t
exceed one hundred and seventeen. The syster
existence which Petosiris and Necepsos 63 transm
and called by them " tartemorion," 6 from the di
signs into four portions ; from which it would app
in the region of Italy, may possibly be extended
dred and twenty - four years They maintain tha
from the commencement of an ascending sign, no
sibly exceed a period of ninety degrees from that
65
periods they call by the name of " anaphoræ ;""
that these anaphora may be intercepted by meeti
60
lign stars or their rays even, or those of the sun .
the school of Esculapius succeeded, which admits
lotted duration of life is regulated by the stars, b
quite uncertain what is the greatest extent of
These say that long life is uncommon, because a ver
ber of persons are born at critical moments in the
lunar days ; for example, in the seventh and
hours, both by day and night ; these individual
to the malign influence of that ascending scale
which is termed the " climacteric,'967 and never
born under these circumstances, exceed the fifty- f
61 We have an account of Epigenes, by Hardouin, L
pp. 86, 87, where he is designated Rhodius. He is referr
Columella, and Seneca ; Pliny mentions him in other parts o
62 Berosus has been referred to in the 37th Chapter
Book.-B.
63 For some account of Petosiris and Necepsos, see end o
64 Literally, the fourth part ; according to Hardouin's e
maire, vol. iii. p. 186.-B.
65 Literally......" repetitions." Dalechamps explains i
"that part of the heavens which is distant thirty parts ; tha
signs from the horoscope ;" Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 187.-B.
66 Ajasson refers us to Jul. Firmicus for an explanation
which may exist in the length of the lives of individuals a
their natal day ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 186. It appears to ha
the leading tenets of the astrologers, that the favourable i
ascending sign is diminished or counteracted by the rays of
or of the sun, falling upon the sign in certain direction
angles, and that the length of the life of the individual is sh
portion to this injurious effect. - B.
67 This term means, literally, " increasing by a regular
ok VII. Chap . 50. ] THE VARIETY OF DESTINIES . 205

1 used First of all, however, it must strike us that the variations

ged to which have taken place in this science prove its uncertainty ;
could and to this consideration may be added the experience of the
still in very last census, which was made four years ago, under the
to us, direction of the Emperors Vespasian, father and son.68 I shall
of the not search through the registers ;69 I shall only cite some in-
at life, stances in the middle district that lies between the Apennines
e hun- and the river Padus. At Parma, three persons declared them-
selves to be one hundred and twenty years of age ; at Brixel-
koning
-an pos- lum,70 one was one hundred and twenty-five ; at Parma, two
which were one hundred and thirty ; at Placentia, one was one hun-
say also, dred and thirty ; at Faventia, one woman was one hundred and
ith ma- thirty-two ; at Bononia, L. Terentius, the son of Marcus,
Co theirs and at Ariminum, M. Aponius, were one hundred and forty,
t the al- and Tertulla, one hundred and thirty-seven. In the hills
which lie around Placentia is the town of Veleiacium ," in
at it is
which six persons gave in their ages as one hundred and ten
- period .
eat num- years, and four one hundred and twenty, while one person, M.
rs of the Mucius, the son of Marcus, surnamed Felix, and of the Galerian
fifteenth tribe,72 was aged one hundred and forty. Not, however, to
dwell upon what is generally admitted, in the eighth region of
è subject
Italy, there appeared by the register, to be fifty-four persons of
he years
ly, when cording to a proportional series of numbers ;" the multiples of 7 have
been generally supposed to be the critical periods of human life, and, more
h year. especially, 63, or 9 times 7, which was accordingly termed " the grand
climacteric."-B.
re, vol. i. 68 This census appears to have taken place A.D. 74, under the fifth con-
by Varro, sulship of Vespasian, and the third of Titus ; according to Censorinus, it
work.-B. was the last of which we have any distinct account.- B.
he present 69 " Vasaria ;" it is said, by the commentators, to be a term of German
origin, derived from a word which signified the bark of a tree. It does not
ii. appear, however, from what cause it was appropriated to the sense in which
lation, Le- it is used by Pliny. The word is found in Cicero's oration against Piso,
sec. 35 ; but isthere applied to a totally different object. -B.
indicating, 70 Now Brigella or Brescella. Parma still retains its ancient name,
to say, two Placentia is now Piacenza, and Faventia the modern Faenza.
71 Probably the same as the Velia, mentioned by Phlegon Trallianus as
e difference famous for the longevity of its inhabitants.
pending on 72 " Marcus Mucius, M. Filius, Galeria, Felix." It has been doubted by
Deen one of the commentators, whether the word Galeria refers to the name of the mo-
nce of the ther of Mucius, or to the tribe to which he belonged. The latter is, perhaps,
er planets, the more natural interpretation. Hardouin and Ajasson, however, adopt
· at certain the opinion, that Galeria was the mother of Marcus ; Lemaire, vol. iii.
ned in pro- pp. 191, 192. We meet with a precisely similar construction of words in
Cicero, 9th Philip. sec. 7 ; " Ser. Sulpicius, Q. Filius, Lemonia Rufus." - B.
," or, "ac-
206 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

one hundred years of age, fourteen of one hundred

of one hundred and twenty-five, four of one
thirty, the same number of one hundred and thirt
hundred and thirty-seven, and three of one hund
Again, we have another illustration of the unc
of human life. Homer informs us that Hecto
73 74
damas 3 were born on the same night, and yet
was their fate ! M. Cælius Rufus 75 and C. Lid
were born on the same day, the fifth before the cal
in the consulship of C. Marius and Cn. Carbo ;
them lived to be orators, it is true, but how d
destiny ! The same thing, too, happens every day
part of the world, with respect to men that are
self-same hour ; masters and slaves, kings and 1
into the world at the same moment.

CHAP. 51. (50. )-VARIOUS INSTANCES OF DIS

P. Cornelius Rufus,76 who was consul with M.
sight while he was asleep and dreaming that that
befallen him. On the other hand, Jason, of Phe
was labouring under an abscess and had been gi
physicians, determined to end his life in battle,
ceived a wound in the chest, and found, at the
enemy, a remedy for his disease.77 Q. Fabius N
73 The son of Panthöus, and friend of Hector. He wa
wisdom and prudence in giving counsel. See Iliad, B. xv
74 The passage referred to is in the Iliad, B. xviii. 1. 249-
75 Respecting Cælius [formerly called Cæcilius in most ed
informs us that he was the accuser of Calpurnius, that he wa
the consulship of P. Lentulus Spinther and L. Metellus
oppressed by Clodius. Pliny refers to Cælius, and his ac
purnius, in a subsequent passage, B. xxvii. c. 2.-B.
Macer was by some considered, as an orator, to rival even
and as a poet, is generally mentioned by the side of Catullu
his constitution by his severe application, and died in
or thirty-sixth year. He was remarkable for the extreme
stature. Cælius was a partisan of Pompey, and was e
death at Thurii.
76 Consul A.U.C. 463 ; he is generally called Rufinus.-
77 This anecdote is mentioned by Cicero, De Nat. De
and by Valerius Maximus, B. i. c. 8.-B. He was tyra
Tagus in Thessaly, and was finally assassinated.
78 He was consul A.U.c. 633 ; in consequence of the w
 J

Dok VII. VARIOUS INSTANCES OF DISEASES . 207

Chap . 51. ]
en, two consul, having engaged in battle with the Allobroges and the
-ed and
Arverni, at the river Isara, on the sixth day before the ides of
e to one
August, and having slain there one hundred and thirty thou-
d forty.
sand of the enemy, found himself cured, during the engage- I
tenure
ment, of a quartan fever.
Poly-
This gift of life, which is bestowed upon us by nature, is
ifferent
extremely uncertain and frail, whatever portion of it may be
Calvus allotted to us. The measure is, indeed, but scanty and brief,
of June, even when it is the largest, if we only reflect upon the extent
both of
of eternity. And then, besides, if we take into account our
nt their sleep during the night, we can only be properly said to live
in every half the period of our life ; seeing that just one half of it is
in the passed, either in a state resembling death, or else of bodily suf-
rs, come fering, if we are unable to sleep . Added to this, we ought not
to reckon the years of infancy, during which we are not sen-
sible of our existence, nor yet the years of old age, which is
S. prolonged only for the punishment of those who arrive at it.
There are so many kinds of dangers, so many diseases, so many
, lost his apprehensions, so many cares, we so often invoke death, that
ident had really there is nothing that is so often the object of our wishes.
when he Nature has, in reality, bestowed no greater blessing on man
up bythe than the shortness of life. The senses become dull, the limbs
re he re- torpid, the sight, the hearing, the legs, the teeth, and the
ds of the organs of digestion, all of them die before us, and yet we
mus,78the reckon this state as a part of our life. The solitary instance of
nous for his Xenophilus, the musician,79 who lived one hundred and five
-249-52 . years without any infirmity of body, must be regarded then as
-B. a kind of miracle ; for, by Hercules ! all other men are sub-
=] Hardouin ject, at certain fixed periods, to recurring and deadly attacks by
etor during heat or cold, in every part of the body, a thing that is not
os, and was
ion of Cal- the case with other animals ; and these attacks, too , return not
nius Calvus only at regular hours, but on certain days and certain nights-
ero himself ; sometimes the third day, sometimes the fourth, sometimes
He exhausted every day throughout the year.
= thirty-fifth
rtness of his obtained over the Allobroges, he obtained the agnomen of " Allobrogi-
ally put to cus."-B.
79 Valerius Maximus, B. viii. c. 13, refers to the great age of Xenophi-
lus, but designates him " Pythagoræus ;" he says that he obtained his in-
3. iii. c.e 28, formation respecting him from Aristoxenus, the musician, which may have
f Pher and led to an inaccuracy on the part of Pliny. Poinsinet endeavours to recon-
cile the discrepancy, by the circumstance, that music formed a prominent
ies which he part of the Pythagorean discipline. -B.
 208 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

And then, too, there is another kind of fatal d

which is produced by over-exertion of the mental
Nature has appointed certain laws as well for our
quartan fevers never commence at the winter solst
during the winter months ; some diseases never att
the sixtieth year ; some again disappear at the age
especially in females ;81 while aged persons are
affected by the plague. There are some diseases w
whole nations ; others prevail among classes ; s
slaves,82 others among the higher ranks, and others
classes of society. It has been remarked, in refer
subject, that the plague always takes a course from
wards the west,83 and scarcely ever in an opposite
never appears in the winter, or lasts longer than th

CHAP. 52. (51 . )- DEATH.

And now to speak of the premonitory signs of dea
these are laughter, in madness ;st in cases of de
patient carefully folding the fringe or the plaits

80 " Per sapientiam mori." Many conjectures have been

ing the meaning of this passage, which is obscure. Attem
made to amend the reading of the text, but, as it appears, w
see the notes of Hardouin, Ajasson, and others, Lemaire, v
8.-B. It is pretty clear, however, that Pliny here refers
next Chapter, he calls " sapientiæ ægritudo," the malady
called " phrenesis," and by us " frenzy," which attacks the
the understanding. Many pages have been written upon t
this passage, obvious as it seems to be.
81 The same doctrine is advanced in B. xxviii., which trea
see c. 10.-B.
82 Among the ancients, all the manufactures and mechan
carried on by slaves ; they were, consequently, subjected to
of morbid causes which are found, in modern times, to be
to certain descriptions of workmen . - B.
83 Our own experience has taught us the truth of this obs
case of the cholera ; and the great plague of 1348, which
have swept off one-third of mankind, is supposed to ha
Europe from the vicinity of the Ganges.
84 Dalechamps correctly remarks, that the laughter here
not the indication of mirth, but what has been termed th
donicus," the " Sardonic laugh," produced by a convulsive
muscles of the face ; Lemaire, vol . iii. p. 201.-B.
85 "Sapientiæ ægritudine." See Note 80 above.
ok VII. Chap. 52.] DEATH. 209
e, that 86
clothes ; insensibilityto the attempts of those who would rouse
Ities.80 them from sleep ; and involuntary discharges from the body,
adies ; which it is not necessary here to particularize ; but the most un-
or yet equivocal signs of all, are certain appearances of the eyes and
s after the nose, a lying posture with the face continually upwards, an
uberty, irregular and feeble motion of the pulse, and the other symp-
seldom toms, which have been observed by that prince of physicians,
attack Hippocrates. At the same time that there are innumerable
among signs of death, there are none of health and safety ; so much
g other so, that Cato the Censor, when speaking to his son in relation
to this to those who appear to be in good health, declared, as though
outhto- 88
it had been the enunciation of some oracle, that precocity in
89
=tion ; it youth is a sign of an early death .
months. The number of diseases is infinite. Pherecydes of Scyros died
from vast numbers of worms issuing from his body.90 Some
persons are distressed by a perpetual fever ; such was the case
with C. Mæcenas ; during the last three years of his life, he
could never get a single moment's sleep." Antipater of Sidon,
Among
m, 85 the the poet, was attacked with fever every year, and that only on
che bed- his birthday ; he died of it at an advanced age.⁹2
86 Pliny probably took this notion from Celsus, who speaks of this as
being a fatal symptom, B. ii. c. 6 ; " si manibus qui in febre, &c., in veste
ed respect- floccos legit, fimbriasque diducit .... "-B .
have been
ut success ; 87 "Venarum percussa ;" the ancients were not acquainted with the
relation which exists between the arteries and the veins, or the appropriate
i. pp. 197, functions of these parts. -B.
hat, in the
the Greeks 88 In Seneca, Contr. B. ii., we find the remark, " Such genius, at so
of wisdom, early an age, bodes no long life." Apuleius, quoting from some Greek
writer, says, "Odi puerulos præcoci sapientiâ." " I hate your bits of boys,
meaning of with their precocious wisdom." We have a somewhat similar saying to
the above passage from Seneca, " He is too wise, " or " too clever to live
-f medicine, long."
89 This remark has been confirmed by various writers, ancient and modern ;
arts were it appears to depend upon an unnatural development of the cerebral and
same kinds nervous system, which renders it more liable to disease, and less able to
detrimental bear the impressions to which it is ordinarily exposed. - B.
90 This was probably Phthiriasis, or the " morbus pediculosus," which
ation inthe has been previously mentioned in this book with reference to Sulla, and of
thought to which, probably, Herod Agrippa died. Some authors state that Phere-
ravelled to cydes put an end to his life by throwing himself from a rock at Delphi ;
others give other accounts of his death.
erred to, is 91 This circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, De Provid. c. 3.-B.
risus Sar- 92 We have the same account of Antipater in Valerius Maximus, B. i.
tion ofthe c. 8. He was the preceptor of Cato of Utica ; Cicero makes honourable
mention of him, De Oratore, B. iii. c. 50.—B.
VOL. 11. P
210 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 53. (52 . )-PERSONS WHO HAVE COME TO LI

AFTER BEING LAID OUT FOR BURIAL.
Aviola,93 a man of consular rank, came to life ag
on the funeral pile ; but, by reason of the violence of t
no assistance could be rendered him, in consequence
he was burnt alive. The same thing is said to have
to L. Lamia, a man of prætorian rank. Messala, Ru
many other authors, inform us, that C. Elius Tubero
filled the office of prætor, was also rescued from the fu
Such then is the condition of us mortals to these ar
vicissitudes of fortune are we born ; so much so, that
be sure of any thing, no, not even that a person is de
reference to the soul of man, we find, among other
that the soul of Hermotinus of Clazomena was in th
leaving his body, and wandering into distant countri
it brought back numerous accounts of various thin
could not have been obtained by any one but a perso
present. The body, in the meantime, was left appar
less .95 At last, however, his enemies, the Cantharida
were called, burned the body, so that the soul, on its r
deprived of its sheath, as it were. It is stated also, t
93 We have an account of the death of Aviola, in Valeri
B. i. c. 8. This name occurs in the Consular Fasti, A.U.C.
could not be that of the person referred to by Valerius Ma
work was published under the reign of Tiberius, who died A.U
have also an account of the death of Lamia in Valerius Ma
curring under the same circumstances with that of Aviola.-
94 Poinsinet, vol. iii. pp. 251, 252, supposes, that Messala a
the names of two writers, and not, as usually supposed, of on
conjecture appears not improbable. - B.
95 Plutarch, " De Deo Socratis," gives us the same accoun
tinus. Ajasson has remarked, not inaptly, that this story is
to the modern statements as to the effect of animal magnetism
207.-B. Apuleius, in his " Defence," has a passage which
as clearly bearing reference to the doctrines inculcated by the
modern times ; he says, " Quin et illud mecum reputo, posse a
num, præsertim puerilem et simplicem seu carminum avocame
rum delenimento, soporari et ad oblivionem præsentium exter
lisper remotâ corporis memoriâ, redigi et redire ad naturam
immortalis scilicet et divina ; atque ita veluti quodam sopore
præsagire."
96 We have no notice of any people, under this appellati
Cantharus, however, occurs as the name of an individual
these may have been his descendants, or the members of his
II. Chap. 53.] PERSONS WHO HAVE COME TO LIFE AGAIN. 211

IN connesus, the soul of Aristeas was seen to fly out of his mouth,
under the form of a raven ;.98 a most fabulous story, however,
which may be well ranked with the one that follows. It is
hen told of Epimenides " of Cnossus, that when he was a boy, being
nes, fatigued by heat and walking, he fell asleep in a cave, where he
nich slept for fifty- 7-seven years ; and that when he awoke, as though
ned it had been on the following day, he was much astonished at the
and changes which he saw in the appearance of every thing around
had him after this, old age, it is said, came upon him in an equal
pile. number of days with the years he had slept, but his life was
like prolonged to his hundred and fifty-seventh year. The female
nnot 2
sex appear more especially disposed to this morbid state, on
With account of the misplacement of the womb ;3 when this is once
nces, corrected, they immediately come to themselves again. The
bit of volume of Heraclides on this subject, which is highly esteemed
hence among the Greeks, contains the account of a female, who was re-
which stored to life, after having appeared to be dead for seven days.
O was 97 See B. v. c. 44.
y life- 98 We have an account of Aristeas in Herodotus, iv. 13, but somewhat
they different from that here given ; Aristeas is also mentioned by Apollonius
1, was in his Hist. Mirab., and A. Gellius, B. ix. c. 4.-B. He was an epic poet,
Pro- who flourished in the time of Croesus and Cyrus. Herodotus mentions a
story that he reappeared at Metapontum, in Italy, 340 years after his death.
aximus, He is generally represented as a magician, whose soul could leave, and re-
; but it enter his body at pleasure.
S, as his 99 A poet and prophet of Crete. The story was, that being sent by his
9. We father to fetch a sheep, he went into a cave, and fell into a sleep, from which
is, as oc- he did not awake for fifty-seven years. On awaking, he soughtfor the sheep,
and was astonished on finding everything altered. On returning home, he
Rufus are found that his young brother had in the meantime become an aged man.
ly. The His story is only equalled by the famous one of the Seven Sleepers of Da-
mascus, who fell asleep in the time of the Decian persecution of the Chris-
Hermo- tians, and slept in a cave till the thirtieth year of the reign of the Em-
y similar peror Theodosius, 196 years. It is not improbable that it is to this story
maire, iii. about Epimenides, that we are indebted for the amusing story of Rip Van
markable Winkle, by Washington Irving.
merists of 1 We have the life of Epimenides by Diogenes Laertius, who gives an
m huma- account of this long- continued sleep. It is also mentioned by other writers,
sine odo- but there is some difference in their statements as to its length.- B.
2 According to the interpretation of Dalechamps, " spiritus et animæ
; et pau- interceptioni ac privationi," " the interception and privation of the breath
m quæ est and faculties ;" Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 208.—B.
ura rerum
3 He probably alludes to what are known among us as hysteria, or hys-
terical affections.
n Greece ; 4 We have an account of Heraclides in Diogenes Laertius ; he was a
d possibly native of Pontus, and a pupil of Aristotle.- B.
ily.-B. P 2
 212 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [

Varro informs us,5 that when he was one of the "

viri," or twenty commissioners, appointed to superin
division of the lands at Capua, a man who had been carri
funeral pile, returned on foot from the Forum to his ow
and that the very same thing happened also at Aquinu
states also, that Corfidius, who had married his materi
came to life again, after the funeral had been all arran
that he afterwards attended the funeral of the person
so arranged his own. He gives in addition some ot
vellous relations, the whole of which it may be as w
forth ; he says that there were two brothers, membe
equestrian order, and named Corfidius : 7 it so happe
the elder of these was seen to breathe his last to all
ance, and on opening his will, it was found that he ha
his brother his heir, who accordingly ordered his fun
the meanwhile, however, he who had been thought to
8
clapping his hands, summoned the servants, and t
that he was just come from his brother's house, who h
his daughter in his charge ; in addition to which, hel
tioned to him the place where he had secretly buried s
and had requested that the funeral preparations which
made, might be employed for himself. While he wa
to this effect, the servants of his brother came in the
haste, and informed them that he was dead : the
5 This circumstance is not mentioned in either of the two wor
which have come down to us, " De Re Rusticâ," and " De
tinâ."- B.
6 They were a body of commissioners appointed for the dist
lands in Campania ; Julius Cæsar, when consul, having caused
passed, dividing that territory among such of the Roman citizen
have three or more children.
7 We are not informed, whether these persons of the name o
were in any way connected, nor, indeed, do we appear to have
knowledge of their history.-B. L. Corfidius, a Roman equ
tioned by Cicero, in his oration for Ligarius, B.C. 46, as one of
guished men who were then interceding with Cæsar on behalf o
but after the oration was published, Cicero was informed that h
a mistake in mentioning the name of Corfidius, as he had die
speech was delivered. It does not appear certain that he was
parties here mentioned : but it is not improbable that he was
whose sudden death is mentioned below.
8 Among the ancients, servants used to be summoned by
hands, as they are, in modern times, by ringing of bells.-B.
practice still prevails in the east.
 Chap. 54.] INSTANCES OF SUDDEN DEATH. 213

де was found in the place just as he had stated. But throughout

the whole of our lives we are perpetually hearing of such pre-
dictions as these ; they are not, however, worth collecting,
ཊྚཱབྷཱུ
བྷརཽ
།།
༞

seeing that they are almost always false, as we shall illustrate

ཤ
ཋ
ཎལྐ
ཎྜ
༼
བྷ
༈
སྦྲུ
ལྐ
༧ྜ

by the following remarkable instance.

In the Sicilian war, Gabienus, the bravest of all Cæsar's
naval commanders, was taken prisoner by Sextus Pompeius,
who ordered his throat to be cut ; after which, his head almost
severed from his body, he lay the whole of the day upon the sea-
shore. Towards evening, with groans and entreaties, he begged
the crowds of people who had assembled, that they would
prevail upon Pompeius to come to him, or else send one of his
most confidential friends, as he had just returned from the
shades below, and had some important news to communicate.
Pompeius accordingly sent several of his friends, to whom
Gabienus stated that the good cause and virtuous partisans of
hem
Pompeius were well pleasing to the infernal deities, and that
aced
the event would shortly prove such as he wished : that he had
been ordered to announce to this effect, and that, as a proof of
gold,
its truthfulness, he himself should expire the very moment
been
he had fulfilled his commission ; and his death actually did
ating take place .
atest We have instances also of men who have been seen after
too , their burial ; but, for the present, we are treating of the opera-
Varro tions of nature, and not of miracles .
â La-
ion of CHAP. 54. ( 53 . ) - INSTANCES OF SUDDEN DEATH.
to be
should Among the things that are looked upon as more especially
singular, though of frequent occurrence, is sudden death, a thing
fidius, that, in fact, is the greatest happiness of life, and, as we will
certain shew, only a natural occurrence. Verrius has given many in-
8 men- stances of it ; we will limit ourselves by only making a selec-
distin- tion. Besides Chilo, who has been already mentioned, Sopho-
garius ; cles,10 and Dionysius, " the tyrant of Sicily, both of them, died
d made
Tore the 9 In the twenty-third Chapter of the present Book.-B.
e of the 10 Val. Maximus, B. ix. c. 12, and Diodorus Siculus, B. xiii. c. 14, gives
brother the same account. It has been said, that, when he heard the news, he
called for a draught of wine, and was choked with a grape-stone ; this in-
Ding the cident forms the subject of an epigram by Simonides, quoted by Hardouin,
e same Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 210.-B.
11 There is reason to believe, that the prize was given rather to the rank,
214 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [E

ofjoy, on learning that they had obtained the prize for

After the defeat at Cannæ, a mother died of joy, on see
her son had returned in safety, she having heard a
port of his death.12 Diodorus, the professor of logic,'
mortification, because he could not immediately answ
question which had been put to him by Stilpo, by
joke.
Two of the Cæsars, 14 one of whom was at the time
and the other had previously discharged that office,
the father of the Dictator Cæsar, died without any
cause, in the morning, while putting on their shoes ; th
at Pisæ, the latter at Rome. Quintus Fabius Maxi
during his consulship, on the day before the calends of J
and in his place C. Rebilus got himself elected consul
few hours.16 The same thing happened also to the
C. Volcatius Gurges ; these were all of them so wel
such perfect health, that they were actually prepari
from home. Q. Æmilius Lepidus, " just as he was le
house, struck his great toe against the threshold of his
door. C. Aufustius, having gone from home, was p
to the senate-house, when he stumbled in the Comiti
expired. Their ambassador, who had just been ple
cause of the Rhodians in the senate, to the admiration

than to the poetry of Dionysius ; see the remarks of Ajasso

vol. iii. pp. 210, 211.-B.
12 This anecdote is related by Livy, B. xxii. c. 7 ; by Valeri
B. ix. c. 12 ; and by Aulus Gellius, B. iii. c. 15 ; the two fo
ever, state, that it occurred after the battle of Thrasymenus.-
13 Cicero, De Fato, sec. 6, styles Diodorus, " valens dialecti
14 According to Hardouin, these were Lucius, the prætor
the father of the dictator ; they were brothers, and the sons
-B.
15 Thirty-first of December ; consequently his tenure of off
few hours only. Cicero indulged in several jokes upon his co
marking that no one had died during it ; and that the con
tremely vigilant, for that he had never slept during his term c
16 This took place A.U.c. 708 ; Macrobius, in his Saturna
an account of the jests passed by Cicero and others on the b
of his office.-- B.
17 He is supposed to have been the same person who was
732.-B.
18 The Comitium was a place in the forum at Rome, where
tia curiata " were held, and certain offences tried and punish
here also that the tribunal, or " suggestum," was situate.
 Chap. 54.] INSTANCES OF SUDDEN DEATH. 215

one, suddenly expired at the door of the senate-house, just as

he was about to retire. Cn. Bæbius Tamphilus, 19 who had
20
been prætor also, expired while he was enquiring of a boy
of what time it was : Aulus Pompeius 21 died just after saluting
le the gods in the Capitol ; and M. Juventius Thalna,22 the consul,
of while he was sacrificing. C. Servilius Pansa expired at the
second hour of the day,23 while he was standing in the Forum,
›r, near a shop there, and leaning on the arm of his brother,
ras Publius Pansa : the judge Bæbius, while he was giving an
ent order for an enlargement of bail :25 M. Terentius Corax, while
ler he was making an entry in his note-book in the Forum : only
13

ied last year too, a member of the equestrian order at Rome,

y, 15 while whispering in the ear of a man of consular rank, before
ya the ivory Apollo, in the Forum 26 of Augustus ;27 and, what is
tor, more singular than all, C. Julius, the physician, while he was
1 in applying, with his probe,28 some ointment to the eye of a pa-
tient. Aulus Manlius Torquatus, a man of consular rank, died
› go
his in the act of reaching a cake at dinner ; L. Tuscius Valla, the
.29
mber physician, while he was taking a draught of honeyed wine ; *
ding 19 We are informed by Hardouin, that he held the office of Prætor
and A.U.C. 660.-B.
e
3 th 20 "A puero ;" not necessarily a slave, as Littrè seems to think.
every 21 On Hardouin's authority, we learn that A. Pompeius was surnamed
Bithynicus, and was prætor A.U.c. 680.-B.
22 The death of Thalna is given somewhat more in detail by Valerius
maire, Maximus, B. ix. c. 12 ; it took place A.U.c. 590.-B.
23 The ancients reckoned the hours from sun-rise ; in summer, the
ximus, second hour of the day would be six o'clock A.M. , and in the winter, a quarter
how- past eight.- B.
24 Bankers, and usurers more especially, had their shops in the Roman
-B. Forum.
Caius, 25 " Cum vadimonium differri jubet." -B.
Cæsar. 26 Augustus built a third Forum, because the old one and that of Julius
Cæsar, were not found sufficient for the great increase of business . He
as for a adorned it with a temple of Mars, and the statues of the most distinguished
hip, re- Romans.
was ex-
27 According to Hardouin, this ivory statue was in the eighth region of
ice. the city.-B.
gives us 28 "Specillum ;" this instrument is mentioned by Celsus, B. vi. c. 6,
duration 25, et alibi. There has been a considerable discussion among the com-
mentators respecting the " specillum ;" see Lemaire, vol. iii . pp. 213, 214.
ul A.U.C. From the uses to which it was applied by Celsus, we can have little doubt
upon the subject. Poinsinet and Ajasson employ the equivalent French
"comi- term " eprouvette." - B.
It was 29 " Mulsum " was the most universally esteemed of all the beverages
 216 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

Ap. Saufeius, while, on his return from the bath, after

some honeyed wine and water, he was swallowing
P. Quinctius Scapula, while he was dining with
Gallus : Decimus Saufeius, the scribe, while he was
ing at his house. Corn . Gallus,30 who had filled the
31
prætor, and Titus Haterius, a man of equestr
died in the venereal act ; and, a thing that was esp
marked by those of our day, two members of the
order expired in the embraces of the same actor of pa
Mysticus by name, who was remarkable for his
beauty.
But the most perfect state, to all appearance, o
from death, was that of which we have an account
the ancients, in the case of M. Ofilius Hilarus.
actor, and after having been very greatly applaude
people, was giving, on his birthday, an entertainmen
dinner he called for a cup of warm drink ; at the s
looking at the masque which he had worn during
he placed upon it the chaplet,32 which he had taken
own head ; and in that position he remained rigi
without moving, no one being aware of what had ta
until the person who was reclining next to him rem
that the drink was getting cold ; upon which he wa
be dead.
These are instances of persons dying a happy dea
used among the Romans. It seems to have been of two ki
one case honey was mixed with wine, in the other with must.
Falernian wine was preferred for the purpose, and new Attic
proportions were four measures of wine to one of honey ; and
fumes and spices were added. See B. xxii, c. 4. It was espe
as the most appropriate draught on an empty stomach.
30 The Cornelius Gallus here mentioned could not have b
of the same name, because, as we are informed, he died by hi
The death of the poet Gallus is alluded to by Ovid, Amores,
1. 64.-B. A similar fate is said, by Tertullian, to have over
sippus, the Platonic philosopher. The same was also said by
poet Pindar.
31 Val. Maximus, B. ix. c. 12, gives the same account of
Gallus and Haterius. - B .
32 Which was usually worn by the Romans at their entertai
33 Considering some of the above cases, Pliny must have h
notion of a happy death. Ovid would have agreed with hi
spect ; for in his amatory poems, he expresses a wish that h
a surfeit of sensual enjoyment.
 BookVII BURIAL . 217
Chap. 55.]
drinking on the other hand, there are innumerable cases also of unfortu-
an egg: 34
nate ends. L. Domitius, a member of a most illustrious family,
Aquilius having been conquered at Massilia by Cæsar, and taken prisoner
reakfast-
byhim at Corfinium, being weary of life, took poison ; but, im-
office of mediately after, he used every possible exertion to prolong his
n rank, life. We find it stated in our Annals, that Felix, a charioteer
iallyre- of the red party, being placed on the funeral pile, some one
Juestrian of the number of his admirers threw himself upon the pile ; a
tomimes, most silly piece of conduct. Lest, however, this circumstance
singular might be attributed to the great excellence of the dead man
in his art, and so redound to his glory, the other parties all
security declared that he had been overpowered by the strength of the
given by perfumes. Not long ago, M. Lepidus, a man of very noble
e was an birth, who died, as I have stated above,36 of chagrin caused by
bythe his divorce, was hurled from the funeral pile by the violence
During of the flames, and in consequence of the heat, could not be re-
me time, placed upon it ; in consequence of which, his naked body was
he day, burnt with some other pieces of brushwood, in the vicinity of
from his the pile.
y fixed,
en place, CHAP. 55. (54 . )—BURIAL.
ded him
foundto The burning of the body after death, among the Romans, is
not a very ancient usage ; for formerly, they interred it.37 After
;33but, it had been ascertained, however, in the foreign wars, that
bodies which had been buried were sometimes disinterred, the
: inthe custom of burning them was adopted . Many families, how-
Lassic or
ey. The 34 The great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero. We have a reference
iousper- to his death by Seneca, De Benef. B. iii. c. 24, and a more full account of
yvalued by Suetonius, Life of Nero, c. 2.-B.
35 The charioteers at Rome were divided into four companies, or " fac-
the poet tiones," each distinguished by a colour, representing the season of the
n hand. year. These colours were green for the spring, red for the summer, azure
i. El. 9, for autumn, and white for the winter. Domitian afterwards increased
Speu- them to six, adding the golden and the purple. The most ardent party
of the spirit prevailed
classes among them, and the interest in their success extended to
all and both sexes.
eathof 36 In the thirty-sixth Chapter of this Book.-B.
37 It would appear, from Dalechamps and Hardouin, that this statement,
ts. respecting the period when the custom of burning the body after death
Curious was first adopted by the Romans, is incorrect, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 219.
One re- There is much uncertainty as to its origin, and the source from which they
die of borrowed it. We learn from Macrobius, that the practice was discontinued
in his time, i. e. in the fourth century after Christ.-B.
218 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

ever, still observed the ancient rites, as, for examp

nelian family, no member of which had his body b
Sylla, the Dictator ; who directed this to be do
having previously disinterred the dead body of Ca
he was afraid that others might retaliate on his
term " sepultus " 39 applies to any mode whatever
of the dead body ; while, on the other hand, the
matus " is applicable solely when it is depos
earth.

CHAP. 56. (55 . )-THE MANES, OR DEPARTED SPIRITS

Afterburial come the different quiddities as to the

the Manes. All men, after their last day,40 return
were before the first ; and after death there is no
tion left in the body or in the soul than there was
But this same vanity of ours extends even to the
lyingly fashions to itself an existence even in
ments which belong to death itself : at one time
ferred upon us the immortality of the soul ; at a
migration ; and at another it has given sensation
below, and paid divine honours to the departed
making a kind of deity of him who has but just c
man. As if, indeed, the mode of breathing wi
in any way different from that of other animals, an
were not many other animals to be found whose
than that of man, and yet for whom no one ever p
thing of a like immortality. For what is the act
of the soul, when taken by itself? Of what ma
consist ? Where is the seat of its thoughts ?

38 We have the same remarks, respecting the antiquity

of interring the body, the continued adoption of it by the C
and the supposed notion of Sylla, in ordering his own body
Cicero, De Leg. B. ii. c. 22, from whom it is probable F
borrowed them.-B.
39 We have no English term that will preserve the dis
Pliny makes between the two modes of disposing of the b
-B .
40 He views the state after death in the same light as
Epicurus, utterly denying the immortality of the soul ; th
be said that he looks upon life in the same cheerful, laissez
which it was regarded by the latter of these philosophers.
 [BookVII, Chap. 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 219
theCor-
irnt before see, or hear, or how to touch ? And then, of what use is it,
or what can it avail, if it has not these faculties ? Where,
e, because,
too, is its residence, and what vast multitudes of these souls
ius Marius,
wn. The and spirits 41 must there be after the lapse of so many ages?
of disposing But all these are the mere figments of childish ravings, and of
word "hu- that mortality which is so anxious never to cease to exist. It
ted in the is a similar piece of vanity, too, to preserve the dead bodies of
men ; just like the promise that he shall come to life again,
whichwas made by Democritus ; who, however, never has come
to life again himself. Out upon it ! What downright mad-
F THE SOUL. ness is it to suppose that life is to recommence after death ! or
existenceof indeed, what repose are we ever to enjoy when we have been
once born, if the soul is to retain its consciousness in heaven,
>what they and the shades of the dead in the infernal regions ? This
more sensa-
efore birth. pleasing delusion, and this credulity, quite cancel that chief
future, and good of human nature, death, and, as it were, double the
misery of him who is about to die, by anxiety as to what is
Le very mo-
it has con- to happen to him after it. And, indeed, if life really is a
good, to whom can it be so to have once lived ?
other trans-
the shades How much more easy, then, and how much more devoid of
pirit, thus all doubts, is it for each of us to put his trust in himself, and
sed to be a guided by our knowledge of what our state has been before
man was birth, to assume that that after death will be the same.
as ifthere
e is longer CHAP. 57. (56. )- THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS.
=aged any Before we quit the consideration of the nature of man, it
substance
ialdoesit appears only proper to point out those persons who have been
the authors of different inventions. Father Liber43 was the first
wisitto
to establish the practice of buying and selling ; he also invented
Che custom
41 Hardouin remarks, that the ancients made a distinction between the
ianfamily, souls of the dead, and their spirits or shades, " umbræ." The former were
eburnt,in supposed to remain on the earth, while the latter were removed either to
may have
Elysium or to Tartarus, according to the character or actions of the de-
ceased.- B.
on which
Eter death. 42 According to Varro, Democritus directs, that the body shall not be
burnt after death, but preserved in honey; on which Varro remarks, how
ritus and greatly such a practice would tend to raise the price of that article.- B.
t cannot 43 It has been conjectured, that Bacchus derived his name from the
manner in Greek word Báoкw, on account of his numerous journies into different
parts of the world ; it was during these that he conveyed to the various
nations which he visited the arts of civilized life.-B.
 220 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

the diadem, the emblem of royalty, and the tr

cession. Ceres 44 introduced corn, the acorn hav
viously used by man for food ; it was she, also, w
into Attica the art of grinding corn45 and of
and other similar arts into Sicily ; and it was fi
cumstances that she came to be regarded as a d
was the first also to establish laws ;46 though,
some, it was Rhadamanthus. I have always be
that letters were of Assyrian origin, but other wri
for instance, suppose that they were invented
Mercury : others, again, will have it that they w
by the Syrians ; and that Cadmus brought from
teen letters into Greece. To these, Palamedes, it
time of the Trojan war, added these four, O,
Simonides, the lyric poet, afterwards added a
Z, H, Y, and ; the sounds denoted by all of w
received into our alphabet."9
44 We have a long discussion by Poinsinet, vol. iii. pp.
derivation of the name of Ceres, in which he endeavour
various attributes that were ascribed to her. The charact
was generally regarded by the writers of antiquity, was th
to her by Pliny ; in proof of which we may refer, among o
to Virgil, Geor. B. i. 1. 147, and to Ovid, Metam. B. iii. l.
45 The earliest method of reducing corn to the state pro
of man, was by pounding it in a mortar ; afterwards, whe
between stones, they were moved by the hand, as is still
many parts of the East. It was not until a comparatively
water was employed as the moving power for mills.--B.
46 It has been supposed by some commentators, that t
legislator was bestowed upon Ceres, in consequence of the
she was designated, in the ancient northern languages, b
transferred to the Greek. Others have thought that it m
to the connection which may be supposed to exist between
the arts of life generally and an improvement of the laws
47 We do not find the circumstance here referred to in t
tica" of Aulus Gellius.- B.
48 It would appear that there were two individuals of
were confounded with each other ; Simonides, the celebrat
late as the fifth century before Christ, so that it has been
bable that the Greek language could have existed without
here mentioned, until so recent a period.- B.
49 The account of the original introduction of the alpha
here given, is the one generally adopted in his time. M
be aware, that the actual invention of letters, the share w
tians and the Phoenicians had in it, the identification of C
more of Mercury, with any of the heroes or legislators
Book VII, Chap. 57. ] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 221

ial pro- Aristotle, on the other hand, is rather of opinion, that there
een pre- were originally eighteen letters,50 A B TA EZIKA MNO
roduced ПI Р Σ Т т Þ, and that two, namely and X, were introduced
g bread, by Epicharmus,51 and not by Palamedes . Aristides says, that
hese cir- a certain person of the name of Menos, in Egypt, invented let-
y. She ters fifteen years before the reign of Phoroneus,52 the most an-
cient of all the kings of Greece, and this he attempts to prove by
›rding to
the monuments there. On the other hand, Epigenes,58 a writer
opinion,
Gellius," of very great authority, informs us that the Babylonians have
a series of observations on the stars, for a period of seven hun-
Egypt by
iscovered dred and twenty thousand years, inscribed on baked bricks.
nicia six- Berosus and Critodemus, who make the period the shortest,
id, at the give it as four hundred and ninety thousand years.54 From
Þ, and X.
number, whom we have any correct historical data, and the connection which the
Greek alphabet had with those of other nations, are among the most
1 are now curious questions of literary discussion, and are still far from being re-
solved with any degree of certainty.-B.
235, onthe 50 It seems to have been the general opinion, that the Greek language
had, originally, sixteen or eighteen letters, the source of which was very
explainthe uncertain, and of high antiquity ; and to these, additional letters were,
n which she from time to time, appended by different individuals. Upon the whole,
ehere given the claim of the Egyptians to the invention of letters, seems to rest upon,
- authorities, at least, a very plausible foundation.- B.
1.-B. 51 Epicharmus was born in the fifth century B.C., in the island of Cos,
forthe food but removed, probably at an early age, to Sicily, where he passed a consi-
was ground derable portion of his life. His original profession was that of a phy-
practice in sician, but he appears to have devoted his attention principally to general
period that science and literature, and is more especially remarkable as the inventor
of regular comedy. A few fragments only of his dramas remain, but the
character of titles of no less than forty are preserved. From a line in the Prologue to
me by which the Menæchmi of Plautus, where it is said that the plot of the play,
incorrectly "non Atticissat verum Sicilicissat" " is not Attic, but Sicilian ;" it has been
t be referred conjectured, that Plautus took the plot of the piece from Epicharmus.
n advance in 52 Phoroneus was the son of Inachus, and the second king of Argos ; he
B. began to reign about 1807 B.C.-B.
"Noctes At- 53 Epigenes has already been referred to in the fifty-fourth chapter of
this Book.-B.
s name, who 54 There has been much discussion respecting the interpretation of this
poet, lived as passage. In the first place, the numbers in the text have extended from
Sught impro-s 720 and 490 to as many thousands, by the addition of the letter M.,
e four letter against the authority, however, of some MSS. In the next place, in
order to curtail the enormous periods thus formed, the years have been
into Greece, supposed to be only lunar, or even diurnal periods. The opinion of Har-
readers will douin and Marcus is perhaps the better founded, who reject the proposed
ch the Eg yp alteration, and consider these numbers to indicate, according to their
mus , and still natural signification, periods of years. The principal consideration that
antiquity, of
222 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

this statement, it would appear that letters have

from all eternity. The Pelasgi were the first to in
into Latium.
The brothers Euryalus and Hyperbius55 were
constructed brick-kilns and houses at Athens ;
caves in the ground served for houses. Gellius56
think that Toxius, the son of Cælus, was the fir
mortar, it having been suggested to him by th
swallow. Cecrops 57 gave to a town the name
after himself ; this is now the citadel of Athens
sons will have it, that Argos had been found
period by King Phoroneus ; others, again, tha
been previously built ; while the Egyptians dec
own city, Diospolis, had been in existence long
Cinyra,58 the son of Agriopas,59 invented tiles

has been urged in favour of the alteration of the text is

passages in Cicero's Treatise de Divin. B. i. c. 19, and
he refers to the very long periods which the Babyloni
their calculations, but which he justly regards as entirel
tion, and even ridiculous. Pliny, however, professes to t
of Epigenes whom he styles " gravis auctor," and who,
would reject these improbable tales. -B. The reading,
the one adopted by Sillig.
55 Pausanias, in his " Attica," calls the two brothers A
bius. Some commentators have supposed, that these
Doxius and Cælus, mentioned below, are merely symbo
personages are fictitious. - B.
56 The Gellius here mentioned had the prænomen of
to be confounded with the more noted Aulus Gellius, by
in the Noct. Att. B. xiii. c. 29.-B.
57 There is a number of ancient legends attached to th
yet we have but little authentic information respecting h
to be the best established is, that he was born in the city
and that, about 1556 B.C., he conducted a colony to Att
a fortress, on the Acropolis of Athens, and that his desc
for some generations, to be kings of Attica. - B.
58 If this is the Cinyra previously mentioned in c. 4
nerally represented as the son of Apollo, or of Papho
Paphian Aphrodite or Venus. The true reading, howe
59 Hardouin informs us, that in all the MSS. whic
this person is named Agricola, while in the printed ed
is styled Agriopa, or Agriopas. Poinsinet, vol. iii. p
vours to explain this, by supposing, that the word " Ag
employed by Pliny, but was used by him as a generic
lative term. Some of the earlier editors, however,
agricultural operations could be carried on, before t
Dok VII. 223
Chap . 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS .
in use 60
copper-mines, both of them in the island of Cyprus ; he also
ce them
invented the tongs, the hammer, the lever, and the anvil .
Wells were invented by Danaus,61 who came from Egypt into
irst who
that part of Greece which had been previously known as Argos
e which, Dipsion.
clined to
The first stone- quarries were opened by Cadmus at Thebes,
ventor of
or else, according to Theophrastus, in Phoenicia. Walls were
st of the
first built by Thrason ;62 according to Aristotle, towers were
Cecropia, first erected by the Cyclopes, but according to Theophrastus,
ome per- by the Tirynthii. The Egyptians invented weaving ;6 .64 the
efore this
necessary implements, had changed the name into Agriopa, derived from
cyon had
two Greek words, signifying "a man in the savage state, who is only
that their capable of uttering inarticulate sounds." This method of solving the
Fore them. difficulty will probably appear fanciful and too refined, but it is the only
discovered one which has been proposed.- B.
60 The copper-mines of Temesa, supposed to have been in Cyprus, are
ed from two mentioned by Homer. There was another place of that name in Brut-
tium, and another in India, both equally famous for their copper.
c. 46, where 61 Danaus is said to have migrated from Egypt into Greece about 1485
employed in B.C. He may have introduced wells into Greece, but they had, long before
hout founda-
his time, been employed in Egypt and in other countries. The term
the opinion " Dipsion," " thirsting," which it appears had been applied to the district of
maypremise, Argos, may seem to render it probable, that, before the arrival of Danaus,
thousands, is the inhabitants had not adopted any artificial means of supplying them-
selves with water.-B. But this country, we are told, is naturally well
s and Hyper- supplied with water.
es, as well as
and thatthe 62 Nothing is known respecting this individual ; it does not appear that
he is mentioned by any other of the ancients.-B.
ius ; he is not 63 There is so much fable mixed up with the account of the Cyclopes,
that it is difficult to ascertain their real history. It seems probable, that
m he is quoted there was a people of high antiquity, who were particularly skilful in the
erection of stone edifices of various kinds, and more especially of those
meof Cecrops, which served for the defence of cities. The remains of walls and other
What appears structures, which have obtained the name of Cyclopian, are found in va-
Sais, in Egypt, rious parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily, and may be regarded as among
where he built the oldest works of man in existence, although they are probably of less
ants continued, antiquity than those of Egypt and of some parts of Asia.-B.
64 We have sufficient evidence of the early period at which the art of
he is more ge weaving was practised in Egypt, from the figures to be found on their
a priest of the monuments, and from the specimens of their manufactures, some of very
is uncertain. delicate texture, which have been found in the most ancient of their tombs.
e has consulted, It was doubted, at one time, whether these fine stuffs were formed from
ns of Pliny be the fibres of flax or of cotton, or, in other words, whether they were
250, 251, endea- cambric or muslin ; but it is now generally admitted that they are made
ola" was the one of flax. We have frequent mention of the products of the loom in the
ot as an appel- Pentateuch ; we may select the 13th chapter of Leviticus, where linen
ceiving that no and woollen stuffs are especially mentioned, and distinguished from each
invention ofthe other.-B.
224 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Lydians of Sardis the art of dyeing wool.65 Clos

of Arachne, invented the spindle for spinning wool
herself, linen cloth and nets ;67 Nicias of Megara
fulling cloth ; and Tychius, the Boeotian, the art
shoes.69 The Egyptians will have it that the me
first discovered among them, while others attribute
the son of Babylonis and Apollo ; botany and pl
ascribed to Chiron, the son of Saturn and Philyra.
Aristotle supposes that Scythes, the Lydian, v
to fuse and temper copper, while Theophrastus aso
to Delas, the Phrygian." Some persons ascribe
65 It is very difficult, probably impossible, in the present
mine to which of the nations of antiquity we are indebted
tion of the art of dyeing. We have notices of coloured st
parts of the Pentateuch, and there is reason to suppose, th
practised, at a very early period, by the Egyptians, the P
the Indians. They had even arrived at the knowledge of
or what is technically termed " printing," as applied to cotto
66 According to Justin, B. ii. c. 6, the Athenians introdu
wool among their countrymen ; but it has been supposed th
it from the Egyptians. - B.
67 Arachne is said to have been a native of Hypæpæ, ne
Asia Minor, and has been celebrated for her skill in embr
Metam. B. vi. As we have sufficient evidence that linen w
by the Egyptians at a very early period, we may presu
count of Arachne is either fabulous, or that, in some way o
instrumental in the introduction of linen into Greece. - B.
68 Nothing is known of this individual, nor have we ar
mation respecting the discovery ascribed to him.-B.
69 Homer, Il. B. vii. 1. 221, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii.
Tychius, as particularly skilful in making shoes, and
leather.- B.
70 It is difficult to determine, how far we are to regard
mentioned as belonging to real or only to fictitious personas
for us to ascertain what should be regarded as the actual
dicine. A certain kind of medical, or rather surgical pra
existed in the rudest state of society and in the earliest a
improved and refined by the gradual experience and incre
of each successive generation . -B.
71 In this, as in so many others of the arts, the origina
been given to the Egyptians, while the introduction of it
ascribed to Cadmus. The word es, which is generally tra
as well as the Greek word xaλròs, was applied by the an
copper, or what is properly bronze, i. e. a mixture of coppe
the compound of copper and zinc, does not appear to hav
them. With respect to the claim of the Scythians to the
use of copper, it has been justly remarked, that it is nat
ok VII. Chap. 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 225

The son of copper to the Chalybes, others to the Cyclopes . Hesiod

rachne says, that iron was discovered in Crete, by the Idæan Dactyli."
art of Erichthonius, the Athenian, or, as some people say, Eacus,
making discovered silver.73 Gold mines, and the mode of fusing that
art was metal, were discovered by Cadmus, the Phoenician, at the
Arabus, mountain of Pangæus ,74 or, according to other accounts, by
acy are Thoas or Eaclis , in Panchaia ;75 or else by Sol, the son of
Oceanus, whom Gellius mentions as having been the first who
The first employed honey in medicine. Midacritus76 was the first who
-the art brought tin from the island called Cassiteris." The Cyclopes
working invented the art of working iron.78 Choræbus, the Athenian,
was the first who made earthen vessels ;79 but Anacharsis, the
to deter-
The inven-
n various to have been first known in those countries, where the ore of the metal is
e art was found in large quantities, which is the case in the region that was anciently
cians, and named Scythia. - B.
al dyeing, 72 According to Pausanias, the art of forging iron was discovered by
linen. -B. Glaucus of Chios. Strabo ascribes it to the Idæan Dactyli, and the art of
the use of manufacturing utensils of bronze and iron to the Telchines ; the former
ey learned were inhabitants of Crete, the latter of Rhodes. - B.
73 According to Hyginus, silver was first discovered in Scythia by Indus,
olophon, in and introduced into Attica by Erichthonius. Eacus is said by Cassio-
y by Ovid, dorus to have been the discoverer of gold.-B.
anufactured 74 Pangæus is generally described as a mountain on the confines of
chat this ac- Macedonia and Thrace ; but Marcus says that it was a mountain of Abys-
her, she was sinia, near the source of the Nile, and he adduces various passages from
the ancients to prove that the Egyptians had an extensive traffic there in
urther infor- gold at a very early period ; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 191 , 192.-B.
75 Thoas was the king ofthe Tauric Chersonnesus, and Panchaia was a
district of Arabia Felix ; it does not appear what connection Thoas could
324, speak of have with Panchaia.- B.
r articles of
76 We have no account of any individual bearing this name, and it has
e names here been proposed by Hardouin to substitute for it " Midas Phrygius," who
nor is it easy is said, both by Hyginus and by Cassiodorus, to have been the discoverer of
lead.-B.
ntion of me-
ce, must have 77 From the accounts of Pliny, B. iv. c. 36, as well as of Strabo, and the
which was other ancient geographers, it appears, that he here alludes to the Scilly Isles,
d civilization including, probably, the western extremity of Cornwall. We are informed
by Herodotus, B. iii. c. 115, that tin was brought from them, and they
invention has were hence named the " tin islands," from the Greek word for tin,
ato Greece is κασσίτερος.-Β.
78 On this subject we may refer to Note 72.-B.
ated " brass," 79 Pliny, in B. xxxv. c. 45, informs us, that Choræbus invented the art
nts, either
nd tin. Brass, of making pottery, and that it was first exercised, as a trade, by Chalcos-
Deen known to thenes. He says, that a certain district of Athens obtained the name of
scovery ofthe "Ceramicos," from his manufactory of earthen-ware, derived from répaµos,
"potter's clay."-B. 1
to supposeit VOL. II.
226 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Scythian, or, according to others, Hyperbius, the

first invented the potter's wheel . Dædalus80 W
person who worked in wood ; it was he who inven
the axe, the plummet, the gimlet, glue, and isi
square, the level, the turner's lathe, and the key, w
by Theodorus, of Samos.82 Measures and weigh
vented by Phidon, of Argos,83 or, according to
Palamedes. Pyrodes, the son of Cilix, was the fi
fire from the flint, and Prometheus taught us hov
it, in the stalk of giant-fennel.8
The Phrygians first taught us the use of the
four wheels ; the Carthaginians the arts of merch
Eumolpus, the Athenian,87 the cultivation of the
trees in general. Staphylus, the son of Silenus,88 w
mix water with wine ; olive- oil and the oil-press, a
we owe to Aristæus, the Athenian ;89 the use of

80 The inventions here ascribed to Dædalus, are, by

ancients, given to his nephew ; see Isidorus, Hyginus, Di
and Ovid, Metam. B. viii . 1. 234, et seq.-B.
81 Ichthyocolla," perhaps more properly, " Fish-glue.
82 Pausanias ascribes also to Theodorus the invention
and copper. According to Vitruvius, the square was inve
goras .-B.
83 The same statement is made by Strabo, and other writ
and is confirmed by the Arundelian Marbles. - B.
84 See B. xiii. c. 42.
65 Marcus informs us, that, according to the Arundelian
thonius, the fourth king of Athens, was the inventor of cha
p. 229.
86 Hardouin remarks, that Pliny, in the beginning of t
cribes the invention of commerce to Bacchus ; we may su
commerce there referred to, was the conveyance of goods
that of the Carthaginians was traffic by sea.-B.
87 Eumolpus was a native of Thrace ; but being exp
native country, he invaded Attica, and, after various conte
thonius, obtained the office of high-priest of Ceres, which
to his descendants. - B.
88 We learn from the writings of Moses, that the planti
and the conversion of the juice of the grape into wine,
Noah immediately after the Flood . The mixing of water
seem to be a very obvious and natural mode of procuring
refreshing beverage. - B.
89 From the writings of Moses, we learn that the use of
was known to the inhabitants of Palestine and Egypt, at
riod.-B.
ok VII.
Chap. 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 227
thian, 90
Le first plough to Buzyges, the Athenian, or, according to other ac-
e saw, counts, to Triptolemus.⁹¹
;81 the The Egyptians were the first who established a monarchical
vented government, and the Athenians, after the time of Theseus,
ere in- a democracy. Phalaris,⁹ of Agrigentum, was the first tyrant⁹
that existed ; the Lacedæmonians were the introducers of
us, by
O strike slavery ; and the first 95 capital punishment inflicted was or-
reserve dered by the Areiopagus. The first battles were fought by
the Africans against the Egyptians, with clubs, which they
ot with are in the habit of calling phalange. Protus and Acrisius
96 were the first to use shields, in their contests with each other ;
ze, and or, as some say, Chalcus, the son of Athamas. Midias, the
and of
Messenian, invented the coat of mail, and the Lacedæmonians
e first to
the helmet, the sword, and the spear." Greaves and crests
honey,
and the were first used by the Carians ; Scythes, the son of Jupiter,
it is said, invented the bow and arrows, though some say
that arrows were invented by Perses, the son of Perseus.98
my of the Lances were invented by the Ætolians ; the javelin, with the
s Siculus,
90 66 Buzyges " is a Greek term, signifying " one who yokes oxen ;" ac-
cording to Hardouin, the real name of the person here referred to was
rging iron Epimenides.- B.
91 For an account of Triptolemus, the reader may consult Hyginus, and
by Pytha- Pausanias, B. vii. Achaica. -B. Also the Fasti of Ovid, B. iv. 1. 507, et seq.
92 Phalaris is supposed to have been contemporary with Servius Tullius,
antiquity, who reigned from 577 to 533 B.C.-B.
93 Meaning a citizen who obtained the sovereignty by violence and usur-
oles , Erich- pation.
S.-B. See 9+ This is supposed to have taken place 1000 years before Christ, when
the Lacedæmonians conquered the Helots. But Moses had given the
Jews a code of laws, respecting the treatment of slaves, between 400 and
Chapter, as- 500 years before that event, and we have various intimations of the ex-
se, that the
land, while istence of slavery, in his writings, long before his time. It appears, in-
deed, that in the different countries of the East, and in Africa, slavery has
existed from time immemorial.- B.
ed from his
with Erich- 95 This is confirmed by Ælian, Var. Hist. B. iii. c. 38.-B.
continued 96 According to the same fabulous account of the early Grecian history,
they were twin brothers, kings of the Argives ; after much contention,
Acrisius succeeded in expelling Prœtus from Argos ; they are said to have
of the vine, lived 1400 years B.C. Athamas was a king of Thebes, and the contempo-
practised by rary of Acrisius.- B.
wine would 97 According to Hardouin, the Lacedæmonians had the helmet, the
pleasant and sword, and the spear, of a peculiar form, different from that used by the
other natives of Greece.- B.
and ofhoney 98 This account of the invention of the bow and arrow seems to have
ery early pe- been derived from the high character which the Scythians and Persians
had acquired for their dexterity in the use of those weapons. - B.
Q 2
228 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

thong.99 attached, by Etolus, ' the son of Mars ; t

the light infantry2 by Tyrrhenus ; the darts by
the Amazon ; the axe by Pisaus ; the hunting-sp
scorpion to hurl missiles, by the Cretans ; the ca
5
balista, and the sling, by the Syrophoenicians."
Tyrrhenian, was the first to invent the brazen tr
8
Artemon, of Clazomenæ, the use of the testudo.
99 The " amentum" was a leather thong tied to the middl
lin, to assist in throwing it, though it is unknown how it
effect. It has been suggested that it was by imparting rota
sequent steadiness.
i Etolus was said to have been the son of Endymion,
having accidentally killed one of his countrymen, left his na
settled in the part of Greece named after him, Ætolia.-B.
2 See B. xxviii. c. 6. This was the Roman " veru," or
called from its resemblance to a spit. Its shaft was three f
long, and its point five inches. The " Velites" did not for
Roman legion, but fought in scattered parties wherever they
3 The " pilum" was short and thick ; its shaft, often made
partly square, and five feet and a half long. The head w
long. It was used either to throw or thrust with, and, in
Pliny says, was peculiar to the Romans.
4 Julius Firmicus ascribes the invention of the apparatu
ing to the Cretans ; and Gratius, Cyneg. 1. 108, that of the
with its iron spike, to Dercylus, of Amycle. -B.
5 Vitruvius informs us, that the catapulta and the balist
ments formed upon the same principle, the former being a
discharge of arrows, and the latter, masses of stone. Cæsa
his account of the siege of Massilia, Bell. Civ. B. ii. c. 8, s
being thrown by the catapulta. Elian, Hist. Var. B. vi.
it was invented by Dionysius, the first king of Syracuse. - 1
6 Strabo ascribes the invention of the sling to the E
forms us, that the inhabitants of the Balearic Isles, so fa
dexterity in the use of this instrument, originally obtain
Phrygians.-B.
7 According to Hyginus, Tyrrhenus, the son of Hercul
trumpet ; Clemens, of Alexandria, and Athenæus, ascribe t
the Tyrrhenians.- B. Virgil speaks, B. viii. 1. 526, of th
the Tyrrhenian trumpet ."
8 The "tortoise." He probably means a military mach
wheels and roofed over, used in besieging cities, and u
soldiers worked in undermining the walls. It was usua
raw hides or other materials, which could not easily be set
same name was also applied to the covering formed by a
soldiers, who placed their shields over their heads, and lin
ther, to secure themselves against the darts of the enen
kind of "testudo" was sometimes formed, by way of an
games of the Circus.
VII. Chap. 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 229
r of
ing-horse, for the destruction of walls, which is at the present
ilea,
day styled the 66 ram," was invented by Epeus, at Troy."
the
Bellerophon was the first who mounted the horse ;10 bridles and
the saddles for the horse were invented by Pelethronius.¹¹ The
, the
Thessalians, who are called Centauri, and who dwell along
7 and
Mount Pelion, were the first to fight on horse-back. The people
atter-
of Phrygia were the first who used chariots with two horses ;
Erichthonius first used four. 12 Palamedes, during the Trojan
jave-
to the war, was the first who marshalled an army, and invented
ad con- 13
watchwords, signals, and the use of sentinels. Sinon, at
the same period, invented the art of correspondence by signals .
s, who, Lycaon was the first to think of making a truce, and Theseus
ace, and
a treaty of alliance.
um," so The art of divination by means of birds¹ we owe to Car,
a half
of the 9 This has been supposed to have been the real origin of the Trojan
required. horse, on which Virgil has built one of his most interesting episodes ; the
nel, was horse, as described by Virgil, was, however, in every respect, different from
e inches the battering ram.--B.
= of what 10 In consequence of some false charges brought against him, Bellero-
phon was sent to combat with a monster called the Chimæra, in the ex-
in hunt- pectation that he would perish in the attempt ; but Minerva, pitying his
ng spear, situation, provided him with a winged horse, named Pegasus, by means of
which he accomplished his perilous task in safety. - B.
re instru- 11 Pelethronius is said to have been a king of the Lapithæ, a people of
ed for the Thessaly, who were celebrated for their skill in the management of the
Owever, in horse.-B.
s of stones 12 According to Cicero, De Nat. Deor. B. iii. c. 23, Minerva was the
says, that first who used a chariot with four horses. Hardouin supposes that the
Erichthonius here mentioned was not the king of Athens, but the son of
ns ; he in- Dardanus, the king of Troas ; he does not state the ground of his opinion,
s for their and Ælian, Hist. Var. B. iii. c. 38, expressly speaks of him as an Athe-
from the nian. Virgil, Geor. B. iii. ll. 113, 114, speaks of Erichthonius as the in-
ventor of the chariot with four horses ; he supposed to have lived about
vented the 1450 B.C. As Hardouin justly remarks, we have an account, in the writings
nvention to of Moses, of chariots being used by the Egyptians long before this period.
clangor of It is not, however, stated what was the number of horses used for these
chariots. - B.
moved on 13 Tesseræ," in the original, which is also the name of the dice used in
which the various games. But the connection in which the word is here placed
covered with makes it more probable that it refers to some military operation ; Virgil
fire. The employs it in this sense, Æneid, B. vii. 1. 637, as also Livy, B. vii. c. 35.
pact body of There is, however, a tradition that Palamedes invented the games in which
them toge- dice are used, during the siege of Troy.-B.
The latter 14 The words are 66 auguria ex avibus," while the art which is said to
rcise, in the have been taught by Tiresias, is termed " extispicio avium." The first of
these consists in foretelling future events, by observing the flight, the
230 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

from whom Caria derives its name ; Orpheus ext

other animals. Delphus taught us the art of divi
inspection of entrails ; Amphiaraüs¹5 divination b
Tiresias, the Theban, presages from the entrails of
owe to Amphictyon16 the interpretation of porte
dreams, and to Atlas, " the son of Libya, the art of
else, according to other accounts, to the Egyptian
syrians. Anaximander,18 the Milesian, invented the
cal sphere ; and Eolus, the son of Hellen, gave u
of the winds.
Amphion was the inventor of music ; 19 Pan,
Mercury, the music of the reed, and the flute wit
pipe; Midas, the Phrygian,20 the transverse flute ;21 a
chirping, or the feeding of birds, the latter by the inspe
entrails. But it appears that this distinction is not always
Cicero, De Divin. B. i. c. 47. The observation of the aug
mitted to a body or college of priests, regarded as of the hi
in the Roman state. The " Haruspices," whose office it
the entrails of sacrificed animals, and from their appeara
future events, were considered as an inferior order. -B.
15 Amphiaraus was reputed to be the son of Apollo, and
his knowledge of futurity ; he was one of the Argonauts, an
expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes, in which he per
honours were paid to him after his death, and a temple
memory, which was resorted to as an oracle. - B.
16 Amphictyon established the celebrated council named
which consisted of delegates from the principal cities of G
sembled at stated periods to decide upon all public question
posed to have lived about 1500 B.C.-B.
17 It is very difficult, perhaps impossible, to separate the
of Atlas from the mythological and fabulous tales mixed up
may, however, conclude that he was a king of Libya, or of
the north of Africa ; that he was an observer of the heaver
one ofthe first who gave any connected account of them.
" astrology," Pliny probably intended to comprehend both
science, now designated by that name, and likewise astr
physical laws of the heavenly bodies. - B.
is Pliny has previously stated, B. ii. c. 6, that the spher
by Atlas, and that Anaximander discovered the obliquity of
which he is said " to have opened the doors of knowledge."
19 The simplest and most common musical instrumen
Greeks, was the " tibia," or pipe.-B.
20 According to Hardouin, the Phrygians invented the
by hired mourners at funerals, or, more probably, were the
the use of the pipes at that ceremony.-B.
21 Which was played on the side, like the German flute
day.
 VII. Chap. 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 231
it to
of the same country, the double- pipe.22 Amphion invented
by the the Lydian measures in music ; Thamyris the Thracian, the
; and
Dorian, and Marsyas the Phrygian, the Phrygian style.23 Am-
We
phion, or, according to some accounts, Orpheus, and according
and of
to others, Linus, invented the lyre.24 Terpander, adding three
gy, or to the former four, increased the number of strings to seven ;
ne As- Simonides added an eighth, and Timotheus a ninth.25 Tha-
onomi- myris was the first who played on the lyre, without the ac-
theory companiment of the voice ; and Amphion, or, as some say,
Linus, was the first who accompanied it with the voice.
son of Terpander was the first who composed songs expressly for the
single lyre ; and Ardalus, the Trozenian, was the first who taught
arsyas, us how to combine the voice with the music of the pipe.26
of their The Curetes taught us the dance in armour,27 and Pyrrhus, the
ved ; see Pyrrhic dance, both of them in Crete.
was com-
We are indebted to the Pythian oracle for the first heroic
authority verse. 28 A very considerable question has arisen, as to what
o inspect
o foretell was the origin of poetry ; it is well known to have existed
before the Trojan war. Pherecydes of Scyros, in the time
amous for of King Cyrus, was the first to write in prose, and Cadmus,
ned in the the Milesian, was the first historian. 29
Divine
Eed to his 22 It was not uncommon for two " tibiæ," or pipes, to be played upon
by one performer at the same time, one being held in each hand.
him, and 23 Apuleius, Flor. B. i . c. 4, characterizes the different kinds ofmusic, termed
e, who as- "moduli " by Pliny, as follows : the Eolian, as simple, the Asiatic varied,
He is sup- the Lydian plaintive, the Phrygian solemn, and the Doric warlike. - B.
24 According to the mythological traditions, Mercury, when a child,
al history found the shell of a tortoise on the banks of the Nile, and made it into a
h it. We lyre, by stretching three strings across ; he presented it to Apollo, and
me part of he gave it to Orpheus, who added two strings to it ; after the death of
Dodies, and Orpheus, his lyre was placed among the stars, and forms the constellation
er the term 1 still known by that name.-B.
e supposed 25 He was a native of Miletus, and contemporary with Philip, the father
my, or the of Alexander the Great. The fact of Timotheus having accompanied
Alexander in his expedition to Asia, which forms the basis of Dryden's
as invented immortal Ode, is not supported by any historical authority. -B.
ecliptic, by 26 Pausanias (Corinth) informs us, that he was the son of Vulcan, and
invented the tibia, but he does not mention his vocal powers. - B.
sed by the 27 According to Hardouin, the first of these, the " saltatio armata," or
" armed dance," was performed on foot, and with wooden armour ; the
s employed second, the Pyrrhic dance, was performed on horseback, and consisted in
st to adopt the dextrous management of the animals. Pyrrhus, from whom the dance
received its name, was the son of Achilles. - B.
the present 28 The honour of the invention has been given to Phemonoë, a priestess
of the oracle of Delphi.- B.
29 Apuleius, Flor. B. ii. c. 15, says that Pherecydes was the first to dis-
232 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Lycaon 30 first instituted gymnastic games, i

Acastus funereal games,31 at Iolcos ;32 and, after hi
instituted them at the Isthmus.33 Hercules firs
the athletic contests at Olympia.34 Pythus in
game of ball.35 Painting was invented in Egyp
36
the Lydian, or, according to Aristotle, in Greece,
regard the fetters of verse, and to write in desultory lang
however, in B. v. c. 31, has ascribed the invention of pros
Hardouin endeavours to reconcile this inconsistency, by s
Cadmus was the first prose writer of history, and that Pl
applied prose to philosophical subjects. But Cicero, De Ora
speaks of Pherecydes as a writer of simple annals.- B.
30 There are several persons of this name among the king
of the semi-fabulous periods ; but the one here mentioned is
been the son of Phoroneus, and to have lived about 140
games were celebrated in honour of Pan ; the combatants w
had the body anointed with oil ; the Lupercalia of the Ro
respects, resembled the games of Lycaon. We are informed
c. 5, that the Lupercalia were introduced into Italy by Evan
dian.-B. Ovid, in the Fasti, B. i., states to the same effect
31 Iolcos was a city of Thessaly, from which place the
barked on their expedition to Colchis ; Acastus was one
funereal games which he instituted were in honour of his fath
32 See B. iv . c. 10.
33 The Isthmian games were originally instituted by Sis
Corinth ; after having been interrupted for some time,
established by Theseus, who celebrated them in honour of N
34 These were the celebrated Olympic games ; Diodorus Sic
Pausanias, and other ancient writers, as well as Pliny, ascri
to Hercules ; Pausanias, however, says, that some supposed
been instituted by Jupiter.- B.
35 " Pila lusoria." There have been many conjectures
person to whom this invention is attributed, as well as
nature ofthe game itself; in either case it appears that we
but mere conjecture to direct our opinion. -B. Among the
games withthe " pila, or ball," were those played with the "
so called, probably, from the players standing in a triangle
was a large ball inflated, and used for football. 66 Paganica
ball, but harder, being stuffed with feathers, and used by ru
pastum" was a small ball, used by the Greeks, and was sc
reaching the ground.
36 The MSS . differ as to the name of the person to whom
of painting is ascribed ; but, in those which are considered t
of credit, he is called Gyges Ludius. Marcus endeavours
the term " Ludius" refers to the country of Lud or Ludim,
Egypt ; and he points out some analogies between the
and some words which are found in ancient inscriptions, or
in use among the Nubians and Abyssinians. Pliny, B. xx
VII. Chap . 57.] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 233

dia ; kinsman of Daedalus ; according to Theophrastus, again, it

seus was invented by Polygnotus, the Athenian.
uted Danaus was the first who passed over in a ship from Egypt
the to Greece.38 Before his time, they used to sail on rafts,39 which
yges, had been invented by King Erythras, 0 to pass from one island
hir, a to another in the Red Sea. There are some writers to be
found, who are of opinion that they were first thought of
Pliny, by the Mysians and the Trojans, for the purpose of crossing
dmus.
the Hellespont into Thrace. Even at the present day, they
g that are made in the British ocean, of wicker-work covered with
es first 41
- c. 12, hides ; on the Nile they are made of papyrus, rushes, and
reeds.
heroes We learn from Philostephanus, that Jason was the first
to have
These person who sailed in a long vessel ;42 Hegesias says it was
ed, and
En many butes the invention of painting to the Egyptians, and says, that " it was
vy, B. i.
he Arca- practised by them long before it was known in Greece."-B.
37 The term Euchir, Euxeup, which is literally " dextrous or handy,"
auts em- would rather seem to be a prefix to a name, than a proper name itself.
With respect to Polygnotus, and the share which he had in the invention
em ; the
ias.-B. of painting, the reader may examine what Pliny says in a subsequent part
of his work, B. xxxv. c. 35.-B.
38 The vessel in which Danaüs came into Greece, may, probably, have
king of been of a much superior construction, or much larger than those previously
were re-
e.-B. seen in that country; but it is generally supposed, that Cecrops, Cadmus,
B. iv. c. 3, and the other Egyptian and Phoenician colonists, had come bysea to Greece,
long before the arrival of Danaus. In the ancient Egyptian monuments
eir origin there are representations of different kinds of vessels of considerable size,
to have which would imply a knowledge of the art of navigation at a very
remote period. The same is proved by the traditionary annals of the
cting the Egyptians.- B.
ecting the 39 The word here used, " ratis," would appear to be applied to any
e nothing species of slightly built vessel, of whatever form. The term raft is not
mans, the altogether appropriate, but we have no English word which exactly cor-
igonalis," responds to it.-B.
"follis" 40 According to the generally received account, Erythras migrated from
a similar Persia to Tyrrhina, an island in the Red Sea. See B. vi. c. 28 and 32.-B.
"Har- 41 It has been conjectured, that the ancient Britons borrowed the pe-
led' for on culiar form of their vessels from the Phoenicians, who were known to have
frequented the south-west coasts of our island. Small vessels, not unlike
invention those here described by Pliny, were used very lately, by the fishermen in
ost worthy the Bristol channel. -B. They are still used by the Welsh fishermen, and
prove, that are made of oil-cloth or leather stretched on a frame. They are called by
e south of the Welch cwrwgle, whence our word " eoracle."
ne Gyges, 42 By the term " longa navis," here used, Pliny probably designates a
are still vessel which was propelled by a number of rowers, ranged side by side, in
c. 5, attri-
E 234 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Paralus, Ctesias,43 Semiramis,44 and Archemach

According to Damastes, the Erythræi were
construct vessels with two banks of oars ; accor
cydides," Aminocles, the Corinthian, first const
with three banks of oars ; according to Aristo
thaginians, those with four banks ; according to
the people of Salamis, those with five banks ; and,
Xenagoras, the Syracusans, those with six ; those
far as ten, Mnesigiton says were first constructed
the Great. From Philostephanus, we learn that P
made them as high as twelve banks ; Demetrius
Antigonus, with fifteen ; Ptolemy Philadelphus,
and Ptolemy Philopater, who was surnamed T
forty 49 Hippus, the Tyrian, was the first w
merchant-ships ; the Cyrenians, the pinnace ; the
the passage-boat ; the Rhodians, the skiff ; and t
the cutter.50
contradistinction to the small skiffs which were moved alo
sail or a single pair of oars, and were more of a rounded f
43 Ctesias has already been referred to, in c. 2 of the pre
44 One of her most remarkable exploits was her expeditio
of which we have an account in Diodorus Siculus, B. i
she fitted out a fleet of between 2000 and 3000 vessels.-B
45 From the account of Damastes, given by Hardouin, h
Sigæum, whose works appear to have been held in conside
by the ancients.- B.
46 There were at least three ancient cities of the name E
one most noted was situate on the coast of the Egean Sea
Isle of Chios.-B./
47 The passage in Thucydides here referred to, is in B.
48 There appears to be much uncertainty respecting the
in the concluding part of this paragraph, in consequence
of the MSS.-B.
49 The position of the rowers, in the vessels of the anc
especially, the mode in which the ranks, or " ordines,'
with respect to each other, has been a subject of much dis
the incidental remarks in the classical writers, and from the
which still remain, particularly those on Trajan's Column
coins, it would appear that they were disposed in stages,
other, and provided with oars of different lengths, in pro
distance from the water. But, although we may concei
the case with two or three rows, it is impossible that a
could have been disposed in this manner.- B.
50 It is not easy to determine what was the construction
four kinds of vessels here mentioned, which he designate
the terms " lembus," " cymba," " celes," and " cercuru
k VII. Chap. 57. ] THE INVENTORS OF VARIOUS THINGS. 235

gæon. We are indebted to the Phoenicians for the first observa-

rst to tion of the stars in navigation ; the Copæ invented the oar,
Thu- and the Platæans gave it its broad blade.51 Icarus was the
52
them person who invented sails, and Dædalus the mast and yards ;
e Car- the Samians, or else Pericles, the Athenian, transports for
igiton, horses ,53 and the Thracians, long covered vessels,5 -before
lingto which time they used to fight only from the prow or the stern.
six, as Pisaus, the Tyrrhenian, added the beak to ships ;55 Eupala-
xander mus, the anchor ; Anacharsis, that with two flukes ; Pericles ,
56
y Soter the Athenian, grappling- irons, and hooks like hands ; and
57
Tiphys, the helm and rudder. Minos was the first who
son of
thirty; waged war by means of ships ; Hyperbius, the son of Mars,
n, with the first who killed an animal ; and Prometheus, the first who
avented slew the ox.58
nicians,
bus " is mentioned by Livy, B. xxiv. c. 40, as a vessel with two benches
yprians, of oars, " biremis ;" and in B. xl. c. 4, he describes it as a small vessel
used for towing large ships. The " cymba " has been supposed to have
ther bya been
66 a still smaller vessel, answering to our idea of a common boat ; the
-B. celes," we may suppose, was named from " celer, " being especially
Book.-B. adapted for quick motion, and the " cercurus " from KκερKoç, " a tail," from
nst India, its long narrow form, or from its having a tail-like appendage attached
to it.-B.
says that
51 Hardouin conjectures, that the cities of Cope and Plateæ derived their
a native of names, respectively, from the inventions here ascribed to them, kwn and
estimation πλατὴ.—Β.
52 Pausanias ascribes this invention to Dædalus ; Diodorus, B. v. c. 1 , to
æ, but the Eolus, who gave his name to the Eolian islands. -B.
site to the 53 " Hippagus."-B.
54 "Tecta longa ;" Cæsar, Bell. Civ. B. i. c. 56, says that the Massilians
fitted out long ships, of which eleven were 66 tectæ."-B.
3.-B. 55 Ships of war had their prows armed with brazen beaks, to which
ments made
e variation sharp spears were attached ; these were used in their naval engagements
as instruments of attack, and, when the vessels were captured, were con-
sidered the trophies of victory. The tribunal, in the Roman Forum, from
and, more which the orators harangued the people, obtained its name of " Rostra,"
e disposed from its being ornamented with the beaks of captured ships.- B.
n. From 56 The " harpago " and the " manus ferrea " are mentioned by Cæsar,
esentations
orcertain Bell. Civ. B. i. c. 57, and by Livy, B. xxx. c. 10 ; Quintus Curtius also
above the speaks of them, but considers them as only different names for the same
instrument, B. iv. e. 2, 12.-B.
on to their
57 Tiphys was the pilot of the vessel of the Argonauts ; he died before
at this was the expedition reached Colchis.- B.
er number 58 Hardouin remarks upon this passage, that Pliny probably means to
speak of the persons who first killed oxen or other animals for what may
form ofthe
be styled profane purposes ; as they had long before this been employed for
ectively by sacrifice.- B.
The "lem-
236 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 58. (57 . ) - THE THINGS ABOUT WHICH MANKI

ALL AGREED. THE ANCIENT LETTERS.

There was at the very earliest59 period a tacit co

all nations to adopt the letters now used by th
(58. ) That the ancient Greek letters were almos
with the modern Latin,61 is proved by the anci
inscription on copper, which is now in the Palat
having been dedicated by the emperors to Minery
scription is as follows :
ΝΑΥΣΙΚΡΑΤΗΣ ΑΝΕΘΕΤΟ ΤΗΙ ΔΙΟΣ Η
["Nausicrates offered this to the daughter of

CHAP. 59. (59 . ) - WHEN BARBERS WERE FIRST E

The next point upon which all nations app

agreed, was the employment of barbers.6 The R
ever, were more tardy in the adoption of th
According to Varro, they were introduced into

59 Herodotus, B. v. c. 59, says that the Phoenician let

similar to the Ionian ; and we are informed by Hardouin, t
his Dissertation upon an ancient inscription on a column dis
Via Appia, and removed to the Farnese Gardens, has p
Ionians borrowed their letters from the Phoenicians. - B.
60 Herodotus confirms this opinion by a reference to an a
Thebes, written in what he terms Cadmæan letters, having
blance to those used by the Ionians. - B.
61 Tacitus, Ann. B. ix. c. 14, says, " The Latin letters
form as the most ancient Greek ones." -B.
62 There is scarcely a letter of this inscription which ha
troverted, and no two editions hardly agree. -B.
63 Probably the earliest existing reference to the practic
in Genesis, xli. 14, where Joseph is said to have shave
his raiment, when brought from prison into the presence
this case, we may presume that it was the head, and perhap
which was shaven. - B.
64 The ancients had two methods of arranging the beard
cut close to the skin, in the other it was trimmed by means
left of a certain length. These two methods are alluded
Capt. ii. 2, 16 - B. " Now the old fellow is in the barber
very instant is the other handling the razor-but whether
going to shave himclose, or to trim him through the comb,
k VII. Chap. 60. ] WHEN THE FIRST CLOCKS WERE MADE. 237

Sicily, in the year of Rome 454,65 having been brought over

RST OF by P. Titinius Mena : before which time the Romans did not
cut the hair. The younger Africanus was the first who
adopted the custom of shaving every67day. The late Emperor
among Augustus always made use of razors."
ians. 60
e same CHAP. 60. - WHEN THE FIRST TIME-PIECES WERE MADE.
Delphic
Library, (60.) The third point of universal agreement was the divi-
his in- sion of time, a subject which afterwards appealed to the reason-
ing faculties. We have already stated, in the Second Book,68
when and by whom this art was first invented in Greece ;
HI. the same was also introduced at Rome, but at a later period.
." ]62 In the Twelve Tables, the rising and setting of the sun are
the only things that are mentioned relative to time. Some
years afterwards, the hour of midday was added, the sum-
OYED.63 moner⁹ of the consuls proclaiming it aloud, as soon as, from the
senate-house, he caught sight of the sun between the Rostra and
to have the Græcostasis ;70 he also proclaimed the last hour, when the
ns, how- 65 Varro, De Re Rus. B. ii., states this fact in almost the same words.
services. He remarks, in continuation, that the old statues prove that there were
aly from formerly no barbers, by the length of their beard and hair.-B.
66 " Africanus sequens ," he was the son of Paulus Æmilius,the con-
queror of Perseus, and the adopted son of Scipio Africanus. In conse-
were very quence of his conquest of Carthage, he was named Africanus the Younger.
Scaliger , in His custom of shaving is alluded to by Aulus Gellius, B. iii. c. 4. From
ered inthe
ed that the the remarks of these writers, we may conclude that the Romans were not
generally in the habit of shaving until after the age of forty.- B.
67 " Cultus." Suetonius gives a different account of the method in which
ent tripod at Augustus managed his beard. After remarking upon his carelessness as to
rong resem- his personal appearance, he says, that Augustus sometimes cropped, " ton-
Fe the same deret," and sometimes shaved, " raderet," his beard. Dion. Cassius men-
tions the period when Augustus began to shave, the consulship of L. Mar-
cius Censorinus and C. Calvicius Sabinus, A.U.c. 714 ; he was then in his
ot been con- twenty-fourth year.-B.
68 În B. ii. c. 78 ; where Pliny says, that the first clock was made at
f shaving is Lacedæmon, by Anaximander ; he was the contemporary of Servius Tullius,
and changed who commenced his reign 577 B.C.-B.
Pharaoh ; in 69 " Accensus ;" he was one of the public servants of the magistrates,
ot the beard,, and was so called from his office of summoning the people to the public
meetings (acciere) .- B.
in one it was 70 See also B. xxxiii. c. 6. This was a place in Rome appropriated to
a comb, and the Greek ambassadors ; it is mentioned by Cicero, in a letter to his brother,
by Plautus, Quintus, B. ii. c. 1.-B. It stood on the right side of the Comitium, being
shop ; at this allotted to the Greeks from the allied states, for the purpose of hearing the
saythatheis debates in the comitia curiata.
know not."
238 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

sun had gone down from the Mænian column"¹ to

This, however, could only be done in clear weat
was continued until the first Punic war. The fir
is said to have been erected among the Romans t
before the war with Pyrrhus, by L. Papirius
the temple of Quirinus,73 on which occasion he
in pursuance of a vow which had been made by
This is the account given by Fabius Vestalis ; but
no mention of either the construction of the d
artist, nor does he inform us from what place it w
or in whose works he found this statement made.
M. Varro says that the first sun-dial, erected
of the public, was fixed upon a column near th
the time of the first Punic war, by the consul
Messala, and that it was brought from the captur
in Sicily: this being thirty years after the date
the dial of Papirius, and the year of Rome 491 .
this dial did not exactly agree with the hours ;
however, as the regulator of the Roman time
years, until Q. Marcius Philippus, who was cens
Paulus, placed one near it, which was more c
ranged : an act which was most gratefully ackno
one of the very best of his censorship . The hou
still remained a matter of uncertainty, whenever
71 This column is supposed to have stood near the end of
the Capitoline Hill. It was C. Mænius (in whose honour
who defeated the Antiates, and adorned the Forum with th
beaks of their ships, from which the " rostrum," or orator's
name. His statue was placed on the column. He was cons
See B. xxxiv. c. 11 .
72 Hardouin supposes that this event took place in the co
pirius Cursor, A.U.C. 461 , B.C. 292. According to the com
Chronology, Pyrrhus came into Italy, B.C. 280, twelve year
sulship of Papirius Cursor.- B.
73 According to Censorinus, in his treatise, De Die Natali
to decide which was the most ancient dial in Rome; some v
with Pliny, that it was the one in the Temple of Quirinus
the Capitol, and others the one in the Temple of Diana
tine.-B.
74 Marcus conjectures, that this account of the dial was
work of Varro, De Rebus Humanis, referred to by Aulus
c. 2, but not now extant.- B.
75 Owing to the circumstance of the dial having been
latitude of Catina, now Catania, about four degrees south o
 VII. Chap . 60. ] SUMMARY . 239

ison. happened to be cloudy, until the ensuing lustrum ; at which

ut it time Scipio Nasica, the colleague of Lænas, by means of a
-dial clepsydra, was the first to divide the hours of the day and
years the night into equal parts : and this time-piece he placed under
at cover and dedicated , in the year of Rome 595 ;76 for so long a
ted it period had the Romans remained without any exact division
ather. of the day. We will now return to the history of the other
makes animals, and first to that of the terrestrial.
or the SUMMARY. -Remarkable events, narratives, and observa-
ought, tions, seven hundred and forty- seven.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.- Verrius Flaccus," Cneius Gellius,7
he use 80
Licinius Mutianus,79 Massurius Sabinius, Agrippina, the wife
stra, in of Claudius, ¹ M. Cicero, Asinius Pollio,83 M. Varro, 84 Messala
alerius 88
Rufus,85 Cornelius Nepos, Virgil,87 Livy, Cordus, Melis-
Catina ,
76 Vitruvius describes this instrument. Marcus, Ajasson, vol. vi. pp .
gned to
lines in 218, 219, gives us an account of two kinds of clepsydræ, or water-clocks,
which were constructed by the Greeks.- B. See also the account of clocks
served, in Beckmann's History of Inventions, vol. i. 77 See end of B. iii.
ety-nine 78 He was a contemporary of the Gracchi, and was author of a His-
with L. tory of Rome, down to B.c. 145 at least ; supposed to have been very vo-
luminous and full in its details of the legendary history of the Roman
lly ar- nation . Livy probably borrowed extensively from it.
dged, as 79 See end of B. ii.
Lowever, 80 A hearer of Ateius Capito, and celebrated as a jurist under Tiberius
weather and later emperors . From him a school of legists, called the Sabiniani,
took their rise. He wrote some works on the Civil Law. Pliny quotes
Forum, on him, as we have seen, in c. 4, to show the possibility of gestation being
s erected) to the thirteenth month.
rostra," or 81 Daughter of the elder Agrippina and Germanicus, and the mother of
e, took its Nero. Her memoirs of her life are quoted by Tacitus, but we have no
1 B.C. 338. remains of them.
82 The great Roman orator and philosopher.
ship of Pa- 83 A distinguished orator, poet, and historian of the Augustan age. He
ly received was an active partisan of Cæsar, and the patron of Horace and Virgil,
er the con- whose property he saved from confiscation. He wrote a history of the
civil war in seventeen books, but none of his works have come down to us.
vas difficult His tragedies are highly spoken of by Virgil and Horace.
84 See end of B. ii.
rs agreeing 85 Nothing whatever seems to be known relative to this author, who is
mers thatin
the Aven- mentioned in c. 53 of this Book. See the Note to that passage.
86 See end of B. ii.
ined inthe 87 The author of the Æneid and the Georgics, the friend of Augustus,
lius, B. iii. Pollio, and Mæcenas, one ofthe most virtuous men of ancient time, and the
greatest probably of the Latin poets. 88 See end of B. vi.
ted to the 89 Cremutius Cordus, a Roman historian, who was impeached before
-me -B. Tiberius, by two of his clients, for having praised Brutus, and styled Cassius
 240 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

sus,,90 Sebosus ,91 Cornelius Celsus,92 Maximus

Trogus,94 Nigidius Figulus,95 Pomponius Atticus
97
Asconius, Fabianus,98 Cato the Censor," the Reg
Triumphs, 1 Fabius Vestalis.2
"the last of the Romans," his real offence being the freedo
in his work, he had spoken against Sejanus. He starved hi
and the senate ordered his works to be burnt. Some c
were preserved by his daughter, Marcia, and his friends.
90 C. Mæcenas Melissus, a native of Spoletum. He wa
but exposed in his infancy, and presented to be reared by
was afterwards manumitted, and obtained the favour of
employed him to arrange the library in the portico of
advanced age he commenced the composition of a collecti
bon-mots. He also wrote plays of a novel character,
" Trabeatæ." 91 See end ofB. ii.
92 A. Cornelius Celsus, the celebrated writer on medi
known of his age or origin, or even his profession. It is
ever, that he lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius.
Medicine and Surgery are still used as hand-books for the
and his style is much admired for its purity.
93 Or Valerius Maximus. He is supposed to have lived
Tiberius, and wrote nine books on memorable deeds and
still survive, and are replete with curious information.
94 Trogus Pompeius, the Roman Historian, on who
founded his history. His grandfather, who was of the
the Vocontii, received the citizenship of Rome during
Sertorius ; and his father was a private secretary of Julius
as set forth in the pages of Justin, no portion of his histor
scattered fragments, exists. The quotations from him in P
to have been all taken from a treatise of his, " De Animali
by Charisius, and not from his historical works. 95 Se
96 The friend and correspondent of Cicero, descended f
most ancient equestrian families of Rome. His surname
given to him from his long residence at Athens, and his in
ance with the Greek language and literature. Though,
virtuous character, he neglected no means of making mon
sequently, a man of great opulence, He wrote a book of
an Epitome ofRoman History, which, like the rest of his wo
97 He lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, and
the Eusebian Chronicle, as becoming blind in his seventy
ing the reign of Vespasian, and attaining the age of eight
a work on the Life of Sallust, another on the Censure
commentaries on the speeches of Cicero, of which alone a
still extant, and are of considerable value in a historical as
matical point of view.
98 Probably Papirius Fabianus. See end of B. ii.
99 See end of B. iii. 1 See end of B. v.
2 Nothing whatever is known relative to this author.
 VII. Chap. 60.] SUMMARY . 241

rius, FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.- Herodotus, Aristeas,* Bæton,5

Hianus' 6
Isigonus, Crates," Agatharchides, Calliphanes, Aristotle, 10
of the Nymphodorus, " Apollonides, 12 Phylarchus,13 Damon, 14 Megas-
thenes, 15 Ctesias,16 Tauron, " Eudoxus, 18 Onesicritus," Clitar-
which, chus,20 Duris,21 Artemidorus,22 Hippocrates23 the physician,
o death,
However, 3 See end of B. ii.
4 He is said to have written an epic poem, called Arimaspeia, full of
ee birth, marvellous stories respecting the Arimaspi and the golden regions. See I
as. He c. 2 of the present Book, and Note 98 in p. 211, where some further par-
tus, who ticulars relative to him will be found.
At an 5 See end of B. v.
okes and 6 He was a native of Nicæa, in Bithynia, and the author of some works,
he styled characterized as being full of incredible stories. Cyril, however, says,
that he was born at Cittium, and Gellius styles him a writer of no small
Little is authority. He is generally looked upon as belonging to the class of writers
sed, how- called Paradoxographi .
7 See end of B. iv.
reatises on
I student, 8 Or Agatharchus, a Greek grammarian of Cnidos. He was, as we
learn from Strabo, attached to the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and
he time of wrote several historical and geographical works. He was living in the
gs, which reign of Ptolemy Philometer, who died B.c. 146. His works, which were
very numerous, are enumerated by Photius.
ork Justin 9 See end of B. iii. 10 See end of B. ii.
sh tribe of 11 See end of B. iii.
war against 12 Strabo, in B. ii. speaks of a Periplus of Europe, written by a person
of this name. There was also a physician called Apollonides, a native of
1. Except Cos, who practised at the court of Artaxerxes Longimanus, where he was
cept a few
are thoughdt eventually put to death.
mentione 13 A Greek historian of the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, and said by
of B. vi. different authors to have been a native of Athens, Naucratis in Egypt, and
one ofthe Sicyon. He wrote a work on history, of considerable value, though his
credit as an historian has been violently attacked by Polybius.
probably, 14 Of Cyrene, an author of uncertain date. He wrote a work on the
acquaint- philosophers.
erally, of a 15 See end of B. v. 16 See end of B. ii.
nd was, con- 17 Nothing is known of this writer.
Is, or rather
18 For Eudoxus of Cnidos, see end of B. ii : and for Eudoxus of Cyzicus,
has perished. see end of B. vi.
entioned by 19 See end of B. ii. 20 See end of B. vi.
d year, dur 21 Of Samos, a descendant of Alcibiades, who flourished in the time of
e. Hewrote
Ptolemy Philadelphus. When a boy, he gained a pugilistic victory at
f Virgil, and Olympia. He eventually became tyrant of Samos ; but nothing furtheris
portions are known of his career. From what Pliny says, in c. 40. of B. iii., he is
as agram- supposed to have been living in the year B.C. 281. He was the author
of a history of Greece, and other historical works, of which, however, we
possess no remains.
22 See end of B. ii.
23 Of Cos, the father of the medical art, and in many respects the most
VOL. II. B
 242 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

Asclepiades the physician, Hesiod,25 Anacreo

pompus, 27 Hellanicus, 28 Damastes,29 Ephorus,30
Berosus,32 Petosiris,33 Necepsos,34 Alexander H
Xenophon,36 Callimachus,37 Democritus,38 Diyllus
torian, Strabo,40 who wrote against the Euremat
41 42
rus, Heraclides Ponticus, Aclepiades, who
Tragodoumena, Philostephanus,43 Hegesias, 44
celebrated physician of ancient or modern times. It is supp
flouished in the fifth century before Christ. A great num
works, still extant, have been attributed to him: but ther
other physicians who either had, or assumed, this name.
24 Of Prusa, in Bithynia. He is mentioned in c. 37 of th
Note 44 in p. 183.
25 Of Ascra, in Boeotia, the earliest of the Greek poets, w
tion of Homer. His surviving works, are his " Works and
66 Theogony."
"
26 Of Teos, in Asia Minor, famous for his amatory and ly
died at the age of eighty-five. Pliny mentions the supposed
death, in c. 5, ofthe present Book.
27 See end of B. ii. 28 See end of B. iv.
29 See end of B. iv. 30 See end of B. iv.
31 See end of B. ii.
32 A priest of Belus, at Babylonia, and a historian of the
ander the Great. He wrote a History of Babylonia, of wh
ments are preserved by the ecclesiastical writers .
• 33
See end of B. ii. 34 See end of B. ii.
35 See end of B. iii. 36 See end of B. iv.
37 See end of B. iv. 38 See end of B. ii.
39 An Athenian, who wrote a history of Greece and Sicily
or twenty-seven books, coming down to B.c. 298, from whi
of Platea continued it.
40 Of Lampsacus, a Peripatetic philosopher, and tutor of
delphus. He succeeded Theophrastus, B.C. 288, as head
He devoted himself to the study of natural science, and a
held a pantheistic system of philosophy. By Cudworth,
others, he has been charged with atheism. The " Euremat
here mentioned, was a book which treated of inventions..
41 See end of B. iv.
42 Of Tragilus, in Thrace, a disciple and contempora
His book, here mentioned, treated on the subjects chosen
tragic writers, and the manner in which they had dealt wit
43 Of Cyrene, the friend or disciple of Callimachus.
under Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B.C. 249. He wrote
in Asia, on Rivers, and on Islands ; but none of his con
survived.
44 A native of Magnesia, who wrote on rhetoric and hist
the early part of the third century B.C. Strabo speaks
of him ; and Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus agree
k VII. SUMMARY . 243
Chap. 60. ]
Theo-
chus, Thucydides, " Mnesigiton, " Xenagoras," Metrodorus¹9
enes,³¹31 of Scepsos, Anticlides,50 Critodemus.51
stor,25
= his- him as a downright blockhead. Upon the other hand, Varro rather ad-
Epho- mires his style. The history of Alexander the Great was his favourite
ze the theme ; and he is represented by Aulus Gellius as dealing rather largely in 1
hima- the marvellous.
45 Mentioned by Athenæus as having written a history of Euboea.
that he 46 See end of B. iii.; and see c. 31 of the present Book, and Note 6 in
medical p. 175.
47 Nothing whatever appears to be known of this writer.
re many 48 See end of B. iv. 49 See end of B. iii.
50 See end of B. iv. 51 See end of B. ii.
Dok. See
he excep-
" andthe
poems ; he
de of his

e of Alex-
some frag-

twenty-six
time Psaon

lemy Phila-
hat school.
ars to have
ibnitz, and
of Ephorus,

of Isocrates .
y the Greek
hem. rished
e flou
ks onnsplaces
ositio have

, probably iny
slightingl
looking upon
 244

BOOK VIII.

THE NATURE OF THE TERRESTRIAL ANIM

CHAP. 1. ( 1 . )-ELEPHANTS ; THEIR CAPACIT

LET us now pass on to the other animals, and first o
land animals. The elephant is the largest of them
intelligence approaches the nearest to man. It unde
language of its country, it obeys commands, and it
all the duties which it has been taught. It
alike of the pleasures of love and glory, and, t
that is rare among men even, possesses notions
prudence, and equity ; it has a religious respe
the stars, and a veneration for the sun and the
is said by some authors, that, at the first appear
new moon, herds of these animals come down from
of Mauritania to a river, the name of which
and that they there purify themselves in solem
sprinkling their bodies with water ; after which,
saluted the heavenly body, they return to the woo
before them the young ones which are fatigued .
supposed to have a notion, too, of the differences

1 Cuvier remarks, that this account of its superior inte

aggerated, it being no greater than that of the dog, if, inde
The opinion may perhaps have arisen from the dexterity
animal uses its trunk ; but this is to be ascribed not to it
gence, but to the mechanical construction of the part. The
whom we may presume that Pliny derived his account, ha
garded the elephant with a kind of superstitious veneration .
2 Some would read this " Amilo," and others " Annul
considers it the same with the river Valo, which is mention
B. iv. c. 1 , and said to have its rise in the mountains know
Brothers, and mentioned in B. v. c. 1.
3 " Præ se ferentes," probably alluding to the use wh
makes of its trunk in seizing and carrying bodies. - B .
4 "Alienæ religionis." The meaning of this is doubtful
"differences in religion," or " religious feeling in others,"
judge from the context, " the religious regard for their oat
feel."
 Chap. 2. ] ELEPHANTS . 245

and when about to cross the sea, they cannot be prevailed

upon to go on board the ship, until their keeper has promised
upon oath that they shall return home again. They have been
seen, too, when worn out by disease, (for even these vast masses
are liable to disease, ) lying on their back, and throwing the grass
up into the air, as if deputing the earth to intercede for them
with its prayers.5 As a proof of their extreme docility, they
pay homage to the king, fall upon their knees, and offer him
the crown . Those of smaller growth, which the Indians call
to the bastards, are employed by them in ploughing."
and in
nds the
embers CHAP. 2. (2. )— WHEN ELEPHANTS WERE FIRST PUT INTO HARNESS .
sensible The first harnessed elephants that were seen at Rome, were
degree in the triumph of Pompeius Magnus over Africa, when they
honesty, drew his chariot ; a thing that is said to have been done long
also for before, at the triumph of Father Liber on the conquest of
on. 1 It India. Procilius says, that those which were used at the
e of the triumph of Pompeius, were unable to go in harness through
Le forests the gate of the city. In 9the exhibition of gladiators which
Amilo ;2 was given by Germanicus, the elephants performed a sort of
form by dance with their uncouth and irregular movements. It was a
ing thus common thing to see them throw arrows with such strength,
carrying that the wind was unable to turn them from their course, to
They are imitate among themselves the combats of the gladiators, and
religion; to frolic through the steps of the Pyrrhic dance . After this,

gence is ex- 5 "Veluti tellure precibus alligata," one of the harsh metaphorical ex-
equal to it. pressions occasionally occurring in Pliny, which it is very difficult to trans-
h which the late,
Own intelli- 6 64and even perhaps fully to comprehend. - B .
"Nothi."
ndians, from 7 Cuvier remarks, that there are two kinds of elephants, one of which
always re- attains sixteen feet, and is chiefly known in Cochin China and Tonquin,
B. while those that are domesticated in India are seldom more than half that
- Hardouin height. They are supposed, however, to be only varieties of the same spe-
by Ptolemy, cies. Pliny, in B. vi. c. 22, gives an account of the uses which the Indians
as the Seven made of the elephant, and of their different sizes, but he does not state
there that it is the smaller ones only that are employed in agriculture.—B.
h the animal • Plutarch informs us, that Pompey had resolved to have his chariot
drawn by four elephants, but finding the gate too narrow, he was obliged
It maymean to use horses.-B.
perhaps, to 9 See an account of this, and of the feats performed by the elephants, in
which others Elian, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 11.-B.
10 The Pyrrhic dance has been referred to in the last Book, c. 57. P.
 246 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

too, they walked upon the tight-rope, and four of th

carry a litter in which lay a fifth, which represented
lying-in. They afterwards took their places at table
upon couches which were filled with people ; and so
they manage their steps, that they did not so much
any of those who were drinking there.

CHAP. 3. (3 . )-THE DOCILITY OF THE ELEPHAN

It is a well-known fact, 12 that one of these ani
was slower than usual in learning what was taught
had been frequently chastised with blows, was foun
over his lesson in the night-time.¹³ It is a most
thing also, that the elephant is able not only to w
tight-rope backwards ; but to come down it as well
head foremost.14 Mutianus, who was three times
forms us that one of these animals had been taugh
the Greek letters, and that he used to write in tha
the following words : " I have myself written these
have dedicated the Celtic spoils ."9915 Mutianus
that he himself was witness to the fact, that wher
phants were being landed at Puteoli 16 and were co
leave the ship, being terrified at the length of th
which extended from the vessel to the shore, they w
wards, in order to deceive themselves by forming a
mate of the distance.

231. It is not improbable that the elephants employed in th

caparisoned with armour.
11 However ill adapted the elephant may appear, from its
for this feat, we have the testimony of Seneca, Suetonius,
and Ælian, to the truth of the fact.-B.
12 Plutarch, in his treatise on the Shrewdness of Animals
this wonderful circumstance happened at Rome.
13 " Eadem illa meditantem," is the expression. It would
know in what way the elephant showed that he was con
lesson.
14 Suetonius is supposed to allude to this circumstance.-
us that a horseman ascended a tight rope on an elephant's ba
15 Elian informs us, that he had seen an elephant write
ters. Hardouin remarks, that the Greek would be Avròç yu
λαφυρά τε Κελτ᾽ ἀνέθηκα.
16 See B. iii. c. 9.
 III. Chap. 4. ] ELEPHANTS . 247
ould
man
ning CHAP. 4.- WONDERFUL THINGS WHICH HAVE BEEN DONE BY THE
- did ELEPHANT.
ouch These animals are well aware that the only spoil that we
are anxious to procure of them is the part which forms their
weapon of defence, by Juba, called their horns, but by He-
rodotus, a much older writer, as well as by general usage and
more appropriately, their teeth." Hence it is that, when their
who tusks have fallen off, either by accident or from old age, they
, and bury them in the earth.18 These tusks form the only real ivory,
nning and, even in these, the part which is covered by the flesh is
rising merely common bone, and of no value whatever ; though, in-
up the deed, of late, in consequence of the insufficient supply of ivory,
ch the they have begun to cut the bones as well into thin plates.
ul, in- Large teeth, in fact, are now rarely found, except in India, the
• trace demands of luxury 19 having exhausted all those in our part of
nguage the world. The youthfulness of the animal is ascertained by
the whiteness of the teeth.20 These animals take the greatest
ds, and
es also, care of their teeth ; they pay especial attention to the point of
me ele- one of them, that it may not be found blunt when wanted for
elled to combat ; the other they employ for various purposes, such as
Latform , digging up roots and pushing forward heavy weights. When
ed back- they are surrounded by the hunters, they place those in front
which have the smallest teeth, that the enemy may think that
se esti.
the spoil is not worth the combat ; and afterwards, when
they are weary of resistance, they break off their teeth, by
ance were
17 As to the tusks of the elephant, no doubt the opinion of Herodotus,
and form, B. iii. c. 97, is correct, that they are teeth, and not horns. They are essen-
Cassius, tially composed of the same substance with the other teeth, and, like them,
are inserted into the jaw, and not into the os frontis, as is the case with
lls us that horns.-B .
18 Not improbably, the great quantity of fossil ivory which has been
curious to found, may have given rise to this tale. We have in Lemaire, vol. iii. P:
" over his 581, a long extract from Cuvier's " Recherches sur les ossements fossiles,'
in which he gives an account of the parts of the world in which the bones
He tells of the elephant have been discovered. - B.
19 Tables and bedsteads were not only covered or veneered with ivory
tin charac- among the Romans, but, in the later times, made of the solid material, as
we learn from Elian and Athenæus.
εδ' ἔγραψα,
20 Plutarch, in his treatise on the Shrewdness of Animals, gives the
same statement respecting the whiteness of the teeth in the young animal.
-B.
 248 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

dashing them against a tree, and in this mann

ransom.221

CHAP. 5. (4. )—THE INSTINCT OF WILD ANIMALS IN

DANGER .

It is a wonderful thing, that most animals are

it is that they are sought after, and what it is, th
circumstances, they have to guard against. When
happens to meet a man in the desert, who is merel
about, the animal, it is said, shows himself both
kind, and even points out the way. But the
animal, if he meets with the traces of a man,22 bef
the man himself, trembles in every limb, for fear
bush, stops short and scents the wind, looks aroun
snorts aloud with rage ; and then, without trampli
object, digs it up,23 and passes it to the next one,
passes it to the one that follows, and so on from
other, till it comes to the very last. The herd
about, returns, and ranges itself in order of battle ;
does the odour, in all cases, attach itself to the
step, even though, as is most frequently the case, t
is not naked. In the same way, too, the tigress,
dread of the other wild beasts, and which se
alarm, the traces even of the elephant itself, is sa
upon seeing the footsteps of man, to carry off
How has the animal acquired this knowledge ?
has it seen him before, of whom it stands in s
Doubt there can be none, that forests such as it
but little frequented by man ! It is not to be wo
they are astonished at the print of a footstep befor
but how should they know that there is anythin
ought to dread ? And, what is still more, why shoul
even the very sight of man, seeing that they are
21 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that these statements
sagacity of the elephant in connection with their teeth, are
dation. - B.
22 The word employed is vestigium ; it is explained by E
the herbage, which has received both the visible impression
odour of the foot.-B.
23 In the case of a footstep, this must mean the ground
foot has come in contact.
 VIII. ELEPHANTS. 249
Chap. 5.7
their
rior to him in strength, size, and swiftness ? No doubt, such
is the law of Nature, such is the influence of her power-the
most savage and the very largest of wild beasts have never
IVING
seen that which they have reason to fear, and yet instantly
have an instinctive feeling of dread, when the moment has come
for them to fear.24
re why
ader all (5.) Elephants always move in herds.25 The oldest takes
the lead, and the next in age brings up the rear. When they
ephant are crossing a river, they first send over the smallest, for fear
ndering lest the weight of the larger ones may increase the depth
ful and of the channel, by working away the bed of the river. We
y same learn from Antipater, that King Antiochus had two elephants,
e meets
an am- which he employed in his wars, and to which he had given the
names of celebrated men ; and that they were aware too of this
im, and mark of distinction.26 Cato, in his Annals, while he has passed
pon the
over in silence the names of the generals, has given that of an
o again elephant called Surus, which fought with the greatest valour
e to the in the Carthaginian army, and had lost one of its tusks.
en faces
When Antiochus was sounding the ford of a river, an elephant
strongly named Ajax, which on other occasions had always led the van,
an foot-
Foot itself refused to enter the stream ; upon which proclamation was
made, that the first rank should belong to the one which should
ch is the take the lead in passing over. One called Patroclus hazarded
without the attempt, and as a reward, the king presented it with some
at once, silver pendants,27 a kind of ornament with which these animals
whelps. are particularly delighted, and assigned it all the other marks of
nd where
h dread ? 24 It is a general opinion, and one founded upon observations of daily
occurrence, that animals have an instinctive dread of man. We have,
aunts are however, facts stated by travellers of undoubted veracity, which would
ered at, if lead to an opposite conclusion. One of the most remarkable is the ac-
nknown ; count which Denham gives of the tameness of the birds in Lake Tchad.
that they -B.
heydread 25 Cuvier observes, that this is correct ; see Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 408, and
Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 338.-B.
far supe- 26 Novere ea.' It is doubtful whether these words do not mean
something more than merely " knew their names," as Hardouin explains
specting the it, for that would be nothing wonderful in an elephant. On the other
ithout foun hand, to say that they were aware of the honour which had been conferred
on them, in giving the names of famous men, would be to make a state-
a to referto ment which exceeds belief; for how could the elephants show that they
s well asthe appreciated this honour, even supposing that they did appreciate it ? Pliny's
elliptical style repeatedly gives rise to doubts of this nature.
h which the 27 " Phaleris.' See Notes to B. vii. c. 29, p. 170.
250 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

command. Upon this, the elephant that had been

fused to take its food, and so preferred death to ign
deed their sense of shame is wonderful, and when
has been conquered, it flies at the voice of the co
presents him with earth and vervain.28
These animals are sensible to feelings of mo
never couple but in secret :29 the male after it ha
fifth year, the female after the age of ten.30 It
their intercourse takes place only every second y
five days only, and no more ; on the sixth day
into a river, before doing which they will not rej
Adulterous intercourse is unknown to them, and th
of those deadly combats for the possession of the f
take place among the other animals. Nor is this
are uninfluenced by the passion of love. One i
are told, fell in love with a woman, who was a s
lands ; and let no one suppose that he made a vulg
she was the especial object of the love of Aristo
held the very highest rank as a grammarian. An
attached to the youth Menander, a native of Sy
armyof Ptolemy; whenever it did not see him, it w
the regret which it experienced, by refusing its
gives an account also of a female who dealt in
whom one of these creatures formed an attac
these animals manifested their attachment by thei
at the sight of the person, by their awkward car
keeping for them and throwing into their boso
of money which the public had given them.31
28 Pliny informs us, in B. xxii. c. 4, that this was done
quered in battle.- B..
20 We may conclude, from the account given by Aristo
B. v. c. 2, and by Elian, B. viii. c. 17, that this opinion
adopted by the ancients. - B. We learn from Cuvier, wh
results of M. Corse's observations, that there is no such
elephant, and that the two at the Museum of Natural H
gave proof of the fact.
30 This is erroneous ; the males do not arrive at pub
females, which takes place about the fourteenth or fifteent
elephant which was under the inspection of M. Corse, the
tion was between twenty and twenty-one months, so th
some foundation for the biennial period, but the term of
tirely imaginary. Aristotle makes the interval three years
31 There is a passage in Suetonius, in his Life of Augus
 VIII. ELEPHANTS . 251
Chap. 6. ]
ed re- ought we to be surprised, that an animal which possesses me-
- In- mory should be sensible of affection : for the same author re-
f them lates, that an elephant recognized, after the lapse of many
r, and years, an old man who had been its keeper in his youth.
They would seem also to have an instinctive feeling ofjustice.
= they King Bocchus once fastened thirty elephants to the stake, 4
ned its with the determination of wreaking his vengeance on them,
_d, that by means of thirty others ; but though men kept sallying
nd for forth among them to goad them on, he could not, with all his
plunge endeavours, force them to become the ministers of the cruelty
e herd. of others.
ve none
e, which :
CHAP. 6. (6 . ) — WHEN ELEPHANTS WERE FIRST SEEN IN ITALY.
use they
ypt, we Elephants were seen in Italy, for the first time, in the war
of gar- with King Pyrrhus,32 in the year of the City 472 ; they were
oice, for called " Lucanian oxen," because they were first seen in Lu-
es, who cania.33 Seven years after this period, they appeared at Rome
T became in a triumph.34 In the year 502 a great number of them were
se, in the brought to Rome, which had been taken by the pontiff Me-
manifest tellus, in his victory gained in Sicily over the Carthaginians ;35
1. Juba they were one hundred and forty-two36 in number, or, as some
fumes, to say, one hundred and forty, and were conveyed to our shores
nt. All upon rafts, which were constructed on rows of hogsheads joined
together. Verrius informs us, that they fought in the Circus,
gns ofjoy
s, and by Macrobius, where the custom of offering pieces ofmoney to elephants, which
The pieces they took up with the proboscis, is referred to.-B.
, indeed, 32 In the Epitome of Livy, B. xiii., it is said, that Valerius Corvinus
was unsuccessful in his engagements with Pyrrhus, in consequence of the
those con- terror produced by the elephants.-B.
33 Varro, De Ling. Lat. B. vi. calls the elephant " Lucas bos," "the
Hist. Anim. Lucanian ox," from the fact of this large quadruped being first seen by the
Romans in the Lucanian army.-B. t
s generally 34 According to Seneca, Manius Curius Dentatus was the first who
entions the
desty in the exhibited elephants in his triumph over Pyrrhus. See also Florus, B. i.
Dry at Paris c. 18.-B.
35 There are coins extant struck to commemorate this victory, in which
before the there is the figure of an elephant.- B.
ear. Inthe 36 The number of elephants brought to Rome by Metellus is differently
stated ; Florus, B. ii., says that they were " about a hundred ;" in the
od ofgesta- Epitome of Livy, B. xix., they are one hundred and twenty, and the same
here maybe number is mentioned by Seneca. - B.
days is en-
, andonein
252 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

and that they were slain with javelins, for want of

method of disposing of them ; as the people neit
keep them nor yet to give them to the kings.37
us only that they were brought into the Circus ;
purpose of increasing the feelingof contempt to
they were driven all round the area of that pla
men, who had nothing but spears blunted at the
authors who are of opinion that they were not k
however, inform us how they were afterwards dis

CHAP. 7. (7.)- THE COMBATS OF ELEPHAN

There is a famous combat mentioned of a Ro
elephant, when Hannibal compelled our prison
against each other. The one who had survived
he placed before an elephant, and promised him
should slay it ; upon which the man advanced a
arena, and, to the great regret of the Carthaginia
in doing so.38 Hannibal, however, thinking tha
this victory might cause a feeling of contempt f
mals, sent some horsemen to kill the man on h
In our battles with Pyrrhus it was found, on
that it was extremely easy to cut off the trunks
mals.39 Fenestella informs us, that they fough
the Circus for the first time during the cur
of Claudius Pulcher, in the consulship of M. An
Postumius, in the year of the City 655 ; and that
afterwards, during the curule ædileship of the
were set to fight against bulls. In the second c

37 Who were their allies, or rather vassals ; for in such

make a dangerous use of them.
38 Val. Maximus, B. ix. c. 2, gives an account of the b
nibal on this occasion, in forcing the Roman captives to fi
other, until only one was left ; but he does not make men
bat with the elephant.- B.
39 Florus, B. i. c. 18, states, that this was practised in t
ments with Pyrrhus, and that by these means the eleph
destroyed or rendered useless. Cuvier remarks, that the tr
of small muscles and fatty matter, enveloped by a tendinou
Covered with skin.-B.
40 A.U.C. 678.-B.
 k VIII. ELEPHANTS . 253
Chap. 7. ]
better
Pompeius, at the dedication of the temple of Venus Victrix,"¹
iked to
twenty elephants, or, as some say, seventeen, fought in the
so tells Circus against a number of Gætulians, who attacked them with
for the
javelins. One of these animals fought in a most astonishing
s them, manner ; being pierced through the feet, it dragged itself on
y work its knees towards the troop, and seizing their bucklers, tossed
t. The them aloft into the air : and as they came to the ground they
do not, greatly amused the spectators, for they whirled round and
d of. round in the air, just as if they had been thrown up with a
certain degree of skill, and not by the frantic fury of a wild
beast. Another very wonderful circumstauce happened ; an
elephant was killed by a single blow. The weapon pierced
with an the animal below the eye, and entered the vital part of the.
to fight head. The elephants attempted, too, by their united efforts, to
he others break down the enclosure, not without great confusion among
life if he the people who surrounded the iron gratings.43 It was in con-
e into the sequence of this circumstance, that Cæsar, the Dictator, when
succeeded he was afterwards about to exhibit a similar spectacle, had the
ne news of arena surrounded with trenches of water, which were lately
these ani- filled up by the Emperor Nero, 45 when he added the seats for
wayhome.
king trial, 41 "Venus the Conqueror." This temple was dedicated by Pompey,
these ani- after his conquests in the East, in his second consulship, B.C. 55.
t Rome in 42 Pliny here refers to an art, practised among the Romans, of throwing
up a shield into the air, in such a manner that, after performing a circuit,
ædileship it would fall down on a certain spot ; this trick is also alluded to by Mar-
ius and A. tial, B. ix. Ep. 39.-B. The exercise with the boomerang, which was known
to the ancient Assyrians, and has been borrowed in modern times from
wenty years the people of Australasia, seems to have been somewhat similar to this.
culli, they 43 " Clathri." These were gratings of iron trellis-work, placed in front
sulship of of the lowest row of the spectators, to protect them from the wild beasts.
This exhibition took place in Pompey's Amphitheatre, in the Campus Mar-
se,theymight tius. The arena of the amphitheatre was mostly surrounded by a wall,
distinguished by the name of "podium," which was generally about eighteen
ality of Han- feet in height, and the top of which was protected by this trellis-work. In
against each the present instance, however, the " podium " can hardly have been so much
n of the com- as eighteen feet in height.
44 66 Euripis." Julius Cæsar caused a canal, ten feet wide, to be formed
later engage in the Circus Maximus, around the bottom of the " podium," to protect the
ats were either spectators from the wild beasts. These " euripi " probably took their
k is composed name from the narrow channel so called, which lay between Boeotia and
membrane, and the island of Euboea.
45 We learn, however, from Lampridius, in his Life of Heliogabalus,
that this euripus was afterwards restored to the Circus.
254 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

the equestrian order. When, however, the ele

exhibition given by Pompeius had lost all hopes
they implored the compassion of the multitude
which surpass all description, and with a kind of
bewailed their unhappy fate. So greatly wer
affected by the scene, that, forgetting the genera
and the munificence which had been at such pair
honour, the whole assembly rose up in tears, a
curses on Pompeius, of which he soon afterward
victim. They fought also in the third consulshi
tator Cæsar, twenty of them against five hundred
On another occasion twenty elephants, carrying
each defended by sixty men, were opposed to the
of foot soldiers as before, and an equal number
Afterwards, under the Emperors Claudius and N
exploit that the gladiators performed was fig
handed 50 with elephants.
The elephant is said to display such a mercif
towards animals that are weaker than itself, t
finds itself in a flock of sheep, it will remove wi
those that are in the way, lest it should un
46 Tacitus and Suetonius mention this separation of th
the rest of the spectators : it took place A.u.c. 816.-B.
of Augustus, A.U.c. 758, the senators, equites, and people sat
in the Circus ; but that emperor, and after him Claudius, N
tian, separated the senators and the equites from the comm
47 There are coins which bear the figure of an elephan
Cæsar, probably struck in commemoration of these games.-
48 The practice of placing towers filled with soldiers on
elephants is alluded to by Lucretius, B. v. 1. 1301, and
xii. 1. 110.-B. It still prevails in India.
49. Consummatione gladiatorum." There is some doubt
meaning of this. It may mean, " at the conclusion of
games," as exhibited ; or, what is more probable, " as the c
of the gladiators," who wished thereby to secure their man
was granted after remarkable feats of valour. Cælius Rh
c. 11, prefers this last meaning : Dalechamps, with whom Aj
the first.
50 Postea singulis." Those who coincide with Dalech
son, as to the meaning, would read it, that at the end of
games, the elephants fought singly one against another,
having retired from the arena.
51 Pliny here uses the word " manu," "hand," which
afterwards remarks, it may not be an inappropriate metapho
be admitted in our language. - B.
okVIII. ELEPHANTS . 255
Chap . 8.]
s in the trample upon them.52 They will never do any mischi except
ef
scaping, when provoked, and they are of a disposition so sociable , that
attitudes
entation they always move about in herds, no animal being less fond of
a solitary life. When surrounded by a troop of horsemen,
e people they place in the centre of the herd those that are weak,
Cogether, weary, or wounded, and then take the front rank each in its
do them turn, just as though they acted under command and in accord-
showered ance with discipline. When taken captive, they are very
came the
speedily tamed, by being fed on the juices of barley.53
the Dic
Soldiers.47
Ts,"48 and CHAP. 8. ( 8 . )—THE WAY IN WHICH ELEPHANTS ARE CAUGHT.
e number In India they are caught by the keeper guiding one of the
norsemen. tame elephants towards a wild one which he has found alone or
the last has separated from the herd ; upon which he beats it, and when
g single- it is fatigued mounts and manages it just the same way as the
55
other. In Africa5 they take them in pit-falls ; but as soon as
Hisposition an elephant gets into one, the others immediately collect boughs
when it of trees and pile up heaps of earth, so as to form a mound, and
its trunk then endeavour with all their might to drag it out. It was for-
entionally merly the practice to tamethem by driving the herds with horse-
equites from men into a narrow defile, artificially made in such a way as
to thetime to deceive them by its length; and when thus enclosed by means
scriminately of steep banks and trenches, they were rendered tame by the
and Domi
52 This trait has been observed in all ages ; the elephant has been known
nd the word to remove with its trunk a child lying in its way, and in danger of being
injured. It appears to have an instinctive dread of trampling on a living
backs ofthe animal ; the same has also been observed in the horse.- B.
Juvenal, Sat. 53 " Hordeo succo ;" the exact meaning has been the subject of much
discussion ; it probably refers to some preparation of barley used by the
bout the exact ancients, perhaps a maceration of the corn in water ; it is scarcely to be
= gladiatorial supposed, however, that the words are to be taken literally.- B.
ning exploit 34 Albertus Magnus, in his work on Animals, B. viii. c. 3, gives a fuller
ission, which account of this method of taking the wild elephant. He says : " A man,
ginus, B. xi. riding on a tame elephant, guides him to the woods, and when he has met
son coincides, with some wild ones, drives the tame one against them, and makes it
strike them with its trunk : the tame one, being better fed, soon conquers
ps and Ajas the wild elephant, and throws him to the ground ; upon which, the man
e gladiatorial leaps upon him, and flogs him with a whip, and immediately the other be-
he gladiators comes quiet." Strabo, B. xv. , gives a different account of the mode of
catching and taming the elephant in India.
hough, as he 55 This appears to have been taken from Plutarch ; and we have the
could scarcely same statement in Elian, who particularly speaks of the sagacity of the
animal, in endeavouring to extricate itself from the trench.- B.
256 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

effects of hunger ; as a proof of which, they v

take a branch that was extended to them by one
At the present day, when we take them for the
tusks, we throw darts at their feet, which are in
most tender part of their body. The Troglodytæ
the confines of Ethiopia, and who live entirely
elephants procured by the chase, climb the tre
near the paths through which these animals
Here they keep a watch, and look out for the one
last in the train ; leaping down upon its haunch
its tail with the left hand, and fix their feet fir
left thigh. Hanging down in this manner, th
his right hand, hamstrings the animal on on
very sharp hatchet. The elephant's pace bein
the wound, he cuts the tendons of the other ha
makes his escape ; all of which is done with the
celerity. Others, again, employ a much safer,
certain method ; they fix in the ground, at consi
vals, very large bows upon the stretch ; these are k
young men remarkable for their strength, while
ing themselves with equal efforts, bend them,
the animals as they pass by, and afterwards tr
their blood. The female elephant is much m
nature than the male.

CHAP. 9. ( 9. )- THE METHOD BY WHICH THEY A

Elephants of furious temper are tamed by

blows, while other elephants are placed near to ke
when the violent fit is upon them, by means o
sides this, they are more particularly violent wh
at which time they will level to the ground th
Indians with their tusks. It is on this account
prevented from coupling, and the females are 1

56 We have the same account given by Elian and by S

57 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 18, remarks, that the
animal, which is produced by an accidental cause, as also t
venereal excitement, are counteracted by opposite modes of
one by depriving it of food, the other by over-feeding it
order to break its strength, and the latter, to divert it
channel. - B.
= VIII. Chap. 10. ] ELEPHANTS . 257

quietly separate from the males, just the same way as with other
e men. cattle. Elephants, when tamed, are employed in war, and
f their carry into the ranks of the enemy towers filled with armed
ral the men ; and on them, in a very great measure, depends the ulti-
inhabit mate result of the battles that are fought in the East. They
flesh of tread under foot whole companies, and crush the men in their
hich lie armour. The very least sound, however, of the grunting of
ly pass. the hog terrifies them : 58 when wounded and panic-stricken,
h comes they invariably fall back, and become no less formidable for
ey seize the destruction which they deal to their own side, than to
upon the their opponents. The African elephant is afraid of the Indian,
n, with and does not dare so much as look at it, for the latter is of
e, with a much greater bulk.59
arded by
and then
greatest CHAP. 10. ( 10 . )—THE BIRTH OF THE ELEPHANT, AND OTHER
ough less PARTICULARS RESPECTING IT.
able inter-
steady by The vulgar notion is, that the elephant goes with young ten
.60
ers, exert- years ; but, according to Aristotle, it is two years only. He
so wound says also that the female only bears once, and then a single young
them by one ; that they live two hundred years, and some of them as much
timid by as three hundred. The adult age of the elephant begins at the
61
sixtieth year. They are especially fond of water, and wander
much about streams, and this although they are unable to swim,
in cons eque nce of their bulk.62 They are particularly sen-
TAMED . sitive to cold, and that, indeed, is their greatest enemy. They
are subject also to flatulency, and to looseness of the bowels, but
nger and
them quiet,
hains. Be- 58 Elian, Anim . Nat. B. i. c. 38, states that the Romans employed this
mode of terrifying the elephants brought against them by Pyrrhus. -B .
in beat," 59 That this was the general opinion among the ancients, we learn from
nuts of the Polybius, Elian, Livy, Diodorus Siculus, and others. Cuvier remarks,
that this may have been the case with the animals from Barbary, or the
at they are
ot in herds north of Africa, but that it is not so with those from the middle or south
of that continent. - B.
60 It has been stated, in a Note to chap. 5, that Mr. Corse foundthe
00.-B. period of the gestation of the elephant to be between twenty and twenty-
iolence of the one months.-B .
t arisingfrom 61 Ælian, Anim, Nat. B. iv. c. 31, considers the age of sixty to be the
reatment; the prime period of their life, not the commencement of their prime.- B.
the former, in 62 This remark is incorrect ; when the water is sufficiently deep, it swims
to a different with ease ; and if the end of the trunk remains exposed to the atmosphere,
it can dive below the surface, or swim with the body immersed. —B.
VOL. II. S
258 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

to no other kind of disease.63 I find it stated, that

them drink oil, any weapons which may happen to st
body will fall out ; while, on the contrary, perspira
them the more readily adhere. If they eat earth
to them, unless indeed they have gradually become
by repeatedly doing so . They also devour stones as w
trunks of trees are their most favourite food. They t
with a blow from their forehead, palms of exceed
and when lying on the ground, strip them of their f
eat with the mouth, but they breathe, drink,65 and
[the proboscis] , which is not unaptly termed the
They have the greatest aversion to the mouse of a
and quite loathe their food, as it lies in the man
perceive that it has been touched by one of the
They experience the greatest torture if they happen
while drinking, a horseleech, an animal which pe
ginning, I find, to call almost universally a "bloc
The leech fastens upon the wind-pipe, and produce
pain.
The skin of the back is extremely hard, that of
softer. They are not covered with any kind of bris
does the tail even furnish them with any protecti
annoyance of flies ; for vast as these animals are,
greatly from them. Their skin is reticulated,
these insects by the odour it exhales. Accordin
swarm of them has settled on the skin, while e
smooth, the elephant suddenly contracts it ; and,

63 Cuvier remarks, that this statement is incorrect. He

elephants at Paris, and found that their death had been ca
mation of the lungs and chest. The species of elephant, whic
Asia and Africa, is certainly not adapted to a cold climate
merous remains of elephants found in the north of Asia
species formerly existed, capable of enduring great cold.
served, that this species was covered with a thick, furry co
hair.-B.
64 This is from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 26 ; bu
necessary to remark, that it is without foundation. Eli
B. ii. c. 18, refers to it, and explains it by supposing that
drunk, but applied externally ; which is less improbable.-
65 They suck the fluid into the cavity of the trunk, and
into the mouth, where it is received and swallowed in the usu
66 This dislike is confirmed by Cuvier. - B.
67 " Sanguisuga."
VIII. Chap. 11. ] ELEPHANTS . 259

king the flies are crushed between the folds which are thus closed.
their This power serves them in place of tail, mane, and hair.68
makes Their teeth are very highly prized, and from them we ob-
oison tain the most costly materials for forming the statues of the
Lomed gods. Luxury has discovered even another recommendation in
ut the this animal, having found a particularly delicate flavour in the
down, cartilaginous part of the trunk, for no other reason, in my
Leight, belief, than because it fancies itself to be eating ivory.69 Tusks
They of enormous size are constantly to be seen in the temples ;
with but, in the extreme parts of Africa, on the confines of Æthi-
hand." opia, they are employed as door-posts for houses ; and Polybius
mals,6 informs us, on the authority of the petty king Gulussa,70 that
if they they are also employed as stakes in making fences for the folds
nimals. of cattle.
vallow,
are be- CHAP. 11. ( 11 . )- IN WHAT COUNTRIES THE ELEPHANT IS FOUND ;
cker. ” THE ANTIPATHY OF THE ELEPHANT AND THE DRAGON.
olerable
Africa produces elephants, beyond the deserts of the Syrtes,
bellyis and in Mauritania ; they are found also in the countries of the
Ethiopians and the Troglodytæ, as mentioned above." But
nor yet
from the it is India that produces the largest,72 as well as the dragon,"3
ey suffer which is perpetually at war with the elephant, and is itself
of so enormous a size, as easily to envelope the elephants
invites
with its folds, and encircle them in its coils. The contest is
when a
ded and equally fatal to both ; the elephant, vanquished, falls to the
earth, and by its weight, crushes the dragon which is entwined
this way, around it."74

ected three 68 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 1, remarks, that the elephant is the
byinflam- least hairy of all animals.—B.
Ow inhabits 69 Cuvier remarks, that the trunk, being composed of a mixture of deli-
cate muscular fibres and rich fat, would, when properly prepared, afford an
ut the nu-
rove that a article of food that might be very palatable .-B.
is to beob- 70 We learn from Lívy, B. xlii. c. 23, that Gulussa was the son of Mas-
sinissa.- B. 1
of wool and 71 In c. 8 of this Book.-B.
72 We learn from Cuvier, that the elephants of Africa and Asia belong to
is scarcely different species, distinguished by the form of the head, and some pecu-
Anim . Nat. liarities in the structure of the teeth.- B.
oil was not
73 By the term " dragon," we may suppose that Pliny refers to some
d the trunk of the great serpents which exist in hot climates, and are of such vast size,
that they might perhaps be able to perform some of the exploits here
nanner.-B. ascribed to the dragon.- B.
74 This account appears to be entirely without foundation.- B..
260 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 12. (12 . )-THE SAGACITY OF THESE ANI

The sagacity which every animal exhibits in its

is wonderful, but in these it is remarkably so.
has much difficulty in climbing up to so great a
therefore, watching the road, which bears marks of
steps when going to feed, it darts down upon th
lofty tree . The elephant knows that it is quit
struggle against the folds of the serpent, and so see
or rocks against which to rub itself. The drago
guard against this, and tries to prevent it, by first
fining the legs of the elephant with the folds of its
the elephant, on the other hand, endeavours to dise
with its trunk. The dragon, however, thrusts it
its nostrils, and thus, at the same moment, stops the
wounds the most tender parts. When it is met un
the dragon raises itself up, faces its opponent, an
especially at the eyes ; this is the reason why eleph
often found blind, and worn to a skeleton with
misery. What other cause can one assign for s
strifes as these, except that Nature is desirous, as
make an exhibition for herself, in pitting such
against each other ?
There is another story, too, told in relation to th
-the blood of the elephant, it is said, is remarkabl
which reason, in the parching heats of summer,"75 i
by the dragon with remarkable avidity. It lies, ther
up and concealed in the rivers, in wait for the elep
they come to drink ; upon which it darts out, fa
around the trunk, and then fixes its teeth behind t
being the only place which the elephant cannot p
the trunk. The dragons, it is said, are of such va
they can swallow the whole of the blood ; consed
elephant, being thus drained of its blood, falls t
exhausted ; while the dragon, intoxicated with th
is crushed beneath it, and so shares its fate.
75 The idea of the elephant's blood being cold, and sough
dragon, is, of course, without foundation ; its blood being of
perature with that of other quadrupeds. - B .
 II. SERPEN OF REMARK SIZE . 261
Chap . 14. ] TS ABLE

CHAP. 13. ( 13 . ) — DRAGONS.

half Æthiopia produces dragons, not so large as those of India, but
76
agon still, twenty cubits in length. The only thing that surprises
and me is, how Juba came to believe that they have crests." The
foot- Æthiopians are known as the Asachæi, among whom they
om a most abound ; and we are told, that on those coasts four or
le to five of them are found twisted and interlaced together like so
trees many osiers in a hurdle, and thus setting sail, with their
on its heads erect, they are borne along upon the waves, to find bet-
1con- ter sources of nourishment in Arabia.
while
itself CHAP. 14. ( 14. )— SERPENTS OF REMARKABLE SIZE.
d into
th and Megasthenes informs us, that in India, serpents grow to
ctedly, such an immense size, as to swallow stags and bulls ;78 while
es more Metrodorus says, that about the river Rhyndacus,79 in Pontus,
- are so they seize and swallow the birds that are flying above them,
¡er and however high and however rapid their flight.80 It is a well-
mighty known fact, that during the Punic war, at the river Bagrada, a
vere, to 76 Cuvier states, that in India and America there are serpents of the
ponents genus boa, or python, thirty feet or more in length. He observes, that
there are various species of aquatic reptiles in the seas of India, but that
combats they never swim twisted together, or with their heads elevated. Elian
gives an account of the great size of the dragons in Ethiopia.- B.
ld; for 77 Cuvier remarks, that there are no serpents with crests on the head,
3 sought and that Juba must have been thinking probably of some animal of the
e, coiled genus lacertus, when he made this statement. We may here remark, that
ts, when the "basiliscus," or " king of serpents," was said by the poets to have
a crown on its head, as denoting its kingly rank. See c. 33 of this Book.
ns itself
78 It is well known, that certain serpents have the jaws and fauces so
ear, that constructed, that they will allow of the passage of an animal more bulky
ect with than themselves ; they first crush its bones, and form it into a kind of pulp,
ize, that and then pass it, without further change, into the stomach, where it is
ntly, the slowly dissolved by the gastric juices.- B.
79 Supposed to have been in Mysia, or Bithynia, considerably to the west
he earth of Pontus.- B.
draught, 30 This account is entirely without foundation. The same statement is
made by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 21 , who probably copied it from Me-
trodorus. There are stories of the power which serpents possess of fasci-
fter bythe nating birds by the eye, but they are not improbably without foundation.
same tem- -B. There is little doubt, however, that some serpents have the power,
by some means or other, of fascinating the birds which they make their
prey.
 262 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

serpent one hundred and twenty feet in length was t

Roman army under Regulus, being besieged, like a
means of balista and other engines of war.81 Its sk
were preserved in a temple at Rome, down to the
Numantine war. The serpents which in Italy ar
the name of boa, render these accounts far from in
they grow to such a vast size, that a child was f
in the stomach of one of them, which was killed o
canian Hill during the reign of the Emperor Claudiu
are nourished, in the first instance, with the milk
and from this they take their name.83 As tothe ot
which have been of late repeatedly brought to Ita
parts of the world, it is quite unnecessary to give
account of their form.

CHAP. 15. ( 15 . ) -THE ANIMALS OF SCYTHIA ; TH

Scythia produces but very few animals, in con
the scarcity of shrubs. Germany, which lies clos
it, has not many animals, though it has some ver
of wild oxen : the bison, which has a mane, and
81 This is referred to by many ancient writers ; among ot
B. xviii.; Florus, B. ii. c. 2 ; Valerius Maximus, B. i. c. 8
Gellius, B. vi. c. 3.-B.
82 As Cuvier remarks, it is difficult to conceive what he
boa of Italy. At the present day, the longest Italian ser
Esculapian serpent (a harmless animal), and the " Coluber q
of Linnæus, neither of which exceeds ten feet in length.
mentioned, was probably, as Cuvier suggests, one of the g
python species ; but, as he says, where did it come from ? ar
get there?
83 It is doubtful whether any one ever witnessed a serpent
but it seems to have been generally believed, and it is ther
that the name of the animal was derived from this circums
is still believed of the common snake in some parts of this
reading "primo " has been preferred to " trimo," that ado
84 Cuvier remarks upon the two animals here mentioned ,
the urus, that Europe, at the present time, contains only one
ox, the bison, or aurochs of the Germans, which still exist
small numbers only, in the forests of Lithuania. There are,
remains, in different parts of the north of Europe, of other
same genus, which may have been the urus of Pliny, and no
he wrote. Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 413, 414 ; Lemaire, vol. iii
description by Cæsar of the urus of Gaul, Bell, Gall . B. vi
to agree with the remains of the fossil animal, and may, the
 III. Chap. 16.] ANIMALS OF THE NORTH . 263

the possessed of remarkable strength and swiftness. To these, the

s , by vulgar, in their ignorance, have given the name of bubalus :85
jaws whereas, that animal is really produced in Africa, and rather
fthe bears a resemblance to the calf and the stag.
n by
e, for -THE ANIMALS OF THE NORTH ; THE ELK, THE
CHAP. 16.-
entire ACHLIS, AND THE BONASUS.
Vati-
These The North, too, produces herds of wild horses, as Africa and
Asia do of wild asses ; 86 there is, also, the elk, which strongly
e cow,
imals, resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the
om all length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis,"
minute which is produced in the island of Scandinavia ; 88 it has never
been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of
it from many persons ; it is not unlike the elk, but has no
joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines
SON. against a tree while it sleeps ; it can only be taken by pre-
ence of viously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as
otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness. Its upper lip
joining
e kinds is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go back-
urus,& wards when grazing ; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip
would get doubled up. In Pæonia, it is said, there is a wild
by Livy,
nd Aulus sidered as confirming the opinion, that both animals were in existence when
Pliny wrote.-B.
s by the 65 This appears to have been a species of antelope, the Antelope bubalus
s are the of Linnæus. Cuvier observes, that Strabo places it among the gazelles,
ilineatus " and Aristotle associates it with the stag and the deer, while Oppian's de-
one here scription of the urus, agrees with those of the gazelle. - B.
me boa or 86 We learn from various travellers, that there are troops of wild horses
How did it and asses in many parts of Tartary and the neighbouring countries ; but
it is doubtful whether they have proceeded from an original wild stock, or
xing a cow, may not have been the produce of some individuals which had accidentally
escaped from the domestic state. -B.
e pro bable,
e.-B. It 87 No doubt Pliny has fallen into an error on this subject, and his elk
and achlis are, in reality, the same animal. The description of the latter,
try. The for the most part, applies to the former, with the exception of the want
by Sillig of joints in the legs, which is entirely without foundation. Cæsar's ac-
bison and
cies ofwild count of the elk, Bell. Gall. B. vi. c. 27, agrees generally with Pliny's
although in account of the achlis ; he also says, that the legs of the alces are " with- 1
vever, fossil out articulations and joints."
mals ofthe 88 The Romans had but a very imperfect knowledge of the Scandinavian
xtinct when peninsula. They supposed it to be surrounded by the ocean, and to be com-
365. The posed of many islands, which Ptolemy calls Scandiæ. Of these, the largest
26, seems bore especially the name of Scandia or Scandinavia, by which name the
ore, be con modern Sweden was probably indicated. See B. iv. c. 30.
264 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

animal known as the bonasus ;89 it has the mane of

but is, in other respects, like the bull, with horns,
much bent inwards upon each other, as to be of no
purposes of combat. It has therefore to depen
flight, and, while in the act of flying, it sends fort
ments, sometimes to a distance of even three ju
contact of which burns those who pursue the anima
a kind of fire.

CHAP. 17. - LIONS ; HOW THEY ARE PRODUCE

91
It is a remarkable fact, that pards, panthers,
other animals of this kind, walk with the points of
concealed in a sheath in the body, lest they should
or blunted ; and that, when they run, their hooked
turned backwards, and are never extended, except in
seizing their prey.92
(16. ) The noble appearance of the lion is more espe
seen in that species which has the neck and should
with a mane, which is always acquired at the pro
those produced from a lion ; while, on the other h
that are the offspring of the pard, are always witho
tinction. The female also has no mane. The sexual
these animals are very violent, and render the maleequ
This is especially the case in Africa, where, in c
of the great scarcity of water, the wild beasts a
great numbers on the banks of a few rivers. This
reason why so many curious varieties of animals ar

89 Pliny's account is from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 4

often the case, with considerable exaggerations. Aristotle say
animals eject their excrements to a distance of four feet, and
so acrid a nature, as to cause the hair of the dog to fall off.
jugerum is generally used as a measure of superficial surface.-
90 Pliny here renders the Greek λ0pov, by "jugerum
ordinarily a measure of superficies. In the present case, ther
mean a measure of length, of 100 Grecian, or 104 Roman feet
91 The pard of Pliny, as we shall find stated below, is the
panther.
92 Cuvier remarks, that all the feline animals have retractile
by an elastic ligament into a sheath, and protruded when req
purpose of prehension . The sheath is formed of a duplicatur
the skin and the subjacent cellular membrane.- B.
VIII, LIONS . 265
Chap . 17.]
horse, there, the males and females of various species coupling
er, 80 promiscuously with each other.93 Hence arose the saying,
or the which was common in Greece even, that " Africa is always
on its producing something new." The lion recognizes, by the
excre- peculiar odour of the pard, when the lioness has been unfaith-
90 the
ful to him, and avenges himself with the greatest fury.
st like Hence it is, that the female, when she has been guilty of a
lapse, washes herself, or else follows the lion at a considerable
distance. I find that it was a common belief, that the lioness is
able to bear young no more than once, because, while delivering
herself, she tears her womb with her claws. Aristotle, how-
s, and ever, gives a different account ; a man of whom I think that
ir nails I ought here to make some further mention, seeing that upon
broken these subjects, I intend, in a great measure, to make him my
Ws are guide. Alexander the Great, being inflamed with a strong
e act of desire to become acquainted with the natures of animals, en-
trusted the prosecution of this design to Aristotle, a man who
lytobe held the highest rank in every branch of learning ; for which
covered purpose he placed under his command some thousands of men
-age by in every region of Asia and Greece, and comprising all those
, those who followed the business of hunting, fowling, or fishing, or
this dis- who had the care of parks, herds of cattle, the breeding of bees,
ssions of fish-ponds, and aviaries, in order that no creature that was
furious . known to exist might escape his notice. By means of the
equence information which he obtained from these persons, he was ena-
mble in bled to compose some fifty volumes, which are deservedly es-
also the teemed, on the subject of animals ; of these I purpose to give
produced an epitome, together with other facts with which Aristotle
was unacquainted ; and I beg the kind indulgence of my readers
but, asis in their estimate of this work of mine, as by my aid they
that these
at it isof hastily travel through all the works of nature, and through
The word the midst of subjects with which that most famous of all kings
B. so ardently desired to be acquainted .
which is Aristotle then informs us, that the lioness, at the first birth,
re, itmust produces five whelps, and one less every succeeding year,
ale of the
93 What Pliny states here, is without foundation. He supposes that the
ws, drawn leopard is the produce of a pard, or male panther, and the female of the
red for the lion ; but this is incorrect, the leopard being a distinct species of animal. - B.
or fold of 91 Herodotus, B. iii. c. 108, gives the same account, which is refuted by
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 31. Aulus Gellius, B. xiii. c. 7, refers to
Herodotus, and the refutation by Aristotle.- B.
 266 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

until, after having produced one only, she ceas

The young ones, when first born, are shapeless a
small in flesh, being no larger than a weasel ; fo
96
they are scarcely able to walk, and until they are
old, they cannot move. Lions, he says, are foun
but only between the rivers Achelous and Nestus ;
superior in strength to those which are produced
Syria.97

CHAP. 18.-THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LI

There are two species of lions ; in the one the b

and more compact, and the mane more crisp and
are more timid than those with a longer body and
which, in fact, have no fear of wounds. The ma
leg like the dog, when they pass their urine ;"
most disagreeable odour, the same being the case t
breath. They seldom drink, and only take food
day ; when they have gorged themselves, they wi

95 The account here given of the lioness generally, Ar

specting the Syrian lioness only, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 31 ;
reason to believe that Aristotle is not correct in what he s
count given by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. iv. c. 33, is nearly
that of Pliny. - B.
96 There is much in this account that is incorrect. It is
that the cubs of the lion are proportionably as large and as p
as the young of other animals that belong to the same fami
97 Herodotus, B. vii. c. 126, and Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
give a similar account of the district in which lions are foun
remarks, that this statement of Pliny is probably formed
suggested by M. Maury, upon the fact, that the lions of
learn from Herodotus, attacked the camels of Xerxes, on
Europe.
98 Cuvier remarks, that we have no knowledge of the l
hair, so frequently spoken of by the ancients. He suggests
have been a peculiar variety between the rivers Achelous
Mestus, or perhaps, more probably, that it was altogether in
states also, that we no longer see lions without manes, b
had seen some at Bagdat. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c.
the two species of lions, and describes them nearly as Pliny
99 According to Cuvier, this is not the case ; the lion
just as the other animals of the same family. Pliny again
odour of the lion's breath, in B. xi. e. 115.-B.
1 The lion, like other carnivorous animals, is able to receiv
tity of food into the stomach, and to remain for a proport
ok VIII.
Chap. 19.] LIONS. 267
bear.
go without food for three days. They swallow their food whole,
tremely
months without mastication , so far as they are able ; and when they
have taken more than the stomach can possibly receive , they
months
extract part of it by thrusting their claws into the throat ; the
Europe,
same too, if, when full, they have occasion to take to flight.
ng much
Africa or That they are very long-lived is proved by the fact, that many
of them are found without teeth. Polybius," the companion of
Emilianus , tells us, that when they become aged they will at-
tack men, as they have no longer sufficient strength for the
pursuit of wild beasts . It is then that they lay siege to the
cities of Africa ; and for this reason it was, that he, as well as
is shorter
Scipio , had seen some of them hung upon a cross ; it being
y ;.98 these supposed that others, through dread of a similar punishment,
ight hair, might be deterred from committing the like outrages .
raisethe
hich has a
with their CHAP. 19.- THE PECULIAR CHARACTER OF THE LION.
very other The lion is the only one of all the wild beasts that shows
Sometimes
mercy to the suppliant ; after it has conquered, it will spare,'
and when enraged, it will vent its fury rather upon men
tle gives re- than women, and never upon children, unless when greatly
ere is some
5. The ac pressed by hunger. It is the belief in Libya, that it fully un-
e same with derstands the entreaties which are addressed to it. At all events,
I have heard it asserted as a fact, that a female slave, who was
71 ascertained returning from Gætulia, was attacked by a number of lions in
Fectly formed
-B. the forests ; upon which she summoned sufficient courage to ad-
viii. c. 28, dress them, and said that she was a woman, a fugitive, help-
-B. Littré less creature, that she implored the compassion of the most
as originally generous of animals, the one that has the command of all the
urope, as we
invasion of others, and that she was a prey unworthy of their high repute
-and by these means effectually soothed their ferocity. There
n with curled
period without eating ; but the statement respecting its taking food on
hat there may alternate days, is without foundation. There does not appear to be any
d Nestus or ground for the account of the mode by which it relieves the stomach when
ginary. He overcharged. - B.
that Olivier 2 We learn from Cicero, Ep. Fam. B. v. Ep. 12, that Polybius wrote a
44, speaks of history of the Numantine war, in which we may presume the account
as done.-B. here referred to was contained.-B.
asses itsurine
3 Although these accounts of the generosity and clemency of the lion
refers tothe are in a great measure fabulous, still the accounts of those who have had
the best opportunity of becoming acquainted with the character of differ-
alarge quan- ent animals, agree in ascribing to it less ferocity and brutality, in pro-
nably longer portion to its size and strength, than to other animals of the same family.-B.
 268 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

are various opinions on this point, as to whether i

some peculiar disposition of the animal, or merely
that their fury is thus soothed by addressing th
what is alleged, too, about serpents, that they c
from their holes by singing, and thus be made to
selves up to death, the truth or falsity of it has
means been satisfactorily ascertained .
The tail of the lion gives indication of the state of
just as the ears do in the horse ; for these are the di
signs which Nature has given to each of the most
animals. Hence it is that, when pleased, the tai
motion, and the animal fawns upon those who c
thing, however, that very rarely happens, for h
quent state is that of rage. He begins by beatin
with his tail ; and as he becomes more furious, h
sides, as if trying to excite himself. His great
is situate in the breast. From every wound that
whether it is with his claws or his teeth, a black b
When his hunger is satisfied, he becomes harmless
nerous disposition of the lion is more especially m
time of danger ; not only at the moment when, d
weapons, he long defends himself solely bythe terr
inspires, and protests, as it were, that he is compelle
fend himself, but when he rises at last, not as though
by danger, but as if enraged by the mad folly of his
This, however, is a still more noble feature of hi
however numerous the dogs and hunters may b
upon him, as he makes his retreat he comes to a stan
and then upon the level plain, while he is still i
scowls contemptuously upon them : but as soon as
entered the thickets and dense forests, he scours a
swiftest possible pace, as though aware that the
will shelter his shame. When in pursuit, the lion ad
a leap, but he does not do so when in flight. Whe
he discovers, with wonderful sagacity, the person wh
blow, and will find him out, however great may ha
4 In various countries, and more especially in Egypt, then
fess to charm serpents by incantations ; and it appears that th
acquire some power over them by imitating their natural c
informs us, that Geoffroi St. Hilaire had witnessed the fact,
self able to produce the effect. - B.
5 Aristotle says, a matter of a yellow colour, ixupes wxpo
 Chap. 20.] LIONS. 269
[BookVIII.
t is through multitude of his pursuers. If a person has thrown a dart at
by accident, him, but has failed to inflict a wound, the animal seizes him,
em. As to whirls him round and throws him to the ground, but without
an be drawn wounding him. When the lioness is defending her whelps, it is
vield them- said that she fixes her eyes steadily on the ground, that she
not byany may not be frightened at the spears of the hunters . In all
other respects, these animals are equally free from deceit and
his feelings, suspicion. They never look at an object obliquely, and they
stinguishing dislike being looked at themselves in such a manner. It is
generous of generally believed, that, when the lion is dying, he bites at the
I is without earth, and sheds tears at his fate. Powerful, however, and
aress him;a fierce as this animal is, he is terrified by the motion of wheels
is most fre- or of an empty chariot, and still more on seeing the crest or
gthe earth hearing the crowing of a cock ;" but most of all, is he afraid of
lashes his fire. The only malady to which the lion is subject, is loss of
est strength appetite ; this, however, is cured by putting insults upon him,
he makes, by means of the pranks of monkeys placed about him, a thing
loodissues. which rouses his anger ; immediately he tastes their blood, he is
.The ge- relieved.
anifested in
spisingall CHAP. 20.-
-WHO IT WAS THAT FIRST INTRODUCED COMBATS OF
Or whichhe LIONS AT ROME, AND WHO HAS BROUGHT TOGETHER THE GREAT-
thustode- EST NUMBER OF LIONS FOR THAT PURPOSE.
constrained
adversaries. Q. Scævola, the son of P. Scævola, when he was curule
ædile, was the first to exhibit at Rome a combat of a number
courage
that press of lions ; and L. Sylla, who was afterwards Dictator, during his
prætorship, gave the spectacle of a fight of one hundred lions with
everynow manes.8 After him, Pompeius Magnus exhibited six hundred
view, and
ver hehas lions in the Circus, three hundred and fifteen of which had
manes ; Cæsar, the Dictator, exhibited four hundred.
ay at the
lace itself 6 Probably, there is no foundation for this opinion : it does not appear
ances with that any animal, except man, has the faculty of weeping, i. e. of shedding
wounded, tears, in connection with a peculiar condition of mind and feeling.-B. But
struckthe query as to the horse. See c. 64 of the present Book, and the Introduc-
tion to vol. i. p. xvii.
been the 7 This supposed fear is without foundation, but appears to have been a
generally received opinion, as it is referred to by Lucretius, B. iv. l. 714
icians pro -725.-B.
are ableto
8. Cuvier 8 Seneca gives an account of this exhibition ; he says that the lions were
d was him turned loose into the Circus, and that spearmen were sent by king Bocchus,
who killed them with darts. Sylla was prætor A.U.c. 661, B.C. 92.-B.
270 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 21.-WONDERFUL FEATS PERFORMED BY

It was formerly a very difficult matter to catch

it was mostly done by means of pit-falls. In th
ever, of the Emperor Claudius, accident disclos
which appears almost disgraceful to the name
animal ; a Gætulian shepherd stopped a lion, tha
furiously upon him, by merely throwing his clo
animal ; a circumstance which afterwards afforded
in the arena of the Circus, when the frantic fury
was paralyzed in a manner almost incredible by a
being thrown over its head, so much so, that it
chainswithout the least resistance ; we must conclu
that all its strength lies in its eyes. This circum
what was done by Lysimachus 10 less wonderful,
a lion, with which he had been shut up by comm
ander.11
Antony subjected lions to the yoke, and was
Rome to harness them to his chariot ;12 and th
civil war, after the battle on the plains of P
indeed, without a kind of ominous presage, a
foretold at the time how that generous spirits we
subdued. But to have himself drawn along
ner, in company with the actress Cytheris, ¹³ was
s "Sagum." This was the cloak worn by the Roman
ferior officers, in contradistinction to the " paludamentum
and superior officers. It was open in the front, and usua
always, fastened across the shoulders by a clasp. It was
of wool.
10 This story is given also by Plutarch, in the life of D
machus was a Macedonian by birth, but son of Agathocle
saly. Through his great courage, he became one of th
Alexander. Quintus Curtius tells us that, when hunti
killed a lion of immense size single-handed, though not v
severe wounds in the contest. The same author looks
probable origin of the story here referred to by Pliny.
11 This is mentioned by many ancient authors ; by Plu
Seneca, Justin, and by Quintus Curtius, who thinks that th
given is fabulous.-B.
12 Related by Plutarch, as among the acts of extrava
committed by Antony, which gave much disgust to the g
able citizens of Rome.-B.
13 A famous courtezan of the time of Cicero ; being ori
 VIIL LIONS. 271
Chap. 21.]

surpassed even the most monstrous spectacles that were to be

seen at that calamitous period . It is said that Hanno, one of
the most illustrious of the Carthaginians, was the first who
on, and ventured to touch the lion with the hand, and to exhibit it in
, how- a tame state. It was on this account that he was banished ;
method for it was supposed, that a man so talented and so ingenious
uch an would have it in his power to persuade the people to anything,
rushing and it was looked upon as unsafe to trust the liberties of the
ver the country to one who had so eminently triumphed over even
hibition ferocity itself. There are some fortuitous occurrences cited
e animal also, which have given occasion to these animals to display
covering their natural clemency. Mentor, a native of Syracuse, was
put into met in Syria by a lion, who rolled before him in a suppliant
herefore, manner ; though smitten with fear and desirous to escape, the
e renders wild beast on every side opposed his flight, and licked his feet
strangled with a fawning air. Upon this, Mentor observed on the paw
of Alex- of the lion a swelling and a wound; from which, after extracting
14
a splinter, he relieved the creature's pain. There is a picture
e first at at Syracuse, which bears witness to the truth of this trans-
action.
uringthe
alia ; not, In the same manner, too, Elpis, a native of Samos, on landing
digy that from a vessel on the coast of Africa, observed a lion near the
bout tobe beach, opening his mouth in a threatening manner ; upon which
his man. he climbed a tree, in the hope of escaping, while, at the same
time, he invoked the aid of Father Liber ; for it is the appro-
ching that
priate time for invocations when there is no room left for hope.
ers and in-
The wild beast did not pursue him as he fled, although he might
the general easily have done so ; but, lying down at the foot of the tree,
though not
k, and made by the open mouth which had caused so much terror, tried to
excite his compassion . A bone, while he was devouring his
rius. Lysi food with too great avidity, had stuck fast between his teeth,
Serf ofThes-
and he was perishing with hunger ; such being the punishment
dy-guard of inflicted upon him by his own weapons, every now and then
in Syria, he
Out receiving he would look up and supplicate him, as it were, with mute
In this asthe entreaties. Elpis, 15 not wishing to risk trusting himself to
, Pausanias, woman and mistress of Volumnius Eutrapelus, and then successively the
count usually mistress of Antony and the poet Gallus, who mentioned her in his poems
under the name of Lycoris ; she did not, however, continue faithful to him.
ce and folly, 14 Aulus Gellius, B. v. c. 14, and Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. viii. c. 48, re-
late a similar anecdote of Androclus or Androcles, who extracted a thorn
and respect from the foot of a lion.-B.
ally the freed- 15 The text is in a state of extreme confusion here, and so hopelessly man-
272 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

so formidable a beast, remained stationary for son

at last from astonishment than from fear. At
ever, he descended from the tree and extracted
lion in the meanwhile extending his head, and
operation as far as it was necessary for him to do
goes on to say, that as long as the vessel rema
coast, the lion showed his sense of gratitude by b
ever he had chanced to procure in the chase.
this circumstance, Elpis consecrated a temple at Sa
Liber, which the Greeks, from the circumstance
called " the temple κεχηνότος Διονύσου,” or “ of the
Bacchus." Can we wonder, after this, that th
should be able to recognize the footsteps of ma
him alone of all animals they even hope for aid
should they not have recourse to others for assistan
is it that they know that the hand of man has
them ? Unless, perhaps, it is that the violence
force wild beasts even to risk every thing to obta
(17. ) Demetrius, the natural philosopher, rela
remarkable instance, in relation to a panther." Th
lying in the middle of the road, waiting for son
that way, when he was suddenly perceived by the

gled, that we can only guess at the sense of it. In Sillig

is generally followed, it runs to this effect : " Neque prof
tuisset, fera institerat et procumbens ad arborem hiatu quo
rationem quærebat. Os morsu avidiore inhæserat dentib
inedia, tum pœna in ipsis ejus telis suspectantem ac velut
orantem, dum fortuitu fidens non est contra feram ; n
miraculo quam metu cessatum est." Thus paraphrased
devotes a long Note to it : " The lion, therefore, being
hunger and excessive pain, and thus punishing himself for
in his own weapons (his teeth), looked up, and besought I
prayers, as it were, not, as he trusted to the protection fo
by the branches, to show himself distrustful of a wild bea
16 This remark refers to what Pliny has related in c.
sagacity of the elephant. - B.
17 Cuvier remarks, that this " panthera " is not the sam
of the Greeks. From the description of its spots and othe
he thinks that it was one of the African animals, known by
ists as the leopard, which appear to have been confounded
with the panther. The term "leopardus " is not met wit
age of Pliny ; it was supposed to be the produce of the
panther, and the lioness. -B.
okVIII. Chap. 22.] A MAN SAVED BY A DRAGON. 273

e, more Philinus, an ardent lover of wisdom.18 Seized with fear, he

h, how. immediately began to retreat ; while the beast rolled itself
One, the before him, evidently with the desire of caressing him, at the
in the same time manifesting signs of grief, which could not be
misunderstood in a panther even. The animal had young ones,
he story
off that which had happened to fall into a pit at some distance from
ng what- the place. The first dictates of compassion banished all fear,
and the next prompted him to assist the animal. He ac-
emory of
to Father cordingly followed her, as she gently drew him on by fixing
related, her claws in his garment ; and as soon as he discovered what
-mouthed was the cause of her grief and the price of his own safety, he
Id beasts took the whelps out of the pit, and they followed her to the
when of end of the desert ; whither he was escorted by her, frisking
For why with joy and gladness, in order that she might more appropri-
Orhow ately testify how grateful she was, and how little she had
r to heal given him in return ; a mode of acting which is but rarely
found, among men even.
pain can
-elief.
CHAP. 22.- A MAN RECOGNIZED AND SAVED BY A DRAGON.
n equally
nimal was Facts such as these induce us to give some credit to what
ne to pass Democritus relates, who says that a man, called Thoas, was
her of one preserved in Arcadia by a dragon.¹9 When a boy, he had be- 1
come much attached to it, and had reared it very tenderly ;
ition, which but his father, being alarmed at the nature and monstrous size
nti, cumpo of the reptile, had taken and left it in the desert. Thoas being
ruerat mise-
cruciabatque here attacked by some robbers who lay in ambush, he was
tis precibus delivered from them by the dragon, which recognized his voice
que diutius and came to his assistance. But as to what has been said
Sillig, who respecting infants that have been exposed and nourished by
ormented by the milk of wild beasts,20 as in the case of the founders of our
greediness
s with silent city by a wolf, I am disposed to attribute such cases as these
tously given rather to the greatness of the destinies which have to be ful-
filled, than to any peculiarity in the nature of the animals
especting the themselves.
18 " Assectatoris sapientiæ" - "A follower of wisdom ; " meaning a
the πάνθηρ
rcumstances, "philosopher."
dern natural. 19 This word here signifies, simply, a "serpent."
the Romans 20 Elian, Var. Hist. B. xiii. c. i , relates an occurrence of this kind, about
ntil afterthe Atalanta, and Justin, B. xliv. c. 4, about Habis, a king of Spain. As to
dus, or male the account of Romulus having been suckled by a wolf, it was generally re-
garded as a legendary tale by the Romans themselves. See Livy, B. i. e.
4, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiq. Rom. B. i.—B.
VOL. II. T
274 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 23.- PANTHERS.

The panther and the tiger are nearly the only

are remarkable for a skin distinguished by the v
spots ;21 whereas others have them of a single co
priate to each species. The lions of Syria alon
The spots of the panther are like small eyes, u
ground. It is said that all quadrupeds are attract
wonderful manner by their odour,22 while they
by the fierceness of their aspect ; for which reason
conceals its head, and then seizes upon the anim
attracted to it by the sweetness of the odour.
some, that the panther has, on the shoulder, a spot
the form of the moon ; and that, like it, it regula
to full, and then diminishes to a crescent. At
apply the general names of varia23 and pard, (w
longs to the males), to all the numerous species of
which is very common in Africa and Syria.24
distinguish the panther, as being remarkable for it
but as yet I have not observed any other differe
them.
CHAP. 24.- THE DECREE OF THE SENATE, AND LAW
AFRICAN ANIMALS ; WHO FIRST BROUGHT THEM T
WHO BROUGHT THE GREATEST NUMBER OF THEM
There was an ancient decree of the senate, whi
21 Pliny, in B. xiii. c. 15, speaks of " tables of tiger an
tern," as articles of ornamental furniture among the Roman
the peculiar patterns of the veins in the citrus wood, of w
formed.- B.
22 This, though mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
probably incorrect; and still more the addition made by El
B. v. c. 40, that this odour is grateful to man. It has, h
some to conjecture, that the animal here described might
but the description given is inapplicable to that animal ; n
the civet appear to have been known to the ancients. Fo
mation, see the remarks of Cuvier, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 420
vol. iii. p. 386. Pliny, in B. xxi. c. 18, says that no ani
panther, has any odour. - B.
23 Meaning the " spotted" or " parti-coloured" female.
24 Xenophon, in his Cynegeticon, says, that the pard is
Pangæus, in Macedonia ; the truth of which is denied by
says that it is not to be found in Europe.
VIII. Chap. 25.] TIGERS . 275

animals being imported from Africa into Italy ; but Cn. Au-
fidius, the tribune of the people,25 procured a law repealing
this, which allowed of their being brought over for the games
Is that
of the Circus. Scaurus, in his ædileship,26 was the first who
of its
sent over the parti-coloured kind, one hundred and fifty in the
appro-
black. whole ; after which, Pompeius Magnus sent four hundred and
white ten, and the late Emperor Augustus four hundred and twenty.
a most
errified CHAP. 25.- TIGERS : WHEN FIRST SEEN AT ROME ; THEIR NATURE.
reature
The same emperor was the first person who exhibited at
hat are Rome a tame tiger27 on the stage.28 This was in the consul-
said by ship of Q. Tubero and Fabius Maximus,29 at the dedication
ch bears
of the theatre of Marcellus, on the fourth day before the
ncreases
nones of May: the late Emperor Claudius exhibited four at
sent, we one time.30
last be- (18.) Hyrcania and India produce the tiger, an animal of
s animal, tremendous swiftness, a quality which is more especially tested
e writers
when we deprive it of all its whelps, which are always very
iteness : numerous. They are seized by the hunter, who lies in wait
between for them, being provided with the fleetest horse he can possi-
bly obtain, and which he frequently changes for a fresh one.
ESPECTING As soon as the female finds her lair empty-for the male takes
OME, AND no care whatever of his offspring - headlong she darts forth,
and traces them by the smell. Her approach is made known
by her cries, upon which the hunter throws down one of the
rohibited
25 He was tribune A.U.c. 670. Cicero says, Tusc. Quæst. B. iv. c. 39,
anther pat that Aufidius, although blind, was eminent for his political and literary
amed from talents. He wrote a History of Greece. - B.
they were 26 4th of May, A.U.C. 696.-B.
27 See also Suetonius, Life of Augustus. Martial, Spect. Ep. 18, relates
ix. c. 8, is a circumstance respecting a tame tiger, which occurrence appears to have
Anim . Nat. taken place at the time when he wrote. Heliogabalus yoked tigers to his car,
ver, induced in imitation of Bacchus, as we are informed by Lampridius.
the civet ; 28 " In cavea." In the arena or centre of the amphitheatre. This
ndeed, does word often signifies, however, the place where the senators, equites, and
rther infor- plebeians, sat in the theatre : and in the later writers it is used to signify
ad Lemaire, the whole amphitheatre.
except the 29 A.U.C. 742.-B.
30 In the winter of 1809 and 1810, an antique mosaic pavement was dis-
covered at Rome, in which four tigers are represented, and which, it has
nd on Mount been supposed, might possibly have some reference to those exhibited by
ristotle, who Claudius. Martial, who lived a little after Pliny, speaks of tigers exhibited
at Rome, by Domitian, in considerable numbers. Epig. B. viii. Ep. 26.-B.
276 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

whelps ; this she snatches up with her teeth, and

even, under the weight, returns to her lair, and
sets out in pursuit ; and this she continues to d
hunter has reached his vessel, while the animal
her fury upon the shore.

CHAP. 26.-CAMELS :31 THE DIFFERENT KI

Camels are found feeding in herds in the East

there are two different kinds, those of Bactria a
Arabia ;32 the former kind having two humps on t
the latter only one ; they have also another hum
breast, by means of which they support themselv
clining. Both of these species, like the ox, have
the upper jaw.33 They are all of them employed
burthen, in carrying loads on the back, and they
purpose of cavalry in battle. Their speed is th
that of the horse, but their power of holding out in
is proportioned in each to its natural strength : it
go beyond its accustomed distance, nor will it
than its usual load . The camel has a natural anti
horse.34 It can endure thirst for four days even,
has the opportunity of obtaining water, it drinks,
both for past and future thirst, having first ta
trouble the water by trampling in it ; without
it would find no pleasure in drinking . They live
some indeed as much as one hundred. These anir
liable to fits of frenzy.35 A peculiar mode of cast
and the females, even, when required for the pur
has been discovered ; it renders them more courag
destruction of all sexual feelings.

31 Cuvier remarks, that the account given of the two ki

and his description generally, is correct, with the exceptic
tipathy to the horse. The caravans, he says, present a co
of the two animals, and even, in Arabia, the young foals a
suckled by the female camel. -B.
32 We have a similar statement in Aristotle, Hist. A
Indeed, the account here given generally, is taken from him
33 See B. xi. c. 62.
34 Mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 17, a
Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 7 ; but, as stated above, it is incorrect.
35 At the time of rutting, according to Solinus.
 VIII
Chap. 28.] THE CHAMA. 277
Swift,
again CHAP. 27.-
. — THE CAMELEOPARD ; WHEN IT WAS FIRST SEEN AT
il the ROME.
vents
36
There are two other animals, which have some resemblance
to the camel. One of these is called, by the Ethiopians, the
nabun.37 It has a neck like that of the horse, feet and legs
like those of the ox, a head like that of the camel, and is
these covered with white spots upon a red ground ; from which pe-
culiarities it has been called the cameleopard.38 It was first
hose of
seen at Rome in the Circensian games held by Cæsar, the
ck, and Dictator.39 Since that time too, it has been occasionally seen.
der the
It is more remarkable for the singularity of its appearance
en re-
than for its fierceness ; for which reason it has obtained the
eeth in
name of the wild sheep,40
easts of
ver the
me with CHAP. 28. ( 19. ) - THE CHAMA, AND THE CEPUS.
=respect It was at the games of Pompeius Magnus that the chama¹¹
1 never
ve more 36 He speaks here of only one of the animals which resemble the camel ;
y to the the giraffe, namely. The other, which he for the present omits, is the
ostrich.
when it
37 The description of the giraffe, here given, is sufficiently correct, but
it were, we have a more minute account of it by Dion Cassius, B. xliii. In the
care to time of the Emperor Gordian, ten of these animals were exhibited at
g which, Rome at once ; a remarkable fact, when we bear in mind that so few have
y years, been imported into Europe for many centuries past. The giraffe is
too, are figured in the mosaic at Præneste, and under it is inscribed its name,
nabi.-B. It has been found that it is unable to bear the winters of
g them, Europe.
ofwar, 38 Its form being like that of the camel, while its spots resemble those
s, bythe of the leopard. Horace refers to it, when speaking of an object calculated
to excite the vulgar gaze ; " Diversum confusa genus panthera camelo”-
"The race of the panther mingled with the camel," Ep. B. ii.; Ep. i.
1. 195.
of camels , 39 According to Dion Cassius, B. xliii., these games were celebrated
E their an- A.U.C. 708.-B.
at mixture 40 This comparison can only be employed to indicate the mild nature of
ccasionally the giraffe.- B.
41 In the older editions, the names here given to this animal were
B. ii. c. 1. "chaus" and " ruphius ;" the alteration was made by Hardouin from a
3. MS. in the Royal Library of Paris, which he deemed of high authority,
and has been adopted by all the modern editors. There is considerable
by Elian, doubt respecting the animal here designated by the name of " chama ; " it
appears to have been an inhabitant of Gaul, and in c. 34, is styled "lupus
cervarius ;" but the account does not enable us to identify it with any
278 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

was first exhibited ; an animal called rufius by

having the figure of a wolf, with the spots of the pa
were also exhibited some animals from Ethiopia,
called by the Greek name, xo1,42 the hinder ex
which resembled the human feet and legs, while t
were like hands. These animals have not been se
since that time.

CHAP. 29. (20 .)-THE RHINOCEROS .

At the same games the rhinoceros was also ex
animal which has a single horn projecting from the n
been frequently seen since then . This too is anoth
born enemy of the elephant." It prepares itself f
bat by sharpening its horn against the rocks ; and
directs it chiefly against the belly of its adversar
knows to be the softest part. The two animals a
length, but the legs of the rhinoceros are much t
its skin is the colour of box-wood.

CHAP. 30. (21 .)- THE LYNX, THE SPHINX, THE CRO
THE MONKEY.
Æthiopia produces the lynx 45 in abundance, and
animal known to exist in that country.- B. It is generally
have been a species of lynx.
42 No doubt this description refers to some species of the
but it is uncertain to what one in particular. Its having be
once at Rome, shows that it was not of the most common 1
however, thinks it probable, that Pliny may have been incor
he supposes that it was the " Simia sphinx" ofLinnæus, Lem. v
According to Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 8, kn6og is mer
with a tail ; see also the account of Elian, Anim. Nat. B. xv
43 Cuvier says, that this was the single-horned rhinoce
The commentators have been at a loss to reconcile this des
the Epigram of Martial, Spect. Ep. xxii., where he speaks
ceros exhibited by Domitian, as having two horns. It has
that this latter was of the two-horned species, by the medals
peror, now in existence. Martial, Spect. Ep. ix., seems also
acquainted with the single-horned species. That with two
tioned by Pausanias as the Ethiopian bull. We learn from
ralists, that the two-horned species is a native of the south
Africa, while that with one horn is from Asia.-B.
44 The other enemy is the dragon, as described in c. 11
present Book.-B.
45 According to Cuvier, the lynx of Pliny is the Felis ca
THI. Chap. 30.] THE LYNX, ETC. 279
als: 46
which has brown hair and two mammæ on the breast, as well
There as many monstrous kinds of a similar nature ; horses with
they wings, and armed with horns, which are called pegasi ;47 the
ies of crocotta, an animal which looks as though it had been produced
-feet by the union of the wolf and the dog, 48 for it can break any
Rome thing with its teeth, and instantly on swallowing it digest it
with the stomach ; monkeys, too, with black heads, the hair
of the ass, and a voice quite unlike that of any other animal. "
There are oxen, too, like those of India, some with one horn,
and others with three ; the leucrocotta, a wild beast of extra-
Led, an
it has ordinary swiftness, the size of the wild ass, with the legs of
atural- a stag, the neck, tail, and breast of a lion, the head of a badger,
e com- a cloven hoof, the mouth slit up as far as the ears, and one con-
tinuous bone instead of teeth ;50 it is said, too, that this animal
ghting can imitate the human voice. Among the same people, there
hichit
is also found an animal called eale ; it is the size of the river-
= equal horse, has the tail of the elephant, and is of a black or tawny
norter:
næus : it is common in many parts of Asia and Africa, in the retired
forest districts, and still exists in the Pyrenees and the mountains of
A, AND Naples.- B.
46 As far as the accounts of the sphinx are to be regarded as not en-
tirely fabulous, we must suppose it to have originated in some species of
sphinx, the monkey tribe ; perhaps the Simia troglodytes or chimpanzé.-B.
47 Of course the winged horse is an imaginary being, nor does it appear
posed to what is the origin of the fable ; the horns are an unusual appendage to
the pegasus.-
s.-B. The pegasus and the rhinoceros together may have
rey tribe, given rise to that fabulous animal, the unicorn . See, however, the Mono-
een only ceros, mentioned in c. 31 .
; Cuvier, 43 Although a hybrid animal is produced by the union of the wolf and
in this; the dog, it does not form a permanent species. But, as Cuvier remarks,
ii. p. 395. by the insertion of " velut," Pliny seems to imply that the crocotta unites
amonkey the physical properties of the two animals. Ctesias, Indic. c. 32, gives an
8.-B. account of the cynolycus, or " dog-wolf," from which Pliny seems to have
of India. taken his crocotta.- B.
tion with 49 It does not seem possible to determine what species of monkey is
he rhino- here designated ; it is most probable that he himself had no accurate
n proved knowledge.-B.
that em- 50 We may here refer to the judicious remarks of Cuvier, Ajasson, vol.
have been vi. pp. 427, 428, and Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 399, on the leucrocotta. It
s is men- seems impossible to identify Pliny's description with any known animal, and
lern natu- it is not unlikely that he has confused the accounts of authors who were
parts of speaking of different animals. Some of the characteristics of the leucro-
cotta agree with those of the Indian antelope, while others seem to re-
12 of the semble those of the hyæna.- B.
L of Lin-
280 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

colour. It has also thejaws ofthe wild boar, and h

moveable, and more than a cubit in length, so that,
it can employ them alternately, and vary their posi
senting them directly or obliquely, according as ne
dictate. But the wild bulls which this country p
the fiercest of all ; they are larger than our domest
exceed all the others in swiftness ; are of a tawny
azure eyes, and the hair turned the contrary way ;
jaws open as far as the ears, and the horns are a
as those of the eale. The hide of this animal i
flint, and effectually resists all wounds. These creat
all the other wild beasts, while they themselves
taken in pitfalls, where they always perish from ex
Ctesias informs us, that among these same Ethio
is an animal found, which he calls the mantichora
triple row of teeth, which fit into each other like
comb, the face and ears of a man, and azure eyes, is o
of blood, has the body of the lion, and a tail ending
like that of the scorpion. Its voice resembles t
the sound of the flute and the trumpet ; it is o
swiftness, and is particularly fond of human flesh.

CHAP. 31. -THE TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS OF IN

There are in India oxen also with solid ho
single horn ;54 and a wild beast called the axis, whic

51 Perhaps the eale may have been the two-horned rhino

naturalists say that there is a degree of mobility in the
animal ; the same observation has been made with respect
forest bulls, the description of which animal, in Pliny, is
Diodorus Siculus. -B.
52 This description of the mantichora appears to be ta
Indica of Ctesias ; it has been also adopted by Aristotle an
they have qualified their accounts by some expressions of do
omitted by Pliny. It has been conjectured, that Ctesias too
tion from the hieroglyphic figures in his time, probably co
East, and still found in the ruins of the Assyrian and Persi
neveh and Persepolis, for instance.- B.
53 Probably meaning, " not cloven."
54 Cuvier conjectures, that this is from Ctesias, and says,
animal is to be seen on one of the sculptures of Persepolis.-
 VILL Chap. 32. ] ANIMALS OF ETHIOPIA. 281
hat are
like that of a fawn, but with numerous spots on it, and whiter ;55
hting, this animal is looked upon as sacred to Bacchus. The Orsæan
by pre- Indians hunt down a kind of ape, which has the body white66 all
y may 57
over ; as well as a very fierce animal called the monoceros,
ces are which has the head of the stag, the feet of the elephant, and
ll, and the tail of the boar, while the rest of the body is like that of the
T, with horse ; it makes a deep lowing noise, and has a single black
ile the horn, which projects from the middle of its forehead, two
oveable cubits in length.58 This animal, it is said, cannot be taken
hard as alive.
pursue
only be CHAP. 32. THE ANIMALS OF ETHIOPIA ; A WILD BEAST WHICH
of rage. KILLS WITH ITS EYE.
s, there
It has a Among the Hesperian Ethiopians is the fountain ofNigris, by
ose of a many, supposed to be the head of the Nile. I have already men-
59
e colour tioned the arguments by which this opinion is supported. Near
a sting, this fountain, there is found a wild beast, which is called the
union of catoblepas ; an animal of moderate size, and in other respects
-xcessive sluggish in the movement of the rest of its limbs ; its head
is remarkably heavy, and it only carries it with the greatest
difficulty, being always bent down towards the earth. Were
it not for this circumstance, it would prove the destruction of

55 Probably the stag of the Ganges, the " Cervus axis " of Linnæus ; but
=3 and a if so, Pliny has omitted to mention the horns. -B.
as a skin 56 White apes are now unknown, as a distinct species, but individuals
are occasionally found nearly without colour.- B.
57 The " one-horned," or the unicorn.
Os, as some 58 We have a discussion by Cuvier, respecting the existence of the uni-
ns of that corn, or of any animal similar to that here described, with a single horn.
he wild or He remarks, that the only single-horned quadruped of which we have any
ably from certain knowledge, is the rhinoceros, and that the only horns which have
been discovered, and which can have been single horns, belong to it. There
from the are five animals mentioned by the ancients, as having single horns, the In-
Elian, but dian ass, the single-horned horse, the single-horned ox, the monoceros,
which are described in the text, and the oryx of Africa, which Pliny speaks of in c.
is descrip- 79 of this Book, and in B. xi. c. 106. There are many curious accounts
on in the given by travellers of acknowledged veracity, respecting animals seen in
cities, Ni- the more remote parts of Asia and Africa, answering to the description of
the unicorn, and there are representations of the same in ancient sculptures ;
but they do not amount to that kind of evidence which can at all supply
a similar the place of direct proof.- B.
59 These will be found in B. v. c. 10.
60 From катаẞλéπw, " to look downwards."
 282 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

the human race ; for all who behold its eyes, fall
spot.61

CHAP. 33. THE SERPENTS CALLED BASILIS

There is the same power also in the serpent cal

62
lisk. It is produced in the province of Cyre
more than twelve fingers in length. It has a whi
head, strongly resembling a sort of a diadem.
hisses, all the other serpents fly from it : and it
vance its body, like the others, by a succession
moves along upright and erect upon the middle.
all shrubs, not only by its contact, but those eve
breathed upon ; it burns up all the grass too, ar
stones, so tremendous is its noxious influence. It
a general belief that if a man on horseback killed
animals with a spear, the poison would run up th
kill, not only the rider, but the horse as well. T
ful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal,
has been tried with success, for kings have often
its body when killed ; so true is it that it has pl
that there should be nothing without its antidote.
is thrown into the hole of the basilisk, which is
from the soil around it being infected. The we
the basilisk by its odour, but dies itself in this stru
against its own self.64

CHAP. 34. (22. )- WOLVES ; THE ORIGIN OF THE ST

PELLIS.

In Italy also it is believed that there is a noxi

in the eye of a wolf ; it is supposed that it will i

61 Elian describes this animal more in detail, Anim.

Cuvier thinks it probable that it is the Antelope gnu ; he
has a very peculiar and mournful appearance ; Ajasson
Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 405.-B.
62 This account of the basilisk's eye, like that of the
tirely devoid of foundation.- B.
63 Many species have certain marks on the head, which
resemble a crown.- B.
64 There is probably no foundation for this account of
effluvium of the weasel upon the basilisk or any other specie
okVIII. WOLVES . 283
Chap. 34.]
■pon the away the voice of a man,64 if it is the first to see him. Africa
and Egypt produce wolves of a sluggish and stunted na-
ture ;65 those of the colder climates are fierce and savage.
That men have been turned into wolves, and again restored to
The basi- their original form, " we must confidently look upon as untrue,
unless, indeed, we are ready to believe all the tales, which, for
eing not so many ages, have been found to be fabulous. But, as the
=ot onthe belief of it has become so firmly fixed in the minds of the
When it
common people, as to have caused the term " Versipellis "967 to
not ad-
be used as a common form of imprecation, I will here point
Folds, but out its origin. Euanthes, a Grecian author of no mean repu-
destroys tation, informs us that the Arcadians assert that a member
mat it has of the family of one Anthus is chosen by lot, and then taken
reaks the to a certain lake in that district, where, after suspending
formerly his clothes on an oak, he swims across the water and goes
e of these away into the desert, where he is changed into a wolf and as-
apon and sociates with other animals of the same species for a space of
mis dread- nine years. If he has kept himself from beholding a man
hing that during the whole of that time, he returns to the same lake,
red tosee and, after swimming across it, resumes his original form, only
ed Nature with the addition of nine years in age to his former appear-
he animal ance. To this Fabius68 adds, that he takes his former clothes as
lyknown 69
well . It is really wonderful to what a length the credulity of
destroys 64* Hence the proverbial expression applied to a person who is suddenly
e of nature silent upon the entrance of another ; " Lupus est tibi visus."
65 Cuvier says, that the wolves of Africa are of the ordinary size, and
conjectures that this remark probably applies to the chakale, or " Canis
aureus " of Linnæus, which is of the colour of the wolf, and the size of the
OF VERSI fox, and is common throughout all Africa.- B.
66 The opinion that men were converted into wolves by enchantment, or
a preternatural agency, was at one time so generally received, as to have
influence led to judicial processes, and the condemnation of the supposed criminal.
antly take -B. Tothe relator of the above story that men lose their voice on seeing a
wolf, Scaliger wishes as many blows as at different times he had seen a wolf
without losing his voice.
B. vii. c. 5. 67 This literally means " changing the skin ;" it was applied by some
marks, that it ancient medical writers to a peculiar form of insanity, where the patient
435;
vi. p. 43 conceives himself changed into a wolf, and named Avкаvėρúπiα , “lуcan-
thropy." The word appears to have been in common use among the Ro-
lepas, is en- mans, and to have been applied by them to any one who had undergone a
remarkable change in his character and habits ; in this sense it is used by
supposed to Plautus, Amphitryon, Prol. 1. 123, and Bacchides, A. iv. sc. 4, 1. 12.-B.
68 It is not known who is here referred to ; it is not probable that it is
action ofthe Fabius Pictor, the Roman historian.- B.
serpent.-B. 69 It is rather curious to find Pliny censuring others for credulity ; indeed
 284 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

the Greeks will go ! There is no falsehood, if ever

to which some of them cannot be found to bear
So too, Agriopas, who wrote the Olympionics,
that Demænetus, the Parrhastan, during a sacrifi
victims, which the Arcadians were offering up to
Jupiter, tasted the entrails of a boy who had been
upon which he was turned into a wolf, but, ter
wards, was restored to his original shape and his
athlete, and returned victorious in the pugilisti
the Olympic games .
It is also commonly supposed, that the tail of
contains a small lock of hair, which possesses
power; and that when the creature is caught, this
it, but has no virtue whatever, unless it is proc
animal while alive.72 It is said that these anim
no more than twelve days in the year ;73 and that
by hunger they will eat earth. Among the poin
to have our progress cut short to the right by a
time its mouth is full, is the best of omens.
species, which
74 is known as the stag-wolf, such as
ready said were brought from Gaul and exhibited
by Pompeius Magnus. It is said, that however
animal may chance to be, if it only turns its head
it immediately becomes oblivious of the food t
it, and takes its departure to seek it elsewhere.75

CHAP. 35. (23.) DIFFERENT KINDS OF SER

With reference to serpents, it is generally kno
he loses no opportunity of a hit at the Greeks, to whom,
greatly indebted. See Introduction to vol. i. p. 17.
70 An account of the victories gained at the Olympic ga
71 It has been conjectured, that the epithet, " Lycæan
given to Jupiter by the Arcadians, for this supposed conver
wolves, which was conceived to be effected by divine inter
72 It does not appear what is the foundation of this opi
it is without truth. - B.
73 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 35, says that they cou
the year. Elian, Anim. Nat. B. iv. c. 4, says that their
continues twelve days.-B. lud probably
ok. He
74 See c. 28 of the present Book. He al
alludes
75 It is not easy to say whence this opinion was deriv
character of the wolf is that of quickness and watchful
stupidity.- B. But it would appear that it is the lynx th
Look VIII. Chap. 35. ] SERPENTS . 285

arefaced, assume the colour of the soil in which they conceal themselves.
mony. The different species of them are innumerable. The cerastes76
forms us has little horns, often four in number, projecting from the
of human body, by the movement of which it attracts birds, while the
Lycæan rest of its body lies concealed." The amphisbæna78 has two
ughtered ; heads,79 that is to say, it has a second one at the tail, as
-ars after- though one mouth were too little for the discharge of all its
Ling of an venom . Some serpents have scales, some a mottled skin, and
ontests at they are all possessed of a deadly poison. The jaculus80 darts
from the branches of trees ; and it is not only to our feet that
is animal the serpent is formidable, for these fly through the air even,
namatory just as though they were hurled from an engine.81 The neck
83
is shed by of the asp82 puffs out, and there is no remedy whatever
d from the 76 The cerastes, or horned serpent, is mentioned by Lucan, in his de-
couple for scription of serpents, Pharsalia, B. ix. 1. 716. One of the Scholiasts on
Lucan relates a story that when Helen was eloping with Paris, she trod on
en pressed the back of a cerastes, and broke it ; from which circumstance, the whole
of augury, race moved with a crooked course.
lf, ifat the 77 Cuvier has observed this animal burying itself in the sand, and has
There is a seen the motion of its horns, but does not credit its alleged power of at-
we have al- tracting birds ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 412.-B.
the Circus 78 The amphisbæna is mentioned by Lucan, B. ix. 1. 719. " The dan-
gerous amphisbæna, that moves on at either of its heads."
hungrythis 79 The account of the two heads is obviously incorrect ; the idea has
hile eating, arisen from the two extremities being nearly of the same size and appear-
t is before ance. It has been supposed, that there were certain serpents, with the
power of moving with equal facility in both directions ; and that the name,
Aupioßaiva, was derived from this circumstance .- B .
80 Lucan mentions the jaculus, B. ix. 1. 720 , and 1. 822. In the last
ENTS. passage he says : " Behold ! afar, around the trunk of a barren tree, a fierce
serpent-Africa calls it the jaculus - wreathes itself, and then darts forth,
n, that they and through the head and pierced temples of Paulus it takes its flight :
nothing does venom there affect, death seizes him through the wound. It
ter all, heis was then understood how slowly fly the stones which the sling hurls, how
sluggishly whizzes the flight of the Scythian arrow."
es.-B. 81 There is an account of the jaculus, or, as it is called in Greek,
Λύκαιος, πως 'AKOνrías, in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c . 18 ; it is mentioned by Galen,
on of men into
Theriaca, c. 8.-B.
sition .- B. 82 In B. ix. 1. 701, Lucan says : " Here the gore (of the Gorgon Me-
on; ofcourse, dusa) which first from the sand lifted a head, raised the drowsy asp with
its puffed-out neck." The whole of this passage in Lucan is well worth the
le once only in attention of those desirous to know something of the serpent-lore of the
bringing forth ancients.
83 Cuvier says, that Geoffroi St. Hilaire has identified this animal with
the lynx. the Coluber haje of Linnæus, which has, from the earliest ages, been known
d; the general as a native of Egypt, and where it still exists. Its two most remarkable
ss, rather than
is alluded to. characteristics are those here referred to ; the puffing out of the neck when
286 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

against its sting, except the instant excision of

part.84 This reptile, which is thus deadly, is pos
one sense, or rather affection ; the male and th
85
generally found together, and the one cannot
the other ; hence it is that, if one of them happen
the other takes incredible pains to avenge its death
the slayer of its mate, and will single him out
such a large number of people, by a sort of insti
ledge ; with this object it overcomes all difficultie
distance, and is only to be avoided by the interven
or an accelerated flight. It is really difficult to de
Nature has altogether been more liberal of goo
First of all, however, she has given to this p
powers of sight, and has placed the eyes, not in th
head, so that it may see straight before it, but in
so that it is more frequently put in motion by the
the footstep than through the sight. (24. ) The ich
is its enemys to the very death.

enraged, and its capacity of being tamed, or, as it is st

This last has been taken advantage of by the jugglers of th
the most remote antiquity, as appears from the writings of M
thing of a similar nature is still practised. They remove t
so as to render the animal harmless, and by certain sound
dient to their call. It appears, also, that by pressing on
of the spine, the animal is rendered paralytic, and may be sa
into a rod ; this fact was witnessed by St. Hilaire. The
by Aristotle, and is frequently mentioned by Elian. Gale
deadly poison, in his Theriaca, c. 8. See Ajasson, vol.
Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 414, 415.-B. Pliny mentions, howe
c. 27, that the bite of the asp may be cured with vinegar.
84 Both Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 29, and E
speak of the extreme virulence of the poison of the asp, and
that the haje, and the haga, which are species of the asp,
most formidable of the serpent tribe.- B.
85 The method of attracting this serpent, by imitating
female, proves that there is some foundation for this statem
86 The ichneumon of the ancients, the "Viverra ichneumo
is still common in Egypt, and renders essential service by
eggs of serpents. With respect to what is here said of
body with mud, to protect itself against the asp, the fact
that in searching for the eggs, which are deposited in the
becomes more or less covered with that substance, and
this way be less exposed to the attacks of the asp. The
asp and the ichneumon is mentioned by Elian, B. iii. c. 22
ok VIII. Chap. 37.] THE CROCODILE. 287

affected
of this CHAP . 36.--THE ICHNEUMON.
ale are
without This hostility is the especial glory of this animal, which is
killed, also produced in Egypt. It plunges itself repeatedly into the
t follows mud, and then dries itself in the sun : as soon as, by these
ng ever means, it has armed itself with a sufficient number of coatings,
e know- it proceeds to the combat. Raising its tail, and turning its
avels any back to the serpent, it receives its stings, which are inflicted to
of rivers no purpose, until at last, turning its head sideways, and view-
whether ing its enemy, it seizes it by the throat. Not content, how-
- of evil. ever, with this victory, it conquers another creature also, which
but weak is no less dangerous.
ont of the
temples, CHAP. 37. (25 . )—THE CROCODILE.
proach of 87
The Nile produces the crocodile also, a destructive quad-
mon, too,
ruped, and equally dangerous on land and in the water. This
is the only land animal that does not enjoy the use of its
enchanted. tongue, and the only one that has the upper jaw moveable,
ountry from and is capable of biting with it ; and terrible is its bite, for the
, and some- rows of its teeth fit into each other, like those of a comb.89 Its
oison fangs , length mostly exceeds eighteen cubits. It produces eggs about
ader it obe-
the size of those of the goose, and, by a kind of instinctive
upper part
be changed foresight, always deposits them beyond the limit to which
is described the river Nile rises, when at its greatest height.⁹⁰ There is
peaks ofits no animal that arrives at so great a bulk as this, from so small
91
a beginning. It is armed also with claws, and has a skin,
B.xxi-9ii;.
Op.in437
87 Many of the ancients have described the crocodile ; of these, the most
–, ubi supra, important, for the correctness of the description, are Herodotus, B. ii. c.
vierremarks 68 ; Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 10, et alibi ; and Diodorus Siculus,
e among the B. i.-B.
88 The tongue of the crocodile is flat, and, as afterwards stated, B. xi.
voice ofthe c. 65, adheres to the lower jaw, so as to be incapable of motion.-B.
--B. 89 This account was first given by Herodotus, ubi supra ; and, from the
ofLinnæus, form of the head and the neighbouring parts, depicts what would naturally
estroyingthe occur to the observer ; but it is not correct. The actual state of the parts,
coveringits and their connection with each other, as Cuvier informs us, were first
pears to be, satisfactorily explained by Geoffroi Saint Hilaire. - B.
id, its body 90 Elian, Anim. Nat. B. v. c. 52, observes, that this is the case with
possibly in the tortoise, and similar animals.- B.
ntest ofthe 91 Cuvier says, that when it leaves the egg, the young animal is only
-B. six inches long, and that it ultimately attains a size of from thirty to
forty feet.-B.
 288 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

that is proof against all blows. It passes the day

the night in the water, in both instances on acc
warmth.992 When it has glutted itself with fish
sleep on the banks of the river, a portion of the
remaining in its mouth ; upon which, a little bir
Egypt is known as the trochilus, and, in Italy, as
the birds, for the purpose of obtaining food, invite
dile to open its jaws ; then, hopping to and
cleans the outside of its mouth, next the teeth, a
inside, while the animal opens its jaws as wide
in consequence of the pleasure which it experienc
titillation.93 It is at these moments that the ichne
it fast asleep in consequence of the agreeable se
produced, darts down its throat like an arrow, and
its intestines.94

CHAP. 38.- THE SCINCUS.

Like the crocodile, but smaller even than the i

95
the scincus, which is also produced in the Nile, an
which is the most effectual antidote against poisons
a powerful aphrodisiac upon the male sex. But so
was the crocodile to prove, that Nature was not
giving it one enemy only ; the dolphins, therefore,
92 Herodotus says, that it remains all night in the w
warmer than the external air. So also Aristotle, Hist.
10.-B.
93 The water of the Nile abounds with small leeches, w
the throat of the crocodile, and, as it has no means of rem
allows a little bird to enter its mouth for this purpose ; t
by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6, and by Elian, Anim.
2.-B.
94 Although this account is sanctioned by all the ancien
is called in question by Cuvier ; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 441 ; L
p. 421.-B.
95 There is a small lizard, called by the modern naturali
scincus ; but Cuvier conceives that this cannot be the anima
to, because it is so very much smaller than the ichneumon
would have thought of comparing them ; and, what seems a
because it is not found in the Nile. From the account of
B. xxviii. c. 30, it is probable that the animal here referred
of monitor, popularly called the land crocodile. Herodotus
speaks of the land crocodile as found in Libya ; it is also
Pausanias, Corinthiaca, c. 20, and by Prosper Alpinus, Eg
-B. The scincus is probably the " Lacerta ouaran" of Cu
 VIII.
Chap. 38.] THE SCINCUS . 289
d,and
of the the Nile, have the back armed with a spine,96 which is edged •
goes to like a knife, as if for this very purpose ; and although these
animals are much inferior in strength, they contrive to de-
always
ich in stroy the crocodile by artifice, which on the other hand at-
king of tempts to drive them from their prey, and would reign alone U
croco- in its river as its peculiar domain . For all animals have an
it first especial instinct in this respect, and are able to know not
men the only what is for their own advantage, but also what is to the
disadvantage of their enemies ; they fully understand the use
possible,
rom the of their own weapons, they know their opportunity, and the
weak parts of those with which they have to contend.
, seeing
on thus The skin of the belly of the crocodile is soft and thin ;
aware of this, the dolphins plunge into the water, as if in
ts away
great alarm, and diving beneath its belly, tear it open with
their spines. There is a race of men also, who are peculiarly
hostile to this animal ; they are known as the Tentyritæ, from
an island in the Nile which they inhabit." These men are of
umon, is small stature, but of wonderful presence of mind , though for
e flesh of this particular object only. The crocodile is a terrible animal
d actsas to those who fly from it, while at the same time it will fly
at a pest from those who pursue it ; these, however, are the only people
ent with who dare to attack it. They even swim in the river after it, and
ich enter mount its back like so many horsemen ; and just as the animal
turns up its head for the purpose of biting them, they insert a
as being club into its mouth, holding which at each end, with the two
m. B. ii. c.
hands, it acts like a bit, and, by these means they drive the
attach to captured animal on shore. They also terrify the crocodile so
g them. d much by their voice alone even, as to force it to disgorge
s describe the bodies which it has lately swallowed, for the purpose of
.B. iii. c.
burial . This island, therefore, is the only place near which the
turalists, crocodile never swims ; indeed, it is repelled by the odour of
re, vol. iii, this race of men, just as serpents are bythat ofthe Psylli.98 The
the Lacerta 96 Cuvier remarks, that this account cannot really apply to the dolphin,
ere referred because none of the cetacea possess the spines here described. He inves-
hat no one tigates the subject with his usual sagacity, and concludes, with much pro-
tter reason, bability, that the animal here referred to was a squalus, the Squalus cen-
scincus in trina, or spinax of Linnæus ; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 443, 444 ; Lemaire, vol.
is a species iii. pp. 422, 423. We have an account of the contest between the crocodile
iv. c. 192, and the dolphin in Seneca, Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2.-B.
entioned by 97 We have some account of the Tentyritæ in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. x .
B. iv. c.5. c. 21.-B. See B. xxviii. c. 6 .
98 See B. vii. c. 2. The best description of the Psylli is that given by
VOL. II, U
 290 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

sight of this animal is said to be dull when it is

but, when out of the water, piercing in the extrem
passes the four winter months in a cave, without
Some persons say, that this is the only animal th
to increase in size as long as it lives ; it is very

CHAP. 39. — THE HIPPOPOTAMUS .

The Nile produces the hippopotamus, anothe

of a still greater size. It has the cloven hoof of
back, the mane, and the neighing of the hor
turned-up snout, the tail, and the hooked teeth
boar, but not so dangerous. The hide is imp
cept when it has been soaked with water ; and
making shields and helmets.2 This animal la
standing corn, and determines beforehand what
ravage on the following day ; it is said also, t
the field backwards, to prevent any ambush bein
on its return.

CHAP. 40. (26. )- WHO FIRST EXHIBITED THE HI

AND THE CROCODILE AT ROME.
M. Scaurus was the first who exhibited this ani
together with five crocodiles, at the games whic
his ædileship, in a piece of water which had bee
prepared for the purpose. The hippopotamus h
Lucan in B. ix. 1. 892, et seq., where he describes the march
across the burning coasts of the Syrtes.
99 This, as Cuvier remarks, is the case with the crocodiles
rica, which, like other reptiles, become torpid during t
Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 444 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 424.-B.
1 Cuvier remarks, as singular, that the descriptions given
of the hippopotamus should have been incorrect, more esp
ference to Herodotus, who had visited Egypt, and who has
of the animals of that country with considerable accuracy
vi. pp. 444, 445 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 425. Pliny has cop
tion of Herodotus, B. ii. c. 71 , almost verbatim, and the
done by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 7. Even the Lat
as Diodorus Siculus and Elian, who might have seen the a
continued to transcribe the account of Herodotus. - B.
2 Herodotus and Aristotle, ubi supra, assert, that his
that spears and other missiles are formed from it ; the stat
is, however, much more correct. - B.
3 "Euripo." See the Notes to c. 7 of this Book.
 k VIII. MEDICINAL REMEDIES OF ANIMALS . 291
Chap. 41.]
water,
our instructor in one of the operations of medicine.* When
always
the animal has become too bulky by continued over-feeding,
food."
it goes down to the banks of the river, and examines the
ontinues
reeds which have been newly cut ; as soon as it has found a
ived.
stump that is very sharp, it presses its body against it, and
so wounds one of the veins in the thigh ; and, by the flow of
blood thus produced, the body, which would otherwise have
d beast, fallen into a morbid state, is relieved ; after which, it covers
Ox; the up the wound with mud.
and the
the wild CHAP. 41. (27.)-THE MEDICINAL REMEDIES WHICH HAVE BEEN
able, ex- BORROWED FROM ANIMALS.5
used for
Taste the The bird also, which is called the ibis," a native of the same
it shall country of Egypt, has shewn us some things of a similar
it enters nature. By means of its hooked beak, it laves the body
Lid for it through that part, by which it is especially necessary for
health that the residuous food should be discharged. Nor, in-
deed, are these the only inventions which have been borrowed
POTAMUS from animals, to prove of use to man. The power of the
herb dittany, in extracting arrows, was first disclosed to us by
stags that had been struck by that weapon ; the weapon being
at Rome,
e gavein 4 Pliny, speaking of the hippopotamus, in_B. xxviii. c. 31, styles it,
mporarily "the discoverer of the art of letting blood." -B.
even been 5 Cuvier remarks upon this and the following Chapter, that they are
entirely fabulous. The diseases, remedies, and instructions given by the
Cato's army animals are equally imaginary, although Pliny has taken the whole from
authors of credit, and it has been repeated by Plutarch, De Iside, and by
North Ame Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 35, and many others. Ajasson, vol. vi. p.
old season ; 446 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 426.-B.
the ancients 6 Cuvier has given an interesting account of the ibis, the opinions en-
tertained of it by various travellers and naturalists, and a detail of the
lly with re- examination which he made of two of its mummies, which were brought
scribed some by Grobert to Paris, from the wells of Sakhara. These mummies were
jasson, vol. found to be similar to those previously examined by Buffon, Shaw, and
the descrip- others, and proved the ibis of the ancient Egyptians to have been a species
ne has been
of curlew. This opinion he further supports by a reference to various
uthors, such sculptures and mosaics, where this bird is represented, and he remarks
al in Rome, upon the errors into which most travellers and historians have fallen as to
it; the only correct account he conceives to be that of the African traveller,
isso hard, Bruce, who describes and figures it under the name of Abou hannès. See
nt ofPliny the extract in Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 633, et seq., from his Recherches sur les
Ossements Fossiles, vol. i. p. 141 , et seq. Herodotus gives an account of
the ibis, B. i. c. 75, 76, but it is not correct. - B.
U2
 292 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

discharged on their feeding upon this plant. T

mals, too, when they happen to have been wo
phalangium, a species of spider, or by any insect
nature, cure themselves by eating crabs. One of
remedies for the bite of the serpent, is the plant
lizards treat their wounds when injured in fighti
other. The swallow has shown us that the
very serviceable to the sight, by the fact of its
for the cure of its young, when their eyes are a
tortoise recruits its powers of effectually resisting
eating the plant which is known as cunile bubu
weasel feeds on rue, when it fights with the se
pursuit of mice. " The stork cures itself of its dise
marjoram, and the wild boar with ivy, as also by
and more particularly those that have been thro
sea. 12 The snake, when the membrane which co

7 The fabulous account of the powers of this herb is r

XXV. c. 53, and supported by the highest authorities ; a
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6.; Cicero, De Nat. De
Virgil, En. B. xii. c. 412.-B.
s See B. xxii. c. 45, for a similar cure. It is not know
here alluded to, but it has been thought to be the cinara,
9 The Chelidonium majus of Linnæus. It probably d
from the swallow, xeλidwv, because its flowers appear a
bird makes its first appearance in the spring. This supp
mentioned by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 25. Pliny spea
in diseases of the eyes, B. xxv. c. 50, and c. 91.-B.
10 Pliny speaks of the medical virtues of cunile bubula,
Columella, B. vi. c. 13, says that it is a cure for scabies.
what is the plant here referred to ; it is considered identical
by Hardouin, and has been supposed by some to be marj
royal. The effect of the cunile on the tortoise is mention
Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6 ; by Plutarch, Nat. Quæst.; El
B. vi. c. 12 ; and by Albertus Magnus, B. viii. Tr. ii. c.
some difference in their statements. Some speak of it as
abling the tortoise to counteract the poison of the serpe
regard it as giving the tortoise increased vigour to resist t
11 Aristotle, ubi supra, and Elian, Anim. Nat. B. iv. c.
supposed fact, which is without foundation, so far, at least
of the weasels with the serpents and the rue are concerned.
the weasel to the mouse is probably correct. Pliny again
xx. c. 51, and it forms the subject of one of Phædrus's
c. 2.-B.
12 We have the same account in Plutarch. -B. Plutarch
of the river crab.
 VIII

Chap. 41.] MEDICINAL REMEDIES OF ANIMALS . 293

ne ani-
by the
similar has been contracted by the cold of winter, throws it off in the
erybest spring by the aid of the juices of fennel,¹³ and thus becomes
which sleek and youthful in appearance. First of all, it disengages
th each the head, and it then takes no less than a day and a night in
onia is working itself out, and divesting itself of the membrane in
which it has been enclosed. The same animal, too, on finding
ying it
The its sight weakened during its winter retreat, anoints and re-
freshes its eyes by rubbing itself on the plant called fennel or
ents, by marathrum ; but if any of the scales are slow in coming off,¹ it
and the
in the rubs itself against the thorns of the juniper. The dragon re-
lieves the nausea which affects it in spring, with the juices of
ith wild the lettuce.15 The barbarous nations go to hunt the panther,
g crabs, provided with meat that has been rubbed with aconite,
P bythe which is a poison.16 Immediately on eating it, compression
its body of the throat overtakes them, from which circumstance it is,
that the plant has received the name of pardalianches ." The
d to in B. animal, however, has found an antidote against this poison in
others, by human excrements ; besides which, it is so eager to get at
ii. c. 50;
them, that the shepherds purposely suspend them in a vessel,
atplant is placed so high, that the animal cannot reach them even by
tichoke. leaping, when it endeavours to get at them ; accordingly, it
d its name continues to leap until it has quite exhausted itself, and at last
time that expires : otherwise, it is so tenacious of life, that it will con-
propertyis
its efficacy 13 Pliny refers to this effect, B. xx. c. 95 ; he speaks also of its applica-
tion to the eyes of the animal ; it is probable, that feniculum and mara-
XX. c. 61; thrum both refer to the same plant ; the latter being the ordinary Greek,
not certain and the former the Latin, name. This effect of the feniculum is also
origanum, mentioned by Elian, B. ix. c. 16.-B.
or penny 14 " Si vero squamæ obtorpuere ;" Hardouin supposes that this applies
y Aristotle, particularly to the eyes.-B. There can be little doubt that he is correct
Anim. Nat. in that supposition .
ut there is 15 Aristotle, ubi supra, and Elian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 4, state that the
ntidote, en- dragon takes the juice of the picris into the stomach, when overloaded with
hile others food. The exact plant referred to, under that name, cannot be ascertained
acks. for certain ; but it appears probable, that it is a wild lettuce or endive, or
efer to this
the contest some plant belonging to that family. -B.
16 This effect of aconite, and the antidote for it, are mentioned in B.
hostilityof xxvii. c. 2 ; they are also mentioned by Aristotle, ubi supra ; and by Ælian,
s to it, B. Anim. Nat. B. iv. c. 49, and alluded to by Cicero, De. Nat. Deor. B. ii.
bles, B. iv. c. 50. It appears from a statement of Tavernier, as referred to by
Hardouin, that the same antidote against poisoned weapons is still em-
s, however, ployed in the island of Java.-B.
17 From the Greek wapdaλiayxns, " pard-strangle."
294 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

tinue to fight long after its intestines have been d

its body.
When an elephant has happened to devour
which is of the same colour with the herbage,
this poison by means of the wild olive. Bear
have eaten of the fruit of the mandrake, lick u
ants.18 The stag counteracts the effect of poison
eating the artichoke. Wood-pigeons, jackdaw
and partridges, purge themselves once a year
leaves ; pigeons, turtle-doves, and poultry, with
or helxine ; ducks, geese, and other aquatic bi
plant sideritis or vervain ; cranes, and birds of a s
with the bulrush. The raven, when it has kil
leon, a contest in which even the conqueror su
acts the poison by means of laurel.

CHAP. 42. (28 .) - PROGNOSTICS OF DANGER DER

ANIMALS.
There are a thousand other facts of this k
same Nature has also bestowed upon many an
the faculty of observing the heavens, and of
winds, rains, and tempests, each in its own pecu
would be an endless labour to enumerate them
much as it would be to point out the relation of
For, in fact, they warn us of danger, not only b
and their entrails, to which a large portion of m
the greatest faith, but by other kinds of war
When a building is about to fall down, all the n
before-hand, and the spiders with their webs a
drop. Divination from birds has been made a
the Romans, and the college of its priests is 1
peculiarly sacred.21 In Thrace, when all part
18 This is again referred to, B. xxix. c. 39.-B.
19 " Quod persequi immensum est æque scilicet quar
singulis homínum societatem." The meaning of this pa
and extremely doubtful.
20 This is alluded to by Cicero in his letters to Atticus,
by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 41 ; B. xi. c. 19 ; and
c. 11.-B. The same is still said of rats, whence our exp
i. e. to desert a falling cause.
21 The priests of this college, or augurs, were among th
public functionaries in the Roman state, both from the ra
Book VIII. Chap. 43.] NATIONS EXTERMINATED BY ANIMALS . 295

-ed out of with ice, the foxes are consulted, an animal which, in other
respects, is baneful from its craftiness. It has been observed,
ameleon, that this animal applies its ear to the ice, for the purpose of
unteracts testing its thickness ; hence it is, that the inhabitants will
Then they never cross frozen rivers and lakes until the foxes have passed
mbers of over them and returned.
plants by
ackbirds, CHAP. 43. (29. )- NATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN EXTERMINATED BY
ating bay ANIMALS.
pellitory,
with the We have accounts, too, no less remarkable, in reference even
ar nature, to the most contemptible of animals. M. Varro informs us,
a chame- that a town in Spain was undermined by rabbits, and one in
Thessaly, by mice ; that the inhabitants of a district in
-, counter-
Gaul were driven from their country by frogs,22 and a place
in Africa by locusts ;23 that the inhabitants of Gyarus,24
one of the Cyclades, were driven away by mice ;25 and the
FROM Amuncle, in Italy, by serpents. There is a vast desert tract
on this side of the Ethiopian Cynamolgi , " the inhabitants of
= and the which were exterminated by scorpions and venomous ants.27
s as well, duals and the political power which they derived from their office.-B. The
saging the augurs, or diviners by birds, held the highest rank inthe state ; but the
way. It power of their college greatly declined in the later period of the Roman
history. It was finally abolished by the Emperor Theodosius.
1 ; just as 22 Ŏther instances are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, B. iii. Justin, B.
to man.19 xv. c. 2, and Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xvii. c. 41.-B. Showers of frogs
heir fibres are a thing not unknown in England even. They are probably caused by
ind attach whirlwinds acting upon waters which are the haunt of these animals .
s as well 23 The ravages of locusts have been known in all ages ; their destructive
desert it effects in Egypt and Judea, have formed the subject of a very elaborate
dissertation by Bochart, in his work on the " Animals of Scripture," Part
The first to i. B. iv. c. 3 and 4.-B.
nce among 24 Used as a place of banishment by the Romans. See B. iv. c. 28, and
ed upon as c. 82, of the present Book.
re covered 25 See c. 82 of the present Book, and B. x. c. 85.-B.
26 The " dog-milkers." See B. vi. c. 35.
27 66 Solipugis." There has been much discussion as to the word here
liquam cum employed by Pliny, and the animal which he intends to designate. The
e is obscure, solipugus, solpugus, solipuga, or solipunga, probably different names of
the same animal, is mentioned by various writers ; among others, by Lucan,
is mentioned Phars. B. ix. 1. 837 ; Diodorus Siculus, B. iii .; Strabo, B. xvi. ; and Ælian,
T. Hist. B.i. Hist. Anim. B. xvii. c. 40. It is again referred to in B. xxix. c. 16. The
on "torat," description given is, however, too indefinite to enable us to identify it with
any known animal ; it would almost seem to indicate something between
Ost important the spider and the ant.-B. We still hear in modern times ofthe venomous
of the indivi
296 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

and Theophrastus informs us, that the people d

were driven away by scolopendra.29 But we mu
to the other kinds of wild beasts.

CHAP . 44. ( 30 . ) - THE HYÆNA.

It is the vulgar notion, that the hyæna posse
both sexes, being a male during one year, and
next, and that it becomes pregnant without the
of the male ; Aristotle, however, denies this.30 T
the mane, runs continuously into the back-bon
animal cannot bend this part without turning rou
body. Many other wonderful things are also relate
mal ; and strangest of all, that it imitates the huma
the stalls of the shepherds ; and while there, learn
some one of them, and then calls him away, and
It is said also, that it can imitate a man vomiti
in this way, it attracts the dogs, and then falls
It is the only animal that digs up graves, in ord
the bodies of the dead. The female is rarely
eyes, it is said, are of a thousand various colours
of shade. It is said also, that on coming in co
shadow, dogs will lose their voice, and that, by
gical influences, it can render any animal immo
which it has walked three times.

CHAP. 45. THE COROCOTTA ; THE MANTICHO

By the union of the hyæna with the Ethiopian
and destructive nature of the red ants on the coast of Guine
improbable that it is to these that Pliny alludes.
28 See B. v. c. 33.
29 This is mentioned by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. xv. c.
scolopendra is one of the multipede insects.
30 Aristotle, De Gener. Anim. B. iii. c. 6, and Hist. Ani
accounts for the vulgar error, by stating that the hyæna
structure of the parts about the anus, which might, to an u
give the idea, that it possesses the generative organs of both
Anim. Nat. B. i. c. 25, and Oppian, Cyneget. B. iii. c. 289,
this erroneous opinion . What is said respecting the hyæna
ing part of this Chapter, is mostly without foundation. - B.
31 We have had some account given of the mantichora, in
mantichora and the corocotta are altogether imaginary.-
 okVIII.
Chap. 47.] BEAVERS. 297
eteum
V return corocotta is produced , which has the same faculty of imitating
the voices of men and cattle. Its gaze is always fixed and
immoveable ; it has no gums in either of its jaws, and the
teeth are one continuous piece of bone ; they are enclosed in a
sort of box as it were, that they may not be blunted by rub-
bing against each other. Juba informs us, that the mantichora
En itself
of Ethiopia can also imitate the human speech.
male the
peration CHAP. 46.- WILD ASSES.
ck, with
that the
Great numbers of hyænas are produced in Africa, which
e whole also gives birth to multitudes of wild asses. In this species
this ani- each male rules over a herd of females. Fearing rivals in
e among their lust, they carefully watch the pregnant females, and cas-
name of trate the young males with their teeth, as soon as they are
urs him. born.32 The pregnant females, on the other hand, seek con-
nd that, cealment, and endeavour to bring forth in secret, being
on them. desirous to increase their opportunities of sexual indulgence.
o obtain
ght : its
CHAP. 47. —BEAVERS, AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS .33
;3 OTTERS.
changes
with its
The beavers of the Euxine, when they are closely pressed by
cain ma-
e, round danger, themselves cut off the same part, as they know that
it is for this that they are pursued . This substance is called
castoreum by the physicians.334 In addition to this, the bite
of this animal is terrible ; with its teeth it can cut down trees

Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 447 ; Lemaire, vol . iii . p. 439 , thinks that the stories
ess, the of the corocotta and the catoblepas, owe their origin to mutilated accounts
of the hyæna, and the animal known to us as the gnu.
d it isnot 32 According to Cuvier, what Pliny here says respecting the herds of
wild asses, and the power of the old males, is correct ; but it is doubtful
whether there is any foundation for what is said about the castration of
-B. The the newly-born animals ; Ajasson, ubi supra ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 440.-B.
33 " De aquaticis et iisdem terrestribus ;" although these words are in-
vi. c. 32, serted in the title of this Chapter, the subject is not treated of in it.-B.
peculiar 34 Pliny here adopts the vulgar opinion respecting the origin of the
tised ere, substance called " castor," and in B. xxxii. c. 13, gives a more correct de-
. Elian, scription, which he had derived from a physician, named Sextius. It is
adopted a fetid, oily substance, secreted by a gland situate near the prepuce. Cu-
Leremain- vier remarks, that when the gland becomes distended with this secretion,
the animal may probably get rid of it by rubbing the part against a stone
0. The or tree, and in this way, leave the castor for the hunters, thus giving rise
Cuvier, in to the vulgar error. Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 448 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 440.-B.
298 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

on the banks of rivers, just as though with a kn

seize a man by any part of his body, they wi
their hold until his bones are broken and crack
teeth. The tail is like that of a fish ; 36 in the
the body they resemble the otter ; they are
aquatic animals, and both have hair softer than

CHAP. 48. (31 . )- BRAMBLE - FROGS.

38
Bramble-frogs , also, which live both on land
are replete with various medicinal substances, w
said to discharge each day, and to take in aga
food, of which they only retain the poisonous pa

CHAP. 49. THE SEA-CALF ; BEAVERS ; LIZ

The sea-calf, too, lives equally in the sea

being possessed of the same degree of intelligence
It vomits forth its gall, which is useful for man
medicine ; also the rennet,39 which serves as
epilepsy ; for it is well aware that it is hunted
35 The beaver has the most powerful teeth of any ani
Rodentia, to which it belongs ; it uses them for cutting d
which it constructs its habitation. Aristotle, Hist. Anin
refers to this.-B.
36 The tail is covered with a kind of scale, and is flatte
internal organization, is formed like those of other quadru
37 See B. xxxii. c. 52.
38 Pliny, speaking of the different kinds of frogs, B. xx
"There are some which live only in the hedges, and thence
of rubeta, or bramble frogs." It seems impossible to ide
with any of our known animals : and we may conclude
foundation for the statement. Elian gives an account of
nature of this animal. Anim. Nat. B. xvii. c. 12.-B.
39 As Cuvier remarks, it is impossible that any animal ca
vomiting what Pliny terms the " coagulum," which is the
of a ruminant animal ; the same substance which, unde
rennet, is employed to coagulate milk. He conjectures, tha
have originated in the observation, that occasionally in fish,
drawn out of the water, the air-bladder is protruded fr
which may have been mistaken for the stomach. The
mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 23, and by
Nat. B. iii. c. 19, as well as the vomiting of the bile;
latter, we may remark, that vomiting is produced in various
under the influence of extreme terror. - B.
BookVIII .
Chap. 50. ] STAGS. 299
If they
ver loose stances. Theophrastus informs us, that lizards " also cast their
der their skins like the serpent, and instantly devour them, thus de-
parts of priving us of a powerful remedy for epilepsy ; he says, too,
of them that the bite of the lizard is fatal in Greece, but harmless in
Italy.41

CHAP. 50. (32 .) — stags.

Stags, although the most mild of all animals, have still their
in water, 42
own feelings of malignancy ; when hard pressed by the
they are hounds, of their own accord they fly for refuge to man ; and
with their
when the females bring forth, they are less anxious to avoid
the paths which bear traces of human footsteps, than solitary
spots which offer a retreat to wild beasts.43 They become
44
5. pregnant after the rising of the constellation Arcturus ; they
bring forth after a gestation of eight months, and sometimes
- on land,
produce two young ones. They separate after conception, but
he beaver. the males, upon being thus abandoned, become maddened with
urposes in the fury of their passion ; they dig up the earth, and their
remedy in muzzles become quite black, until they have been washed by
these sub- the rain.45 The females, before they bring forth, purge them-
of the class selves by means of a certain herb, which is called seselis, by
trees, with the use of which parturition is rendered more easy. After de-
3, viii. c. 3, livery, they take a mixture of the two plants called seselis46 and
aros,47 and then return to the fawn ; they seem desirous, for
; but, inits
3.-B. 40 The gecko, according to Littrè.
41 This is incorrect ; the bite of this animal, wherever found, is never
fatal.- B .
c. 18, says,
ve the name 42 This refers to what will be found stated in this Chapter, that stags
conceal their horns, when they fall off, that they may not be used in medi-
this reptile cine.-B.
there isno
e venomous 43 This is mentioned by Aristotle, Plutarch, and Elian, but it must be
considered as very doubtful. - B.
44 See B. xviii. c. 74.
Hischarge by
rth stomach 45 It seems that Pliny here attributes the blackening of the mouths of
The name of the stags to their turning up the earth with their muzzles ; Aristotle, how-
e error may ever, refers it to a constitutional cause, arising from their violent sexual
excitement ; Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 29.-B.
en suddenly 46 Or seseli, probably hart-wort. See B. xx. c. 87, and B. xxv. c. 52.
the mouth,
umstance is 47 We learn from Hardouin, that there has been much discussion re-
lian, Anim. specting the plants or other substances which the female is supposed to eat
pecting this after parturition. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6, asserts that it eats
imals, when the chorion, the membrane in which the foetus has been enveloped, and
afterwards the herb seselis. To make the account of Pliny agree with
that of Aristotle, some of the commentators have even supposed, that
300 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

some reason or other, that their first milk, after

should be impregnated with the juice of these p
then exercise the young ones in running, and tea
to take to flight, leading them to precipices, and s
how to leap. The sexual passion of the male hav
satisfied, he repairs to the pasture lands with the g
ness . When they feel themselves becoming too f
some retired spot, thus acknowledging the inconver
from their bulk. Besides this, they continually p
flight, stand still and look back, and then again
flight when the enemy approaches. This pause i
by the intense pain which they feel in the intes
which is so weak, that a very slight blow will ca
break within. The barking of a dog instantly
flight, and they always run with the wind, in or
trace of them may be left. They are soothed
herd's pipe and his song ;48 when their ears are
sense of hearing is very acute, but when dropped,
deaf.49
In other respects the stag is a simple animal, w
every thing as wonderful, and with a stupid aston
much so, indeed, that if a horse or cow happens
it, it will not see the hunter, who may be close at
it does see him, it only gazes upon his bow and ar
cross the sea in herds, swimming in a long lin
of each resting on the haunches of the one that
each in its turn falling back to the rear. This ha
ticularly remarked when they pass over from Ci
island of Cyprus. Though they do not see the lan
are able to direct themselves by the smell. The
horns, and are the only animals that shed them ev
a stated time in the spring ; at which period th
with the greatest care the most retired places
losing them, remain concealed, as though aware
chorion here means the name of a plant, and they have pro
stitute the word chorion for aros in the text.-B. Aros is
present "Arum maculatum," or wake-robin. See p. 307, N
48 Aristotle, Plutarch, and Xenophon speak of the influenc
these animals.-B.
49 Aristotle, ubi supra, mentions this respecting their ea
takes place, to a certain extent, with all animals that have
auricles.-B.
 Chap. 50. ] STAGS. 301
okVIII.
are unarmed . Still, however, they envy us the good that these
urition, might do us ; for it is said the right horn, which possesses, as it
They were, certain medicinal properties, can never be found, a circum-
em how stance the more astonishing, from the fact that they change their
g them horns every year, even when kept in parks ; 50 it is generally
een now thought that they bury their horns in the ground. The odour
eager- of either horn, when burnt, drives away serpents and detects
ey seek epilepsy. They also bear the marks of their age on the horns,
arising every year, up to the sixth,5¹ a fresh antler being added ; after
in their which period the horns are renewed in the same state, so that
ne their by means of them their age cannot be ascertained . Their old
asioned age, however, is indicated by their teeth, for then they have
, a part only a few, or none at all ; and we then no longer perceive, at
hem to the base of their horns, antlers projecting from the front of the
hem to forehead, as is usually the case with the animal when young.
that no When this animal is castrated it does not shed its horns, nor
eshep- are they reproduced . When the horns begin to be reproduced,
t, their two projections are to be seen, much resembling, at first, dry
become skin ; they grow with tender shoots, having upon them a soft
down like that on the head of a reed . So long as they are
regards without horns, they go to feed during the night. As the
ent; so horns grow, they harden by the heat of the sun, and the
proach animal, from time to time, tries their strength upon the trees ;
, or, if when satisfied with their strength, it leaves its retreat.
Stags Stags, too, have been occasionally caught with ivy green
e head and growing on their horns,52 the plant having taken root
des it, on them, as it would on any piece of wood , while the animal
was rubbing them against the trees. The stag is sometimes
en par found white, as is said to have been the case with the hind
to the
ey still of Q. Sertorius, which he persuaded the nations 53 of Spain to
s have look upon as having the gift of prophecy. The stag, too,
ear, at 50 Aristotle, ubi supra, Ælian, ubi supra, and B. iii. c. 17, and Theo-
ek out phrastus, in a fragment on the Envious among Animals, agree in stating
after that one of the horns of the stag is never found, although they differ re-
specting the individual horn, whether the right one or the left. Aristotle
they says that it is the left, while Theophrastus and Ælian agree with the state-
ment of Pliny.- B.
to sub- 51 Cuvier says, that no antlers are added after the eighth year.-B.
bly the 52 This, as well as most of the statements respecting the growth of the
horns, is mentioned by Aristotle, ubi supra, but it is quite unfounded. - B.
usic on 53 This story of the white hind of Sertorius, is given in detail by Aulus
Gellius, B. xv. c. 22, who tells us that it was given to him by a native of
he same Lusitania, upon which Sertorius pretended that it had been sent from
xternal
302 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

fights with the serpent : it traces out the serpent

draws it forth by the breath of its nostrils,54 and
that the smell of burnt stags' horn has the rema
of driving away serpents. The very best remedy
of a serpent is the rennet of a fawn that has been
womb ofits mother.
The stag is generally admitted to be very long
were captured at the end of one hundred years wi
collars which Alexander the Great had put upo
which were quite concealed by the folds of the sk
quence of the accumulation of fat.5655 This anima
ject to fever, and, indeed, it is a preservative agai
plaint. We know that of late some women of
have been in the habit of eating the flesh of th
morning, and that they have arrived at an extre
free from all fevers . It is, however, generally s
the animal must be killed by a single wound to
it possessing this virtue.
(33.) Of the same species is an animal, which
from the stag in having a beard and long ha
shoulders : it is called tragelaphus, 56 and is produ
except on the banks of the Phasis.57

CHAP. 51.-THE CHAMELEON.

Africa is almost the only country that does
Diana, who, through it, held converse with him, and instr
to act. Plutarch, Frontinus, and Valerius Maximus, also
54 This story, which is obviously incorrect, is mentio
Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 9 ; and is again referred to in B. xxvi
55 Graguinus, Hist. Franc. B. ix. c. 3, relates a still
anecdote of a similar nature ; but, as Buffon remarks, such
out foundation, the life of the stag not being more than
years. Cuvier, also, says that its life does not exceed thi
years.-B.
56 The real nature of the tragelaphus of Pliny, and th
or horse-stag of Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 1, which a
same animal, had long remained a disputed question am
when, as Cuvier states, the point was decided by Alphonse
ascertained that it was a species of stag, which inhabited th
the north of Hindostan.- B.
57 And in Arabia as well, according to Diodorus Siculus,
58 This fact is confirmed by Cuvier, who observes, that
remarkable that Africa should be without stags, as it abound
all forms and colours. He supposes that those travellers, v
 kVIII.
Chap. 51. ] THE CHAMELEON . 303
le, and 59
the stag, but then it produces the chameleon, although it is
ce it is
much more commonly met with in India. Its figure and size
epower
are that of a lizard, only that its legs are straight and longer.
he bite
Its sides unite under its belly, as in fishes, and its spine pro-
in the jects in a similar manner. Its muzzle is not unlike the snout
of a small hog, so far as in so small an animal it can be. Its
; some tail is very long, and becomes smaller towards the end, coiling
e golden up in folds like that of the viper. It has hooked claws, and
em, and a slow movement like that of the tortoise ; its body is rough
n conse like that of the crocodile ; its eyes are deep sunk in the orbits,
not sub- placed very near each other, very large, and of the same
nat com- colour as the body. It never closes them, and when the
ely rank animal looks round, it does so, not by the motion of the pupil,
ag every but of the white of the eye.60 It always holds the head up-
old age, right and the mouth open, and is the only animal which re-
sed that ceives nourishment neither by meat nor drink, nor anything
= sure of 61
else, but from the air alone. Towards the end of the dog-days
it is fierce, but at other times quite harmless. The nature
ydiffers of its colour, too, is very remarkable, for it is continually
Dout the changing ; its eyes, its tail, and its whole body always
nowhere assuming the colour of whatever object is nearest, with the
exception of white and red. After death, it becomes of a

they have seen stags in this country, had really met with gazelles, which
they mistook for those animals ; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 451 ; Lemaire, vol.
produce iii. P. 453.-B.
himhow 59 Cuvier remarks, that Pliny's account of the chameleon appears to be
taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 11, but that it is less correct.
the story. He notices Aristotle's account of the eye, which is more accurately given
y Elian
2.-B. than the account of Pliny ; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 451, 452 ; Lemaire, vol . iii.
wonderful p. 454.-B. The chameleon receives its name from the Greek xaµai
are with- Xéwv, "the lion on the ground."
60 See B. xi. c. 55.
-or forty 61 One of those popular errors which have descended from the ancients
or forty to our times ; the chameleon feeds on insects, which it seizes by means of
its long flexible tongue ; the quantity of food which it requires appears,
pelaphus, however, to be small in proportion to its bulk.-B.
to bethe 62 Circa caprificos." Some commentators would understand this in
aturalists, reference to the wild fig-tree, and take it to mean that the animal is more
ucel, who furious when in its vicinity . The conjecture of Hardouin, however, seems
untains of more reasonable. He takes " caprificos" to mean the same as the " capri-
ficialis dies," mentioned in B. xi. c. 15, as being sacred to Vulcan, and
falling towards the end of the dog-days.
the more 63 This is another of the erroneous opinions respecting the chameleon,
azelles of which has been very generally adopted. It forms the basis of Merrick's
firm that
 304 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

pale colour. It has a little flesh about the hea

and the root of the tail, but none whatever on the
body. It has no blood whatever, except in th
about the eyes, and its entrails are without a
conceals itself during the winter months, just like
CHAP. 52. -OTHER ANIMALS WHICH CHANGE COL
TARANDUS, THE LYCAON, AND THE THOS
The tarandrus,65 too, of the Scythians, change
but this is the case with none of the animals whic
with hair, except the lycaon " of India, which is
a mane on the neck. But with respect to the tho
a species of wolf, differing from the common kind
larger body and very short legs, leaping with g
living by the chase, and never attacking man) ;
popular poem of the Chameleon. The animal, indeed,
shades or tints, but the changes depend upon internal or
causes, not any external object. Elian, Anim. Nat. B. ii.
the change of colour, but does not allude to its colour ha
nection with that of the object with which it comes in cont
64 The quantity of muscular fibre and blood in the ch
doubt small in proportion to the bulk of the animal, altho
less than in other animals of the same natural order ; its
minute, as Cuvier says, not larger than the seed of a lentil.
65 Cuvier remarks, that this account is from the anon
De Mirab. Auscult. p. 1152, and from Theophrastus ; and t
bably derived, in the first instance, from the imperfect acc
ancients possessed of the reindeer, the hair of which a
nearly white in the winter, and in the summer of a brown
Bekmann, however, who has written a commentary on the al
treatise, supposes that the tarandrus is the elk. Čuvier con
animal described by Cæsar, Bell. Gall. B. vi. c. 26, as
Hercynian Forest, which he designates as " bos cervi figur
deer; and suggests that " tarandrus " may have originated
das rennthier. Ajasson, vol, vi. pp. 453, 454 ; Lemaire, vol. i
Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 16, speaks of the change of co
randrus in a way which does not correspond with any an
exist.-B. Pliny's stories of the tarandrus, thos, and chan
culed by Rabelais, B. iv. c. 3.
66 Cuvier supposes that the lycaon of Pliny is the India
has a mane ; but what is said of its change of colour is inco
67 Naturalists have differed respecting the identity of th
described, but Cuvier conceives, that Bochart has proved it
aureus chakal (jackal) of Linnæus. The description give
Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 17, and B. ix. c. 44, agrees with th
it is also described by Oppian, Halieut. B. ii. c. 615.-B.
k VIII. BEARS AND THEIR CUBS . 305
Chap . 54.]
e jaws, coat, and not its colour, for it is covered with hair in the winter,
of the and goes bare in summer. The tarandrus is of the size of
art and
the ox ; its head is larger than that of the stag, and not very
0.64 It
unlike it ; its horns are branched, its hoofs cloven, and its
izard.
hair as long as that of the bear. Its proper colour, when it
thinks proper to return to it, is like that of the ass. Its hide
THE
is of such extreme hardness, that it is used for making breast-
plates. When it is frightened, this animal reflects the colour
colour, of all the trees, shrubs, and flowers, or of the spots in which it
covered is concealed ; hence it is that it is so rarely captured. It is
to have wonderful that such various hues should be given to the body,
hich is but still more so that it should be given to the hair.
avinga
etivity, CHAP. 53. (35 .) — THE PORCUPINE.
ngesits India and Africa produce the porcupine, the body of which
Es various is covered with prickles. It is a species of hedgehog, but the
titutional quills of the porcupine are longer, and when it stretches the
refers to skin, it discharges them like so many missiles. With these it
any con- pierces the mouths of the dogs which are pressing hard upon
B. it, and even sends its darts to some distance further 68 It
-on is no
not much conceals itself during the winter months, which, indeed, is the
is very nature of many animals, and more especially the bear.
S treatise 6 CHAP. 54. ( 36 . ) —BEARS AND THEIR CUBS.
was pro- Bears couple in the beginning of winter,69 and not after the
which the
becomes fashion of other quadrupeds ; for both animals lie down and em-
ey colour. brace each other.70 The female then retires by herself to a sepa-
mentioned rate den, and there brings forth on the thirtieth day, mostly
that the five young ones . When first born, they are shapeless masses of
iting the white flesh, a little larger than mice ;71 their claws alone being
the rein-
German, 68 It is possible that the quills of the porcupine may be stuck into the
456,45%. skin of the dog so firmly, as to be detached from their natural situation ;
in theta- but there is no reason to believe that they can be darted out or projected
Known to by any exertion of the animal. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. i. c. 31 , and B. xii.
are ridi- c. 26, describes the hystrix ; see also Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi, c.
30.-B.
er, which 69 Cuvier remarks, that this accouut of the bear is generally correct ; he
-B. points out, however, certain errors, which will be duly noticed. Elian,
mal here Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 3, gives an account of the parturition of the bear.-B.
the canis 70 This description of their mode of coupling, though from Aristotle,
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 30, is not correct. Buffon and other naturalists
position; assure us that they do not differ herein from other quadrupeds.-- B.
71 Aristotle says, that the cubs are born blind, without hair, and that
VOL. II. Χ
306 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

prominent. The mother then licks them gradually

shape. There is nothing more uncommon than
bear in the act of parturition ." The male ren
retreat for forty days, the female four months
happen to have no den, they construct a retreat w
and shrubs, which is made impenetrable to the
lined with soft leaves. During the first fourteen d
overcome by so deep a sleep, that they cannot be
wounds even. They become wonderfully fat, too, w
lethargic state. This fat is much used in medicin
very useful in preventing the hair from falling off.73
of these fourteen days 74they sit up, and find nou
sucking their fore-paws. They warm their cubs,
by pressing them to the breast, not unlike the w
birds brood over their eggs . It is a very astonishin
Theophrastus believes it, that if we preserve the
bear, the animal being killed in its dormant state
crease in bulk, even though it may have been cooke
this period no signs of food are to be found in t
of the animal, and only a very slight quantity of li
áre a few drops of blood only near the heart, but
ever in any other part of the body.76 They leave
in the spring, the males being remarkably fat :
cumstance, however, we cannot give any satisfacto
tion, for the sleep, during which they increase so m
lasts, as we have already stated, only fourteen day
they come out, they eat a certain plant, which is
their limbs are ill formed, which is correct ; but the account
greatly exaggerated.- B.
72 As the birth takes place when the mother is in her wi
can have been witnessed only when in the menagerie.- B.
73 This is referred to in B. xxviii. c. 46 ; this property of
bear is also mentioned by Galen and by Dioscorides, and it s
place among our popular remedies ; but it is difficult to conce
have any virtue above other fatty substances of the same cons
74 This, which appears to be a vulgar error, is mentioned
Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 17; by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 3
pian, Halieut. B. ii.-B.
75 We have a somewhat similar account in the treatis
Auscult. p 1155.-B.
76 Probably from Aristotle, ubi supra. - B.
77 This apparent anomaly has been attempted to be expla
posing that the bears lay up a plentiful store of provisions in
retreats, which they consume while they remain without exer
 VIII. BEARS AND THEIR CUBS . 307
Chap . 54.]
proper aros,78 in order to relax the bowels, which would otherwise
a she- become in a state of constipation ; and they sharpen the edges
in his of their teeth against the young shoots of the trees. Their
If they eye-sight is dull, for which reason in especial, they seek the
ranches
combs of bees, in order that from the bees stinging them in
and is
the throat and drawing blood, the oppression in the head may
hey are be relieved. 79 The head of the bear is extremely weak, whereas,
sedby in the lion, it is remarkable for its strength : on which account L
in this it is, that when the bear, impelled by any alarm, is about to
nd it is precipitate itself from a rock, it covers its head with its paws.
the end In the arena of the Circus they are often to be seen killed by
ment by a blow on the head with the fist . The people of Spain have
en cold, a belief, that there is some kind of magical poison in the brain
which of the bear, and therefore burn the heads of those that have
ng, but been killed in their public games ; for it is averred, that the
of the brain, when mixed with drink, produces in man the rage of
will in- the bear.80 These animals walk on two feet, and climb down
During trees backwards.81 They can overcome the bull, by suspending
Stomach themselves, by all four legs, from its muzzle and horns, thus
; there wearing out its powers by their weight. In no other animal
e what- is stupidity found more adroit in devising mischief. It is re-
- retreat corded in our Annals, that on the fourteenth day before the
his cir- calends of October,82 in the consulship of M. Piso and M. Mes-
=xplana sala, Domitius Ahenobarbus, the curule ædile, brought into
inbulk, the Circus one hundred Numidian bears, and as many Ethi-
When opian hunters. I am surprised to find the word Numidian
own as added, seeing that it is well known that there are no bears pro-
duced in Africa.83
given is
etreat, it 78 Pliny enumerates, at considerable length, the varieties of aros, in B.
xxiv. c. 92 ; it is also described in B. xix. c. 30 ; it is probably a species ,
at ofthe of arum.-B. See pp. 299, 300, N. 47.
retains its 79 This is, of course, without foundation .- B.
atit can 80 This supposed noxious quality is entirely without foundation.-B.
ce.-B. 81 This probably refers more particularly to the mode in which the bear
Aristotle, descends from trees or poles, in the supine posture, not, as is the case in
d by Op most other animals, with the head downwards. - B.
82 18th September.
Mirab. 83 It appears, from the remarks of Cuvier, to be still doubtful whether
the bear be really a native of Africa ; see Ajasson, vol. vi. p . 457 ; Le-
maire, vol. iii. p. 466.-B.
by sup
r winter
-B. x 2
308 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 55. (37. )-THE MICE OF PONTUS AND OF

The mice of Pontus also conceal themselves
winter ; but only the white ones.84 I wonder
authors, who have asserted that the sense of ta
animals is very acute, found out that such is the
Alpine mice, which are the same size as badgers,
themselves ;85 but they first carry a store of pro
their retreat. Some writers, indeed, say that th
female, lying on their backs alternately, hold in
bundle of gnawed herbs, and, the tail of each in i
seized by the teeth of the other, in this wa
dragged into their hole ; hence it is, that at
their hair is found to be rubbed off their backs.
86
similar animal also in Egypt, which sits, in the
upon its haunches, and walks on two feet, using
as hands.
CHAP. 56. HEDGEHOGS.
Hedgehogs also lay up food for the winter ; rollin
on apples as they lie on the ground, they pierce o
quills, and then take up another in the mouth,
them into the hollows of trees. These animals also
conceal themselves in their holes, afford a sure si
wind is about to change from north-east to south.87
84 It is supposed that the white mouse of Pontus, men
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 17, is the ermine, or els
but, as Cuvier remarks, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 457, Lemaire,
the ermine does not hibernate.- B.
85 Cuvier, ubi supra, conceives that the Alpine mouse is
but he remarks, that it is inferior in size to the badger. -B
86 Cuvier, ubi supra, conceives, the Egyptian mouse to
the Mus jaculus of Linnæus ; but it is much smaller than
Pliny, in B. x. c. 85, says, that the Egyptian mouse walks
does the mouse of the Alps. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v
Elian, Anim. Nat. B. xv. c. 26, refer to the mouse of Egy
bably the Mus cahirinus.
87 The faculty which these and other animals possess of
weather and the future direction of the wind, is mentioned
and as existing especially in the hedgehog. It is also ment
totle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6 ; but it is not confined, as
its change in one direction only. It has been suggested
mentators, that, by a slight alteration in the text, the stat
extended to a change of the wind in either direction, Lema
168.-B.
 VIII.
Chap. 56.] HEDGEHOGS. 309
ALPS.
perceive the approach of the hunter, they draw in the head
ng the and feet, and all the lower part of the body, which is covered
those by a thin and defenceless down only, and then roll themselves
n these up into the form of a ball, so that there is no way of taking
The hold of them but by their quills. When they are reduced
conceal to a state of desperation, they discharge a corrosive urine,
ns into which injures their skin and quills, as they are aware that it
ale and is for the sake of them that they are hunted. A skilful hunter,
- paws a therefore, will only pursue them when they have just discharged
their urine. In this case the skin retains its value ; while
In being
in the other case, it becomes spoilt and easily torn, the quills
They are
= season rotting and falling off, even though the animal should escape
ere is a with its life. For this reason it is that it never moistens itself
with this poisonous fluid, except when reduced to the last stage
me way,
Fore feet of desperation ; for it has a perfect hatred for its own venomous
distillation, and so careful is the animal, so determined to wait
till the very last moment, that it is generally caught before it
has employed this means of defence.
mselves They force it to unroll itself, by sprinkling warm water up-
ith their on it, and then, suspended by one of its hind legs, it is left
to die of hunger ; for there is no other mode of destroying it,
so carry
without doing injury to its skin. This animal is not, as many
en they of us imagine, entirely useless to man. If it were not for the
hat the
quills which it produces, the soft fleece of the sheep would
men they have been given in vain to mankind ; for it is by means of its
d also by skin, that our woollen cloth is dressed. From the monopoly
marten; of this article, great frauds and great profits have resulted ;
i. p. 467, there is no subject on which the senate has more frequently
marmot; passed decrees, and there is not one of the Emperors, who has
not received from the provinces complaints respecting it.89
Lejerboa,
marmot. ss The teasel, or carding thistle, is now used for this purpose ; as also
o feet, as iron wires, crooked and sharpened at the point. Not a single quill, pro-
37, and bably of the hedgehog, is now used in the manufacture of cloth.
B. Pro- 89 Dalechamps suggests that these complaints were probably to the
effect that thistles and thorns were employed instead of the quills ofthe
eing the hedgehog ; that the skin of the hedgehog was brought to market in a bad
Plutarch, state ; and again, that the rich merchants were in the habit of buying them
by Aris up, and forestalling the market. Hardouin quotes an edict of the Emperor
states, to Zeno against monopolies of hedgehogs and carding materials, if, indeed,
me com- that is the meaning of the word " pectinum."
tmay be
ol. iii.p.
 310 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 57. (38 . )- THE LEONTOPHONUS, AND THE

There are also two other animals, whose uri
very wonderful properties. We have heard speak
animal, to which the name of leontophonus 91 has
and which is said to exist only in those countries wh
is produced ; if its flesh is only tasted by the lion,
venomous is its nature, that this lord of the other
instantly expires. Hence it is, that the hunters
burn its body to ashes, and sprinkle a piece of fle
powder, and so kill the lion by means of the ash
fatal to it is this poison ! The lion, therefore,
good reason hates the leontophonus, and after de
sight, kills it without inflicting a bite : the ani
other hand, sprinkles the lion with its urine, being
that this too is fatal to it.
The urine of the lynx, in the countries 92 where
is produced, either becomes crystallized, or else ha
precious stone, resembling the carbuncle, and which
fire.93 This is called lyncurium ;94 and hence it is
persons believe that this is the way in which am
duced. The lynx, being well aware of this prope
us the possession of its urine, and therefore burie
earth ;95 by this, however, it becomes solid all the

CHAP. 58. - BADGERS AND SQUIRRELS.

The badger, when alarmed, shows its fear by
kind of artifice ; inflating the skin, it distends i
degree,96 as to repel equally the blows of men and
dogs . The squirrel, also, has the power of foresee
90 These statements are from the treatise De Mirab. A
Cuvier remarks, are fabulous, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 470 ; Aj
p. 458.-B.
91 AεOVTOPоvòç, the " lion-killer."
92 See c. 30 of this Book.
93 This fable is referred to by Ovid, Metam. B. xv. 1, 414,
phrastus in his Treatise on Stones.
94 See B. xxxvii. c. 11.
95 It is not unusual for animals to cover their excremen
probably from the fact of their being annoyed by the unpl
-B.
96 This statement respecting the " meles," or badger, as w
said of the prescience of the squirrel, is without foundation
= VIII. Chap. 59. ] VIPERS AND SNAILS . 311

1.90 and so, stopping up its hole at the side from which the wind
blows, it leaves the other side open ; besides which, the tail,
ssesses
small which is furnished with longer hair than the rest of the body,
serves as a covering for it. It appears, therefore, * that some
given,
Thelion animals lay up a store of food for the winter, while others
tensely pass the time in sleep, which serves them instead of food .
rupeds
e lion CHAP. 59. (39. )— VIPERS AND SNAILS.
ith the It is said, that the viper is the only one among the serpents
en-so that conceals itself in the earth ; the others lurking either in
vithout the hollows of trees or in holes in the rocks.97 Provided they
ing its are not destroyed by cold, they can live there, without taking
on the 98
food, for a whole year. During the time that they are asleep
aware in their retreat, none of them are venomous.
A similar state of torpor exists also in snails. These animals
animal again become dormant during the summer, adhering very
s into a powerfully to stones ; and even, when turned up and pulled
es like away from the stones, they will not leave their shells. In the
t many Balearic isles, the snails which are known as the cave-snail,⁹
is pro- do not leave their holes in the ground, nor do they feed upon
envies any green thing, but adhere to each other like so many grapes.
in the There is another less common species also, which is closed by
er. an operculum that adheres to the shell.1 These animals al-
ways burrow under the earth, and were formerly never found,
except in the environs of the Maritime Alps ; they have, how-
ifferent ever, of late been dug up in the territory of Liternum ; the
such a been some difference of opinion respecting the identity of the animal, which
bite of Pliny calls " meles ;" by some it has been supposed to be the polecat, or
else the weasel.- B.
storms,
96* This bears reference to what is said of bears in c. 54, and of Alpine
but, as mice and hedgehogs.
vol vi 97 This statement is contrary to the account given by Aristotle, Hist.
Anim. B. viii. c. 15 ; he says, that while other serpents conceal themselves
in holes in the earth, vipers conceal themselves under rocks. - B.
98 Cuvier remarks, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 458, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 473, that
Theo nothing is more striking, either to the vulgar or to the man of science,
than the long abstinence from food which serpents are capable of
enduring.-B.
h earth, 99 Cavatica.
todour, 1 This is the case with the Helix Pomatia, and still more so with the
Helix Neritoidea, which is very common in the neighbourhood of Nice,
what is and which, at the approach of winter, is furnished with an operculum of
ere has great thickness. —B. 2 See B. iii. c. 9.
 312 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

most valued, however, of all, are those of the islan

palæa.³
CHAP. 60. -LIZARDS.
It is said, that the lizard, the greatest enemy o
snail, never prolongs its life beyond six months.
of Arabia are a cubit in length," while those upo
mountain of India, are twenty-four feet long, t
being either yellow, purple, or azure blue.

CHAP. 61. (40. )- THE QUALITIES OF THE DOG ; E

ITS ATTACHMENT TO ITS MASTER ; NATIONS W
KEPT DOGS FOR THE PURPOSES OF WAR.
Among the animals, also, that are domesticated wit
there are many circumstances that are far from u
of being known : among these, there are more p
that most faithful friend of man, the dog, and the
have an account of a dog that fought against a band
in defending its master ; and although it was pi
wounds, still it would not leave the body, from whi
away all birds and beasts. Another dog, again,
recognized the murderer of its master, in the mids
semblage of people, and, by biting and barking a
torted from him a confession of his crime. A k
Garamantes also was brought back from exile by tw
dogs, which maintained the combat against all his
The people of Colophon ' and Castabala kept troop
for the purposes of war ; and these used to fight in
rank, and never retreat ; they were the most faithf
iliaries, and yet required no pay. After the def
Cimbri, their dogs defended their moveable houses,
carried upon waggons. Jason, the Lycian, having
3 See B. iv. c. 23. The Romans valued them as a delicate
This account appears to be principally from Aristotle,
B. v. c. 29.-B.
5 According to Cuvier, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 458, and Lema
p. 475, the species of lizard named monitor, frequently exceed
but he remarks, in reference to the size of the Indian lizard,
the saurians, except the crocodile, attains the length here ment
6 See B. vi. c. 23. 7 See B. v. c. 31.
8 See B. v. c. 22, and B. vi. c. 3.
= VIII. Chap . 61. ] DOGS . 313

Asty- his dog refused to take food, and died of famine. A dog, to
which Darius gives the name of Hyrcanus, upon the funeral
pile of King Lysimachus being lighted, threw itself into the
flames, 9 and the dog of King Hiero did the same. Philistus
to the also gives a similar account of Pyrrhus, the dog of the tyrant
lizards Gelon : and it is said, also, that the dog of Nicomedes, king of
sa, a Bithynia, tore Consingis, 10 the wife of that king, in consequence
colour of her wanton behaviour, when toying with her husband.
Among ourselves, Volcatius, a man of rank, who instructed
Cascellius in the civil law, " as he was riding on his Asturian
jennet, towards evening, from his country-house, was attacked
LES OF
by a robber, and was only saved by his dog . The senator
HAVE 12
Cælius, too, while lying sick at Placentia, was surprised by
armed men, but received not a wound from them until they
nkind, had first killed his dog. But a more extraordinary fact than
Serving all, is what took place in our own times, and is testified by the
public register of the Roman people. In the consulship of
cularly
. We Appius Junius and P. Silius, when Titius Sabinus¹³ was put to
abbers, 9 This anecdote is referred to by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 25. He
with gives an account of the dog of Gelon, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 62, and Var.
drove Hist. B. i. c. 13.-B.
10 Tzetzes, Chil. iii. of his History, calls her Ditizela, and thus alludes
Epirus, to this story : " The said Nicomedes had a dog of very large size, and of
an as- Molossian breed, which manifested great fidelity to him. One day seeing
m, ex- his mistress, the wife of Nicomedes, and the mother of Prusias, Zielus, and
ofthe Lysandra, Ditizela, by name, and a Phrygian by birth, toying with the
indred king, he took her for an enemy, and rushing on her, tore her right shoul-
der." It is supposed that she died of the injuries thus received. Some
Onents. editions call her Condingis, and others Cosingis.
dogs, 11 A. Cascellius was an eminent Roman jurist, but nothing seems to be
e front known of his preceptor, Volcatius, whose prænomen is thought to have been
faux. Mucius. Cascellius was noted for his great eloquence and his stern re-
publican principles ; and of Cæsar's conduct and government he spoke with
of the the greatest freedom. He never advanced in civic honours beyond the
2 were quæstorship, though he was offered the consulship by Augustus ; which he
slain, declined. He is frequently quoted in the Digest. Horace, in his Art of
Poetry, 11. 371, 372, pays a compliment to the legal reputation of
Cascellius, who is also mentioned by Valerius Maximus and Macrobius.
Anim. 12 From Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vii. c. 10, it appears that his name was
Cælius Calvus, but probably no further particulars are known of him.
vol. iii. 13 He was a distinguished Roman eques, and a friend of Germanicus ;
s size; for which reason he incurred the hatred of Sejanus. To satisfy the ven-
one of geance of Tiberius and his favourite Sejanus, one Latinus Latiaris, a sup-
-B. posed friend of Sabinus, induced him to speak in unguarded terms of
Sejanus and Tiberius, and then betrayed his confidence. He was put to
death in prison.
314 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

death, together with his slaves, for the affair of N

Germanicus, it was found impossible to drive awa
belonged to one of them from the prison ; nor coul
away from the body, which had been cast down t
steps ; but there it stood howling, in the pre
multitudes of people ; and when some one threw a
to it, the animal carried it to the mouth of its ma
wards, when the body was thrown into the T
swam into the river, and endeavoured to raise
water ; quite a throng of people being collected t
instance of an animal's fidelity.
Dogs are the only animals that are sure to know
and if they suddenly meet him as a stranger, they
recognize him. They are the only animals that
to their names, and recognize the voices of the fa
recollect a road along which they have passed,
it may be. Next to man, there is no living c
memory is so retentive. By sitting down on th
may arrest their most impetuous attack, even w
by the most violent rage.
In daily life we have discovered many other v
ties in this animal ; but its intelligence and saga
especially shown in the chase. It discovers and
tracks of the animal, leading by the leash 15 the sp
accompanies it straight up to the prey ; and as s
has perceived it, how silent it is, and how secret b
is the indication which it gives, first by the tail a
by the nose ! 16 Hence it is, that even when w
old age, blind, and feeble, they are carried by t
in his arms, being still able to point out the c
the game is concealed, by snuffing with their m
wind. The Indians raise a breed between the
tiger, " and for this purpose tie up the females
14 More commonly called the Gradus or Scale Gemoniæ
wailing;" a place down which the bodies of the criminal
when executed in prison.- B.
15 " Lorum," the leather thong by which the dogs were
proper moment, when they were " let slip" upon their prey
16 This is mentioned by Gratian, Cyneget. 1. 237.-B.
17 This practice is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim
and Diodorus Siculus, B. xvii. But Cuvier informs us, t
tiger nor the panther are capable of generating with the do
 ookVIII. Chap. 61 ] DOGS. 315
he son of when in heat. The first two litters they look upon as too savage
g which to be reared, but they bring up the third.
be forced The Gauls do the same with the wolf and the dog ; 18 and
mitorian their packs of hounds have, each of them, one of these dogs,
of vast
which acts as their guide and leader. This dog they follow
of bread in the chase, and him they carefully obey ; for these animals
After. have even a notion of subordination among themselves. It is
the dog asserted that the dogs keep running when they drink at the
t of the Nile, for fear of becoming a prey to the voracity of the
ness this crocodile.119 When Alexander the Great was on his Indian
expedition, he was presented by the king of Albania with a
masters; dog of unusual size ; being greatly delighted with its noble
instantly appearance, he ordered bears, and after them wild boars, and
1 answer then deer, to be let loose before it ; but the dog lay down, and
y. They regarded them with a kind of immoveable contempt. The
ever long noble spirit of the general became irritated by the sluggish-
re whose ness thus manifested by an animal of such vast bulk, and he
ound, we ordered it to be killed . The report of this reached the king,
prompted who accordingly sent another dog, and at the same time sent
word that its powers were to be tried, not upon small animals,
ble quali but upon the lion or the elephant ; adding, that he had had
are more originally but two, and that if this one were put to death, the
es out the race would be extinct. Alexander, without delay, procured a
man who lion, which in his presence was instantly torn to pieces. He
as ever it then ordered an elephant to be brought, and never was he
ignificant more delighted with any spectacle ; for the dog, bristling up
fterwards its hair all over the body, began by thundering forth a loud
out with barking, and then attacked the animal, leaping at it first on
untsman one side and then on the other, attacking it in the most skilful
rts where manner, and then again retreating at the opportune moment,
es atthe until at last the elephant, being rendered quite giddy by turn-
and the ing round and round, fell to the earth, and made it quite re-
he forests echo with his fall.

De stairs of that the account was invented to enhance the value of the spotted or striped
re thrown, dogs, which were brought from India.- B.
18 The dog is capable of generating with the wolf ; and as what is termed
d until the the shepherd's dog much resembles the wolf, Cuvier conceives it not impos-
sible, that it may have originated from this mixture ; Ajasson, vol. vi. p.
459 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 481.-B. I
viii. c.33, 19 This is mentioned by Elian, in his Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 53, and his Var.
either the Hist. B. i. c. 4. It likewise forms the subject of one of Phædrus's Fables.
esupposes
316 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

-THE GENERATION OF THE DOG

CHAP. 62.-
This animal brings forth twice in the year ;
of bearing young when a year old, and gestation
sixty days. The young ones are born blind, and
the supply of nourishment from the mother's m
slowly do they acquire their sight ; still, howeve
takes place later than the twentieth day, or ear
seventh. It is said by some writers, that if only
it is able to see on the ninth day ; and that if t
they begin to see on the tenth, every additional on
power of seeing to come a day later. It is said,
females which are produced by the mother in h
are subject to the night-mare.21 The best dog of
the one which is last in obtaining its sight, or
which the mother carries first into her bed.

CHAP. 63. - REMEDIES AGAINST CANINE MAD

Canine madness is fatal to man during the hea

and, as we have already said, it proves so in co
those who are bitten having a deadly horror of w
this reason, during the thirty days 25 that this st
influence, we try to prevent the disease by mixing

20 These statements are probably, for the most part,

Hist. Anim, B. v. c. 14, and B. vi . c. 20.-B.
21Faunos cerni." Hardouin remarks on these words ; 66
the sight, and rushing upon each other, like the Ephialte
for a farther explanation, to his commentary on the passage
10, where the subject is treated more at large. The Ephialt
supposed to have been what we term incubus or nightmare.-
22 All these remedies are perfectly useless. - B.
23 Pliny details the noxious effects, conceived to be produ
fluence of Sirius, in B. ii. c. 40, and, among others, its tende
canine madness. In B. xxix. c. 32, he enumerates the va
proposed for the disease; these, however, are equally ine
those mentioned here.-B.
24 We have an account of this disease in Celsus, B.
especially of the peculiar symptom from which it derive
denomination. It is remarkable that Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
speaking of canine madness, says, that it is communicated by
animals, except man.-B. See B. vii. c. 13.
25 It appears that there was a difference of opinion as to
days during which the Dog-star continued to exercise its inf
-ok VIII. Chap . 64. ] HORSES . 317

the poultry-yard with the dog's food ; or else, if they are al-
ready attacked by the disease, by giving them hellebore.
capable (41.) We have a single remedy against the bite, which has
nues for
been but lately discovered, by a kind of oracle, as it were-
greater the root of the wild rose, which is called cynorrhodos,26 or dog-
he more rose. Columella informs us, that if, on the fortieth day after
is never
the birth of the pup, the last bone of the tail is bitten off, the
than the sinew will follow with it ; after which, the tail will not grow,
is born, and the dog will never become rabid.27 It is mentioned, among
aretwo, the other prodigies, and this I take to be one indeed, that a
sing the dog once spoke ;28 and that when Tarquin was expelled from
that the the kingdom, a serpent barked .
rst litter,
litter is CHAP. 64. ( 42. )—THE NATURE OF THE HORSE.
the one
King Alexander had also a very remarkable horse ;29 it
was called Bucephalus, either on account of the fierceness of
22 its aspect, or because it had the figure of a bull's head marked
on its shoulder. It is said, that he was struck with its beauty
Sirius, " when he was only a boy, and that it was purchased from the stud
of Philonicus, the Pharsalian, for thirteen talents.⁰ When it
uence of
24 For was equipped with the royal trappings, it would suffer no one
-xerts its except Alexander to mount it, although at other times it would
allow any one to do so. A memorable circumstance connected
ng from
with it in battle is recorded of this horse ; it is said that when
Aristotle, it was wounded in the attack upon Thebes, it would not allow
Alexander to mount any other horse. Many other circum-
ing before stances, also, of a similar nature, occurred respecting it ; so that
nd refers when it died, the king duly performed its obsequies, and built
B. XXV. C. around its tomb a city, which he named after it.³¹
generally It is said, also, that Cæsar, the Dictator, had a horse, which
26 The history of this supposed discovery is related more at large, B. xxv.
by the in- c. 2 and 6. The popular name of the plant is still the " dog-rose."-B.
toproduce 27 Columella says, that the operation prevents the tail from acquiring
remedies "foedum incrementum," " a foul increase;" and, as many shepherds say,
ous with secures the animal from the disease. - B.
28 This is one of the marvellous tales related by Julius Obsequens,
27, and c. 103.-B.
classical 29 Plutarch, in his Life of Alexander, gives some account of this cele-
iii. c.22, brated horse, and Aulus Gellius, B. v. c. 2, devotes a chapter to it.-B.
dog toall 30 Ajasson estimates the price to have been 70,200 francs, £2925
sterling.-B .
umber of 31 Situate on the river Hydaspes ; Q. Curtius calls it Bucephalus.-B.
.-B. See B. vi. c. 23, where it is called Bucephala.
 318 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

would allow no one to mount but himself, and th

feet were like those of a man ; indeed it is thus
in the statue before the temple of Venus Genetrix.
Emperor Augustus also erected a tomb to his hors
occasion Germanicus Cæsar 33 wrote a poem, which
There are at Agrigentum many tombs of horses, in
pyramids.34 Juba informs us, that Semiramis w
enamoured of a horse, as to have had connectio
The Scythian horsemen make loud boasts of the f
cavalry. On one occasion, one of their chiefs
slain in single combat, when the conqueror came
spoils of the enemy, he was set upon by the horse
nent, and trampled on and bitten to death . An
upon the bandage being removed from his eyes, fo
had covered his mother, upon which he threw hin
precipice, and was killed. We learn, also, that
cause, a groom was torn to pieces, in the territory
For these animals have a knowledge of the ties of co
and in a stud a mare will attend to its sister of t
year, even more carefully than its mother.
Their docility, too, is so great, that we find it
the whole of the cavalry of the Sybarite army were
to perform a kind of dance to the sound of musical
These animals also foresee battles ; they lamen
masters when they have lost them, and sometimes
of regret for them. When King Nicomedes w
horse put an end to its life by fasting. Phylar

32 This account is given by Suetonius, Life of Julius Cæsar,

suggests that the hoofs may have been notched, and tha
probably exaggerated the peculiarity, so as to produce the
a human foot.-B.
33 The nephew of Tiberius and the father of the Emperor
34 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 40, states that three mar
and Evagoras, which had been victorious in the Olympic gam
with sepulchral honours in the Ceramicus. - B.
35 Ajasson suggests, with much plausibility, that when con
description are mentioned, the report originated from pe
significant names, as Leboeuf and Poulain ; analogous to
Lamb, Bull, Hog, &c. - B.
46 See B. iii. c. 17.
37 We here find Pliny tripping, for he has previously s
c. 1, that man is the only animated being that sheds tears
19 of the present Book, where he represents the lion as she
 VIIL Chap. 65.] HORSES . 319

s fore- that Centaretus,38 the Galatian, after he had slain Antiochus

Esented in battle, took possesion of his horse, and mounted it in tri-
The late umph ; upon which the animal, inflamed with indignation,
which regardless of the rein and become quite ungovernable, threw
exists. itself headlong down a precipice, and they both perished to-
form of gether. Philistus relates, that Dionysius having left his horse
greatly stuck fast in a morass, the animal, as soon as it disengaged
th it. itself, followed the steps of its master, with a swarm of bees,
of their which had settled on its mane ; and that it was in consequence
g been of this portent, that Dionysius gained possession of the king-
ake the dom.39
s oppo
horse, CHAP. 65.-
-THE DISPOSITION OF THE HORSE ; REMARKABLE FACTS
that he CONCERNING CHARIOT HORSES.
downa
similar These animals possess an intelligence which exceeds all de-
scription.40 Those who have to use the javelin are well
Reate.
aware how the horse, by its exertions and the supple move-
quinity,
ments of its body, aids the rider in any difficulty he may have
eceding in throwing his weapon. They will even present to their
ed that master the weapons collected on the ground. The horses too,
istomed that are yoked to the chariots in the Circus, beyond a doubt,
display remarkable proofs how sensible they are to encourage-
uments.
er their ment and to glory. In the Secular games, which were cele-
tears brated in the Circus, under the Emperor Claudius, when the
charioteer Corax, who belonged to the white party," was
ain, his
thrown from his place at the starting-post, his horses took the
relates,
lead and kept it, opposing the other chariots, overturning them ,
Cuvier and doing every thing against the other competitors that could
sculptor have been done, had they been guided by the most skilful
blance to charioteer ; and while we quite blushed to behold the skill of
man excelled by that of the horse, they arrived at the goal,
ula.-B. after going over the whole of the prescribed course. Our
Miltiades
re buried ancestors considered it as a still more remarkable portent, that
38 Elian calls him Centoarates. Antiochus I., or Soter, is here alluded
ons ofthis to. He was killed in battle with the Galli or Galatians, B.C. 261 .
who had 39 Mentioned by Cicero, De Divin. B. i . c. 33.-B.
James of 40 Hardouin refers to the works of Busbequius, in which we meet with
nearly the same account of the sagacity of the horse, as in Pliny ; Le-
maire, iii. 489.
n B. vi,i 41 As already mentioned in the Note to c. 54 of the last Book, there
e also c. were four parties or factions of the charioteers who were named from the
tears. colour of their dress.
320 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

when a charioteer had been thrown from his pla

beian games of the Circus,42 the horses ran to th
as if he had been standing in the car, and wen
round the temple there. But what is the greatest
is the fact that the horses of Ratumenna came
Rome, with the palm branch and chaplet, he h
fallen from his chariot, after having gained the
which circumstance the Ratumennian gate deriv
When the Sarmatæ are about to undertake a
they prepare their horses for it, by making t
day before, during which they give them but lit
by these means they are enabled to travel on ho
out stopping, for one hundred and fifty miles.
are known to live fifty years ; but the females a
lived . These last come to their full growth at
the males a year later. The poet Virgil has ve
described the points which ought more especially
for, as constituting the perfection of a horse ;45
also treated of the same subject, in my work45* on
Javelin by Cavalry, and I find that pretty nearly
agreed respecting them.46 The points requisite
are somewhat different, however ; and while h
in training for other purposes at only two years
not admitted to the contests of the Circus before th
CHAP. 66. THE GENERATION OF THE HO
The female of this animal carries her your
months, and brings forth in the twelfth. The co
place at the vernal equinox, and generally in b
the age of two years ; but the colt is much stron
parents are three years old. The males are capa
42 The games of the Circus were divided into the Patrici
beian; the first being conducted by generals, consuls, and th
the latter by the ædiles of the people. - B.
43 Related somewhat more at large by Plutarch, in his Li
-B.
4 Many of these particulars are from Aristotle, Hist
c. 22.-- B. 45 Georgics, B. iii. 1. 72, et seq. -E
45* See Introduction to vol. i. p. vii.
46 Varro, de Re Rust. B. ii. c. 7 ; and Columella, B.
treated on this subject at considerable length. -B.
47 The materials of this chapter appear to have been p
from Aristotle, Varro, and Columella. -B.
BookVIIL Chap. 66.] HORSES . 321

the ple ing up to the thirty-third year, and it is not till after the twen-
pitol, just tieth that they are taken for this purpose from the Circus.
ree times At Opus,48 it is said, a horse served as a stallion until his
igy ofall fortieth year ; though he required some assistance in raising the
n Veii to fore part of the body. There are few animals, however, in
If having which the generative powers are so limited, for which reason
ry; from it is only admitted to the female at certain intervals ;49 indeed it
is name. cannot cover as many as fifteen times in the course of one year.50
journey, The sexual passion of the mare is extinguished by cropping her
fast the mane ; she is capable of bearing every year up to the fortieth .
to drink; We have an account of a horse having lived to its seventy-fifth
ck, with year. The mare brings forth standing upright, and is attached,
beyond all other animals, to her offspring. The horse is born
me horses
with a poisonous substance on its forehead, known as hippo-
Ot so long- 51
Fifth rear, manes, and used in love philtres ; it is the size of a fig, and of
eautifully a black colour ; the mother devours it immediately on the birth :
belooked of the foal, and until she has done so, she will not suckle it.
When this substance can be rescued from the mother, it has
self have
Use ofthe the property of rendering the animal quite frantic by the
smell. If a foal has lost its mother, the other mares in the
riters are
he Circus herd that have young, will take charge of the orphan. It
is said that the young of this animal cannot touch the earth
Sare put with the mouth for the first three days after its birth . The
they are more spirited a horse is, the deeper does it plunge its nose into
Fifth year. the water while drinking. The Scythians prefer mares for
the purposes of war, because they can pass their urine without
stopping in their career.
eleven
48 See B. iv. c. 12.
tion takes
49 Varro, ubi supra, gives considerably different directions on this point ;
sexes, at he says , " Intercourse is to be allowed, at the proper season of the year,
when the twice a day, morning and evening."
of cover. 50 This sentence in Columella, ubi supra, seems to illustrate the meaning,
which is somewhat obscure : " Veruntamen "" nec minus quam quindecim, nec
d the Ple plures quam viginti, unus debet implere '—"“ One male ought to be coupled
ule ædiles with not more than twenty females, nor less than fifteen."
51 Cuvier states, that the hippomanes is a concretion occasionally found
Publicais in the liquor amnii of the mare, and which it devours, from the same kind
of instinctive feeling which causes quadrupeds generally to devour the after-
m. B. vì. birth. He remarks, however, that this can have no connection with the
attachment which the mother bears to her offspring ; Ajasson, vol. vi. p.
459 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 495. The hippomanes is said to have been em-
29. have ployed by the sorceresses of antiquity, as an ingredient in their amatory po-
tions. Šee Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 24, and Ælian, Anim. Nat.
ally taken B. xiv. c. 18.-B. See also B. xxviii. c. 11.
VOL. II. Y
322 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAP. 67.- MARES IMPREGNATED BY THE W

It is well known that in Lusitania, in the vicinity
of Olisipo 62 and the river Tagus, the mares, byturni
towards the west wind as it blows, become impreg
breezes, and thatthe foals which are conceived in th
markable for their extreme fleetness ; but they neve
three years. Gallicia and Asturia are also countr
they produce a species of horse known to us as
and when smaller, asturcones ;55 they have a pecu
common pace of their own, which is very easy, and
the two legs of the same side being moved togeth
studying the nature of this step that our horses have
the movement which we call ambling.57 Horse
nearly the same diseases as men ;58 besides whic
subject to an irregular action of the bladder, as, i
case with all beasts of burden.59

CHAP. 68. (45 .)-THE ASS, ITS GENERATIO

M. Varro informs us that Quintus Axius, the
for an ass the sum of four hundred thousand seste
52 Now Lisbon. See B. iv. c. 35.
53 The accounts given, by Phoenician navigators, of the fe
tania, and the frequency of the mild western breezes, gave r
here mentioned, which has been generally received by the
that not merely by the poets, as Virgil, Geor. B. iii. 1. 27
practical writers, as Varro, B. ii. c. 1, and Columella, B. vi.
however, B. xliv. c. 3, attributes the opinion to the great siz
and their remarkable fleetness, from which they were said to
the wind.-B.
54 The origin and meaning of this name is not known.- ]
55 Martial describes the peculiar short, quick step of the
one of his Epigrams, B. xiv. Ep. 199.-B.
56 " Alterno crurum explicatu glomeratio ;" it would not
give a literal translation, but we may judge ofthe meaning
-B. He clearly alludes to a movement like our canter.
57 " Tolutim carpere incursus ;" Hardouin explains this
to Plautus, Asinaría, A. iii. sc. 3, 1.116. " Tolutim ni badiz
do not amble, lifting up your feet."
58 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 24, gives an account
of horses.- B.
69 " Genere veterino ;" so called, according to Hardoui
tura," " carriage," as applicable to horses, asses, and mules ;
iii. p. 497.-B.
60 There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the ex
 VIML THE ASS .
Chap. 68. ] 323

not sure whether this did not exceed the price ever given
etown for any other animal. It is certainly a species of animal sin-
ir faces gularly useful for labour and ploughing, but more especially
dby its for the production of mules.62 In these animals also, the
Tarere. country in which they are born is taken into consideration ;
63
beyond in Greece, those from Arcadia are the most valued ; and in
Italy, those of Reate.64 The ass is an animal which is unable
Spain; 65
_dones, to endure cold, for which reason it is that it is never produced
and not in Pontus ; nor is it allowed to cover at the vernal equinox, like
ses from other cattle, but at the summer solstice. The males are less
proper for covering, when out of work. The earliest age at
it isby
taught which the females are ever capable of bearing is the thirtieth
ve very month, but the usual time begins at the age of three years.
The number to which it gives birth is the same as the mare,
hey are
, is the which it also resembles , in the length of its gestation , and in
its mode of bringing forth ; but the female will discharge the
generative fluid from the womb, being unable to retain it,
unless by blows she is forced to run immediately after
being covered. They seldom bring forth two at one birth."
or, paid When the she-ass is about to bring forth, she shuns the
.60 Iam light and seeks darkness, in order to escape the observation
of man . Asses are capable of breeding throughout the
ofLusi whole of their life, which extends to thirty years. Their
the fable attachment to their young is great in the extreme , but their
-nts ; and aversion to water is still greater. They will pass through fire to
5, but by get at their foals, while the very same animal, if the small-
Justin,
he horses, sums of money mentioned by the ancients. We read in Varro, B. ii. c. 1,
esonsof and B. ii. c. 8, of enormous prices said to have been given for asses, and
the particular case of Axius is mentioned, B. iii. c. 2 ; according to the
usual estimate, the sum here mentioned amounts to upwards of £3200
urco,"i sterling.- B.
61 See B. xvii. c. 5.
ossible to 62 Varro, B. i . c. 20, and B. iii. c. 16, and Columella, B. vii. c. 1 , en-
context. large upon the valuable qualities of the ass for agricultural purposes ; Co-
lumella, B. vi. c. 37, treats at length upon the production of mules.—B.
reference 63 See a passage in Plautus, in which the superior excellence of the asses
"Ifyou of Arcadia is referred to ; Asinaria, A. ii. sc. 2, 1. 67.—B.
64 See B. iii. c. 17.
diseases 65 This property is mentioned by Herodotus, B. iv. c. 28, and by Aristotle,
Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 27, also De Gener. Anim. B. ii. c. 8, and by Strabo,
n " vec. B. vii. The ass is a native of Arabia, and degenerates when brought into
aire, vol. a cold climate. - B.
66 These circumstances appear to have been taken from Aristotle, Hist.
mount of Anim. B. v. c. 14, and B. vi. c. 23.-B.
Y 2
324 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.

est stream intervenes, will tremble, and not dare so

to wet even its feet. Nor yet in their pastures
ever drink at any but the usual watering-place, and
it their care to find some dry path by which to
They will not pass over a bridge either, when the wa
seen between the planks beneath. Wonderful to
if their watering-places are changed, though they
ever so thirsty, they will not drink without being eit
or caressed. They ought always to have plenty of
sleeping; for they are very subject to various diseas
sleep, when they repeatedly throw out their feet,
immediately lame themselves by coming in contact
hard substance ; so that it is necessary that they
provided with an empty space. The profit which
from these animals exceeds that arising from the rich
It is a well-known fact, that in Celtiberia there are
asses which have produced to their owners as much a
dred thousand sesterces.68 In the rearing of she-mul
to be particularly necessary to attend to the colour
of the ears and the eyelids, for, although the rest o
be all of one colour, the mule that is produced will h
colours that are found in those parts. Maecenas w
person who had the young of the ass served up at
they were in those times much preferred to the ona
ass ;70
70 but, since his time, the taste has gone out
An ass, after witnessing the death of another ass,
but a very short time only.

CHAP. 69. (44. )- THE NATURE OF MULES,"71 AND OF OT

OF BURDEN.
From the union of the male ass and the mare a n

67 " Per raritatem eorum translucentibus fluviis."-B.

68 Upwards of £ 3200 sterling. -B.
69 An epigram of Martial, B. xiii. Ep. 97, appears to refe
ployment of the young ass as an article of food.-B. The fan
of Bologna are made, it is said, of asses' flesh.
70 The onager, according to Cuvier, is the same with the as
state; it still exists in large herds in various parts of South
is called by the Tartars, Kulan.- B.
71 Most of the circumstances here mentioned appear to hav
from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 24 and 36 ; Varro, B.
Columella, B. vi. c. 37.-B.
 okVIII
Chap. 69. ] MULES, ETC. 325
uch as
duced in the thirteenth month, an animal remarkable for its
il they strength in laborious work . We are told that, for this purpose,
eymake the mare ought not to be less than four years old, nor more
et at it. than ten. It is said also that these two species will repulse
I can be each other, unless the male has been brought up, in its infancy,
ate, too, upon the milk of the other species ; for which reason they
ould be take the foals away from the mare, in the dark, and substitute
r beaten for them the male colts of the ass. A mule may also be pro-
oom for duced from a horse and a female ass ; but it can never be pro-
in their perly broken in, and is incorrigibly sluggish," being in all
d would respects as slow as an old animal. If a mare has conceived
ith any by a horse, and is afterwards covered by an ass, the first con-
hould be ception is abortive ; but this is not the case when the horse
derived comes after the ass. It has been observed, that the female is
t estate. in the best state for receiving the male in the seventh day
Omeshe after parturition, and that the males are best adapted for the
Ourhun purpose when they are fatigued.73 A female ass, which has
itissaid not conceived before shedding what are called the milk-teeth,
thehair is considered to be barren ; which is also looked upon as the
the body case when a she-ass does not become pregnant after the first
e allthe covering. The male which is produced from a horse and a
the first female ass, was called by the ancients " hinnulus," and that
table from an ass and a mare " mulus." 74 It has been observed
orwild that the animal which is thus produced by the union of the
fashion. two species is of a third species, and does not resemble either
vives it of the parents ; and that all animals produced in this way, of
whatever kind they may be, are incapable of reproduction ;
she-mules are therefore barren. It is said, indeed , in our
R BEASTS Annals, that they have frequently brought forth ;75 but such
cases must be looked upon only as prodigies.76 Theophrastus

e ispro 72 It is expressly stated by Columella, ubi supra, that the mules " pro-
duced from a horse and a female ass, are in all respects most like the mo-
ther."
73 This is explained by Columella, ubi supra, who remarks, that when a
the em- stallion is admitted to a female in the full heat of its passion, it often causes
mischief; which is not the case when its ardour has been a little subdued
sausages
by having been worked for some time.-B.
the wild 74 Varro, ubi supra, says : " The produce of a mare and a male ass is a
Asia, and mule, of a horse and a female ass a hinnus."
75 Varro, B. ii. c. 1, alludes to this occurrence ; Livy mentions two in-
eentaken stances, B. xxvi. c. 23, and B. xxxvii. c. 3 ; these prodigies were said both
2.8; and to have occurred at Reate.- B .
76 Herodotus relates two cases, which were regarded as presaging some
 326 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY .

says that they commonly bring forth in Cappadocia ;

the animal of that country is of a peculiar specie
mule is prevented from kicking by frequently givin
to drink.78 It is said in the works of many of t
writers, that from the union of a mule with a mare,
mule is produced, which they call " ginnus." From
of the mare and the wild ass, when it has been dome
mule is produced which is remarkably swift in runnin
extremely hard feet, and a thin body, while it has a
is quite indomitable. The very best stallion of all,
for this purpose, is one produced from a union of the
and the female domesticated ass. The best wild
those of Phrygia and Lycaonia. Africa glories in
foals which she produces, as excelling all others in
these are called "lalisiones."79 It appears from some
records, that a mule once lived to the age of eighty ye
people were greatly delighted with this animal, b
one occasion, when, on the building of a temple in
del,80 it had been left behind on account of its age, it
in promoting the work by accompanying and assist
in consequence of which a decree was passed, that t
in corn were not to drive it away from their sieves.8

CHAP. 70. (45 . )-OXEN ; THEIR GENERATION

We find it stated, that the oxen of India are of
extraordinary event, B. iii. c. 153, and B. vii. c. 57. Juvena
1. 66, and Suetonius, Life of Galba, c. 4, speak of a pregnant
most extraordinary circumstance ; it seems to have given rise to
expression among the Romans. -B.
17 Cuvier remarks, that there is, in the deserts of Asia, a pec
with undivided hoofs, the Equus hemionus of naturalists, and th
of the Tartars, which bears a resemblance to our mules, but is
duce of the horse and the ass ; he refers us to Professor Pallas'
it in Acad. Petrop. Nov. Com. vol. xix. p. 394 ; Ajasson, vol.
Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 505.-B.
78 Pliny repeats this advice in B. xxx. c. 53 ; it is, of cou
without foundation. - B.
79 The epigram of Martial previously referred to bears th
See N. 69, p. 324.
80 This temple was the Parthenon. This anecdote is m
Arist. Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 24 ; Elian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 4
81 In which they probably exposed their samples for sale, as
do in small bags. The phrase is arò rov rnov, in Aristotle,
B. vi. c. 24, from whom Pliny takes the story.
 kVIII Chap. 70.] OXEN. 327

ut that of camels, and that the extremity of their horns are four feet
The asunder. In our part of the world the most valuable oxen are
it wine
those of Epirus, owing, it is said, to the attention paid to
Greek their breed by King Pyrrhus.82 This perfection was acquired
edwarf by not permitting them to breed until after their fourth year.
Leunion By these means he brought them to a very large size, and de-
cated, a scendants of this breed are still to be seen at the present day.
and has But in our times, we set heifers to breed in their first year, or,
rit that at the latest, in their second. Bulls are fit for breeding in their
owever, fourth year ; one being sufficient, it is said, for ten cows during
vild ass the whole year. If the bull, after covering, goes to the right
Sses are side, the produce will be a male ; if to the left, a female.83
he wild Conception takes place after a single union; but if, by any
Havour; accident, it should not have taken place, the cow seeks the
thenian male again, at the end of twenty days. She brings forth in
s. The the tenth month ; whatever may be produced before that time
ause on cannot be reared. Some writers say, that the birth takes place
he cita- the very day on which the tenth month is completed . This
ersisted animal but rarely produces twins. The time of covering begins
them; at the rising of the Dolphin, the day before the nones of
dealers January, and continues for the space of thirty days. Some-
times it takes place in the autumn ; and among those nations
which live upon milk, they manage so as to have a supply of
it at all times of the year. Bulls never cover more than twice
height in the same day. The ox is the only animal that walks back-
wards while it is feeding ; among the Garamantes, they feed
Sat. xiii. in no other manner. 85 The females live fifteen years at the
ule as a
roverbial longest, and the males twenty ; they arrive at their full vigour
in their fifth year. It is said that they are made fat by being
r animal
giggetai 82 This alleged superiority is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iii.
the pro- c. 91, by Varro, B. ii. c. 5, and by Columella, B. vi. c. 1 ; but it is re-
count of marked by Dalechamps and Hardouin, that the appellation of Pyrrhic given
to these oxen, was more probably derived from their red colour, ruppòs,
p. 461; than from the name of the king. The materials of this chapter are prin-
entirely cipally from the above writers, especially Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c.
21, and B. viii. c. 7.—B.
itle.-B. 83 This singular notion is mentioned by Varro and Columella, ubi supra ;
Cuvier says, that it is the origin of the pretended secret of producing the
oned by sexes at pleasure, which was published by Millot ; Ajasson, vol. vi. p.
461.-B. 84 4th January. See B. xviii. c. 64.
-B.
farmers 85 This is mentioned by Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183 ; this peculiarity in
t. Anim. their mode of taking their food is ascribed to the extraordinary length of
the horns ; it is also mentioned by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. xvi. c. 33.-B.
 328 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII . Chap. 79.]

washed in warm water, or by having the entrails inflated with The bu

air by means of a reed, introduced through an incision in the horns wh
skin. We must not look upon those kinds as having dege- bat; but
nerated, the appearance of which is not so favourable. Those anger.
that are bred in the Alps, although very small of body, give a tail ever
great quantity of milk, and are capable of enduring much his belly
labour ; they are yoked by the horns, and not by the neck. means.
shown a
The oxen of Syria have no dewlap, but they have a hump on
the back. Those of Caria also, which is in Asia, are un- then fell
sightly in appearance, having a hump hanging over the at other
shoulders from the neck ; and their horns are moveable ;8 .87 selves b
they are said, however, to be excellent workers, though those chariot,
which are either black or white are condemned as worthless for eers.92
labour.88 The horns of the bull are shorter and thinner than bulls, b
those of the ox. Oxen must be broken in when they are three tothem
years old ; after that time it is too late, and before that time Cæsar
too early. The ox is most easily broken in by yoking it with spectacl
one that has already been trained.89 This animal is our espe- Bulls
cial companion, both in labour generally, and in the operations offered
of agriculture. Our ancestors considered it of so much value, gods.
that there is an instance cited of a man being brought before only on
the Roman people, on a day appointed, and condemned, for ment o
having killed an ox, in order to humour an impudent concu- until it
bine of his, who said that she had never tasted tripe ; and he choice
was driven into exile, just as though he had killed one of his reache
own peasants.⁹⁰ sacrific
86 " Fœdi visu .'"" This is very similar to the expression used by Virgil, also be
1 the al
Georg. B. iii., when describing the points of an ox, 1. 52,-" cui turpi
caput -“ the head of which is unsightly ”—probably in allusion to its the go
large size. not a
87 According to Cuvier, there is an ox, in warm climates, which has a
mass of fat on the shoulders, and whose horns are only attached to the by El
skin ; Buffon has described it under the name of Zebu ; Ajasson, vol. vi. c. ix.-
p. 461 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 512.-B. 91 I
88 Ad laborem damnantur ;" with respect to the colour, Varro, B. ii. orbes,
c. 5, has the following remarks : "The best colours are black, red, pale red, makin
and white. The latter ones are the most delicate, the first the most hardy. 92
Of the two middle ones, the first is the best, and both are more valuable at the
than the first and last."
Roma
89 We have an account of this process in Columella, B. ii. c. 6.—B. 93
90 This anecdote is related by Valerius Maximus, B. viii. c. 1. Virgil, Victi
Georg. B. ii. 1. 537, speaks of the use of oxen in food, as a proof ofthe de- 94
generacy of later times, and as not existing during the Golden Age ; "Ante En.
Impia quam coesis gens est epulata juvencis." This feeling is alluded to bull
Chap. 70.] OXEN. 329

The bull has a proud air, a stern forehead, shaggy ears, and
horns which appear always ready, and challenging to the com-
bat ; but it is by his fore feet that he manifests his threatening
anger. As his rage increases, he stands, lashing back his
tail¹ every now and then, and throwing up the sand against
his belly ; being the only animal that excites himself by these
means. We have seen them fight at the word of command, and
shown as a public spectacle ; these bulls whirled about and
then fell upon their horns, and at once were up again ; then,
at other times, they would lie upon the ground and let them-
selves be lifted up ; they would even stand in a two-horsed
chariot, while moving at a rapid rate, like so many chariot-
eers .92 The people of Thessaly invented a method of killing
bulls, by means of a man on horseback, who would ride up
to them, and seize one of the horns, and so twist their neck.
Cæsar the Dictator was the first person who exhibited this
spectacle at Rome.
Bulls are selected as the very choicest of victims, and are
offered up as the most approved sacrifice for appeasing the
gods.93 Of all the animals that have long tails, this is the
only one whose tail is not of proportionate length at the mo-
ment of birth ; and in this animal alone it continues to grow
until it reaches its heels. It is on this account, that in making
choice of a calf for a victim, due care is taken that its tail
reaches to the pastern joint ; if it is shorter than this, the
sacrifice is not deemed acceptable to the gods. This fact has
also been remarked, that calves, which have been carried to
the altar on men's shoulders, are not generally acceptable to
the gods ; and also, 94 if they are lame, or of a species which is
not appropriate, or if they struggle to get away from the
by Elian, Anim. Nat. B. xii. c. 34, and by Suetonius, Life of Domitian,
c. ix.-B.
91 It is doubtful whether this is the meaning of " alternos replicans
orbes," or what indeed is the meaning. Most editions omit " orbes," thus
making the matter still worse.
92 Hardouin supposes that this alludes to the exhibition of oxen hunted
at the exhibition of shows and in the Circus, for the gratification of the
Roman people.-B.
93 Referred to by Virgil, Georg. B. ii. ll. 145, 146, “ et maxima taurus
Victima," "and the bull the largest victim of all." -B.
94 In reference to this remark, we may mention the passage in Virgil,
En. B. iii. c. 119, " Taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo.". " A
bull to thee, Neptune, a bull to thee, beauteous Apollo."
 330 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII,

altar. It was a not uncommon prodigy among the ancients,

for an ox to speak ; upon such a fact being announced to
the senate, they were in the habit of holding a meeting in
the open air.

96
CHAP. 71. (46. )— THE EGYPTIAN APIS.
In Egypt an ox is even worshipped as a deity ; they call it
Apis. It is distinguished by a conspicuous white spot on the
right side, in the form of a crescent. There is a knot also under
the tongue, which is called " cantharus." "" This ox is not
allowed to live beyond a certain number of years ; it is then de-
stroyed by being drowned in the fountain of the priests. They
then go, amid general mourning, and seek another ox to replace
it ; and the mourning is continued, with their heads shaved,
until such time as they have found one ; it is not long, however,
at any time, before they meet with a successor. When one has
been found, it is brought by the priests to Memphis. There
are two temples appropriated to it, which are called thalami, 98
and to these the people resort to learn the auguries. Accord-
ing as the ox enters the one or the other of these places, the
augury is deemed favourable or unfavourable. It gives
answers to individuals, by taking food from the hand of those
who consult it. It turned away from the hand of Germanicus
Cæsar, and not long after he died.99 In general it lives in
secret ; but, when it comes forth in public, the multitudes
make way for it, and it is attended by a crowd of boys, singing
hymns in honour of it ; it appears to be sensible of the adoration
thus paid to it, and to court it. These crowds, too, suddenly
become inspired, and predict future events. Once in the year
a female is presented to the ox, which likewise has her appro-
95 Instances are mentioned by Livy, B. xxxv. c. 21, and by Val. Maxi-
mus, B. i. c. 65.-B.
96 We have an account of Apis in Herodotus, B. iii . c. 28 ; also in Pom-
ponius Mela, B. i. c. 9 ; and in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xi . c. 10.-B.
97 " Quem cantharum appellant." According to Dalechamps, " So
called from the blackness of the colour, and its resemblance to a beetle."
Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 516. He refers the reader to a further account in B.
Xxx. c. 30.-B.
98 From the Greek Oaλaμòi, " bed-chambers."
99 Tacitus, Ann. B. ii. c. 69, gives an account of the sickness of Ger-
manicus after his return from Egypt, but does not refer to the circumstance
here mentioned.- B.
Chap. 72.] SHEEP. 331

priate marks, although different from those on the male ; and

it is said that she is always killed the very same day that
they find her. There is a spot in the Nile, near Memphis,
which, from its figure, they call Phiala ;¹ here they throw into
the water a dish of gold, and another of silver, every year upon
the days on which they celebrate the birth of Apis.2 These
days are seven in number, and it is a remarkable thing, that
during this time, no one is ever attacked by the crocodile ; on
the eighth day, however, after the sixth hour, these beasts
resume all their former ferocity.

CHAP. 72. ( 47. ) — SHEEP, AND THEIR PROPAGATION.³

Many thanks, too, do we owe to the sheep, both for ap-
peasing the gods, and for giving us the use of its fleece. As
oxen cultivate the fields which yield food for man, so to sheep
are we indebted for the defence of our bodies. The generative
power lasts in both sexes from the second to the ninth year,
sometimes to the tenth. The lambs produced at the first
birth are but small. The season for coupling, in all of them,
is from the setting of Arcturus,
5 that is to say, the third day
before the ides of May, to the setting of Aquila, the tenth
6
day before the calends of August. The period of gestation is
one hundred and fifty days. The lambs that are produced
after this time are feeble ; the ancients called those that were
born after it, cordi." Many persons prefer the lambs that
are born in the winter to those of the spring, because it is
of much more consequence that they should have gained
strength before the summer solstice than before the winter
one; consequently, the sheep is the only animal that is bene-
fitted by being born in the middle of winter. It is the nature of
1 The "goblet." See B. v. c. -10.
2 Seneca, Quæst. Nat. B. iv. c. 2, gives an account of this ceremony,
but does not refer to the birth of Apis.-B.
3 The contents of this Chapter appear to be principally from Varro, B.
ii. cc. 1, 2, and Columella, B. vii. cc. 2, 3, 4.-B.
4 This account is probably from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14 ; B.
vi. c. 19 ; and B. ix. c. 3, where we have various particulars respecting
the production and mode of life of the sheep.- B.
513th May. • 23rd July.
7 Varro, ubi supra, gives a somewhat different account : " Those lambs
are called ' cordi,' which are born after their time, and have remained
in the womb, called xopíov from which they take that name." - B.
 332 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VIII .

the ram to reject the young and prefer the old ones, and he him-
self is more serviceable when old, and when deprived of his
horns. He is also rendered less violent by having one horn
pierced towards the ear. If the right testicle is tied up, the
ram will generate females, and if the left, males . 10 The noise of
thunder produces abortion in sheep, if they are left alone ; to
prevent such accidents, they are brought together into flocks,
that they may be rendered less timid by being in company.
When the north-east wind blows, males are said to be conceived ;
⚫ and when the south wind, females. In this kind of animal,
the mouth of the ram is especially looked to, for whatever may
be the colour of the veins under the tongue, the wool of the
young one will be of a similar colour.11 If these veins are
many in number, it will be mottled. Any change, too, in their
water or drink, will render them mottled.¹2
There are 14 two principal kinds of sheep, the covered¹³ and
the colonic, or common sheep ; the former is the more tender
animal, but the latter is more nice about its pastures, for the

The expression " senecta melior," here employed, is limited by Colu-

mella, ubi supra, to the third year.-B.
9 Columella, B. vii. c. 8, remarks, " When deprived of his horns he
knows himself to be disarmed, as it were, and is not so ready to quarrel
and is less vehement in his passion."
10 Columella, B. vii. c. 23, refers to this practice ; he informs us, B. vi,
c. 28, that it is practised with respect to the horse. It is also referred to
by Aristotle, De Gen. Anim. B. iv. c. 1.—B.
11 For this we have the authority of Aristotle, ubi supra, and of Colu-
mella, ubi supra, who quotes from Virgil in support of it, Geor. B. iii. 1.
387, et seq.-B. " Although the ram be white himself, if there is a black
tongue beneath the palate, reject him, that he may not tinge the fleece of
the young with black spots."
12 Varro, B. ii . c. 2, remarks, " While the coupling is taking place, you
must use the same water ; for if it is changed, it will render the wool
spotted, and injure the womb."
13 Tectæ." The context shows that this means covered with skins or
a woollen girth, probably on account of their delicate nature, while the
common sheep of husbandry , or the " colonic " sheep , were able to endure
the rigour of the weather without any such protection .
14 The words are tectum and colonicum ; Columella, B. vii. c. 4, uses the
terms molle and hirsutum, and Varro, B. ii. c. 2, pellitum and hirtum . The
first obtained its name from its being covered with skins, to protect its
delicate fleece. The colonic is so called, from " colonus," a "husband-
man," this kind being so common as to be found in any village ; whereas
the tecta were rare.
Chap. 73.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOL . 333

covered sheep will feed on brambles even. The best coverings

for sheep are brought from Arabia.15

CHAP. 73. (43 .) — THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOL, AND THEIR

COLOURS. 16

The most esteemed wool of all is that of Apulia, and that

which in Italy is called Grecian wool, in other countries
Italian. The fleeces of Miletus hold the third rank.¹7 The
Apulian wool is shorter in the hair, and only owes its high
character to the cloaks 18 that are made of it. That which
comes from the vicinity of Tarentum and Canusium is the most
celebrated ; and there is a wool from Laodicea, in Asia, of a
similar quality.15 There is no white wool superior to that of
the countries bordering on the Padus,20 nor up to the present
day has any wool exceeded the price of one hundred sesterces
per pound.21 The sheep are not shorn in all countries ; in some
places it is still the custom to pull off the wool.22 There are
various colours of wool ; so much so, indeed, that we want
terms to express them all. Several kinds, which are called
15 We have some account of the Arabian sheep in Ælian, Anim. Nat.
B. x. c. 4.-B. Columella says, that the wool which was brought over to
make these coverings, was only to be obtained at a very great price.
16 The greatest part of this Chapter appears to be taken, with little vari-
ation, from Columella, B. vii. c. 2-4.- B.
17 Here Pliny differs from Columella, who remarks, B. vii . c. 2, " Our
people considered the Milesian, Calabrian, and Apulian wool as of excel-
lent quality, and the Tarentine the best of all.”
18 Pænula" was a check cloak, used chiefly by the Romans when
travelling, instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain.
It was used by women as well as men. It was long, and without sleeves,
and with only an opening for the head. Women were forbidden by Alex-
ander Severus to wear it in the city. It was made particularly of the
woolly substance known as gausapa.
19 The wool of Laodicea is celebrated by Strabo, B. xii.-B.
20 Columella, B. vii . c. 2, particularly notices the excellence of the wool
of Altinum, situate near the mouth of the Padus or Po . The following
epigram of Martial, B. xiv. c. 155, may be presumed to convey the opinion
of the respective merits of the different kinds of wool ; it is entitled " Lana
alba :" " Velleribus primis Apulia ; Parma secundis Nobilis ; Altinum
tertia laudat ovis." 66 Apulia is famed for its fleeces of the first quality,
Parma for the second, while Altinum is praised for those of the third."—В.
21 About twelve shillings sterling. -B.
22 Varro remarks, B. ii. c. 2, that the term " vellus," obviously from
"vello," " to pluck," proves that the wool was anciently plucked from the
sheep, before shearing had been invented. - B.
 334 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

native,23 are found in Spain ; Pollentia, in the vicinity of the

Alps, produces black fleeces of the best quality ; Asia, as well
as Bætica,25 the red fleeces, which are called Erythræan ; those
of Canusium are of a tawny colour ; and those of Tarentum
have their peculiar dark tint.27 All kinds of wool, when not
freed from the grease,28 possess certain medicinal properties.
The wool of Istria is much more like hair than wool, and is
not suitable for the fabrication of stuffs that have a long nap ;29
so too is that which Salacia,30 in Lusitania, finds the most useful
for making its chequered cloths. There is a similar wool, too,
found about Piscenæ,31 in the province of Narbonensis, as also
in Egypt ; a garment, when it has been worn for some time,
is often embroidered with this wool, and will last for a con-
siderable time.
The thick, flocky wool has been esteemed for the manu-
facture of carpets from the very earliest times ; it is quite
clear, from what we read in Homer, that they were in use in
his time.32 The Gauls embroider them in a different manner
from that which is practised by the Parthians.33 Wool is
23 " Quas nativas appellant." The term " nativa," as applied to the
wool, has been supposed to refer to those fleeces that possess a natural
colour, and do not require to be dyed.-B.
24 Martial, B. xiv. Ep. 157, calls the fleeces of Pollentia " Ingentes,"
"mournful," from their black colour ; they are also mentioned by Colu-
mella, ubi supra, and by Silius Italicus, B. viii. 1. 599.-B.
25 Martial, B. v. c. 37, describing the charms of a lady, says, 66 sur-
passing with her locks the fleece of the Bætic sheep," no doubt referring
""toaurea
the colour. In another Epigram, B. xii. E. 200, he speaks of the
vellera," the " golden fleece" of Bætis.- B .
26 Martial has two Epigrams on the wool of Canusium, B. xiv. E. 127,
and E. 129. In the former it is designated as " fusca," tawny ; in the
latter, " rufa," red.-B. 27 Šuæ pulliginis."-B.
28 The term here used, " succidus," is explained by Varro, B. ii. c. 11 :
"While the newly-clipped wool has the sweat in it, it is called ' succida.' "'
See B. xxix. c. 9.
29 "Pexis vestibus." According to Hardouin, the " pexa vestis," was
worn by the rich, and had a long and prominent nap, in contradistinction
to the smooth or worn cloths. He refers to a passage in Horace, B. i. Ep. i.
1. 95, and to one in Martial, B. ii. E. 58, which appear to sanction this
explanation. See Lem. vol. iii. p. 524.-B.
30 See B. iv. c. 35. 31 See B. iii. c. 5. Now Pezenas.
32 Καὶ ῥήγεα καλὰ
Πορφύρ᾽ ἐμβαλέειν, στορέσαι δ' ἐφύπερθε τάπητας.
Od. B. iv. 1. 427. " And to throw on fair coverlets of purple, and to lay
carpets upon them."
33 These were probably much like what we call “ Turkey" carpets.
Chap. 73.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOL. 335

compressed also for making a felt, which, ifsoaked in vinegar,

is capable of resisting iron even ; and, what is still more, after
having gone through the last process,36 wool will even resist
fire ; the refuse, too, when taken out of the vat of the scourer,
is used for making mattresses,37 an invention, I fancy, of the
Gauls. At all events, it is by Gallic names that we distin-
guish the different sort of mattresses38 at the present day ;
but I am not well able to say at what period wool began to be
39
employed for this purpose . Our ancestors made use of straw³⁹
for the purpose of sleeping upon, 40 just as they do at present
when in camp. The gausapa has been brought into use in
my father's memory, and I myself recollect the amphimalla¹¹
and the long shaggy apron being introduced ; but at the pre-
sent day, the laticlave tunic¹³ is beginning to be manufactured,
in imitation of the gausapa.*44 Black wool will take no colour.
34 The name given to this article, " lana coacta,'99 66 compressed wool,"
correctly designates its texture. The manufacturers of it were called "la-
narii coactores," and " lanarii coactiliarii."
35 "I have macerated unbleached flax in vinegar saturated with salt,
and after compression have obtained a felt, with a power of resistance quite
comparable with that of the famous armour of Conrad of Montferrat ;
seeing that neither the point of a sword, nor even balls discharged from
fire-arms, were able to penetrate it." Memoir on the substance called Pilina,
by Papadopoulo- Vretos, on the Mem. presented to the Royal Academy ofIn-
scriptions and Belles Lettres, 1845, as quoted by Littré.
36 Pliny probably conceived that by the removal of all the grease from
the wool, or the " purgamentum," it became less combustible.- B.
37 " Tomentum ;" an Epigram of Martial, B. xiv. E. 160, explains the
meaning of this word.-B.
38 See B. xix. c. 2.
39 Probably in the form66of what we call " palliasses."
40 The " gausapa," or gausapum,” was a kind of thick cloth, very
woolly on one side, and used especially for covering tables, beds, and
making cloaks to keep out the wet and cold. The wealthier Romans had
it made of the finest wool, and mostly of a purple colour. It seems also to
have been sometimes made of linen, but still with a rough surface.
41 From áµpíµaλλa, “ napped on both sides." They probably resembled
our baizes or druggets, or perhaps the modern blanket.
42 Pliny again makes mention of the " ventrale," or apron, in B. xxvii.
c. 28.
43 He seems to allude here to the substance of which the laticlave tunic
was made, and not any alteration in its cut or shape. Some further
information on the laticlave or broad-striped tunic will be found in B.
ix, c. 63.
44 About the time of Augustus, the Romans began to exchange the
" toga," which had previously been their ordinary garment, for the more
336 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

I shall describe the mode of dyeing the other kinds of wool

when speaking of the sea-purple,45 or of the nature of various
plants.
CHAP. 74.- DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOTHS.

Varro informs us, he himself having been an eye-witness, that

in the temple of Sancus," the wool was still preserved on the
distaff and spindle of Tanaquil,48 who was also called Caia Cæ-
cilia ; and he says that the royal waved " toga, formerly worn by
Servius Tullius, and now in the temple of Fortune, was made
by her. Hence was derived the custom, on the marriage of a
young woman, of carrying in the procession a dressed distaff
and a spindle, with the thread arranged upon it. Tanaquil was
the first who wove the straight tunic,50 such as our young
.51
people wear with the white toga ;5¹ newly-married women also.
Waved garments were at first the most esteemed of all : after
which those composed of various colours52 came into vogue.
Fenestella informs us, that togas with a smooth surface, as well
convenient " lacerna" and " pænula," which were less encumbered with
folds, and better adapted for the usual occupations of life.-B.
45 See B. ix. c. 62. 46 See B. xxi. c. 12.
47 This deity was also called Sangus, or Semo Sancus ; and Ovid, Fasti,
B. vi. c. 216, et seq., gives us much information concerning him. He was
of Sabine origin, and identical with Hercules and Dius Fidius. If we
may judge from the derivation of the name, it is not improbable that he
presided over the sanctity of oaths. His temple at Rome was on the
Quirinal, opposite to that of Quirinus, and near the gate which from him
derived the name of " Sanqualis porta." He was said to have been the
father of the Sabine hero Sabus.
* 48 According to the commonly received account, Tanaquil was the wife
of Tarquinius Priscus, and a native of Etruria ; when she removed to
Rome, and her husband became king, her name was changed to Caia
Cæcilia.-B.
49 "Undulata ;" it has been suggested that this means the same as our
stuffs which we term " watered." -B.
50 "Tunica recta ;" according to Festus, it was " so called from being
woven perpendicularly by people standing."-B. It probably means woven
from top to bottom and cross-wise in straight lines.
51 "Toga pura ;" so called from being white, without a mixture of any
other colour.
52 " Sororiculata ;" there is much uncertainty respecting the derivation
of this word and its meaning, but it is generally supposed to signify some
kind of stuff,
colours.- B. composed of a mixture of different ingredients or of different
་་ Orbiculata,"
," " with round spots," is one reading, and
probably the correct one.
Chap. 74. ] DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOTHS. 337
53
as the Phryxian togas,58 began to be used in the latter part of the
reign of Augustus. Thick stuffs, in the preparation of which
the poppy was used, are of more ancient date, being men-
tioned by the poet Lucilius, in his lines on Torquatus. The
prætexta55 had its origin among the Etrurians. I find that
the trabea56 was first worn by the kings ; embroidered garments
are mentioned by Homer,57 and in this class originated the
triumphal robes.58 The Phrygians first used the needle for
this purpose,59 and hence this kind of garment obtained the
name of Phrygionian . King Attalus, who also lived in Asia,
invented the art of embroidering with gold, from which these
garments have been called Attalic.60 Babylon was very famous
for making embroidery in different colours, and hence stuffs of
this kind have obtained the name of Babylonian.61 The me-
thod of weaving cloth with more than two threads was in-
53 According to Hardouin, these were cloths which imitated the crisp
and prominent hair of the Phryxian fleece, Lemaire, vol. iii. p . 529. Some
editions read " Phrygianas."
54 "Papaverata ," there is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the
meaning of this word, as applied to garments. Pliny, in two other passages,
speaks of a certain species of poppy- " from this, linens receive a peculiar
whiteness," B. xix. " From this, linens receive a brilliant whiteness in
time," B. xx. c. 78. It would appear, in these cases, that the fibres of the
stem of the poppy were mixed with the flax ; though, perhaps, this would
be scarcely practicable with wool.-B.
55 The prætexta is described by Varro as a white toga, with a purple
band ; it was worn by males, until their seventeenth year, and by young
women until their marriage. -B.
56 The trabea differed from the prætexta, in being ornamented with
stripes (trabes) of purple, whence its name.-B.
57 Helen is introduced, Il . B. iii . 1. 125, weaving an embroidered gar
ment, in which were figured the battles of the Greeks and Trojans. It was
probably somewhat of the nature of modern tapestry. - B.
58 See B. ix. c. 60.
59 This passage, in which the needle is said to have been used, proves
that when the word " picta " is applied to garments, it is equivalent to our
term " embroidered." - B.
60 Pliny refers to the " Attalica tunica," B. xxxiii. c. 29, and to the
"Attalica vestis," B. xxxvi. c. 20, and B. xxxvii. c. 6 ; Propertius speaks
of " Attalica aulæa," B. ii. c. 32, 1. 12, " Attalicas torus," B. ii. c. 13, 1.22,
and B. iv. c. 5, 1. 24, and " Attalicæ vestes," B. iii . c. 18, l. 19.-B.
61 Plautus, Stich . A. ii. s. 2 , I. 54, speaks of " Babylonica peristromata,
consuta tapetia," " Babylonian hangings, and embroidered tapestry ;" and
Martial, B. viii. Ep. 28, 1. 17, 18, of " Babylonica texta," " Babylonian
textures."-B.
VOL. II.
Z
338 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VIII.

vented at Alexandria ; these cloths are called polymita ; 62 it

was in Gaul that they were first divided into chequers.63 Me-
tellus Scipio, in the accusation which he brought against
65
Cato, stated that even in his time Babylonian covers for
couches were selling for eight hundred thousand sesterces, and
these of late, in the time of the Emperor Nero, had risen to
four millions.66 The prætexte of Servius Tullius, with which
the statue of Fortune, dedicated by him, was covered," lasted
until the death of Sejanus ; and it is a remarkable fact, that,
during a period of five hundred and sixty years, they had never
68
become tattered, or received injury from moths. I myself
have seen the fleece upon the living animal dyed purple,
- a pound and a half of dye being used for
scarlet, and violet, -
each, -just as though they had been produced by Nature in
this form, to meet the demands of luxury.

CHAP. 75. - THE DIFFERENT SHAPES OF SHEEP ; THE MUSMON.

In the sheep, it is considered a proof of its being of a very
62 From Martial's epigram, entitled " Cubicularia polymita," B. xiv. Ep.
150, we may conclude that the Egyptian polymita were formed in a loom,
and of the nature of tapestry, while the Babylonian were embroidered with
the needle. Plautus probably refers to the Egyptian tapestry, in the
66
Pseud. A. i. s. 2, l. 14, Neque Alexandrina belluata conchyliata tapetia "
" Nor yet the Alexandrine tapestries, figured over with beasts and shells."
€3❝Scutulis divider." This term may mean "squares," "diamonds,'
or "lozenges," something like the segments into which a spider's web is
divided. It is not improbable that he alludes here to the plaids of the
Gallic nations.
65 We have an account of this contention in Plutarch, and we may pre-
sume that this accusation was produced at that time.-B.
66 The first sum amounts to about £4,600 sterling, the latter to
£23,000.- B.
67 The following lines in Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 569, et seq., have been
supposed to refer to this temple, and prove that the account of it is correct.
"Lux eadem, Fortuna, tuaque est, auctorque, locusque.
" Sed superinjectis quis latet æde togis ?
" Servius est .... ""
"The same day is thine, O Fortune ; the same the builder, the same the
site. But who is this that lies hid beneath the garments covering him ?
It is Servius."
68 Perhaps " changed their colour " may be a better translation of " de-
fluxisse."
69 66 Sesquipedalibus libris." It seems impossible to translate this lite-
rally. Hardouin explains it by supposing that the fleeces were dyed in
strips of three colours, each strip being half a foot in breadth, and that
three of these required a pound of the dyeing materials. - B.
Chap . 76. ] GOATS . 339

fair breed, when the legs are short, and the belly is covered
with wool ; when this part is bare, they used to be called
apicæ, and were looked upon as worthless.70 The tail of the
Syrian sheep is a cubit in length," and it is upon that part
that most of the wool is found . It is considered too early to
castrate lambs before they are five months old.
(49.) There is in Spain, and more especially in Corsica, a
peculiar kind of animal called the musmon," not very unlike a
sheep, but with a fleece which more resembles the hair of the
goat than the wool of the sheep. The ancients gave the name
of umbri³ to the breed between this animal and the sheep .
The head of the sheep is the weakest part of all, on which
account it is obliged, when it feeds, to turn away from the
sun.74 The animals which are covered with wool are the most
stupid of all.75 When they are afraid to enter any place, if
one is only dragged into it by the horns, all the rest will
follow. The longest duration of their life is ten years ; but in
Ethiopia it is thirteen. Goats live in that country eleven
years, but in other parts of the world mostly eight years only.
Both of these animals require to be covered not more than four
times to ensure conception.

CHAP. 76. (50 .) —GOATS AND THEIR PROPAGATION.

The goat occasionally brings forth as many as four at a
birth ; but this is rarely the case. It is pregnant five months,
70 Pliny probably took this from Varro, B. ii. c. 2. This term is derived
from Tεikw, "to shear," with the negative prefix. -B.
71 The word " cubitales " alone is used, which might be supposed to
refer only to the length of the tail ; but Hardouin conceives that it must
also apply to the breadth, and refers to Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c.
28, and others, in proof of the great size which the tails of the Syrian
sheep attain, and which would not be indicated by merely saying that they
are a cubit long ; this being little more than the ordinary length in other
countries.-B.
72 According to Hardouin, this term, or some word nearly resembling it,
was applied to mules or mongrels, as well as to individual animals of di-
minutive size or less perfect form.-B. Called " moufflon " by the French.
73 The term " umbri " appears to have been applied to a mongrel or less
perfect animal ; like " musmon," it is of uncertain derivation.- B .
74 So also Varro, ubi supra, and Columella, B. vii. c. 3.-B. See also
B. xviii. c. 76.
75 This remark, and the others in the remainder of this Chapter, appear
to be taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix . c. 3.-B.
76 We have an account of the generation of the goat in Aristotle, Hist.
Z 2
340 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

like the sheep. Goats become barren when very fat. There
is little advantage to be derived from their bringing forth
before their third year, or after the fourth, when they begin
to grow old. " They are capable of generating in the seventh
month, and while they are still sucking. In both sexes those
that have no horns are considered the most valuable.78 A
single coupling in the day is not sufficient ; the second and the
following ones are more effectual. They conceive in the month
of November, so as to bring forth in the month of March,
when the buds are bursting ; this is sometimes the case with
them when only one year old, and always with those of the
second year ; but the produce of those which are three years
old is the most valuable." They continue to bring forth for a
period of eight years. Cold produces abortion. When their
eyes are surcharged, the female discharges the blood from the
eye by pricking it with the point of a bulrush, and the male
with the thorn of a bramble.
Mutianus relates an instance of the intelligence of this
animal, of which he himself was an eye-witness. Two goats,
coming from opposite directions, met on a very narrow bridge,
which would not admit of either of them turning round, and
in consequence of its great length, they could not safely go
backwards, there being no sure footing on account of its
narrowness, while at the same time an impetuous torrent was
rapidly rushing beneath ; accordingly, one of the animals lay
down flat, while the other walked over it.
Among the males, those are the most esteemed which have
flat noses and long hanging ears, the shoulders being covered
Anim. B. vi. c. 19. Elian, Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 38, says that the goats
of Egypt sometimes produce five young ones at a birth.—B.
77 Columella, B. vii. c. 6, gives a somewhat different account ; he says,
" Before its sixth year it is old-so that when five years old, it is not suit-
able for coupling." -B.
78 According to Columella, ubi supra, " Because those with horns are
usually troublesome, from their uncertainty of temper.” —B.
79 There has been considerable difference of opinion respecting the read-
ing of the original, whether the word " utiles," or " inutiles," was the one
here employed. Hardouin conceives it was the latter, and endeavours to
reconcile the sense with this reading ; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 538, 539. But,
notwithstanding his high authority, there is still great doubt on the mat-
ter.-B.
soInfractis," probably in contradistinction to erect ears. Columella,
ubi supra, terms them, " flaccidis et prægrandibus auribus "_" flaccid ears,
and very large."-B.
Chap. 76. ] GOATS. 341

with very thick shaggy hair ; the mark of the most valuable
among the females is the having two folds 81 hanging down the
body from under the neck. Some of these animals have no
horns ; but where there are horns, the age of the animal is
denoted by the number of knots on them. Those that have
83
no horns give the most milk.82 According to Archelaus, they
breathe, not through the nose, but the ears,84 and they are
never entirely free from fever,85 from which circumstance it is,
probably, that they are more animated than sheep, more ardent,
and have stronger sexual passions. It is said also, that they
have the power of seeing by night as well as in the day, for
which reason those persons who are called Nyctalopes, re-
cover the power of seeing in the evening, by eating the liver
of the he-goat. In Cilicia, and in the vicinity of the Syrtes,
the inhabitants shear the goat for the purpose of clothing
themselves. It is said that the she-goats in the pastures will
never look at each other at sun-set, but lie with their backs
towards one another," while at other times of the day they lie
facing each other and in family groups . They all have long hair 89
hanging down from the chin, which is called by us aruncus .
If any one of the flock is taken hold of and dragged by this
hair, all the rest gaze on in stupid astonishment ; and the same
81 " Laciniae ;" Varro, B. ii. c. 3, describes them as "mammulas pen-
siles ;" Columella, ubi supra, calls them " verruculas ;" he, however, assigns
this appendage to the male goat.—B.
82 The word " mutilus " is employed, which Hardouin interprets, " hav-
ing had the horns removed." But the same word is applied by Columella,
B. vii. c. 6, to an animal naturally without horns. —B.
83 On this reference to Archelaus, Dalechamps remarks that he is incor-
rect ; but refers to Varro, ubi supra, who ascribes this opinion to Archelaus ;
Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 540.-B.
84 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. v . 9, refers to this opinion, as being erro-
neous ; Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 53, supposes that they breathe both
through the nose and the ears.-B.
85 Varro, ubi supra, remarks, " that no one in his senses speaks of a goat
in health ; for they are never without fever."
86 Meaning those who cannot see at night, who have a weak sight, and
therefore require a strong light to distinguish objects. See also, as to the
Nyctalopes, B. xxviii . c. 47. The same remedy, the liver of the goat, is
recommended for its cure.-B. See also B. xxviii. c. 11.
87 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 28, says that the inhabitants of Cilicia
shear the goats in the same manner as the sheep. - B.
33 This is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3.—B.
89 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3, refers to the beard of the goat, un-
der the name of ἤρυγγον.
342 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

happens when any one of them has eaten of a certain herb 90

Their bite is very destructive to trees, and they make the
91
olive barren by licking it ; for which reason they are not
sacrificed to Minerva.92
93
CHAP. 77. (51 . ) —THE HOG.
The period for coupling the hog lasts from the return of the
west wind to the vernal equinox ; the proper age commences
in the eighth month, indeed, in some places, in the fourth
even, and continues until the eighth year." They bring forth
twice in the year, the time of gestation being four months ;
the number at a birth amounts to twenty even, but they can-
not rear so large a number.95 Nigidius informs us, that those
which are produced within ten days of the winter solstice are
.
born with teeth. One coupling is sufficient, but it is repeated,
on account of their extreme liability to abortion ; the remedy
for which is not to allow coupling the first time the female is
in heat, nor until its ears are flaccid and pendant. The males
do not generate after they are three years old. When the
females become feeble from old age, they receive the males
lying down. It is not looked upon as anything portentous
when they eat their young. The young of the hog is con-
sidered in a state of purity for sacrifice when five days old," the
lamb on the seventh day, and the calf on the thirtieth. Co-
runcanius asserts, that ruminant animals are not proper for

90 According to Hardouin, the herb referred to is the " eryngium ;" proba-
bly the " eringo :" he cites various authorities in support of his opinion.- B.
91 This is repeated in B. xvii. c. 24.—B.
92 Varro, B. i. c. 2, says : "Hence it is that they sacrificed no goats to
Minerva, on account of the olive ;" he then explains why the circumstance
of the goat injuring the olive-tree was a reason for not offering it in sacri-
fice to Minerva, the patroness of this tree. Ovid, on the other hand, in
the Fasti, B. i. 1. 360, says that the goat was sacrificed to Bacchus, because
it gnawed the vine.
93 We have an account of the hog inVarro, B. ii. c. 4, from whom most
of Pliny's remarks are probably derived. - B.
91 Varro, B. ii. c. 4, and Columella, B. vii . c. 9. fix upon the seventh
year.-B.
95 Varro, and Columella, ubi supra, recommend that the sow should not
be allowed to rear more than eight young ones at each birth.- B.
96 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 13.-B.
97 Varro, ubi supra, says on the tenth day ; Hardouin endeavours to prove
that the number in Varro was originally five.-B.
Chap. 77.] THE HOG. 343

victims until they have two teeth.98 It has been supposed ,

that when a pig has lost one eye, it will not live long ;99 other-
wise, these animals generally live up to fifteen, or sometimes
twentyyears. They sometimes become mad; besides which, they
are liable to other diseases, especially to quinsy' and to scro-
fula. It is an indication that the hog is diseased, when blood
is found at the root of a bristle pulled from its back, and when it
holds its head on one side while walking. When the female
becomes too fat, she has a deficiency of milk ; the first litter is
always the least numerous. Animals of this kind delight in
rolling in the mud.³ The tail is curled, and it has also been
remarked, that those are a more acceptable offering to the gods,
whose tail is turned to the right than those which have it
turned to the left. They may be fattened in sixty days, and
more especially if they have been kept without food for three
days before fattening. The swine is by far the most brutish
of all the animals, and it has been said, and not unaptly, that
4
life has been given them in place of salt. And yet it has been
known, that these animals, when carried away by thieves,
have recognized the voice of their keeper ; and when a vessel
has been under water through the inclination of one of its
sides, they have had the sense to go over to the other side .
The leader of the herd will even learn to go to market, and to

98 The term " bidens," employed by Pliny, although it literally means

"having two teeth," has been referred to the age of the animal, as indicated
rather by the respective size of the teeth than by their number. It has
been supposed to designate an animal of two years old, when the canine
teeth of the lower jaw had become prominent. - B
99 This is also referred to by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 18, but is
without foundation . - B .
1 Aristotle, ubi supra, B. viii. c. 26. It is mentioned as a frequent
occurrence by Plautus, Trinum. A. ii . s. 4, 1. 139.-B.
2 Columella, B. vii. c. 10, gives directions for the treatment of hogs
affected with scrofula. The name of the disease has been supposed to be
derived from the frequency of its occurrence in this animal, anciently called
" scrofa."
3 It may appear unnecessary to refer to authorities on this subject, which
is a matter of daily observation ; it has, however, been stated by some
naturalists, that the hog, in its wild state, does not exhibit any of the
filthy propensities so generally observed in it when domesticated. -B.
4 This saying is found in Varro, B. ii. c. 4; it is referred to by Cicero, De
Nat. Deor. B. ii. c. 64, and ascribed to Chrysippus ; " ne putisceret, ani-
mam ipsam pro sale datam." -B. " That they are only of use for their
flesh, which is kept from putridity by their life, which acts as salt."
344 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VIII.

different houses in the city. In the wild state also, they have
the sense to pass their urine in plashy places, that they may
destroy all traces of them, and so lighten themselves for
flight. The female is spayed, just as is done with the camel ;
after they have fasted two days, they are suspended by the
hind feet, and the orifice of the womb is cut ; after this ope-
ration, they fatten more quickly."
M. Apicius' made the discovery, that we may employ the
same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the
sow, as of that of the goose ; it consists in cramming them
with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched
with wine mixed with honey, and immediately killed . There
is no animal that affords a greater variety to the palate of the
epicure ; all the others have their own peculiar flavour, but the
flesh of the hog has nearly fifty different flavours. Hence it
is, that there are whole pages of regulations made by the cen-
sors, forbidding the serving up at banquets of the belly, the
kernels, the testicles, the womb, and the cheeks. However,
notwithstanding all this, the poet Publius,10 the author of the
Mimes, when he ceased to be a slave, is said to have given
no entertainment without serving up the belly of a sow, to
which he also gave the name of " sumen."

CHAP. 78.- THE WILD BOAR ; WHO WAS THE FIRST TO ESTABLISH
PARKS FOR WILD ANIMALS.

The flesh of the wild boar is also much esteemed . Cato,

5 Pliny speaks of this more at large in B. xxviii. c. 60.-B.
6 This operation, and the effect of it, are mentioned by Aristotle, Hist.
Anim. B. ix. c. 79, and by Columella, B. vii. c. 9.—B.
7 There were three Romans of this name, celebrated for their skill in
gastronomy ; of these the most illustrious lived in the reigns of Augustus
and Tiberius. A treatise (probably spurious) is extant, to which his name
is attached, entitled " De Arte Culinariâ"-" On the Art of Cookery." Pliny
refers to him again, B. xix. c. 41 , and he is mentioned by many others of
the classical writers . - B.
8 See B. x. c. 1. A much more cruel mode of increasing the liver of
this animal, by confining it in hot ovens, is practised at the present day, to
satisfy the palate of the admirers of the Strasburg patés de foies gras.
9 Pliny, in B. 99ix. c. 66, employs the expression " tonsilla in homine,
in sue glandulæ, as if he considered them analogous parts.-B. See
Plautus passim.
10 Publius Syrus was a comic performer and a writer, who acquired con-
siderable celebrity ; he lived during the reign of Augustus. - B.
Chap. 78.] THE WILD BOAR. 345

the Censor, in his orations, strongly declaimed against the use

of the brawn of the wild boar. " The animal used to be divided
into three portions, the middle part of which was laid by, "
and is called boar's chine. P. Servilius Rullus was the first
Roman who served up a whole boar at a banquet ; the father
of that Rullus, who, in the consulship of Cicero, proposed the
Agrarian law. So recent is the introduction of a thing which
is now in daily use. The Annalists have taken notice of such
a fact as this, clearly as a hint to us to mend our manners ;
seeing that now-a-days two or three boars are consumed, not
at one entertainment, but as forming the first course only.
(52.) Fulvius Lupinus was the first Roman who formed
parks for the reception of these and other wild animals : he
first fed them in the territory of Tarquinii : it was not long,
however, that imitators were found in L. Lucullus and Q.
Hortensius.14 The wild sow brings forth once only in the
year. The males are very fierce during the rutting time ;
they fight with each other, having first hardened their sides
by rubbing them against the trees, and covered themselves
with mud. The females, as is the case with animals of every
kind, become more fierce just after they have brought forth.
The wild boar is not capable of generating before the first
year. The wild boar of India¹5 has two curved teeth, project-
ing from beneath the muzzle, a cubit in length ; and the same
number projecting from the forehead, like the horns of the
young bull. The hair of these animals, in a wild state, is the
11 " Aprugnum callum ;" Plautus, in detailing the preparations for a
feast, enumerates the following articles, "' pernam, callum, glandium,
sumen ;" Pseudolus, A. i. s. 2, 1. 32 ; all of which are parts of the hog.
12 " Ponebatur." Littré and Ajasson render this, " placed at table.”
It would appear, however, that the meaning is that this part was put by
for salting, and the other parts were served at table while fresh.
13 " Vivaria ;" Varro, B. iii. c. 12, and Aulus Gellius, B. ii. c. 20, give
an account of the different places which were employed by the Romans
for preserving animals of various descriptions, with their appropriate
designations. Varro names the inventor Fulvius Lippinus.-B.
14 Varro, B. iii. c. 13, gives an animated description of a visit to what
he calls the leporarium of Hortensius, where, besides hares, as the name
implies, there was a multitude of stags, boars, and other four-footed
animals.
15 Ælian, De Anim. Nat. B. xvi. c. 37, says, that no boar, either wild or
tame, is produced in India, and that the Indians never use the flesh of
this animal, as they would regard the use of it with as much horror as of
human flesh. - B. The " Sus babiroussa" is probably meant by Pliny.
 346 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII .

cclour of copper, the others are black . No species whatever

of the swine is found in Arabia.

CHAP. 79. ( 53 . )-ANIMALS IN A HALF-WILD STATE.

In no species is the union with the wild animal so easy as
in that of the swine ; the produce of such unions was called
16
by the ancients hybrid, or half savage ; which appellation
has also been transferred to the human race, as it was to C.
Antonius, the colleague of Cicero in his consulship. Not
only, however, with respect to the hog, but all other animals
as well, wherever there is a tame species, there is a correspond- .
ing wild one as well ; a fact which is equally true with refer-
ence to man himself, as is proved by the many races of wild
men of which we have already spoken. " There is no kind of
animal, however, that is divided into a greater number of va-
rieties than the goat. There are the capræa, 18 the rupicapra
or rock-goat, and the ibex, an animal of wonderful swiftness,
although its head is loaded with immense horns, which bear a
strong resemblance to the sheath of a sword.19 By means of
these horns the animal balances itself, when it darts along
the rocks, as though it had been hurled from a sling ;20 more
especially when it wishes to leap from one eminence to ano-
ther. There are the oryges also," which are said to be the
16 There has been some difference of opinion respecting the derivation
of this word, but it is generally used to express a " mongrel,” i. e. an ani-
mal whose parents are of different natures, or, when applied to the human
species, of different countries. - B.
17 See B. vii. c. 2.
18 It is not easy to determine what animals Pliny intended to designate.
Cuvier employs the terms " chevreuils, chamois, and bouquetins," as the
corresponding words in the French. In English we have no names to
express these varieties ; we may, however, regard them generally, as dif-
ferent species of wild goats. Cuvier conceives that the Linnæan names of
the animals mentioned were, probably, Cervus capreolus, Antelope rupicapra,
and Capra ibex.-B.
19 The resemblance may be supposed to consist in the horns being hol-
low, and tapering to a point.-B.
20 There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the correct reading,
or the exact meaning which the writer intended to convey by the words
employed. - B.
21 There is some difficulty in determining the nature of the variety
which Pliny terms " oryges ;" Hardouin has collected the opinions of natu-
ralists, and we have some remarks by Cuvier ; he refers to Buffon's
account ofthe Antelope oryx, as agreeing, in the essential points, with the
description given by Pliny ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 554. See B. xi . c. 106.
Chap. 80.] APES. 347

only animals that have the hair the contrary way, the points
being turned towards the head . There are the dama also,"
23
the pygargus, and the strepsiceros,24 besides many others
which strongly resemble them. The first mentioned of these
animals,25 however, dwell in the Alps ; all the others are sent
to us from the parts beyond sea.

CHAP. 80. (54. )-APES.

The different kinds of apes, which approach the nearest to
the human figure, are distinguished from each other by the
tail.26 Their shrewdness is quite wonderful. It is said that,
imitating the hunters, they will besmear themselves with
bird-lime, and put their feet into the shoes, which, as so many
snares, have been prepared for them.27 Mucianus says, that
they have even played at chess, having, by practice, learned
to distinguish the different pieces, which are made of wax.28
22 Cuvier remarks, that there is some doubt respecting the dama of
Pliny; he is, however, disposed to regard it as a species of antelope .
Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 464, 465 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 554.—B.
23 The term pygargus is derived from the words ʊyǹ àpуòç, denoting
"white buttocks." Probably a kind of gazelle.
24 " With twisted horns." It is probable that Pliny intended to desig-
nate a species of antelope,-B. See B. xi. c. 45.
25 In this division Pliny, probably, included what he has termed the
"capræa," the rupicapra, and the ibex.-B.
26 Some of these animals are entirely without a tail, and this circum-
stance has been employed to form the primary division of the simiæ into
the two species, those with and those without tails. We have an epi-
gram of Martial, in which this is referred to. " Si mihi cauda foret,
cercopithecus eram" -" If I had but a tail, I should be a monkey." B.
iv. Ep. 102.-B. See B. xi. c. 100.
27 We learn from Strabo, Ind. Hist. B. xv., that, in catching the monkey,
the hunters took advantage of the propensity of these animals to imitate
any action they see performed. "Two modes," he says, 66 are employed in
taking this animal, as by nature it is taught to imitate every action, and to
take to flight by climbing up trees. The hunters, when they see an ape
sitting on a tree, place within sight of it a dish full of water, with which
they rub their eyes ; and then, slyly substituting another in its place, full of
bird-lime, retire and keep upon the watch. The animal comes down from
the tree, and rubs its eyes with the bird-lime, in consequence of which the
eyelids stick together, and it is unable to escape." Elian also says, Hist.
Anim. B. xvii. c. 25, that the hunters pretend to put on their shoes, and
then substitute, in their place, shoes of lead ; the animal attempts to imitate
them, and, the shoes being so contrived, when it has once got them on, it
finds itself unable to take them off, or to move, and is consequently taken.
28 There has been some difficulty in ascertaining the exact reading here ;
348 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

He says that the species which have tails become quite me-
lancholy when the moon is on the wane, and that they leap
for joy at the time of the new moon, and adore it. Other
quadrupeds also are terrified at the eclipses of the heavenly
bodies. All the species of apes manifest remarkable affection
for their offspring. Females, which have been domesticated,
and have had young ones, carry them about and shew them to
all comers, shew great delight when they are caressed, and ap-
pear to understand the kindness thus shewn them. Hence it
is, that they very often stifle their young with their embraces.
The dog's-headed ape29 is of a much fiercer nature, as is the
case with the satyr. The callitriche30 has almost a totally
different aspect ; it has a beard on the face, and a tail, which
in the first part of it is very bushy. It is said that this ani-
mal cannot live except in the climate of Æthiopia, which is
its native place .

CHAP. 81. (55 . ) —THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HARES .

There are also numerous species of hares. Those in the
31
Alps are white, ³¹ and it is believed that, during the winter,
they live upon snow for food ; at all events, every year, as the
snow melts, they acquire a reddish colour ; it is, moreover, an
animal which is capable of existing in the most severe climates.
There is also a species of hare, in Spain, which is called the
but the meaning seems to be, that the pieces were made of wax, and that
the animals had learned to distinguish them from each other, and move
them in the appropriate manner ; how far this is to be credited, it is not
easy to decide, but it would certainly require very strong and direct evi-
dence. We are told that the Emperor Charles V. had a monkey that
played at chess with him.-B.
29 In the original, termed " cynocephali," " dog's-headed ; " an appella-
tion given to them, according to Cuvier, from their muzzle projecting like
that of a dog ; we have an account of this species in Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
B. ii. c. 13.-B. Probably the baboon. See B. vi. c. 35, and B. vii.
c. 2. The satyr is, perhaps, the uran-utang. See B. v. c. 8, and B. vii. c. 2.
30 Or " fine-haired monkey;" supposed to be the Silenus of Linnæus ; it
is described by Buffon, under the name of Callitrix.- B. It seems to be
also called the " Simia hamadryas."
31 Hardouin gives references to the authors who have observed this
change in the colour of the hare, apparently depending upon the peculiar
locality, and its consequent exposure to a low temperature. Cuvier considers
it as characteristic of a peculiar species, the Lepus variabilis, " which being
peculiar to the highest mountains, and the regions of the north, is white in
winter."- B.
 Chap. 81.7 HARES. 349
32
rabbit ; it is extremely prolific, and produces famine in the
Balearic islands, by destroying the harvests. The young ones,
either when cut from out of the body of the mother, or taken
from the breast, without having the entrails removed, are con-
sidered a most delicate food ; they are then called laurices.3
It is a well-known fact, that the inhabitants of the Balearic
islands begged of the late Emperor Augustus the aid of a
number of soldiers, to prevent the too rapid increase of these
animals. The ferret is greatly esteemed for its skill in
catching them . It is thrown into the burrows, with their
numerous outlets, which the rabbits form, and from which cir-
35
cumstance they derive their name, and as it drives them out,
they are taken above. Archelaus informs us, that in the hare,
the number of cavernous receptacles in the body for the excre-
ments always equals that of its years ;36 but still the numbers
are sometimes found to differ. He says also, that the same in-
dividual possesses the characteristics of the two sexes, and that
it becomes pregnant just as well without the aid of the male.
It is a kind provision of Nature, in making animals which are
both harmless and good for food, thus prolific. The hare, which
is preyed upon 37 by all other animals, is the only one, except
the dasypus, which is capable of superfotation ;38 while the
mother is suckling one of her young, she has another in the
womb covered with hair, another without any covering at all,
and another which is just beginning to be formed. Attempts
32 Or coney, "cuniculus." Hardouin makes some observations upon
the derivation of this term, to show that Pliny was mistaken in supposing
it to be of Spanish origin ; we have also an observation of Cuvier's to the
same effect.-B.
33 "Laurices ;" we have no explanation of this word in any of the
editions of Pliny. Its origin appears to be quite unknown.
34 According to Cuvier, the Mustela furo of Linnæus. Ajasson, ubi
supra.- B .
35 Because, as Varro says, De Re Rus. B. iii. c. 12, they are in the habit
of making burrows-cuniculos-in the earth.
36 This reference to the opinion of Archelaus appears to be from Varro,
ubi supra; the same reference is made by Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 2.-B.
37 Respecting the dasypus of Pliny, it has been doubted whether it be a
⚫ distinct species, a variety of the hare, or merely a synonyme.- B.
38 It is by some contended, that the human female, and perhaps some
other animals, have occasionally been the subjects of what is termed super-
fœtation ; whereas, according to Pliny, in the hare and the dasypus it takes
place frequently, but in no other animals. - B. On this subject, see B. vii.
c. 9.
350 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book VIII .

have been made to form a kind of stuff of the hair of these

animals ; but it is not so soft as when attached to the skin,
and, in consequence of the shortness of the hairs, soon falls to
pieces.

CHAP. 82. ( 56. ) —ANIMALS WHICH ARE TAMED IN PART ONLY.

Hares are seldom tamed, and yet they cannot properly be

called wild animals ; indeed, there are many species of them
which are neither tame nor wild, but of a sort of intermediate
nature ; of the same kind there are among the winged animals,
swallows and bees, and among the sea animals, the dolphin.
(57. ) Many persons have placed that inhabitant of our
houses, the mouse, in this class also ; an animal which is not
to be despised, for the portents which it has afforded, even in
relation to public events. By gnawing the silver shields at
Lanuvium,39 mice prognosticated the Marsian war ; and the
death of our general, Carbo, at Clusium,40 by gnawing the
latchets with which he fastened his shoes.41 There are many
species of this animal in the territory of Cyrenaica ; some of
them with a wide, others with a projecting, forehead, and some
again with bristling hair, like the hedgehog.42 We are in-
formed by Theophrastus, that after the mice had driven the
inhabitants of Gyara¹³ from their island, they even gnawed the
iron ; which they also do, by a kind of natural instinct, in the
iron forges among the Chalybes. In gold mines, too, their

39 This is referred to by Cicero, in his treatise, De Divinatione, B. i. c.

44, and B. ii. c. 27 ; in the latter he treats it as an idle tale.-B.
40 See B, iii. c. 8.
41 C. Papirius Carbo, a contemporary and friend of the Gracchi. In
B.C. 119, the orator, Licinius Crassus, brought a charge against him, the
nature of which is not known ; but Carbo put an end to his life, by taking
cantharides.
42 These different species are thus characterized by Cuvier : " Les pre-
miers sont les souris et les rats, de formes ordinaires ; les seconds, les
grandes musaraignes [shrew-mice] de la taille du rat, telles que l'on en
trouve en Egypte ; les troisiemes, une espece de souris particuliere à
l'Egypte, et peut- être à la Barbarie, armée d'epines parmi ses poils dont
Aristote avait deja parlé (B. vi. 1. 37, cap. ult.) et que M. Geoffroy a re-
trouvée et nommée mus cahirinus." Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 467, and Le-
maire, ubi supra.-B. See B. viii. c. 55, and B. x. c. 85.
43 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 11 , mentions this circumstance, but says
that it occurred in the island of Paros. For Gyara, see B. iv. c. 23.
Chap. 82.] ANIMALS TAMED IN PART ONLY. 351

stomachs are opened for this purpose, and some of the metal is
always to be found there, which they have pilfered," so great
a delight do they take in stealing ! We learn from our Annals,
also, that at the siege of Casilinum,45 by Hannibal, a mouse was
sold for two hundred denarii, and that the person who sold
it perished with hunger, while the purchaser survived. To
be visited by white mice is considered as indicative of a fortu-
nate event ; but our Annals are full of instances in which the
singing46* of a mouse has interrupted the auspices. 47 Nigidius
informs us, that the field-r l-mouse conceals itself during winter :
this is also said to be the case with the dormouse, which the
regulations of the censors, and of M. Scaurus, the chief of the
senate, when he was consul,48 have banished from our tables,49
no less than shell-fish and birds, which are brought from a
foreign country. The dormouse is also a half-wild animal, and
the same person50 made warrens for them in large casks, who
first formed parks for wild boars. In relation to this subject,
it has been remarked that dormice will not mate, unless they
happen to be natives of the same forest ; and that if those are
put together that are brought from different rivers or moun-
tains, they will fight and destroy each other. These animals
nourish their parents, when worn out with old age, with a
singular degree of affection. This old age of theirs is put an
44 We have two passages in Livy, B. xxvii. and B. xxx., where gold is
said to have been gnawed by mice.-B.
45 See B. iii. c. 9. In B.C. 217, this place was occupied by Fabius with
a strong garrison, to prevent Hannibal from passing the Vulturnus ; and
the following year, after the battle of Cannæ, was occupied by a small body
of Roman troops, who, though little more than 1000 in number, withstood
the assaults of Hannibal during a protracted siege, until compelled by
famine to surrender.
46 This sum would be about £ 7.- B.
46* It is by no means improbable that " occentus " here means "singing,"
and not merely “ squeaking ;" as the singing of a mouse would no doubt be
deemed particularly ill-boding in those times. At the present day, a mouse
has been heard to emit a noise which more nearly resembled singing than
squeaking ; and a " singing mouse " has been the subject of an exhibition
more than once.
47 We have frequent allusions to this occurrence in the writings of the
Romans, some of which are referred to by Dalechamps ; Lemaire, vol. iii.
p. 563.-B.
48 A.U.C. 639 ; it does not appear what was the cause of this pro-
hibition.- B .
49 See B. xxxvi . c. 2.
50 Fulvius Lupinus, as already stated in c. 78.-B.
 352 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII.

end to by their winter's rest, when they conceal themselves

and sleep ; they are young again by the summer. The field-
mouse¹ also enjoys a similar repose.

CHAP. 83. ( 58 . ) — PLACES IN WHICH CERTAIN ANIMALS ARE NOT

TO BE FOUND .
It is a remarkable fact, that nature has not only assigned
different countries to different animals, but that even in the
same country, it has denied certain species to peculiar localities.52
In Italy the dormouse is found in one part only, the Messian
forest.53 In Lycia the gazelle never passes beyond the moun-
tains which border upon Syria ;54 nor does the wild ass in that
vicinity pass over those which divide Cappadocia from Cilicia.
On the banks of the Hellespont, the stags never pass into a
strange territory, and about Arginussa 55 they never go beyond
Mount Elaphus ; those upon that mountain, too, have cloven
ears. In the island of Poroselene, 56 the weasels will not so
much as cross a certain road. In Boeotia, the moles, which were
introduced at Lebadea, fly from the very soil of that country,
while in the neighbourhood, at Orchomenus, the very same
animals tear up all the fields . We have seen coverlets for
beds made of the skins of these creatures, so that our sense of
religion does not prevent us from employing these ominous
animals for the purposes of luxury. When hares have been
brought to Ithaca, they die as soon as ever they touch the
shore, and the same is the case with rabbits, on the shores of
the island of Ebusus ;57 while they abound in the vicinity,
51 "Nitelis." See B. xvi. c. 69. Probably the animal now known as
the Myoxus nitela of Linnæus.
52 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 33.-B.
53 According to Hardouin, this forest is termed, in modern times, Bosco
di Baccano ; it is nine miles S.W. of Rome.
51 Cuvier informs us, that " Le dorcas des Grecs n'est le daim, comme
le dit Hardouin, mais le chevreuil ; car Aristote (De Partib. Anim. l. iii.
c. 2) dit que c'est le plus petit des animaux à cornes que nous connaissions
(sans doute en Grèce) ; et le dorcas Libyca, très-bien decrit par Ælien
(1. xiv. c. 4), est certainement la gazelle commune, antelope dorcas,' '
Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 467, 468 ; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 565. Respecting the
localities here mentioned, it has been proposed to substitute Cilicia for Syria,
Syria and Lycia being at a considerable distance from each other.-B.
55 See B. v. c. 39. 56 See B. v. c. 38.
57 See B. iii. c. 11, and the Note to the passage. See also c. 81 of this
Book.
Chap. 84. ] ANIMALS WHICH INJURE STRANGERS, ETC. 353

Spain namely, and the Balearic isles. In Cyrene, the frogs

were formerly dumb, and this species still exists, although
croaking ones were carried over there from the continent.
At the present day, even, the frogs in the island of Seriphos
are dumb ; but when they are carried to other places, they
croak ; the same thing is also said to have taken place at
Sicandrus, a lake of Thessaly.558 In Italy, the bite of the
shrew- mouse59 is venomous ; an animal which is not to be found
in any region beyond the Apennines. In whatever country
it exists, it always dies immediately if it goes across the rut
made by a wheel. Upon Olympus, a mountain of Mace-
donia, there are no wolves, nor yet in the isle of Crete.60 In
this island there are neither foxes, nor bears , nor, indeed, any
kind of baneful animal,6¹ with the exception of the phalangium,
a species of spider, of which I shall speak in its appropriate
place.62 It is a thing still more remarkable, that in this island
there are no stags, except in the district of Cydon ; the same
is the case with the wild boar, the woodcock, and the hedge-
hog. In Africa, there are neither wild boars, stags, deer, nor
bears.

CHAP. 84. ( 59 . )- ANIMALS WHICH INJURE STRANGERS ONLY, AS

ALSO ANIMALS WHICH INJURE THE NATIVES OF THE COUNTRY
ONLY, AND WHERE THEY ARE FOUND.

Besides this, there are certain animals, which are harmless

to the natives of the country, but destroy strangers ; such are

58 Ælian, B. ii. c. 37, gives the same account of the frogs of Seriphos
and the lake of Thessaly, but gives the name of Pierus to the lake.-B.
59 " Mus araneus ; the ' shrew-mouse,'" according to Cuvier, " La musa-
raigne n'est pas venimeuse. Il s'en faut beaucoup qu'elle n'existe pas au
nord des Apennins ; et elle ne périt point passe qu'elle a traversé une
ornière, quoique souvent elle puisse y être écrasée. C'est
"" un des quadrupèdes
que l'on tue le plus aisément par un coup léger.' Ajasson, vol. vi. p .
468.-B.
60 Ælian, B. iii. c. 32, gives the same account, which he professes to have
taken from Theophrastus. - B.
61 This is also stated by Elian.
62 B. xi. c. 23, and B. xxix. c. 27.-B.
63 See B. iv. c. 20.
64 "Attagenæ ;" the commentators have suspected some inaccuracy with
respect to this word, as we have no other remarks on birds in this part of
Pliny's work ; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 567, 568.-B.
VOL. II. A A
 354 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII .
"
65
the little serpents at Tirynthus, which are said to spring from
out of the earth. In Syria, also, and especially on the banks
of the Euphrates, the serpents never attack the Syrians when
they are asleep, and even if they happen to bite a native who
treads upon them, their venom is not felt ; but to persons of
any other country they are extremely hostile, and fiercely at-
tack them, causing a death attended with great torture. On
this account, the Syrians never kill them. On the contrary,
66
on Latmos, a mountain of Caria, as Aristotle tells us, strangers
are not injured by the scorpions, while the natives are killed
by them. But I must now give an account of other animals
as well, and of the productions of the earth."
SUMMARY.-Remarkable events, narratives, and observations,
seven hundred and eighty-seven.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED. - Mucianus,68 Procilius,69 Verrius
Flaccus,70 L. Piso, " Cornelius Valerianus,72 Cato the Censor,73Fe-
74 76
nestella, Trogus,75 the Register of the Triumphs, Columella, "
65 See B. iv. c. 9. 66 See B. v. c. 31.
67 More especially of trees, plants, flowers, medicinal substances, metals,
and gems, which form the most prominent subjects of the remaining Books
after the eleventh, which concludes the account of the animals. - B.
68 See end of B. ii.
69 A Roman historian, and a contemporary of Cicero. He is thought to
have written on early Roman history, as Varro quotes his account of the
Curtian Lake, and on the later history of Rome, as we have seen Pliny
referring to him in c. 2, respecting Pompey's triumph on his return from
Africa. He was held in high estimation by Pomponius Atticus, but seems
not to have been so highly esteemed as a writer by Cicero.
70 See end of B. iii. 71 See end of B. ii.
72 Of this writer nothing seems to be known. He probably flourished
in the reign of Tiberius or Caligula.
73 See end of B. iii.
74 A Roman historian, who flourished in the reign of Augustus, and
died A.D. 21 , in the seventieth year of his age. His great work was called
" Annales," and extended to at least twenty-two books, and seems to have
contained much minute, though not always accurate, information with re-
gard to the internal affairs of the city ; only a few fragments remain,
which bear reference to events subsequent to the Carthaginian wars. He
is also thought to have written a work called " Epitome." A treatise
was published at Vienna, in 1510, in two Books, " On the Priesthood and
Magistracy of Rome," under the name of Fenestella ; but it is in reality
the composition of Andrea Domenico Fiocchi, a Florentine jurist of the
fourteenth century.
75 See end of B. vii. 76 See end of B. v.
77 L. Junius Moderatus Columella. He was a native of Gades, or Cadiz,
Chap. 84.] SUMMARY . 355

Virgil,78 Varro,79 Lucilius,80 Metellus Scipio, Cornelius Cel-

84 85
sus,82 Nigidius, Trebius Niger, Pomponius Mela, Mami-
lius Sura.86
87
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED. - King Juba, Polybius,88 Hero-
89
dotus, Antipater,"
93 Aristotle,
94 "¹ Demetrius 92 the physician, De-
95
mocritus, Theophrastus, Euanthes,5 Agriopas, 96 who wrote

and was a contemporary of Celsus and Seneca. He is supposed to have

resided at Rome, and from his works it appears that he visited Syria and
Cilicia. It has been conjectured that he died at Tarentum. His great
work is a systematic treatise upon Agriculture, divided into Twelve Books.
78 See end of B. vii. 79 See end of B. ii.
80 C. Lucilius, the first Roman satirical poet of any importance, was
born B.c. 148, and died B.c. 103. From Juvenal we learn that he was
born at Suessa of the Aurunci, and from Velleius Paterculus and Horace
other particulars respecting him. He is supposed to have been either the
maternal grand-uncle or maternal grandfather of Pompeius Magnus. If
not absolutely the inventor of Roman satire, he was the first to mould it
into that form which was afterwards fully developed by Horace, Juvenal,
and Perseus. He is spoken of in high terms as a writer by Cicero,
Horace, and Quintilian.
81 The father of Cornelia, the wife of Pompeius Magnus. After his
defeat by Cæsar at the battle of Thapsus, he stabbed himself, and leaped
into the sea. In what way he distinguished himself as an author, does
not appear.
82 See end of B. vii. 83 See end of B. vi.
84 He was one of the companions of L. Lucullus, proconsul in Bætica,
the province of Spain, B.C. 150. His work on Natural History is several
times referred to by Pliny. 85 See end of B. iii.
86 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned by Varro and Columella. No-
thing more seems to be known of him.
87 See end of B. v. 88 See end of B. iv.
89 See end of B. ii.
90 Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, the disciple and successor of Diogenes,
and the teacher of Panatius, about B.c. 144. Of his personal history but
little is known. Mention is made of his History of Animals by the
Scholiast upon Apollonius Rhodius.
91 See end of B. ii.
92 There were several physicians of this name ; one was a native of
Apamea in Bithynia, a follower of Herophilus, who flourished in the third
or second century B.C.; another lived about the same period, and is by
some supposed to have been the same as the last. No particulars seem to
be known of the individual here mentioned.
93 See end of B. ii. 94 See end of B. iii.
95 Of Miletus. He wrote on mythical subjects, and is mentioned as
an author by Diogenes Laertius ; but nothing further seems to have been
known respecting him.
96 Some of the MSS. call him Acopas, or Copas. He was the author of
A A 2
 356 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book VIII,

the "Olympionicæ, " King Hiero, 97 King Attalus 98 Philome-

2
tor, Ctesias,99 Duris, ' Philistus, Archytas,3 Phylarchus, Am-
5
philochus of Athens, Anaxapolis ' the Thasian, Apollodorus 7
of Lemnos, Aristophanes the Milesian, Antigonus the Cu-
mæan, Agathocles 10 of Chios, Apollonius " of Pergamus, Aris-

an account of the victors at the Olympic games, the work here referred to
by Pliny.
97 Hiero II., the king of Syracuse, and steady friend and ally of the
Romans. He died probably a little before the year B.C. 216, having at-
tained the age of ninety-two. Varro and Columella speak of a Treatise on
Agriculture written by him.
98 Attalus III. , king of Pergamus, son of Eumenes II. and Stratonice,
daughter of Ariarathes, king of Cappadocia. In his will he made the
Roman people his heirs. Being struck with remorse for the murders and
other crimes of which he had previously been guilty, he abandoned all
public business, and devoted himself to the study of physic, sculpture, and
gardening, on which he wrote a work. He died B.c. 133, of a fever, with
which he was seized through exposing himself to the sun's rays, while
engaged in erecting a monument to his mother.
99 See end of B. ii. 1 See end of B. vii.
2 An historian of Syracuse, one of the most celebrated of antiquity,
though, unfortunately, none of his works have come down to us. He was
born about B.C. 435, and died B.C. 356. He wrote histories of Egypt,
Libya, Syria, and Phoenicia.
3 A Greek of Tarentum, famous as a philosopher, mathematician, states-
man, and general. The lives of him by Aristoxenus and Aristotle are un-
fortunately lost. He lived probably about B.C. 400, and he is said to have
saved the life of Plato by his influence with the tyrant Dionysius. He
was finally drowned in the Adriatic. He attained great skill as a prac-
tical mechanician ; and his flying dove of wood was one of the wonders of
antiquity. The fragments and titles of works ascribed to him are very
numerous, but the genuineness of some is doubted.
4 See end of B. vii.
5 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella. In
B. xviii. c. 43, Pliny speaks of a work of his on lucerne clover and cytisus.
6 Or Anaxipolis. He was a writer on Agricultural subjects, and is
mentioned by Varro and Columella ; but nothing further is known re-
specting him.
7 A writer on Agriculture. He is supposed to have lived before the
time of Aristotle, and is also mentioned by Varro. No further particulars
are known respecting him.
8 A writer on Agriculture ; Varro calls him a native of Mallus, in
Cilicia.
9 A native of Cuma or Cymæ, in Asia Minor, a Greek writer on Agri-
culture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
10 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
11 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro, Columella, Galen,
and the Scholiast on Nicander.
Chap. 84.] SUMMARY . 357

tander 12 of Athens, Bacchius 13 of Miletus, Bion 14 of Soli ,

Chæreas 15 the Athenian, Diodorus 16 of Priene, Dion ¹ the
Colophonian, Epigenes 18 the Rhodian, Euagon 19 of Thasos,
Euphronius 20 of Athens, Hegesias 21 of Maronea, the Me-
nanders 22 of Priene and of Heraclea, Menecrates 23 the poet,
Androtion 24 who wrote on Agriculture, Æschrion 25 who wrote
on Agriculture, Lysimachus 26 who wrote on Agriculture,
Dionysius 27 who translated Mago, Diophanes 28 who made an
epitome ofthe work of Dionysius, King Archelaus,29 Nicander.30
12 The most famous among the soothsayers of Alexander the Great. He
probably wrote the work on Prodigies, which is referred to by Pliny in
B. xvii. c. 38, and elsewhere, as also by Lucian the satirist.
15 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
14 See end of B. vi.
15 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
16 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
17 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
18 See end of B. ii.
19 A writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro and Columella.
20 Or Euphonius, a writer on Agriculture, also mentioned by Varro and
Columella. Nothing further is known relative to him.
21 See end of B. vii.
22 Menander of Priene was a writer on Agriculture, mentioned also by
Varro and Columella. Menander of Heraclea was a writer on Agricul-
ture, mentioned also by Varro.
23 A poet who wrote on Agriculture, mentioned also by Varro. It is
not improbable that he is the same person with the Menecrates of Smyrna,
the author of two epigrams in the Greek Anthology.
24 A Greek writer on Agriculture, who wrote before the time of Theo-
phrastus, by whom he is mentioned, as also by Athenæus and Varro.
25 He is mentioned also by Varro, but nothing is known of him.
26 He is often referred to by Varro and Columella. He is also sup-
posed to have been the writer of a History of Thebes, mentioned by the
Scholiast and Apollonius Rhodius, B. iii.
27 Cassius Dionysius of Utica. He translated into Greek the twenty-
eight Books on Husbandry written by Mago the Carthaginian, in the
Punic language. Of Mago nothing further is known.
28 Diophanes of Bithynia made an epitome of the same work in Greek,
and dedicated it to King Deiotarus . Columella styles Mago the Father of
Agriculture.
29 Made king of Cappadocia by Antony, B.C. 34. He died at Rome, at
an advanced age, A.D. 17. Plutarch attributes to King Archelaus—if, in-
deed, this was the same-a treatise on Minerals.
30 A native of Claros, near Colophon, in Ionia. It is not a matter of
certainty, but it is most probable, that he lived inthe reign of Ptolemy V. ,
who died B.C. 181. He was a poet, grammarian, and physician. His
" Theriaca," a poem on the wounds inflicted by venomous animals, still
exists, as also another called " Alexipharmia."
 358

BOOK IX .

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES .

CHAP. 1. ( 1 . )—WHY THE LARGEST ANIMALS ARE FOUND IN

THE SEA.

We have now given an account of the animals which we

call terrestrial, and which live as it were in a sort of society
with man. Among the remaining ones, it is well known
that the birds are the smallest ; we shall therefore first de-
scribe those which inhabit the seas, rivers, and standing
waters.
(2. ) Among these there are many to be found that exceed
in size any of the terrestrial animals even ; the evident cause
of which is the superabundance of moisture with which they
are supplied . Very different is the lot of the winged animals,
whose life is passed soaring aloft in the air. But in the seas,
spread out as they are far and wide, forming an element at once
so delicate and so vivifying, and receiving the generating prin-
ciples¹ from the regions of the air, as they are ever produced
by Nature, many animals are to be found, and indeed, most of
those that are of monstrous form ; from the fact, no doubt, that
these seeds and first principles of being are so utterly con-
glomerated and so involved , the one with the other, from being
whirled to and fro, now by the action of the winds and now
by the waves. Hence it is that the vulgar notion may very
possibly be true, that whatever is produced in any other de-
partment of Nature, is to be found in the sea as well ; while,
at the same time, many other productions are there to be found
which nowhere else exist. That there are to be found in the
sea the forms, not only of terrestrial animals, but of inanimate
objects even, is easily to be understood by all who will take the
He has already said, in B. ii. c . 3, that " the seeds of all bodies fall
down from the heavens, principally into the ocean, and being mixed
together, we find that a variety of monstrous forms are in this way fre-
quently produced."
Chap. 2. ] SEA MONSTERS . 359

trouble to examine the grape-fish," the sword - fish ,³ the saw-

fish,* and the cucumber-fish,5 which last so strongly resembles
the real cucumber both in colour and in smell . We shall find
the less reason then to be surprised to find that in so small an
object as a shell-fish the head of the horse is to be seen pro-
truding from the shell.

CHAP. 2. (3 . )-THE SEA MONSTERS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.

But the most numerous and largest of all these animals are
those found in the Indian seas ; among which there are balænæ,"
8
four jugera in extent, and the pristis, two hundred cubits
2 Hardouin has the following remark on this passage. " Rondelet
and Aldrovandus only waste their time and pains in making their minute
inquiries into the present names of these fish, which took their names
from grapes, the wood, the saw, and the cucumber ; for by no other writer
do we find them mentioned even." Cuvier, however, does not seem to
be of Hardouin's opinion, that such investigations are a waste of time, and
has suggested that the eggs of the Sepia officinalis may be alluded to, the
eggs of which are in clusters of a dark colour, and bearing a strong re-
semblance to black grapes. This resemblance to a bunch of grapes is noticed
by Pliny himself, in c. 74 of the present Book.
3 He alludes, most probably, to what we call the " sword-fish," the
66 Xiphias gladius" of Linnæus.
4 Probably, in allusion to the " Squalus pristis" of Linnæus.
5 Cuvier suggests that he probably alludes to the " Holothuria pentac-
tes" of Linnæus, or the sea-priapus ; and remarks, that when the animal
contracts itself, it bears a very strong resemblance to a cucumber.
6 Cuvier says, that he most probably alludes to the " Syngnathus
hippocampus" of Linnæus. This little fish, he says, is also called the sea-
horse, and having the body armed with a hard coat, might very easily have
been taken for a shell-fish. Its head, in miniature, bears a very strong
resemblance to that of a horse.
7 It is not accurately known what fish was meant by the ancients, under
the name of " balana." According to some writers, it is considered to be
the same with what we call the " grampus."
8 A space, as Hardouin remarks, greater than that occupied by some
towns, the "jugerum" being 240 feet long, and 120 broad. The vast size
of great fishes was a favourite subject with some of the ancient writers,
and their accounts were eagerly copied by some of the early fathers.
Bochart has collected these various accounts in his work on Animals, B. i.
c. 7. In the " Arabian Nights" also, we find accounts of huge fishes in
the eastern seas, so large as to be taken for islands. The existence of the
sea-serpent is still a question in dispute ; and a whale of large size, is a
formidable obstacle in the way of a ship of even the largest burthen.
9 As Hardouin remarks, we can learn neither from the works of Pliny,
nor yet of Elian, what fish the pristis really was. From Nonius Marcel-
lus, c. 13, we find that it was a very long fish of large size, but narrow
360 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

long here also are found cray-fish¹º four cubits in length, and
in the river Ganges there are to be seen eels three hundred ¹¹
feet long. But at sea it is more especially about the time of
the solstices that these monsters are to be seen. For then
it is that in these regions the whirlwind comes sweeping on,
the rains descend, the hurricane comes rushing down, hurled
from the mountain heights, while the sea is stirred up from the
very bottom, and the monsters are driven from their depths
and rolled upwards on the crest of the billow. At other times
again, there are such vast multitudes of tunnies met with, that
the fleet of Alexander the Great was able to make head against
them only by facing them in order of battle, just as it would
have done an enemy's fleet. Had the ships not done this,
but proceeded in a straggling manner, they could not possibly
have made their escape . No noises, no sounds, no blows had
any effect on these fish ; by nothing short of the clash of battle
were they to be terrified, and by nothing less than their utter
destruction were they overpowered .
There is a large peninsula in the Red Sea, known by the
name of Cadara : 12 as it projects into the deep it forms a vast
gulf, which it took the fleet of King Ptolemy ¹³ twelve whole
days and nights to traverse by dint of rowing, for not a breath
of wind was to be perceived. In the recesses of this be-
calmed spot more particularly, the sea-monsters attain so vast
a size that they are quite unable to move. The comman-
ders of the fleets of Alexander the Great have related that
the Gedrosi, " who dwell upon the banks of the river Ara-
body. Hardouin says that it was a fish of the cetaceous kind, found in the
Indian seas, which , in his time, was known by some as the " vivella," with
a long bony muzzle serrated on either side, evidently meaning the saw-
fish. Pristis was a favourite name given by the Romans to their ships.
In the boat-race described by Virgil in the Æneid, B. v., one of the boats
is so called.
10 Cuvier remarks, that he himself had often seen the " langouste," or
large lobster, as much as four feet in length, and the " homard," usually a
smaller kind, of an equal size. The length, however, given by Pliny
would make six or eight feet, according to the length of the cubit.
11 Cuvier says, that it is an exaggeration by travellers, which there is
nothing in nature at all to justify. Probably, however, some animals of
the genus boa, or python, or large water-snakes may have given rise to
the story.
12 On the southern coast of Arabia. 13 Ptolemy Philadelphus.
14 See B. vi. c. 23, 25. Strabo, in his fifteenth Book, tells the same story
of the Ichthyophagi, situate between the Carmani and the Oritæ. Dale-
Chap. 3.] LARGEST ANIMALS IN THE OCEAN. 361

bis,15 are in the habit of making the doors of their houses with
the jaw-bones 16 of fishes, and raftering the roofs with their bones,
many of which were found as much as forty cubits in length.
At this place, too, the sea-monsters, just like so many cattle, "
were in the habit of coming on shore, and, after feeding on the
roots of shrubs, they would return ; some of them , which had
the heads of horses,18 asses, and bulls, found a pasture in the
crops of grain.

CHAP. 3. ( 4 . ) —THE LARGEST ANIMALS THAT ARE FOUND IN EACH

OCEAN .

The largest animals found in the Indian Sea are the pistrix
and the balæna ; while of the Gallic Ocean the physeter 19 is
champs suggests that the Gedrosi mentioned this in relation to the
Ichthyophagi, who were probably their neighbours.
15 Also called the Cophetes. See B. vi. c. 25. The commander of
Alexander's fleet more especially alluded to, is probably Nearchus, who
wrote an account of his voyage, to which Pliny has previously made allu-
sion in B. vi. and which is followed by Strabo, in B. xv., and by Arrian, in
his " Indica."
16 Hardouin remarks, that the Basques of his day were in the habit of
fencing their gardens with the ribs of the whale, which sometimes ex-
ceeded twenty feet in length ; and Cuvier says, that at the present time, the
jaw-bone of the whale is used in Norway for the purpose of making beams
or posts for buildings.
17 Onesicritus, quoted by Strabo, B. xv., says. , that in the vicinity of
Taprobane, or Ceylon, there were animals which had an amphibious life,
some of which resembled oxen, some horses, and various other land animals.
Cuvier is of opinion, that not improbably the " Trichecum manatum" and
the " Trichecum dugong" of Linnæus are alluded to, which are herbivorous
animals, though nearly allied to the cetacea, and which are in the habit of
coming to pasture on the grass or sea-weed they may chance to find on the
shore.
18 It is remarked by Cuvier, that there is no resemblance whatever be-
tween the domesticated animals and any of the cetacea ; but that the
imagination of the vulgar has pictured to itself these supposed resem-
blances, by the aid of a lively imagination .
19 From the Greek puonrnp, " a blower," probably one of the whale
species, so called from its blowing forth the water. Hardouin remarks, that
Pliny mentions the Gallic Ocean, in B. vi. c. 33, as ending atthe Pyrenees ;
and, probably, by this term he means the modern Bay of Biscay. Ronde-
letius, B. xvi. c. 14, says, that this fish is the same that is called by the
Narbonnese peio mular, by the Italians capidolio, and by the people of
Saintonge, "sedenette." Cuvier conjectures also, that this was some kind
of large whale ; a fish which was not unfrequently found, in former times,
in the gulf of Aquitaine, the inhabitants of the shores ofwhich were skilled
in its pursuit. Ajasson states that Valmont de Bomare was of opinion
 362 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

the most bulky inhabitant, raising itself aloft like some vast
column, and as it towers above the sails of ships, belching forth,
as it were, a deluge of water. In the ocean of Gades there is
a tree, 20 with outspread branches so vast, that it is supposed
that it is for that reason it has never yet entered the Straits.
There are fish also found there which are called sea -wheels, ª¹ in
consequence of their singular conformation ; they are divided
by four spokes, the nave being guarded on every side by a
couple of eyes.

CHAP . 4. (5 . )---THE FORMS OF THE TRITONS AND NEREIDS. THE

FORMS OF SEA ELEPHANTS.
A deputation of persons from Olisipo," that had been sent
for the purpose, brought word to the Emperor Tiberius that a
triton had been both seen and heard in a certain cavern, blowing
a conch -shell, ” and of the form under which they are usually
that it was the porpoise ; but, as he justly remarks, the size of that animal
does not at all correspond with the magnitude of the " physeter,” as here
mentioned.
20 Cuvier suggests that the idea of such an animal as the one here
mentioned, probably took its rise in the kind of sea star-fish, now known
as Medusa's head, the Asterias of Linnæus ; but that the enormous size here
attributed to it, has no foundation whatever in reality. He remarks also ,
that the inhabitants of the north of Europe, have similar stories relative
to a huge polypus, which they call the “ kraken. ” We may, however, be
allowed to observe, that the " kraken,” or “ korven," mentioned by good
bishop Pontoppidan, bears a closer resemblance to the so-called "sea-
serpent," than to anything of the polypus or sepia genus.
21 " Rotæ." Cuvier suggests that this idea of the wheel was taken
from the class of zoophytes named " Medusa," by Linnæus, which have the
form of a disc, divideď by radii, and dots which may have been taken for
eyes. But then, as he says, there are none of them of an excessive size,
as Pliny would seem to indicate by placing them in this Chapter, and which
Elian has absolutely attributed to them in B. xiii . c. 20. Of the largest
rhizostoma, Cuvier says, that he had even seen, the diameter of the disc
did not exceed two feet.
21 Lisbon. See B. iv. c. 35.
22 One of the Scholiasts on Homer says, that before the discovery of the
brazen trumpet by the Tyrrhenians, the conch-shell was in general use
for that purpose. Hardouin, with considerable credulity, remarks here,
that it is no fable, that the nereids and tritons had a human face ; and says
that no less than fifteen instances, ancient and modern, had been adduced,
in proof that such was the fact. He says that this was the belief of Scali-
ger, and quotes the book of Aldrovandus on Monsters, p. 36. But, as
Cuvier remarks, it is impossible to explain these stories of nereids and
tritons, on any other grounds than the fraudulent pretences of those who
Chap. 4.] FORMS OF THE TRITONS, ETC. 363

represented. Nor yet is the figure generally attributed to the

nereids23 at all a fiction ; only in them, the portion of the body
that resembles the human figure is still rough all over with
scales. For one of these creatures was seen upon the same
shores, and as it died, its plaintive murmurs were heard24even
by the inhabitants at a distance. The legatus of Gaul, too,
wrote word to the late Emperor Augustus that a considerable
number of nereids had been found dead upon the sea-shore. I
have, too, some distinguished informants of equestrian rank,
who state that they themselves once saw in the ocean of Gades
a sea-man,25 which bore in every part of his body a perfect re-
semblance to a human being, and that during the night he
would climb up into ships ; upon which the side of the vessel
where he seated himself would instantly sink downward, and
if he remained there any considerable time, even go under
water.
In the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, a subsidence of the
ocean left exposed on the shores of an island which faces the
province of Lugdunum 26 as many as three hundred animals or
more, all at once, quite marvellous for their varied shapes and
enormous size, and no less a number upon the shores of the
have exhibited them, or asserted that they have seen them . " It was only
last year," he says, " that all London was resorting to see a wonderful sight
in what is commonly called a mermaid . I myself had the opportunity of
examining a very similar object : it was the body of a child, in the mouth
of which they had introduced the jaws of a sparus [probably our " gilt-
head]," while for the legs was substituted the body of a lizard. The body
of the London mermaid," he says, " was that of an ape, and a fish attached
to it supplied the place of the hind legs."
23 Primarily the nereids were sea-nymphs, the daughters of Nereus and
Doris. Dalechamps informs us, that Alexander ab Alexandro states that
he once saw a nereid that had been thrown ashore on the coasts of the
Peloponnesus, that Trapezuntius saw one as it was swimming, and that
Draconetus Bonifacius, the Neapolitan, saw a triton that had been pre-
served in honey, and which many had seen when taken alive on the coast
of Epirus. We may here remark, that the triton is the same as our " mer-
man," and the nereid is our " mermaid."
24 Of Gallia Lugdunensis, namely. The legatus was also called " rec-
tor," and " proprætor.'""
25 Or " mer-man," as we call it. Dalechamps, in his note, with all the
credulity of his time, states that a similar sea-man had been captured, it
was said, in the preceding age in Norway, and that another had been seen
in Poland, dressed like a bishop, in the year 1531. Juvenal, in his 14th
Satire, makes mention of the " monsters of the ocean, and the youths of the
sea." 26 See B. iv. c. 31, 32.
 364 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

Santones ; among the rest there were elephants28 and rams,

which last, however, had only a white spot to represent horns.
Turranius has also left accounts of several nereids, and he
speaks of a monster " that was thrown up on the shore at
Gades, the distance between the two fins at the end of the tail
of which was sixteen cubits, and its teeth one hundred and
twenty in number ; the largest being nine, and the smallest
six inches in length .
M. Scaurus, in his ædileship, exhibited at Rome, among other
wonderful things, the bones of the monster to which Andro-
meda was said to have been exposed, and which he had brought
from Joppa, a city of Judæa. These bones exceeded forty feet
in length, and the ribs were higher than those of the Indian
elephant, while the back-bone was a foot and a half30 in thick-
ness.
27 See B. iv. c. 33.
28 Dalechamps says that this elephant is the same as the “ rosmarus " of
Olaus Magnus, B. xxxii . c. 11. It is remarked by Cuvier, that cetaceous
animals have at all times received the names of those belonging to the land.
The sea-ram, he thinks, may have been the great dolphin, which is called
the " bootskopf," and which has above the eye a white spot, curved in nearly
a similar manner to the horn of a ram. The " elephant," again, he suggests,
may have been the Trichechus rosmarus of Linnæus, or the morse, which
has large tusks projecting from its mouth, similar to those of the elephant.
This animal, however, as he says, is confined to the northern seas, and does
not appear ever to have come so far south as our coasts. Juba and Pau-
sanias, however, speak of these horns of the sea-ram as being really teeth
or tusks .
29 Judging from the account of it here given, and especially in relation
to the teeth, Cuvier is inclined to think that the cachelot whale, the Phy-
seter macrocephalus of Linnæus, is the animal here alluded to .
30 Solinus, generally a faithful mimic of Pliny, makes the measure only
half a foot. Cuvier says that there can be little doubt that the bones re-
presented to have been those of the monster to which Andromeda was ex-
posed, were the bones, and more especially the lower jaws, of the whale.
Ajasson certainly appears to have mistaken the sense of this passage. He
says that it must not be supposed that Pliny means the identical bones of
the animal which was about to devour Andromeda, but of one of the ani-
mals of that kind ; and he exercises his wit at the expense of those who
would construe the passage differently, in saying that these bones ought to
have been sent to those who show in their collections such articles as the
knife with which Cain slew Abel. Now, there can be no doubt that these
bones were not those of the monster which the poets tell us was about to
devour Andromeda ; but the Romans certainly supposed that they were,
and Pliny evidently thought so too, for in B. v. c. 14, he speaks of the
chains by which she was fastened to the rock, at Joppa, as still to be seen
there. M. Æmilius Scaurus, the younger, is here referred to.
Chap. 5.] THE BALENA. 365

CHAP. 5. ( 6 . )—THE BALÆNA AND THE ORCA.

The balæna³¹31 penetrates to our seas even. It is said that
they are not to be seen in the ocean of Gades before the winter
solstice, and that at periodical seasons they retire and conceal
themselves in some calm capacious bay, in which they take a
delight in bringing forth . This fact, however, is known to
the orca,32 an animal which is peculiarly hostile to the balana,
and the form of which cannot be in any way adequately de-
scribed, but as an enormous mass of flesh armed with teeth.
This animal attacks the balæna in its places of retirement, and
with its teeth tears its young, or else attacks the females which
have just brought forth, and, indeed, while they are still preg-
nant ; and as they rush upon them, it pierces them just as though
they had been attacked by the beak of a Liburnian 33 galley.
The female balænæ, devoid of all flexibility, without energy to
defend themselves, and over-burdened by their own weight,
weakened, too, by gestation, or else the pains of recent parturi-
tion, are well aware that their only resource is to take to flight
31 As already mentioned, there is considerable doubt what fish of the
whale species is meant under this name. Cuvier says, that even at the
present day whales are occasionally found in the Mediterranean, and says
that there is the head of one in the Museum of Natural History, that was
thrown ashore at Martigues. He also observes, that in the year 1829, one
had been cast upon the coasts of Languedoc. Ajasson suggests, that not
improbably whales once frequented the Mediterranean in great numbers,
but that as commerce increased, they gradually retreated to the open ocean.
32 Rondelet, B. xvi. c. 13, says that this animal was called " espaular '
by the people of Saintonge. Cuvier is of opinion, also, that it is the same
animal, which is also known by the name of " bootskopf," the Delphinus
orca of Linnæus. (See N. 28.) This cetaceous animal, he says, is a most
dangerous enemy to the whale, which it boldly attacks, devouring its tongue,
which is of a tender quality and enormous size. He thinks, however, that
the orca taken at the port of Ostia was no other than a cachelot.
33 The Liburna, or Liburnica, was usually a bireme, or two-oared galley,
with the mast in the middle, though sometimes of larger bulk. From the
description given of these by Varro, as quoted by Aulus Gellius, B. xvii.
c. 3, they seem, as it has been remarked, somewhat similar to the light
Indian massooliah boats, which are used to cross the serf in Madras roads.
Pliny tells us, in B. xvi. c. 17, that the material of which they were con-
structed was pine timber, as free from resin as it could possibly be ob-
tained. The beak of these vessels was of great comparative weight, and
its sharpness is evidently alluded to in the present passage, as also in B.
x. c. 32. The term " Liburna" was adopted from the assistance rendered
to Augustus by the Liburni at the battle of Actium .
366 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

in the open sea and to range over the whole face of the ocean ;
while the orca, on the other hand, do all in their power to meet
them in their flight, throw themselves in their way, and kill
them either cooped up in a narrow passage, or else drive them
on a shoal, or dash them to pieces against the rocks. When
these battles are witnessed, it appears just as though the sea
were infuriate against itself ; not a breath of wind is there to
be felt in the bay, and yet the waves by their pantings and
their repeated blows are heaved aloft in a way which no whirl-
wind could effect.
An orca has been seen even in the port of Ostia, where it was
attacked by the Emperor Claudius. It was while he was
constructing the harbour³ there that this orca came, attracted
by some hides which, having been brought from Gaul, had
happened to fall overboard 35 there. By feeding upon these for
several days it had quite glutted itself, having made for itself
a channel in the shoaly water. Here, however, the sand was
thrown up by the action of the wind to such an extent, that
the creature found it quite impossible to turn round ; and while
in the act of pursuing its prey, it was propelled by the waves
towards the shore, so that its back came to be perceived above
the level of the water, very much resembling in appearance
the keel of a vessel turned bottom upwards. Upon this, Cæsar
ordered a great number of nets to be extended at the mouth of
the harbour, from shore to shore, while he himself went there
with the prætorian cohorts, and so afforded a spectacle to the
Roman people ; for boats assailed the monster, while the sol-
diers on board showered lances upon it. I myself saw one of
the boats36 sunk by the water which the animal , as it respired,
showered down upon it.

34 These works were completed by Nero the successor of Claudius, and

consisted of a new and more capacious harbour on the right arm of the
Tiber. It was afterwards enlarged and improved by Trajan. This har-
bour was simply called " Portus Romanus," or " Portus Augusti ;" and
around it there sprang up a town known as " Portus," the inhabitants of
which were called " Portuenses.'
35 " Naufragiis tergorum." This may probably mean a shipwreck, in
which some hides had fallen into the sea.
36 It is remarked by Rezzonico, that Palermus, in the account of this
story given by him in B. i. c. 1 , has mistaken Pliny's meaning, and evi-
dently thinks that " unum" refers to the soldiers, and not the boats en-
gaged in the attack.
Chap. 6.] FISHES . 367

CHAP. 6.— WHETHER FISHES RESPIRE, AND WHETHER THEY

SLEEP.

Balænæ have the mouth 37 in the forehead ; and hence it is

that, as they swim on the surface of the water, they discharge
vast showers of water in the air. ( 7.) It is universally agreed,
however, that they respire, as do a very few other animals 38
in the sea, which have lungs among the internal viscera ; for
without lungs it is generally supposed that no animal can
breathe. Those, too, who are of this opinion are of opinion
also that no fishes that have gills are so constituted as to
inhale and exhale alternately, nor, in fact, many other kinds of
animals even, which are entirely destitute of gills. This, I find,
was the opinion of Aristotle, " who, by his learned researches40
on the subject, has induced many others to be of the same
way of thinking . I shall not, however, conceal the fact, that
I for one do not by any means at once subscribe to this
opinion, for it is very possible, if such be the will of Nature,
that there may be other organs fitted for the purposes of
respiration, and acting in the place of lungs ; just as in many
animals a different liquid altogether takes the place of blood.42
And who, in fact, can find any ground for surprise that the
breath of life can penetrate the waters of the deep, when he
37 " Ora." Cuvier remarks, that it is not the " mouth of the animal but
the nostrils, that are situate on the top of the head, and that through these
it sends forth vast columns of water." Aristotle, in his Hist. Anim. B. i .
c. 3, has a similar passage, from which Pliny copied this assertion of his.
38 Cuvier remarks, that these are the animals of the cetaceous class,
which resemble the quadrupeds in the formation of the viscera, their
respiration, and the mamma ; and which, in fact, only differ from them in
their general form, which more nearly resembles that of fishes.
39 Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 2.
40 "Doctrinæ indaginibus." This certainly seems a better reading than
"doctrina indignis," which has been adopted by Sillig, and which would
make complete nonsense of the passage.
41 Dalechamps states that Caelius Rhodiginus, B. iv. c. 15, has entered
very fully into this subject.
42 Cuvier remarks, on this passage, that the mollusca have, instead of
blood, a kind of azure or colourless liquid. He observes also, that insects
respire by means of trachea, or elastic tubes, which penetrate into every
part of the body ; and that the gills of fish are as essentially an organ of
respiration as the lungs. All, he says, that Pliny adds as to the introduc-
tion of air into water, is equally conformable to truth ; and that it is by
means of the air mingled with the water, or of the atmosphere which they
inhale at the surface, that fishes respire.
368 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX .

sees that it is even exhaled ¹³ from them ? and when we find,

too, that it can even enter the very depths of the earth, an
element of so much greater density, a thing that is proved by
the case of animals which always live under ground, the mole
for instance ? There are other weighty reasons as well, which
induce me to be of opinion that all aquatic animals respire,
conformably to their natural organization ; for, in the first place,
there has been often remarked in fishes a certain degree of an-
helation during the heat of summer, and at other times again,
44
a kind of leisurely gaping, as it were. And then, besides, we
have the admission of those who are of the contrary opinion,
that fishes do sleep ; but what possibility is there of sleeping"
without respiring as well ? And again, we see their breath
disengaged in bubbles which rise to the water's surface, and
the influence too of the moon makes even the very shells 46
grow in bulk.
But the most convincing reason of all is, the undoubted fact
that fishes have the power of hearing and of smelling, two
senses for the operation of both of which the air is a necessary
vehicle ; for by smell we understand nothing else than the air
being charged with certain particles.48 However, let every
person form his own opinion on these subjects, just in such way
as he may think best.
Neither the balæna nor the dolphin has any gills.49 Both

43 In the shape of vapour raised by the action of the sun. In accord-

ance with this opinion, Cicero says, De Nat. Deor. B. ii. s. 27, " The air
arises from the respiration of the waters, and must be looked upon as a
sort of vapour coming from them."
44 But, as Hardouin remarks, this act on the part of the fish is caused
as much by the water as the air.
45 As Hardouin remarks, this is a somewhat singular notion that sleep
is produced by the action of the lungs.
46 Hardouin asks, what this has to do with the question about the air
which Pliny is here discussing ? and then suggests that his meaning may
possibly be, that the moon has an influence on bodies through the medium
of the air, in accordance with the notion of the ancients that the respira-
tion was more free during the time of full moon. Littré says, that Pliny's
meaning is, that since the influence of the moon is able to penetrate the
waters, the air and the vital breath can of course penetrate them also.
47 See B. x. c. 89, "where this subject is further discussed.
48 " Infectum aera."
49 See Aristotle, De Part. Anim. B. iv. c. 13, and Hist. Anim . B. viii.
c. 2.
Chap. 7. ] DOLPHINS. 369

of these animals respire 50 through vent-holes, which commu-

nicate with the lungs ; in the balana they are on the fore-
head, ¹ and in the dolphin on the back. Sea-calves, too , which
we call " phocæ,,"" 52 breathe and sleep upon dry land- sea-
tortoises also, of which we shall have more to say hereafter.

CHAP. 7. (8.) DOLPHINS.

The swiftest 5 not only of the sea animals, but of all animals
whatever, is the dolphin.55 He is more rapid in his move-
50 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 5.
51 Cuvier remarks, that these nostrils, or vent-holes, are placed some-
what further back on the head in the dolphin than in the whale ; but at
the same time they cannot be said to be situate on the back of the animal.
52 Or " seals." They will be further mentioned in c. 15 of the present
Book.
53 Or " turtles," which are more fully described in c. 21 of this Book.
54 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 74.
55 Cuvier remarks, that in the present Chapter there is a confusion of the
peculiarities of two different animals, and refers the reader to his Note on
B. viii. c. 38, which, so far as it has not been set forth, is to the follow-
ing effect :-" I may here remark, that Pliny speaks on several occasions
of dolphins with spines or stings on the back, although at other times he
is found to give that name to the same cetaceous animal which is so deno-
minated by us. Thus, in his story in B. ix. c. 8, of the friendship con-
ceived by a dolphin in Lake Lucrinus for a child at Baiæ, he takes care to
remark that the dolphin, when taking the child on his back, concealed his
spines beneath his dorsal fin. I am of opinion, however, that I have re-
cognized the fish which Seneca, Pliny, and even Aristotle have sometimes
confounded with the real dolphin, apparently because it had received that
name from certain fishermen, and these are my reasons for forming this
conclusion. In c. 7 of the Ninth Book, Pliny mingles with many facts that
really do belong to the real dolphin, one trait which is quite foreign to it.
' It is so swift,' says he, that were it not for the fact that its mouth is
situate much beneath its muzzle, almost, indeed, in the middle of its belly,
not a fish would be able to escape its pursuit : in consequence of this, it
can only seize its prey by turning on its back.' This, it must be observed,
is not one of those mistakes which we are to put down to Pliny's own ac-
count, and of which he has so many ; for we find Aristotle as well, who has
so perfectly known and described the ordinary dolphin, attributing a mouth
similarly situate to the dolphin and the cartilaginous animals. This fact,
which is totally false as regards the real dolphin, is, in all probability, ap-
plicable to the alleged dolphin, whose back is mentioned as being armed
with spines. These three characteristics, a mouth situate very far be-
neath the nose, spines on the back, and power and swiftness sufficient to
enable it to fight the crocodile, are only to be found united in certain of
the genus Squalus,' such as the ' Squalus centrina,' and the ' Squalus
spinax ' of Linnæus. "
VOL. II. B B
370 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX .

ments than a bird, more instantaneous than the flight of an

arrow, and were it not for the fact that his mouth is situate
much below his muzzle,56 almost, indeed, in the middle of the
belly, not a fish would be able to escape his pursuit. But
Nature,57 in her prudence, has thrown certain impediments in
his way ; for unless he turns, and throws himself on his back,
he can seize nothing, and it is this circumstance_more_espe-
cially that gives proof of his extraordinary swiftness . For, if
pressed by hunger,58 he will follow a fish, as it flies down, to
the very bottom of the water, and then after holding his breath
thus long, will dart again to the surface to respire, with the
speed of an arrow discharged from a bow ; and often, on such
occasions, he is known to leap out of the water with such a
bound, as to fly right over the sails 59 of a ship.
Dolphins generally go in couples ; the females bring forth
their young in the tenth month, during the summer season,
sometimes two in number.60 They suckle their young at the
teat like the balana, and even carry them during the weak-
ness of infancy ; in addition to which, long after they are
grown up, they accompany them, so great is their affection for
their progeny. The young ones grow very speedily, and in
ten years are supposed to arrive at their full size. The dol-

56 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 5. From this description Hardouin

is induced to think that Rondelet and Aldrovandus are wrong in their
conclusions that it is the sea-hog, or porpoise, that is meant. Čuvier also
says, that this description will not apply to the real dolphin, though it is
strictly applicable to the Squalus acanthias, Squalus ricinus, and others ; to
the former of which also the spines or stings mentioned by Pliny appro-
priately belong ; all the other characteristics, he says, which are here men-
tioned by Pliny, are applicable to the real dolphin, though in modern
times it has never been brought to such a degree of tameness. Hence it
is that some writers have supposed that Pliny is here speaking of the Tri-
chechus manatus of Linnæus, by the French called " lamentin," by us
the "sea-cow. " Cuvier says, that he should be inclined to be of the same
opinion, were it not for the fact that that animal does not frequent the coasts
of the Mediterranean.
57 Copied literally from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 5, and De Part.
Anim. B. iv. c. 13.
58 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix, c. 74.
59 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 48, says not the sails, but the masts
of ships ; and Pintianus remarks, that Pliny has been deceived by the re-
semblance of the words, ioròs and ioríov. Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c.
12, has a similar statement also.
60 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 9. Oppian, Halieut. B. i. 1. 660.
Chap. 8.] DOLPHINS . 371

phin lives thirty years ; a fact that has been ascertained from
cutting marks 61 on the tail, by way of experiment. It con-
ceals itself for thirty days, at about the rising of the Dog-star,
and hides itself so effectually, that it is not known whither it
goes ; a thing that is more surprising still, if it is unable to
respire under water. Dolphins are in the habit of darting
upon the shore, for some reason or other, it is not known62
what. They do not die the moment that they touch the dry
land, but will die much more speedily if the vent-hole is closed .
The tongue, contrary to the nature of aquatic animals in
general, is moveable, being short and broad, not much unlike
that of the pig. Instead of a voice, they emit a moaning
sound 63 similar to that made by a human being ; the back is
arched, and the nose turned up. For this reason 64 it is that
they all recognize in a most surprising manner the name of
Simo, and prefer to be called by that rather than by any other.

CHAP. 8.- HUMAN BEINGS WHO HAVE BEEN BELOVED BY DOLPHINS.

The dolphin is an animal not only friendly to man, but a 65

lover of music as well ; he is charmed by melodious concerts,
61 Fishermen having notched the tail of the animal when young, and re-
cognized it by these marks thirty years afterwards.
62 " Incertâ de causâ ." Pintianus, following the similar account given
by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 48, takes the words to mean 66 temere,"
" hap-hazard,'," " without any motive whatever." Ajasson says that it is
their eager pursuit of small fishes which sometimes betrays them into leaping
on shore, and occasionally, the pain caused by attacks of parasitical sea-
insects and other animals.
63 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 49, says that the dolphin makes this
noise when it comes to the air.
64 He would seem to imply that the dolphin knows that it is " simus,"
or " flat-nosed," for which reason it is particularly fond of being called
" Simo," or " flat-nose," a piece of good taste and intelligence remarkable
even in a dolphin. Hardouin undertakes to explain their remarkable liking
for this name on other grounds, and says that when a song was sung, they
were charmed by the pronunciation of the word " Simo every now and
then, the last syllable being drawn out at great length. Ajasson suggests
that the only reason for which this name delighted them, was probably the
sibilant or hissing sound made when it is frequently repeated .
65 66 Symphonia cantu." Hardouin is of opinion that this means the
music of the " symphonia, " that being some kind of musical instrument.
But, as Ajasson remarks, the meaning is much more likely to be, " singing
in concert," where there are several performers, and each takes his own
part in the symphony. It might, however, possibly mean singing and
BB 2
372 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

and more especially by the notes of the water-organ.“ He

does not dread man, as though a stranger to him, but comes to
meet ships, leaps and bounds to and fro, vies with them in
swiftness, and passes them even when in full sail.
In the reign of the late Emperor Augustus, a dolphin
which had been carried to the Lucrine Lake 68 conceived a
most wonderful affection for the child of a certain poor man,
who was in the habit of going that way from Baix to Pu-
69
teoli to school, and who used to stop there in the middle of
the day, call him by his name of Simo, and would often entice
him to the banks of the lake with pieces of bread which he
carried for the purpose. I should really have felt ashamed to
mention this, had not the incident been stated in writing in
the works of Mæcenas, Fabianus, Flavius Alfius, and many
others . At whatever hour of the day he might happen to be
called by the boy, and although hidden and out of sight at the
bottom of the water, he would instantly fly to the surface,
and after feeding from his hand, would present his back for
him to mount, taking care to conceal the spiny projection of
his fins70 in their sheath , as it were ; and so, sportively taking
him up on his back, he would carry him over a wide expanse
music combined, similar to the performance of Arion, mentioned at the end
of the Chapter.
66 The organ was so called by the ancients, from the resemblance borne
by its pipes to " hydraula " or water-pipes, and from the fact of the
bellows being acted on by the pressure of water. According to an author
quoted by Athenæus, B. iv. c. 75, the first organist was Ctesibius of Alex-
andria, who lived about B.c. 200. It is not improbable that Pliny refers
to this invention in B. vii. c. 38. The pipes of the organ of Ctesibius were
partly of bronze and partly of reed, and Tertullian describes it as a very
complicated instrument.
67 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 15, tells this story as well, and Aulus
Gellius, B. vii. c. 8, relates it from the fifth Book of the Ægyptiaca of Apion,
who stated that he himself had witnessed the fact.
68 The Lucrine Lake originally communicated with the sea, but was af-
terwards separated from the Bay of Cuma by a dyke eight stadia in length.
In the time of Augustus, however, Agrippa opened a communication between
the Lake and the Bay, for the purpose of forming the Julian harbour. If
the circumstance here mentioned by Pliny happened before this period,
"invectus " must mean " carried by human agency ;" but if after, it is pos-
sible that the fish may have been carried into the lake by the tide. For
an account of the lake, see B. iii. c. 9.
69 See B. iii. c. 9.
70 " Pinnarum aculeas." See the remarks of Cuvier on this passage,
and his conclusion as to the fish meant, in his Note in p. 369.
Chap. 8. ] DOLPHINS . 373

of sea to the school at Puteoli , and in a similar manner bring

him back again. This happened for several years, until at
last the boy happened to fall ill of some malady, and died .
The dolphin, however, still came to the spot as usual, with a
sorrowful air and manifesting every sign of deep affliction,
until at last, a thing of which no one felt the slightest doubt,
he died purely of sorrow and regret.
Within these few years also,72 another at Hippo Diar-
rhytus,73 on the coast of Africa, in a similar manner used to
receive his food from the hands of various persons, present
himself for their caresses, sport about among the swimmers,
and carry them on his back. On being rubbed with unguents
by Flavianus, the then proconsul of Africa, he was lulled to
sleep, as it appeared, by the sensation of an odour so new to him,
and floated about just as though he had been dead. For some
months after this, he carefully avoided all intercourse with
man, just as though he had received some affront or other ; but
at the end of that time he returned, and afforded just the same
wonderful scenes as before. At last, the vexations that were
caused them by having to entertain so many influential men
who came to see this sight, compelled the people of Hippo to
put the animal to death.
Before this, there was a similar story told of a child at the
city of Iasus," for whom a dolphin was long observed to have
conceived a most ardent affection, until at last, as the animal
was eagerly following him as he was making for the shore,"
it was carried by the tide on the sands, and there expired .
Alexander the Great appointed this boy76 high priest of Nep-
tune at Babylon, interpreting this extraordinary attachment
as a convincing proof of the favour of that divinity.
Hegesidemus has also informed us, that in the same city" of
72 Oppian, in his Halieutica, B. v. l. 453, mentions this story also, and
of course Solinus does. 73 See B. v. c. 3.
74 The island and city of Caria. See B. v. c. 29.
75 Being alarmed by the pursuit of the fish while he was swimming.
76 Athenæus, B. xiii., tells this story more at large, and states that the
name of the child was Dionysius. Hardouin remarks, that Solinus, the
ape of Pliny, has absolutely read this passage as though the child's name
had been Babylon ; upon the strength of which, Saumaise had proposed to
alter the reading in Pliny, not remembering at the time that the boy's name
had been given by Athenæus.
77 This story is also told by Plutarch, in his work on the Instincts of
Animals.
374 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

Iasus there was another boy also, Hermias by name, who in a

similar manner used to traverse the sea on a dolphin's back,
but that on one occasion a tempest suddenly arising, he lost
his life, and was brought back dead ; upon which, the dolphin,
who thus admitted that he had been the cause of his death,
would not return to the sea, but lay down upon the dry land,
and there expired .
Theophrastus 78 informs us, that the very same thing hap-
pened at Naupactus also ; nor, in fact, is there any limit to
similar instances. The Amphilochians 79 and the Tarentines 80
have similar stories also about children and dolphins ; and all
these give an air of credibility to the one that is told of
Arion, the famous performer on the lyre. The mariners
being on the point of throwing him into the sea, for the pur-
pose of taking possession of the money he had earned, he pre-
vailed upon them to allow him one more song, accompanied
with the music of his lyre. The melody attracted numbers of
dolphins around the ship, and, upon throwing himself into the
sea, he was taken up by one of them, and borne in safety to
the shore of the Promontory of Tænarum.82

CHAP. 9. -PLACES WHERE DOLPHINS HELP MEN TO FISH.

There is in the province of Gallia Narbonensis and in the

territory of Nemausus 83 а lake known by the name of La-
tera, where dolphins fish in company with men. At the
78 Aulus Gellius, B. vii. c. 8, mentions this story, borrowing it probably
from Theophrastus .
79 The people of the territory in which Amphilochian Argos was situate,
and lying to the south of Ambracia. See B. iv. c. 2.
80 The people of Tarentum. See B. iii. c. 16.
81 Ovid tells the story of Arion more fully, and in beautiful language,
in the Fasti, B. ii. 1. 92, et seq.
82 A promontory in the south of Laconia, now Cape Matapan. See B.
iv. c. 7. Solinus, c. 7, tells us that there was a temple of Arion of Me-
thymna, situate on this spot, in which there was a figure of him seated on
a dolphin's back, and made of bronze ; with an inscription stating that this
wonderful circumstance took place in the 29th Olympiad, in which year
Arion had been victorious in the Sicilian games. Philostorgius, in B. i. of
his Ecclesiastical History, tells us also of a martyr who was saved by a
dolphin, which bore him to Helenopolis, a city of Nicomedia.
83 Now Nismes. See B. iii. c. 5.
84 Still known as the Lake of Lattes, in the department of Narbonne.
Cuvier says that the mullet-fishing is still carried on in this lake, which is
Chap. 9.] DOLPHINS . 375
85
narrow outlet of this lake, at stated seasons of the year in-
numerable multitudes of mullets make their way into the sea,
taking advantage of the turn of the tide ; hence it is that it is
quite impossible to employ nets sufficiently strong to bear so
vast a weight, even though the fish had not the instinctive
shrewdness to watch their opportunity. By a similar instinct
the fish immediately make with all speed towards the deep
water which is found in a gulf in that vicinity, and hasten to
escape from the only spot that is at all convenient for spread-
ing the nets. As soon as ever the fishermen perceive this, all
the people-for great multitudes resort thither, being well
aware of the proper time, and especially desirous of sharing
in the amusement-shout as loud as they can, and summon
Simo to the scene of action . The dolphins very quickly under-
stand that they are in requisition, as a north-east wind speedily
carries the sound to their retreats, though a south one would
somewhat retard it by carrying it in an opposite direction .
Even then however, sooner than you could have possibly sup-
posed, there are the dolphins, in all readiness to assist. They
are seen approaching in all haste in battle array, and, imme-
diately taking up their position when the engagement is about
to take place, they cut off all escape to the open sea, and drive
the terrified fish into shallow water. The fishermen then throw
their nets, holding them up at the sides with forks, though the
mullets with inconceivable agility instantly leap over them ;86
on the shores of Languedoc, and refers to D'Astruc's Memoirs on the Na-
tural History of that province. The dolphins, however, he says, no longer
take part in the sport ; and he observes that the same story is told by
Ælian, B. ii. c. 8, and Albertus Magnus, De Anim . B. xxiv., with reference
to other places. Oppian, in his Halieutica, B. v., makes Euboea the scene
of these adventures, while Albertus Magnus speaks of the shores of Italy.
Rondelet, in his Book on Fishes, says that it used to take place on the
coasts of Spain, near Palamos. Cuvier suggests, with Belon and D'Astruc,
that the story arose from the fact that the dolphins, while pursuing the
shoals of mullets, sometimes drove them into the creeks and salt- water lakes
on the coast ; a fact which has been sometimes found to cause the fish to
be caught in greater abundance.
85 Dalechamps tells us that the people of Montpellier call this outlet
" La Crau," and that it is in the vicinity of Mangueil.
86 Were it not for the word " nihilominus " here, it would look as if the
meaning were, that although the ends of the nets are hoisted up, the fish
are so active that they jump over the side, and thus get enclosed. Bythe
use of that word, however, it would seem to mean, that although the sides
are hoisted up, the fish are so nimble, that they clear the nets altogether.
376 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

while the dolphins, on the other hand, are waiting in readiness

to receive them, and content themselves for the present with
killing them only, postponing all thoughts of eating till after
they have secured the victory. The battle waxes hot apace,
and the dolphins, pressing on with the greatest vigour,
readily allow themselves to be enclosed in the nets ; but in
order that the fact of their being thus enclosed may not urge
the enemy to find additional means of flight, they glide
along so stealthily among the boats and nets, or else the swim-
mers, as not to leave them any opening for escape. By leaping,
which at other times is their most favourite amusement, not
one among them attempts to make its escape, unless, indeed,
the nets are purposely lowered for it ; and the instant that it
has come out it continues the battle, as it were, up to the very
ramparts. At last, when the capture is now completed, they
devour those among the fish which they have killed ; but
being well aware that they have given too active an assistance
to be repaid with only one day's reward, they take care to wait
there till the following day, when they are filled not only with
fish, but bread crumbs soaked in wine as well.

CHAP. 10.- OTHER WONDERFUL THINGS RELATING TO DOLPHINS.

The account which Mucianus gives of a similar mode of
fishing in the Iasian Gulf differs from the preceding one, in
the fact that there the dolphins make their appearance of their
own accord, and do not require to be called : they receive their
share from the hands of the people, each boat having its own
particular associate among the dolphins ; and this, although the
88
fishing is carried on at night-time by the light of torches.
If the latter is the meaning, Pliny probably intends to speak only of what
some of them are able to do : otherwise it is hard to see of what utility the
nets were in the operation.
87 " Quos interemere." Pintianus suggests ":æquo interim jure
"with equal rights," instead of these words, and Pelicier does not disap-
prove of the suggestion ; for Elian states, in B. ii. c. 8, Hist. Anim. , that
the dolphins used to share the fish equally with the fishermen of Euboea.
But, as Hardouin says, the words " quos interemere " have reference to the
statement above, that " they content themselves for the present with killing
them only." And besides, if the fishermen gave them an equal share, it is
not likely that they would give them still more of the fish on the following
day.
83 Elian also mentions this, Hist. Anim. B. ii . c. 8.
Chap. 11. ] THE TURSIO. 377

Dolphins, also, form among themselves 89 a sort of general

community. One of them having been captured by a king of
Caria and chained up in the harbour, great multitudes of dol-
phins assembled at the spot, and with signs of sorrow which
could not be misunderstood, appealed to the sympathies of
the people, until at last the king ordered it to be released.
The young dolphins, also, are always attended 90 by a larger
one, who acts as a guardian to them ; and before now, they have
been seen carrying off the body of one which had died, that
it might not be devoured by the sea-monsters.

CHAP. 11. ( 9 . )— THE TURSIO.

There is a fish called the tursio,92 which bears a strong re-
semblance to the dolphin ; it differs from it, however, in a
certain air of sadness, and is wanting in its peculiar vivacity .
This animal most resembles the dog-fish,93 however, in the
shape and dangerous powers of the muzzle.

CHAP. 12. ( 10 . )—TURTLES . 91 THE VARIOUS KINDS OF TURTLES,

AND HOW THEY ARE CAUGHT.

The Indian Sea produces turtles of such vast size, that

with the shell of a single animal they are able to roof a habit-
89 The same is stated in Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 74, and Ælian,
Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 6.
90 This is also mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 74.
91 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 6.
92 Cuvier remarks, that there is some confusion here between an animal
of the dolphin kind, and another of the genus Squalus. He suggests that
the Delphinus tursio of Linnæus (our porpoise) is meant ; but then there
would be no ground for comparing its teeth with those of the dog-fish or
shark. He remarks also, that Athenæus, B. vii. p. 310, speaks of pieces of
salted flesh from the dog-fish, as being called by the name of tursio.
93 Under this name he probably means the shark as well as the dog-fish.
This passage is curiously rendered by Holland. "But especially they are
snouted like dogges, when they snarle, grin, and are readie to do a shrewd
turne ."
91 We may here remark, that Pliny throughout calls these animals
"testudines," " tortoises." It has been thought better, in the transla-
tion, in order to avoid confusion, to give them their distinctive name of
"turtle."
95 This passage, down to the words " to the fishermen, ” is found in
Agatharchides, as quoted by Photius.
96 See B. xxxii. c. 4.
378 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

able cottage ; and among the islands of the Red Sea, the na-
vigation is mostly carried on in boats formed of these shells.
They are to be caught in many ways ; but they are generally
taken when they have come up to the surface of the water
just before midday, a season at which they experience great
delight in floating on the calm surface, with the back entirely
out of the water. Here the delightful sensations which at-
tend a free respiration beguile them to such a degree, and
render them so utterly regardless of their safety, that their
shell becomes dried up by the heat of the sun, so much so, in-
deed, that they are unable to descend, and, having to float
against their will, become an easy prey to the fishermen . It
is said also, that they leave the water at night for the purpose
of feeding, and eat with such avidity as to quite glut them-
selves upon which, they become weary, and the moment
that, on their return in the morning, they reach the sea,
they fall asleep on the surface of the water. The noise
of their snoring betrays them, upon which the fishermen
stealthily swim towards the animals, three to each turtle ;
two of them, in a moment, throw it on its back, while a third
slings a noose around it, as it lies face upwards, and then
some more men, who are ready on shore, draw it to land.
In the Phoenician Sea they are taken without the slightest
difficulty, and, at stated periods of the year, come of their own
accord to the river Eleutherus,99 in immense numbers. The tur-
tle has no teeth, but the edge of the mouth is sharp, the upper
part shutting down over the lower just like the lid of a box.
In the sea it lives upon shell-fish, ' and such is the strength of its
jaws, that it is able to break stones even ; when on shore, it
feeds upon herbage. The female turtle lays eggs like those of
birds, one hundred in number ; these she buries on the dry
land, and covering them over with earth, pats it down with her
breast, and then having thus rendered it smooth, sits on them
during the night. The young are hatched in the course of a
97 Cuvier says that this is evidently a gross exaggeration on the part of
some traveller ; and Ajasson remarks, that the very largest turtle known
does not exceed five feet in length, and four in breadth. In such a case,
the superficies of the calapash or shell would be only from twenty to
twenty-four feet, and this, be it remembered, in one of the very largest size.
98 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 3, has a similar passage.
99 See B. v. c. 17.
1 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 3, states to a similar effect.
Chap. 14.] DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS. 379

year. Some persons are of opinion that they hatch their eggs
by means of the eyes, by merely looking at them, and that the
female refuses to have any intercourse with the male until he
has placed a wisp of straw upon her back. The Troglodyte
have turtles with horns, which resemble the branches of a
lyre ; they are large, but moveable, and assist the animal like so
many oars while swimming. The name of this fine, but rarely-
found turtle, is "chelyon ; " for the rocks, from the sharp-
ness of their points, frighten away the Chelonophagi,5 while
the Troglodyta, whose shores these animals frequent, worship
them as sacred. There are some land turtles also, the shells
of which, used for the purposes of art, are thence called by
the name of " chersine ;" they are found in the deserts of
Africa, in the parts where the scorched sands are more espe-
cially destitute of water, and subsist, it is believed, upon the
moisture of the dews. No other animal is to be found there.

CHAP. 13.-( 11 . )- WHO FIRST INVENTED THE ART OF CUTTING

TORTOISE-SHELL.
Carvilius Pollio, a man of prodigal habits and ingenious in
inventing the refinements of luxury, was the first to cut the
shell of the tortoise into laminæ, and to veneer beds and cabi-
nets' with it.

CHAP. 14. ( 12 . )— DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS INTO

VARIOUS SPECIES .
The integuments of the aquatic animals are many in num-
2 Oppian, Halieut. B. i. 1. 522, has a passage to a somewhat similar
effect. Holland's notion of the meaning of this passage is singular in the
extreme. "The female fleeth from the male, and will not abide to engen-
der, until such time as he pricke her behind, and sticke somewhat in her
taile for running away from him so fast"
3 Cuvier remarks, that it is evident that the fore-feet were here taken for
horns, they being in the turtle long, narrow, and pointed.
4 From the Greek xéλvor, "tortoise-shell." See B. vi. c. 34.
5 Or " turtle eaters." See B. vi. c. 28.
6 From xεpoiva , "land turtles," or "tortoises."
" Repositorium " seems to have been the name for a large tray upon
which viands were brought to table ; and probably for stands similar to
our sideboards, as well as cabinets or wardrobes. Carvilius Pollio, a
Roman eques, lived in the time of the Dictator Sylla, and was celebrated
for his luxury in ornamental furniture. He is again mentioned by Pliny
in B. xxx. c. 51.
 380 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

ber. Some are covered with a hide and hair, as the sea-calf
and hippopotamus, for instance ; others again, with a hide
8
only, as the dolphin ; others again, with a shell, as the turtle ;
others, with a coat as hard as a stone, like the oyster and other
shell-fish ; others, with a crust, such as the cray-fish ; others,
with a crust and spines, like the sea-urchin ; others, with
scales, as fishes in general ; others, with a rough skin, as the
squatina, the skin of which is used for polishing wood and
ivory ; others, with a soft skin, like the muræna ; 10 and others
with none at all, like the polypus."1

CHAP. 15. ( 13. ) —THOSE WHICH ARE COVERED WITH HAIR, OR

HAVE NONE, AND HOW THEY BRING FORTH. SEA-CALVES, OR
PHOCE.
Those aquatic animals which are covered with hair are vivi-
parous, such, for instance, as the pristis, the balana,12 and the
sea-calf. This last brings forth its young on land, and, like the
sheep, produces an after-birth . In coupling, they adhere
after the manner of the canine species ; the female some-
times produces even more than two, and rears her young at
the breast. She does not take them down to the sea until the
twelfth day, and after that time makes them become used to
13
it by degrees.¹ These animals are killed with the greatest dif-
8 The Latin is " cortex," which probably means a " bark," or " rind."
Ajasson remarks upon the meagreness of the Latin language, in supplying
appropriate words for scientific purposes, and congratulates himself upon
adding the word, " carapax," (signifying " callipash," as we call it) to the
Latin vocabulary.
9 By us known as the " angel-fish," the " Squalus squatina " of Linnæus,
a kind of shark. From this property of its skin, it was called by the Greeks
pivn, the " file." See B. xxxii . c. 53.
10 Probably the Muræna helena of Linnæus. See more on it in c. 23 of
the present Book.
11 Spoken of more fully in c. 23 of this Book.
12 Cuvier remarks, how very inappropriately Pliny places the pristis
(probably the saw-fish) and the balana among the animals that are
covered with hair. Aristotle, he says, in his Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 12,
goes so far as to say that the pristis and the ox-fish (a kind of ray or
thorn-back, probably) bring forth their young like the balana and the
dolphin, but does not go beyond that. Cuvier says also, that what is here
stated of the sea-calf is in general correct, except the statements as to the
properties of its skin and its right fin, the stories relative to which are, of
course, neither more nor less than fabulous.
13 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 11, states to the like effect.
Chap . 16.] FISHES. 381

ficulty, unless the head is cut off at once. They make a noise
which sounds like lowing, whence their name of " sea-calf. "
They are susceptible, however, of training, and with their voice,
as well as by gestures, can be taught to salute the public ; when
called by their name, they answer with a discordant kind of
grunt.14 No animal has a deeper sleep¹5 than this ; on dry
land it creeps along as though on feet, by the aid of what it
uses as fins when in the sea. Its skin, even when sepa-
rated from the body, is said to retain a certain sensitive sym-
pathy with the sea, and at the reflux 16 of the tide, the hair on
it always rises upright : in addition to which, it is said that
there is in the right fin a certain soporiferous influence, and
that, if placed under the head, it induces sleep .
( 14. ) There are only two animals without hair that are
viviparous, the dolphin and the viper. "

CHAP. 16. - HOW MANY KINDS OF FISH THERE ARE.

There are seventy-four's species of fishes, exclusive of those
14 " Fremitu." From their lowing noise, the French have also called
these animals " veaux de mer," and we call them " sea-calves ." Elian,
Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 56, and Diodorus Siculus, B. iii ., also speak of train-
ing the sea-calf. Hardouin says that Lopez de Gomara, one of the more
recent writers on Mexico, in his day, had given an account of an Indian
sea-calf, or manati, as it was called by the natives, that had become quite
tame, and answered readily to its name ; and that, although not very large,
it was able to bear ten men on its back. He also tells us of a much more
extraordinary one, which Aldrovandus says he himself had seen at Bolog-
na, which would give a cheer (vocem ederet) for the Christian princes when
asked, but would refuse to do so for the Turks ; just, Hardouin says, as
we see dogs bark, and monkeys grin and jump, at the mention of a par-
ticular name.
15 Oppian, Halieut. B. i . 1. 408, mentions this fact, and Juvenal, Sat
iii. 1. 238, alludes to it : " Would break the slumbers of Drusus and of
sea-calves."
16 This assertion, though untrue, no doubt, as to sympathy with the tides,
is in some degree supported by the statement of Rondelet, B. xvi. c . 6,
who says that he had often perceived changes in the wind and weather
prognosticated by the hide of this animal ; for that when a south wind
was about to blow, the hair would stand erect, while when a north wind
was on the point of arising, it would lie so flat that you would hardly
know that there was any hair on the surface.
17 Hardouin remarks, that Pliny classes the viper probably among the
aquatic animals, either because it was said to couple with the murana, or
else because it has a womb not unlike that of the cartilaginous fishes.
18 Hardouin suggests that the proper reading here is probably 144, be-
 382 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

that are covered with crusts ; the kinds of which are thirty
in number. We shall, on another occasion, 19 speak of each
individually ; but, for the present, we shall treat only of the
nature of the more remarkable ones.

CHAP. 17. ( 15 . ) —WHICH OF THE FISHES ARE OF THE LARGEST SIZE.

Tunnies are among the most remarkable for their size ; we
have found one weighing as much as fifteen20 talents, the
breadth of its tail being five cubits and a palm.21 In some of
the rivers, also, there are fish of no less size, such, for instance,
as the silurus²² of the Nile, the isox23 of the Rhenus, and the
cause in B. xxxii. c. 51 , Pliny speaks of 174 different kinds of fishes, and
here he says that the crustacea are thirty in number. Daubenton speaks
of the species of fishes as being 866 in number, while Lacèpede says that
he had examined more than a thousand, but that was far below the real
number. Cuvier mentions specimens of about 6000 kinds of fishes, in the
Cabinet du Roi. Ajasson remarks upon the learned investigations of
Cuvier on this subject, and his researches in Sumatra, Java, Kamschatka,
New Zealand, New Guinea, and elsewhere, for the purpose of increasing
the list of the known kinds of fishes.
19 B. xxx. c. 53.
20 About 1200 pounds. Cetti, in his " Natural History of Sardinia," vol.
iii. p. 134, says that tunnies weighing a thousand pounds are far from un-
common, and that they have been taken weighing as much as 1800 pounds.
21 The same as the Latin " dodrans," or about nine inches. This pas-
sage is taken almost verbatim from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. c. 34. Cuvier
says that this passage, although like the preceding one, taken from Aris-
totle, is much more incredible, (though Lacèpede, by the way, disputes
Pliny's statement as to the weight of the tunny). " A distance," Cuvier
says, "of from seven to eight feet from one point of the fork of the tail
to the other, would denote a fish twenty-five feet in length ; and it must be
observed, that most of the MSS . of Pliny say two cubits." Aristotle, how-
ever, beyond a doubt says five.
22 Now universally recognized as the sly silurus, or sheat-fish, called in
• the United States the horn-pout, the Silurus glanis of Linnæus. On this
formerly much-discussed question, Cuvier has an interesting Note. " There
can now be no longer any doubt as to the silurus ; it is evidently synony-
mous with the ' glanis ' of Aristotle ; as we find Pliny, in c. 17 and 51 ,
giving the same characteristics of the silurus, as Aristotle does of the
glanis, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 20, and B. ix. c. 37 ; such, for instance, as
the care it takes of its young, and the effects produced upon it by the dog-
fish and the approach of storms. It is easy to prove also that it is not
the sturgeon, [as Hardouin thought it to be], but the fish that is still called
' silurus by the naturalists, the ' wels ' or ' schaid ' of the Germans, the
' saluth' of the Swiss, &c."
23 Cuvier remarks, that it is by no means clear what fish is meant by
Chap. 17.] FISHES. 383

attilus24 of the Padus, which, naturally of an inactive nature,

sometimes grows so fat as to weigh a thousand pounds, and
when taken with a hook, attached to a chain, requires a yoke
of oxen to draw it25 on land . An extremely small fish, which
is known as the clupea,26 attaches itself, with a wonderful
tenacity, to a certain vein in the throat of the attilus, and de-
stroys it by its bite. The silurus carries devastation with it
wherever it goes, attacks every living creature, and often drags
beneath the water horses as they swim. It is also remark-
this name, which is only found here and once in Hesychius, who calls it
κητώδης, "of the large kind." Rondelet, in his account of river fish,
suggests that 66 exos "" is the proper reading, and that under this name is
meant a species of sturgeon. Gesner asks if it might not possibly have
been the "brochet ;" but, as Cuvier says, that fish was well-known to
the Romans under the name of " lucius " [our pike], and it is not suffi-
ciently large for Pliny to compare it to the wels or the attilus, and for
Hesychius to have enumerated it among the " large" fishes. It is in
accordance, however, with this suggestion of Gesner that the pike genus
bears the name of "esox 99 in modern Natural History.
24 Cuvier says that there are found in the river Padus, or Po, several
species of very large sturgeons, and that there is one of these which still
bears the name, according to Salvian and Rondelet, of adello and adilo .
Aldrovandus, he says, calls it adelo or ladano. This Cuvier takes to be the
attilus of Pliny. But, according to Rezzonico, Paulus Jovius denies that
the attilus or adelus of the people of Ferrara is of the sturgeon genus ;
but says that it is so much larger than the sturgeon, and so different in
shape, flavour, value, and natural habits, that the names of these two
fishes were used proverbially by the people, when they were desirous to
signify two objects of totally different nature. Rezzonico remarks, that
the name given to it in Ferrara was properly “ l'adano," which became
corrupted into " ladano," and expresses it as his opinion that it was the
same with the esox of the Rhine. He also states, that, from the exceeding
whiteness of the flesh, the ladano was called by the fishermen, sturione
bianco.
25 Rezzonico says that this may possibly have happened in Pliny's day,
but that in modern times no attilus or ladano is found weighing more
than 500 pounds . He says that this fish may, in comparison with the
sturgeon, be aptly called an inert fish ; for while the sturgeon makes the
greatest possible resistance to the fishermen, the other is taken with the
greatest ease.
26 Cuvier says, that this was probably the Petromyzon branchialis of
Linnæus, the lampillon, a little fish resembling a worm, which adheres to
the gills of other fish, and sucks the blood. The same name was also
given to the Clupea alosa of Linnæus, our " shad ;" indeed Linnæus gave
this name to the whole herring and pilchard genus, erroneously classing
them with the shad.
384 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. Book IX .

able, that in the Monus," a river of Germany, a fish that bears25

a very strong resemblance to the sea-pig, requires to be drawn
out of the water by a yoke of oxen ; and, in the Danube, it is
taken with large hooks of iron.29 In the Borysthenes, also, there
is said to be a fish of enormous size, the flesh of which has no
bones or spines in it, and is remarkable for its sweetness.
In the Ganges, a river of India, there is a fish found which
they call the platanista ; 30 it has the muzzle and the tail of
the dolphin, and measures sixteen cubits in length. Statius
Sebosus says, a thing that is marvellous in no small degree,
that in the same river there are fishes30 found, called worms ;
these have two gills," and are sixty cubits in length ; they are
27 The Main of the present day. But Dalechamps would read " Rheno ; "
for, he says, this river was not known to the ancients by the name of Monus.
28 According to Albertus Magnus, this fish, which so strongly resembled
the sea-pig, or porpoise, was the huso, a kind of sturgeon.
29 See B. iv. c. 26. Cuvier says, that the fish here alluded to, is one of
the large species of sturgeon, so common in the rivers that fall into the
Black Sea, the bones of which are cartilaginous, and the flesh is generally
excellent eating.
30 Cuvier says, that this is probably the dolphin of the Ganges ; a fish
described by Dr. Roxburgh, in his "Account of Calcutta," vol. vii. This fish,
he says, has the muzzle and the tail of the common dolphin ; but he declines
to assert
* that it attains the length of sixteen cubits.
30 Solinus gives an account of these worms of the Ganges, also from
Sebosus, but not exactly to the same effect as Pliny. He says, that they
are of an azure colour, are six cubits in length, and that they have two
arms. He gives the same account as to their extraordinary strength.
31 It is evident that there is some mistake in the MSS. either of Solinus
or Pliny, as they both copied from the same source. Pliny speaks of
" branchiæ," or gills, while Solinus mentions " brachia," or arms ; the
former, however, appears to be the preferable reading. Cuvier remarks
that Ctesias, in his Indica, c. 27, has given a similar account, but that the
worm mentioned by him has two teeth, and not gills, and that it only seizes
oxen and camels, and not elephants. He states also, that an oil was ex-
tracted from it, which set on fire everything that it touched. Cuvier
observes, that in most of the MSS. of Pliny the worm is sixty cubits long,
instead of six, as in some few, a length which was quite necessary to
enable it to devour an elephant ; and he suggests that some large conger
or muræna may have originally given rise to the story. It is by no means
improbable that some individuals of the boa or python tribe, in the vi-
cinity of the river, may have been taken for vast fish or river worms.
Among the German traditions, we find the name " worm " given to huge
serpents, which are said to have spread devastation far and wide ; and in
the north of England legends about similar " worms," are by no means
uncommon : the story about the " Laidly Worm, " in the county of Durham,
for instance.
Chap. 18.] FISHES. 385

of an azure colour, and have received their name from their

peculiar conformation. These fish, he says, are of such enor-
mous strength, that with their teeth they seize hold of the
trunks of elephants that come to drink, and so drag them into
the water.

CHAP. 18. -TUNNIES, CORDYLA , AND PELAMIDES, AND THE VA-

RIOUS PARTS OF THEM THAT ARE SALTED. MELANDRYA, APO-
LECTI, AND CYBIA.
The male tunny has no ventral fin ; 32 these fish enter the
33
Euxine in large bodies from the main sea, in the spring, and
will spawn nowhere else. The young ones, which in autumn
accompany the females to the open sea, are known as 66 cor-
dyla." In the spring they are called " pelamides, " 35 from
Tλòs, the Greek for " mud," and after they are a year old,
66
thynni." When this fish is cut up into pieces, the neck,
36
the belly, and the throat, are the most esteemed parts ; but
they must be eaten only when they are quite fresh, and even
then they cause severe fits of flatulence ; the other parts ; with
the flesh entire, are preserved in salt. Those pieces, which
bear a resemblance to an oaken board, have thence received
the name of " melandrya.'9937 The least esteemed among these
parts are those which are the nearest to the tail, because they
have no fat upon them ; while those parts are considered the
most delicate, which lie nearest the neck ; 38 in other fishes,
32 Although taken primarily from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 9, as
Cuvier observes, this assertion is incorrect, as the male does not in any way
differ from the female in the conformation of the fins. Pliny, however, has
exaggerated the statement of Aristotle, who only says, that the female
differs from the male in having a little fin under the belly, which the male
has not ; and not that the male has no ventral fin whatever.
33 " Magno mari ;" meaning, no doubt, the Mediterranean.
34 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 17.
35 Or " mud-fish," either from being born in mud, as Festus says, or
from their concealing themselves in it.
36 "Clidio." The " clidion," or " clidium," was the part of the fish
which extended, as Festus says, from the two shoulders (armos) to the
breast. The " clavicula " were thus called by the Greek physicians .
37 The Greeks called the inner part, or black-coloured heart of the oak,
μéλav dovòs, whence the present name. Athenæus, B. vi. speaks of
the choice parts cut from the orcyni, large tunnies, which were taken in
the straits of Gades.
38 " Faucibus." Cuvier observes, that modern experience has confirmed
VOL. II. с с
386 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

however, the parts about the tail have the most nutriment³ in
them. The pelamides are cut up into small sections, known
as " apolecti ; "
" 40 and these again are divided into cubical
9941
pieces, which are thence called " cybia."

CHAP. 19. - THE AURIAS AND THE SCOMBER.

All kinds of fish grow42 with remarkable rapidity, and more

especially those in the Euxine ; the reason of which is the
vast number of rivers which discharge their fresh water into
it. One fish, the growth of which is quite perceptible, day by
day, is known as the amia." This fish, and the pelamides,
45
together with the tunnies, enter the Euxine in shoals, for
the purpose of obtaining a sweeter nutriment, each under the
command of its own leader ; but first of all the scomber¹ ap-
what Pliny says, as to the difference of flavour in these various parts of the
tunny. He refers to Cetti, Ist. Nat. di Sardegna, vol. iii. p. 137 .
39 Exercitatissima." " In greatest request, as being most stirred and
exercised," is the translation given by Holland ; while Littré renders it
"mieux nourries," " best nourished ." According to the general notion in
this country, the part about the tail is reckoned inferior, and anything but
the " best nourished ." It is doubtful if " exercitatissima" is the correct
reading ; and if it is, its precise meaning has yet to be ascertained .
40 From the Greek áróλEKTOL, " choice bits," or, as we should say,
" tit-bits."
41 From the Greek Kúßia.
42 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B, vi . c. 16.
43 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 25.
44 This fish does not seem to have been exactly identified till recently ;
but was generally supposed to have been of the tunny genus. Appian
says, that it is rather smaller than the tunny. Rondelet, B. viii., speaks of
it as being, in his time, known by the name of " byza." Cuvier has the fol-
lowing remark. " The amia' of the ancients, as Rondelet was well aware,
was the same fish, to which, incorrectly, upon nearly all the coasts of the
Mediterranean, the name of ' pelamis' has been transferred. It is, in
fact, the same as the limosa of Salvianus, the ' pelamis ' of Belon,
thethynnus primus ' of Aldrovandus, and the ' scomber sarda' of Bloch.
The proofof all these being synonymous, is the fact, that the ' scomber sarda'
is the only species of the tunny genus in the Mediterranean, which has
strong, sharp, cutting teeth, and is capable of attacking large fish, which
Aristotle relates respecting the amia, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 37. The same
author too, was well aware of the length of its gall-bladder, which is greater
than in most other fishes."
45 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 16.
46 Generally supposed, as Cuvier says, to have been the same as the
mackerel, or Scomber scombrus of Linnæus, and with very fair reason.
From the frequent remarks made on the subject by the Roman poets, we
Chap . 20.] FISHES . 387

pears, which is of a sulphureous tint when in the water, but

when out of it resembles other fish in colour. The salt- water
preserves of Spain are filled with these last fish, but the tun-
nies do not consort with them.48

CHAP. 20. - FISHES WHICH ARE NEVER FOUND IN THE EUXINE ;

THOSE WHICH ENTER IT AND RETURN.

The Euxine, however, is never entered by any animal¹⁹ that

is noxious to fish, with the exception of the sea- calf and the
small dolphin. On entering, the tunnies range along the
shores to the right, and on departing, keep to those on the
left ; this is supposed to arise from the fact that they have
better sight with the right eye, their powers of vision with
either being naturally very limited. In the channel of the
Thracian Bosporus, by which the Propontis is connected with
the Euxine, at the narrowest part of the Straits which separate
find that it was a very common fish at Rome, of small size, and was in little
repute. It was wrapped in paper when exposed for sale, and bad poets
were threatened with the mackerel, as they are at the present day with the
grocer or butterman ; or, as in the time of the Spectator, with the trunk-
maker. Thus Persius says, Sat. i. 1. 43. “ and to leave writings worthy
to be preserved in cedar, and verses that dread neither mackerel nor
frankincense." Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 2, enumerates this fish
among those that are gregarious, and places it in company with the tunny
and the pelamis, but states that it is inferior in strength, B. viii. c. 2.
Cuvier says, that the mackerel still has names in different parts that are
derived from the word " scomber," they being called " sgombri" at Con-
stantinople, scombri at Venice, and scurmu, scrumiu, and scumbirro in
Sicily.
47 Cetarias. These " cetariæ," or " cetaria," Papias says, were pieces of
standing salt water, in the vicinity of the sea-shore, in which tunnies and
other large fish were kept, and adjoining to which were the salting-houses.
In the middle ages these preserves were called " tunnariæ," or " tunneries."
48 As in the Euxine. Tunnies were caught on the Spanish coasts, as we
learn from Athenæus, who, as quoted above, mentions the fisheries off
Gades, for the orcynus, or large tunny. See N. 37, p. 385.
49 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 16, from whom Pliny has here
borrowed, makes a somewhat dissimilar statement. He says that "no
noxious animal enters the Euxine, except the phocena [or porpoise], and the
dolphin and little dolphin." Hardouin remarks, however, that Pliny is
right in his statement, that seals are to be found in the Euxine, and that
Rondelet, B. xvi. c. 9, for that reason has suggested that the reading ought
to be altered in Aristotle, and not in Pliny.
50 Aristotle, B. viii. c. 6. Plutarch on the Instinct of Animals, and
Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 42, say the same.
002
388 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

Europe from Asia, there is, near Chalcedon, on the Asiatic

side, á rock of remarkable whiteness, the whole of which can
be seen from the bottom of the sea at the surface. Alarmed
at the sudden appearance of this rock, the tunnies always
hasten in great numbers, and with headlong impetuosity, to-
wards the promontory of Byzantium, which stands exactly
opposite to it, and from this circumstance has received the
name of the Golden Horn.51 Hence it is, that all the fishing
is at Byzantium, to the great loss of Chalcedon,52 although it
is only separated from it by a channel a mile in width. They
wait, however, for the blowing of the north wind to leave the
Euxine with a favourable tide, and are never taken until
they have entered the harbour of Byzantium. These fish do
not move about in winter ;53 in whatever place they may hap-
pen to be surprised by it, there they pass the winter, till the
time of the equinox .
Manifesting a wonderful degree of delight, they will often
accompany a vessel in full sail, and may be seen from the
poop following it for hours, and a distance of several miles.
If a fish-spear even is thrown at them ever so many times,
they are not in the slightest degree alarmed at it. Some
writers call the tunnies which follow ships in this manner, by
the name of " pompili.'9954
Many fishes pass the summer in the Propontis, and do not
enter the Euxine ; such, for instance, as the sole," while on

51 Called " chrysoceras," in B. iv. c. 18, that being the Greek name for
"golden horn." He means, that in consequence of the lucrative nature of
this fishery, it thence obtained the name of the "golden" horn. Dale-
champs is of opinion that some person has here substituted the Latin
" Aurei cornus, for the Greek name Chrysoceras.
66 52 Hence, according to Strabo, Chalcedon obtained the name of the
City of the Blind," the people having neglected to choose the opposite
shore for the site of their city. Still, however, a kind of pelamis, or young
tunny, from this place, had the name of " Chalcedonia," and is spoken
of as a most exquisite dainty by Aulus Gellius, B. vii . c. 16.
53 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 16 ; Elian, Hist. Anim. B. ix.; and
Plutarch, in his Treatise on the Instincts of Animals, state to a similar
effect.
54 Cuvier remarks that the " pompilos" ofthe ancients, which accompanied
ships and left them on nearing the land, was the pilot-fish of the moderns,
the Gasterosteus ductor of Linnæus. He thinks, however, that the name
may have also been given to other fish as well, of similar habits.
Pleuronectes solea of Linnæus.
 Chap. 20.] FISHES. 389
1
the other hand, the turbot56 enters it. The sepia is not found
in this sea, although the loligo 58 is. Among the rock-fish, the
sea-thrush 59 and the sea-blackbird are wanting, as also purples ,
though oysters abound here. All these, however, pass the
winter in the Ægean Sea ; and of those which enter the Euxine,
the only ones that do not return are the trichiæ." -It will
be as well to use the Greek names which most of them bear,
seeing that to the same species different countries have given
different appellations. - These last, however, are the only ones
that enter the river Ister,62 and passing along its subterraneous
passages, make their way from it to the Adriatic ;63 and this is
56 Pleuronectes maximus of Linnæus.
57 The cuttle-fish. The Sepia officinalis of Linnæus.
58 The ink-fish. The Sepia loligo of Linnæus.
59 Cuvier suggests that the turdus, or sea-thrush, and the merula, or sea-
blackbird, were both fishes of the labrus tribe, usually known as " breams."
Hippolytus Salvianus, in his book on the Water Animals, states, that in his
day both these fish were extremely well known, and that they still
retained the names of tordo and merlo. Rondelet, B. vi., says, that the
fish anciently called turdus, was in his time known by the name of
" vielle," among the French. The dictionaries give “ merling, or
whiting," as the synonyme of " merula."
60 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 16, says, that on going into the
Euxine, the trichiæ are either taken or else devoured by the other fishes,
for that they are never seen to return.
61 The trichias, according to Cuvier, is a fish belonging to the family of
herrings. A scholiast on Aristophanes attributes the origin of the name
to the fine fish bones like hairs (Opi ), with which the flesh is filled, which
is a characteristic peculiar to the herring kind. Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
B. vi. c. 15, represents the membras, the trichis, and the trichias, as dif-
ferent ages ofthe same fish. The trichis was little, and very common. In
Aristophanes, Knights, 1. 662, we find an obol mentioned as the price of a
hundred. From the Acharnæ of the same author, we learn that it was
salted as provision for the fleets. Cuvier thinks that everything combines
to point out the sardine, the Clupea sprattus of Linnæus, as the trichis, or
else a similar kind of fish, the melette of the African coast, the Clupea
meletta of the naturalists. In this latter case the trichias, he thinks, may
have been the sardine, or, perhaps, the Clupea ficta of Lacèpede, which is
called the " sardine" in some places, and at Lake Garda, in Lombardy,
more especially.
2 The Danube. Cuvier says, that this passage probably bears reference
to the clupea ficta or finte, which, as well as the shad, is in the habit of
passing up streams. As for the story of the fish finding their way to the
Adriatic, it is utterly without foundation . Cuvier adds, that the main
difference between the finte and the clupea alosa, or shad, is, that the
former has very fine teeth, the latter none at all.
63 Pliny has already remarked, B. iii. c. 18, in reference to the supposed
 390 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. Book IX.

the reason why they are to be seen descending into the Euxine
Sea, but never in the act of returning from it. The time for
64
taking tunnies is, from the rising of the Vergilia to the setting
of Arcturus :65 throughout the rest of the winter season, they
lie concealed at the bottom of deep creeks, unless they are in-
duced to come out by the warmth of the weather or the full
moon. These fish fatten 66 to such an extraordinary degree as
to burst. The longest period of their life is two years.

CHAP . 21.- WHY FISHES LEAP ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE WATER.
There is a little animal,69 in appearance like a scorpion, and
of the size of a spider." This creature, by means of its sting,
attaches itself below the fin to the tunny and the fish known
as the sword-fish and which often exceeds the dolphin in
magnitude, and causes it such excruciating pain, that it will
often leap on board of a ship even . Fish will also do the same
at other times, when in dread of the violence of other fish, and
mullets more especially, which are of such extraordinary swift-
ness, that they will sometimes leap over a ship, if lying cross-
wise.
descent of the Argonauts from the Ister into the Adriatic, that such a
passage by water was totally impossible ; hence, as Hardouin says, he is
obliged here to have recourse to subterraneous passages.
64 The Pleiades . See B. ii. c. 47. The rising of the Pleiades was con-
1 sidered the beginning of summer, being the forty-eighth day after the
vernal equinox. See also B. xviii. c. 59.
65 The evening setting, namely. This took place on the fourth day before
the nones of November. See B. xviii. c. 74.
66 Aristotle, Hist. Anim, B. vi. c. 16.
67 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 16. Hardouin remarks, that the
tunny which Pliny mentions in c. 17, as weighing so many hundreds of
pounds, must certainly have been older than this.
68 This is, as Cuvier has remarked, a crustaceous insect of the parasitical
class Lernæa, which are monoculous [ and form the modern class of the
Epizoa]. Gmelin, he says, has called it " Pennatula filosa," though, in fact,
it is not a pennatula [or polyp] at all. As Dalechamps observes, its ap-
pearance is very different from that of a scorpion. Penetrating the flesh
of the tunny or sword-fish, it almost drives the creature to a state of
madness.
69 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 19. Appian also, in his Halieutics, B.ii.,
makes mention of this animal. Pintianus remarks, that Athenæus, on read-
ing this passage of Aristotle, read it not as " arachnes," but " drachmes ; ”
not the size of a spider, but the weight of a " drachma," or Roman denarius.
70 Or the emperor fish, Cuvier says, the Xiphias gladius of Linnæus.
Chap . 23.] FISHES. 391

• CHAP. 22. ( 16. ) —THAT AUGURIES ARE DERIVED FROM FISHES.

Auguries are also derived from this department of Nature,
and fishes afford presages of coming events. While Augustus¹
was walking on the sea-shore, during the time of the Sicilian
war, a fish leapt out of the sea, and fell at his feet. The di-
viners, who were consulted, stated that this was a proof that
those would fall beneath the feet of Cæsar who at that moment
were in possession of the seas- it was just at this time that
Sextus Pompeius had adopted " Neptune as his father, so elated
was he with his successes by sea.

CHAP. 23. - WHAT KINDS OF FISHES HAVE NO MALES.

73
The females of fishes are larger in size than the males, and
74
in some kinds there are no males at all, as in the erythini 75
and the channi ;76 for all of these that are taken are found to
71 In confirmation of this, Suetonius says, " The day before Augustus
fought the sea-battle off Sicily, while he was walking on the sea-shore, a
fish leapt out of the sea and fell at his feet."
72 Appian tells us, B. v., that Sextus Pompeius, on gaining some suc-
cesses against Augustus at sea, caused himself to be called the " Son of
Neptune," as having been adopted by that divinity. There is also a coin
of Pompey extant, which attests that he adopted the surname of " Nep-
tunius.'
73 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 5. Cuvier remarks, that this is true,
and more especially during the spawning season.
74 Aristotle says the same, but with the expression of some doubt as
to the truth of the assertion. B. vi. c. 13.
75 The erythinus is supposed to be the roach, or rochet, of the present
day, and the channe, the ruff or perch. Ovid, in his Halieuticon, 1. 107,
alludes to the same notion that is here mentioned : " And the channe,
that reproduces itself, deprived of two-fold parents." Cuvier remarks,
that, wonderful as these assertions may be, they are not devoid, to all ap-
pearance, of a certain foundation ; for that Cavolini has observed in the
Perca cabrilla and Perca scriba of Linnæus, a species of hermaphroditism ;
the ovary having always in the interior a lobe, which, from its conforma-
tion, would appear to be for the milt ; and that he is strongly of opinion
that in this species, and some others of the same genus, all the fish produce
eggs, and fecundate them themselves.
76 Cuvier says, that the channe is the Perca cabrilla of Linnæus, one of
the serrans or trumpet-fish of the coasts of Provence. According to Fors-
kal, Fauna Arabica, and Sonnini, it still has the name among the Turks
and modern Greeks, of " chani," or " channo," and it was in these that
Cavolini observed the singular organization previously mentioned. Ac-
cording to Athenæus, B. vii. , Aristotle has described this fish as of a red-
 392 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. Book IX .

be full of eggs. Nearly all kinds of fish that are covered with
scales are gregarious. They are most easily taken before sun-
rise ;" for then more particularly their powers of seeing are
defective. They sleep during the night ; and when the weather
is clear, are able to see just as well then as during the
day. It is said, also, that it greatly tends to promote their
capture to drag the bottom of the water, and that by so doing
more are taken at the second haul 78 than at the first. They
are especially fond of the taste of oil, and find nutriment in
gentle showers of rain. Indeed, the very reeds," even, although
they are produced in swamps, will not grow to maturity with-
out the aid of rain : in addition to this, we find that wherever
fishes remain constantly in the same water, if it is not renewed
they will die.

CHAP. 24. -FISHES WHICH HAVE A STONE IN THE HEAD ; THOSE

WHICH KEEP THEMSELVES CONCEALED DURING WINTER ; AND
THOSE WHICH ARE NOT TAKEN IN WINTER, EXCEPT UPON STATED
DAYS.

All fish have a presentiment of a rigorous winter, but more

especially those which are supposed to have a stone so in the
82
head, the lupus,81 for instance, the chromis, the scia-
colour, variegated with black rays, which answers very well to the Perca
scriba of Linnæus, approaching most nearly to the Perca cabrilla..
77 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 75.
78 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 7.
79 Aristotle makes the same remark, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 25.
80 Cuvier observes, that all fishes are found to have in the membranous
labyrinth of the ear, bodies like stone, enclosed in a certain kind of gela-
tinous liquor. These bodies, however, he says, are not equally large in
all kinds of fish. He says that it is found largest in the sciana.
81 The Perca labrax of Linnæus. Called " loup," or " wolf," on
the Mediterranean coasts of France, and " bar " on the shores of the
ocean.
82 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii . c. 19, attributes to the chromis, Cu-
vier says, stones in the head, B. iv. c. 8, an acute hearing, B. iv. c. 9, the
power of making a sort of grunting noise, and the habit of living gregari-
ously, and depositing the eggs once a year, B. iv. c. 9 ; all which character-
istics, he says, are found in the Sciana umbra of the naturalists, the maigre
of the French. In addition to this, Epicharmus, as quoted by Athenæus,
B. vii., says that the chromis and the xiphias are, at the beginning of
spring, the very best of fish ; a quality which must be admitted to belong
to the maigre, for its size and its excellent flavour. However, he says,
seeing that the glaucus, which Aristotle has distinguished from the
Chap. 24.1 FISHES . 393

na,88 and the phagrus.84 When the winter has been very severe,

chromis, has a still stronger resemblance to the maigre, and that, as Belon
informs us, the ombrine, or Sciæna cirrhosa, is still sometimes called at
Marseilles the " chro," or the " chrau," and that, as Gyllius says, on the
coast of Genoa it has the name of " chro," it would not be improbable
that this is really the chromis of the Greeks, as Belon supposes.
83 From σkia, the Greek for "shadow ;" which name, as Cuvier says,
has been translated by the moderns by the word " ombre," or " umbra."
But this name has been given at the present day to so many fish of various
kinds, from the " ombra " of the Italians and the " maigre " of the French,
the Sciena umbra of the naturalists, the ombrine or Sciana cirrhosa of
Linnæus, to the ombre of Auvergne, the Salmo thymallus of Linnæus, and
the ombre chevalier, the Salmo umbra of Linnæus, that this synonyme does
not aid us in discovering its identity. Aristotle says nothing relative to his
sciæna, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 19, except that it has stones in the head, a
thing that is common to this with many other fish. Pliny, in copying this
passage, preserves the Greek name ; but Ovid, Columella, and Ausonius
give it the name of " umbra :" the one, however, described by the first two
is a sea-fish, while that of Ausonius is a fresh-water fish. Varro, who cites
the name of umbra among those given to fish, adds that the species which
bears it owes its name to its peculiar colour ; and as Ovid calls it " liveus ,'
or "livid," it may be presumed to have been of a dark colour. It is very
possible, then, that it may have been the corvus marinus,桌 or sea-crow, the
Sciæna nigra of Linnæus.
8 Or pagrus. This passage is from Aristotle, Hist. Nat. B. viii. c. 19 .
Cuvier says that there are several names of fish, known in the Mediteranean
at the present day, as being from the paypos of Aristotle, such as the
pagri or pageau, the fragolino, &c. names of a fish of a red silvery hue, the
Sparus erythrinus of Linnæus, his Sparus pagrus being another species.
The modern Greeks also call it paypos, the best proof of its identity with
the phagros of Aristotle, or pager or phagrus of Pliny. This phagrus, Cu-
vier says, was not improbably the same as the modern pagre, as their cha-
racteristics quite agree, so far as those of the ancient phagrus are described.
It is of red colour, and we find Ovid (Halieut. 1. 108,) speaking of the
"rutilus pagur," and it was, according to Aristotle, B. viii. c. 13, caught
equally out at sea and near the shore, and had stones in the head, B. viii. c.
19, or, in other words, stony bodies of large size in the labyrinthine cavities
of the ear. Oppian, Halieut. B. iii. 1. 185, says that the channe forms a
delicate morsel for the pagrus, which shows that it was of considerable size ;
by Athenæus, B. vii., give it the epithet of
66and several authors quoted
great." Hicesius says, in the same place, that it resembles the erythrus,
the chromis, the anthias, and other fish of very different character among
themselves ; but it is only in relation to the flesh that he makes these com-
parisons, so that we are unable to come to any conclusion as to the form.
But we find Numenius, also quoted by Athenæus, speaking of the paypov
λopin , the " crested phagrus," possibly in allusion to the height of the
neck. The properties of its flesh are, if possible, still less characteristic. He-
cesius says that it is of sweet flavour and nourishing, but rather astringent.
Galen, however, says that it is hard, and difficult of digestion, when old.
394 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX .

many fish are taken in a state of blindness.85 Hence it is, that

during these months they lie concealed in holes, in the same
86
manner as land animals, as we have already mentioned ;
87 88
and more especially the hippurus, and the coracinus, which
Archestratus looks upon its head as a delicacy, but thinks so little of the
other parts, that they are not, in his opinion, worth carrying away. He was,
however, well known to be much too refined in his notions of epicurism.
85 Hardouin says that Aristotle, B. viii. c. 20 , from whom this account
is taken, does not say this of all kinds of fish, but only of those which have
large heads.
56 In B. viii. c. 54 and 55, where he is speaking of bears and other
animals.
87 Cuvier states that Pliny takes this name from Aristotle, and that
Athenæus, B. vii., says that it is synonymous with the Greek name, κоpú-
pain. He also informs us, that modern naturalists have applied these
two names to the dorade of navigators, the lampuga of the Spaniards and
Sicilians, the Coryphaena hippurus of Linnæus, but that it is not clear that
it has been applied on sufficient grounds : as there is no trace whatever of
either of the two ancient names on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and the
ancient writers have given no sufficient characteristics of the coryphæna or
hippurus. It was, we learn, of excellent flavour, and in the habit of
springing out of the water, from which, Athenæus says, it received the
name of " arneutes," from apvòs, " a lamb."
88 Cuvier remarks, that Rondelet and others of the moderns have
thought that this was synonymous with the crow-fish, the corb of the
French, the Sciæna nigra of Linnæus, but that his own researches on the
subject had led him to a different conclusion. Its name was derived, he
says, from the Greek Kópak, a crow," on account of the blackness of its
colour, as Oppian says, Halieut. B. i . 1. 133 ; but there were white ones as
well, which Athenæus, B. viii. , says, were the best eating, though the
black ones were the most common. Aristophanes, as quoted by Athenæus,
B. viii., calls it also the fish with black gills, peλavoπтÉρνуov. Aris-
totle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 10, says that it was a small fish, and one of
those that increase rapidly in growth. It was little esteemed, and was
much used, as we learn from Athenæus and the Geoponica, for salting, and
making garum or fish-sauce. It was also used as a bait for the anthias or
flower-fish. Strabo, B. xiii., also speaks of a river-fish of this name, as
being found in the Nile ; the flesh of which Athenæus mentions as being
remarkably good eating, and the best among the fishes of the Nile. Mar-
tial also, B. xiii. Ep. 85, calls it " princeps Niliaci macelli," the "prince
of the produce of the Nile." That fish, however, Pliny says, B. xxxii. c.
5, was peculiar to the Nile ; and he states, B. v. c. 9, that in consequence
of finding it in a lake of Lower Mauritania, Juba pretended that the Nile
took its rise in that lake. Athenæus says, B. iii., that the dwellers on the
Nile called it éλrn, " the buckler ;" and in B. vii., that the people of Alex-
andria called it λárak, from its broad shape. Now, Cuvier remarks, it
is well known that the best fish of the Nile at the present day is the bolty,
the Labrus Niloticus of Linnæus, and the Chromis Nilotica of his own sys-
tem ; and this he takes to be the Coracinus albus. It is flat and compressed,
Chap. 24. ] FISHES. 395

are never taken during the winter, except only on a few stated
days, which are always the same. The same with the mu-
89
ræna also, and the orphus, " the conger, "¹ the perch,⁹² and all
and when held on the side, would appear almost circular in shape. Its
colour appears white in comparison with that of another little fish of the
same genus, the Sparus chromis of Linnæus, the Chromis castanea ofCuvier,
which is of a brownish colour, and is found on the coast of France, where
it has never been held in high esteem, except for the purposes of salting
or making bait for other fish. He concludes, then, that this last was the
sea coracinus, and the " bolty " of the present day that of the Nile.
9 Cuvier says, that it has been doubted, upon the authority of Paulus
Jovius, whether by this name was signified the muræna of the present day,
the Muræna helena of Linnæus, or the Petromizon marinus of Linnæus,
the modern lamprey: These two fishes, he says, have in common a long
smooth body, and are devoid of the symmetrical fins, and the flesh of both
is of a delicate flavour. There are, however, several other characteristics
mentioned, he says, from which it can be easily proved that in most of the
passages of Pliny, Aristotle, and Elian, where the muræna is mentioned,
it is the Muræna helena that is meant. Ovid says, Halieut. ll. 114, 115,
"the muræna burning with its spots of gold"-but the lamprey has no
yellow spots whatever and in 1. 27, he speaks of it as " ferox," or "fierce,"
a characteristic which also belongs to the muræna, but not to the lamprey.
Elian also states, B. x. c. 40, that the muræna defends itself with its teeth,
which form a double row, and Aristotle says, B. viii. c. 2, that it lives upon
flesh ; while Pliny says, in c. 88 of the present Book, that it bites off the
tail of the conger. It was the Muræna helena only, and not the lamprey,
that could have devoured the slaves whom Vedius Pollio ordered to be
thrown into their preserves, as is mentioned by our author in the present
Book, and by Seneca and Tertullian. Finally, a thing that he considers
quite decisive on the point, Aristotle says, B. ii. c. 13, that the muræna
has four gills on each side, like the eel ; while the fact is that the lamprey
has only seven in all. Where we find Pliny speaking of the seven spots
upon the muræna found in Northern Gaul, it appears most likely, Cuvier
says, that he speaks after some traveller, who had observed the seven
branchial orifices on the lamprey, and had taken them for spots.
90 This fish, Cuvier says, was of a reddish colour, had rough scales,
sharp teeth, large eyes, and a tough flesh. It lived a solitary life in the
sea, near rocks which were the resort of shell-fish, which formed its prin-
cipal nutriment. It passed the winter in the crevices of rocks under water.
Its growth was rapid, and the length of its life two years ; when cut in
pieces, its muscles, were still seen to palpitate. Rondelet, having gathered
these characteristics, looks upon the orphus as belonging to the genus
Pagrus. Cuvier says, however, that it would not be easy to prove that
this is a warranted conclusion, and that it is not justified by tradition, as
the name has utterly disappeared from the coasts of France and Italy ;
though, according to Gillius and Belon, it is found among the modern
Greeks, in the shape of the " ropho." Cuvier suggests that it may have
been the Anthias sacer of Bloch, the " barbier" of the French. -It is
supposed by some that it is our " gilt-head."
The Muræna conger of Linnæus.
92 " Percæ. ” Cuvier says that it is most probable that he is here speaking
 396 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

the rock-fish. It is said that, during the winter, the torpedo,"

the psetta," and the sole, conceal themselves in the earth, or
rather, I should say, in excavations made by them at the bot-
tom of the sea.

CHAP. 25 ..- FISHES WHICH CONCEAL THEMSELVES DURING THE

SUMMER ; THOSE WHICH ARE INFLUENCED BY THE STARS.
95
Other fishes, again, are unable to bear the heat of summer,
and lie concealed during the sixty days of the hottest
96 weather
of midsummer ; such, for instance, as the glaucus, the asellus, "
of the fish generally known by the ancients as the sea-perch ; and that
there is reason for thinking that it was similar to the Perca scriba of Lin-
næus, having black lines running across the body. Most naturalists are
of this opinion, he says, and the serran [ our trumpet-fish] which bears
this resemblance, is in many parts of Italy, at the present day, called the
" Percia marina."
93 The Raia torpedo of Linnæus.
94 Cuvier states, that Athenæus, B. vii., says that the psetta was the same
as the rhombus of the Romans, the modern turbot, the Pleuronectes max-
imus of Linnæus. From a passage, however, of Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
B. ix. c. 37, he feels convinced that it is the Pleuronectes rhombus of Lin-
næus, the barbue of the French, and with us the dab or sandling. Aris-
totle says in that passage, that it is in the habit of concealing itself in the
sand, while it moves to and fro the filaments around the mouth, and so
attracts the little fish. These filaments, Cuvier says, are small radii of the
anterior part of the dorsal fin, which form a sort of fringe around the mouth,
whence its French name of barbue. The turbot has no such filaments.
95 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii . c. 20. As Hardouin remarks, Aris-
totle appears to assign the sixty days to the glaucus only.
96 Naturalists have generally supposed, following Rondelet, Cuvier says,
that the ancient glaucus was one of the class of centronotal fishes, the
Scomber amia, or the Scomber glaucus of Linnæus ; but that the in-
correctness of this notion is easily proved. Aristotle says, that in the glaucus
the appendices to the pylorus are few in number, as in the dorado (the
Sparus aurata of Linnæus), while on the other hand the centronoti have
them in almost greater number than any other kind of fish. Athenæus
says, B. iii., that the glaucus was a large fish, and Oppian, Hal. iii. 1. 193,
speaks of it as taken with mullet. Aristotle, B. ii. c. 13, says, that it
dwelt in deep water ; but, according to Oppian, Hal. i. 170, it sought its
food among rocks and in the sand ; in addition to which characteristics,
we find that it was a fish highly esteemed as a delicacy, the head being
the part more especially preferred. From all these circumstances, Cuvier
concludes that it was more probably a maigre, the Sciæna aquila of Cuvier,
than one of the centronotal fishes.
97 Literally, the “ little ass." Cuvier says, that nearly all the natural-
ists, following Rondelet, apply this name to the merlus, the Gadus mer-
luccius of Linnæus, or else the genus of the gadus, or cod, in general. It
Chap. 26.] FISHES. 397
98
and the dorade. Among the river-fish , the silurus 99 is af-
fected by the rising of the Dog-star, and at other times it is
always sent to sleep by thunder. The same is also believed
to be the case with the sea-fish called cyprinus.¹ In addition
to this, the whole sea is sensible ' of the rising of this star, a
thing which is more especially to be observed in the Bosporus :
for there sea-weeds and fish are seen floating on the surface, all
of which have been thrown up from the bottom .

CHAP. 26. ( 17 . )—THE MULLET.

One singular propensity of the mullet³ has afforded a subject
for laughter ; when it is frightened, it hides its head, and
fancies that the whole of its body is concealed . Their salacious
propensities render them so unguarded, that in Phoenicia and
in the province of Gallia Narbonensis, at the time of coupling,
is true, he says, that the " onos," or " ass" of the Greeks, the " asellus"
of the Romans, was also known as the yados, by the Greeks ; but still this
onos had very different characteristics from those of the Gadus merluccius ;
and among all the gadi of Linnæus, he finds the only one that presents
any of them to be the Gadus tricirrhatus, or sea-weasel, which he there-
fore thinks to represent the ancient " asellus."
98 Aurata, " golden-fish." Cuvier observes, that by the Greeks this was
called xpúooppus, " eye-brow of gold." It is the French daurade of the
Mediterranean, the " Sparus aurata " of Linnæus, and is remarkable
for a golden line in form of a crescent over the eyes. Ajasson remarks,
that it was also called ' Iúviokos, and suggests that it may have been ori-
ginally called so from being first found in the Ionian Sea. From an
epigram of Martial, B. xiii. Ep. 110, it would appear that this fish was
considered a very great dainty, and that it was fattened with Lucrine
oysters.
99 This fish has been already mentioned in c. 17 of the present Book.
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 20, says this of the glanis.
1 Further mention is made of this fish in c. 74 of the present Book.
Aristotle mentions it in B. viii. c. 25, but says nothing about it being a
sea-fish ; while Dorion, as quoted by Athenæus, B. vii., expressly mentions
it among the lake and river fish. Hence Dalechamps seems inclined to
censure our author for this addition ; but we find Oppian, Halieut. B. i. ll.
101 and 592, speaking of the sea cyprinus ; and Athenæus speaks of the
cyprinus of Aristotle as being a sea-fish.
2 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 20. This subject is also treated of
by Pliny in B. ii. c. 40, and is again mentioned in B. xviii. c. 58.
3 Cuvier remarks, that it does not appear that the characteristics of the
mullet, here mentioned by Pliny, have been observed in modern times.
4 The same story is told of the ostrich.
5 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 4, states to a similar effect.
398 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

a male, being taken from out of the preserves, is fastened to a

long line, which is passed through his mouth and gills ; he is
then let go in the sea, after which he is drawn back again by
the line, upon which the females will follow him to the very
water's edge ; and so, on the other hand, the male will follow
the female, during the spawning season.

CHAP. 27.- THE ACIPENSER.

Among the ancients, the acipenser was esteemed the most

6 Cuvier says, that the peculiarity in the scales here mentioned is not
found in any fish ; but that the sturgeon genus has, in place of scales,
laminæ disposed in longitudinal lines in such a way, that the one does
not lap over the other, as is the case with fish in general. It was
this fact, misstated probably, that gave rise to the story ; and it is most
likely this that has led Rondelet, and most of the modern naturalists, to
look upon the acipenser as the common sturgeon, and to give that name
to the sturgeon genus. Athenæus reckons it among the cartilaginous
fishes, and in the family of the squali ; but Pliny here speaks of it as very
rare, and Martial and Cicero say the same, which cannot be so accurately
said of the sturgeon. Archestratus, in Athenæus, speaks of it as small,
having a sharp -pointed muzzle, and of triangular shape, and tells us that
a very inferior one was valued at 1000 Attic drachmæ. The sturgeon, on
the other hand, is often ten or twelve feet in length. The acipenser was
not always in vogue with the Romans, but when it was, it was most highly
esteemed ; and according to Athenæus, B. vii., and Sammonicus Severus,
as quoted by Macrobius, B. ii. c. 12, it was brought to table by servants
crowned with flowers and preceded by a piper. All these circumstances
lead Cuvier to be of opinion that under this name is meant a kind of small
sturgeon with a sharp muzzle, greatly esteemed by the Russians, and by
them known as the sterlet, the Acipenser Ruthenus of Linnæus, the Aci-
penser Pygmæus of Pallas. It is found in the Black Sea, and in the
rivers that fall into it ; and has been carried with success to Lake Ladoga,
as also Lake Meler, in Sweden . This is the smallest and most delicate of
the sturgeon genus, and Professor Pallas says that they are sold at St.
Petersburgh at " insane prices," when more than two feet in length. It
is not improbable that it was found in the rivers of Asia Minor, and thence
carried to Rome occasionally. Pliny, indeed, B. xxxiii. c. 11 , says that it
66is not a,"stranger to Italy ; if so, it would seem to be different from the
elops," of which Ovid says, Halieut. 1. 96 , " and the precious elops,
unknown in our waters," though he also says of the " acipenser," in 1.
132, " and thou, acipenser, famed in distant waters." Still, however,
Cuvier says, the use of names was not so accurate among the ancients, but
what that of " acipenser" may have been given to the sturgeon in general ;
and this may have given rise to the present assertions of Pliny. Oppian,
in Athenæus, B. vii., says, like Pliny, that the elops was the same as the
acipenser, and we find no characteristics given of the elops to make us
 Chap. 28.] FISHES . 399

noble fish of all ; it is the only one that has the scales turned
towards the head, and in a contrary direction to that in which
it swims. At the present day, however, it is held in no esteem,
which I am the more surprised at, it being so very rarely found.
Some writers call this fish the elops.

CHAP. 28.- 1
-THE LUPUS, ASELLUS.

At a later period, they set the highest value on the lupus "
and the asellus, as we learn from Cornelius Nepos, and the
poet, Laberius, the author of the Mimes. The most approved
""
kinds
66 of the lupus are those which have the name of “ lanati,'
or woolly," in consequence of the extreme whiteness and
softness of the flesh . Of the asellus there are two sorts, the
callarias, which is the smallest, and the bacchus, which is only
taken in deep water, and is hence much preferred to the former.
On the other hand , among the varieties of the lupus, those are
the most esteemed which are taken in rivers .

conclude that the two were not synonymous. Indeed, we find that Varro,
De Re Rustica, B. ii. c. 6, and Pliny in c. 54 of the present Book, speak
of the elops as being most excellent at Rhodes, while we find Archestratus
in Athenæus, B. vii., speaking of the same as being the locality of the
acipenser ; and Columella, B. viii. c. 16, and Elian, B. viii. c. 28, place
it in the Pamphylian Sea, which is not far distant from Rhodes. Pliny,
B.. xxxii. c. 11 , states, that the palm of fine flavour was by many accorded
to the elops ; while Matron Parodus, in Athenæus, calls it the " most noble
of all fishes, food worthy of the gods." From the immense sums that
were given for it, as we learn from Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, it
was called the " multum munus," or " multinummus," the " much-money
fish. " Ælian says, B. viii. c. 28, that the fishermen who were fortunate
enough to take an elops, were in the habit of crowning themselves and
their vessel with garlands, and announcing it, on entering harbour, by the
sound of the trumpet. Professor Pallas, in his work on the Russian Zoo-
graphy, takes the elops to be a kind of sturgeon, more spiny than the rest,
which is represented by Marsigli under the name of " Huse sextus." He
does not, however, give his reason for fixing on this as the elops of the
ancients . It has been also suggested that the elops was the same as the
sword-fish.
7 The wolf-fish. Generally supposed to be the basse, or lubin of the
French, much esteemed for their delicacy.
8 See N. 97 above.
9 Cuvier remarks, that we find this name in Euthydemus, as quoted by
Athenæus, B. vii., used synonymously with that of " onos." We also find
the names Callarias, Galerias, and Galerides ; but none of the characteristics
are given, by which to distinguish them.
400 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

CHAP. 29.- THE SCARUS, THE MUSTELA.

At the present day, the first place is given to the scarus,¹º the
only fish that is said to ruminate, and to feed on grass and not
on other fish. It is mostly found in the Carpathian Sea, and
never of its own accord passes Lectum, " a promontory of Troas.
Optatus Elipertius, the commander of the fleet under the Em-
peror Claudius, had this fish brought from that locality, and
dispersed in various places off the coast between Ostia and the
10 Cuvier says that this fish held, as Pliny here states, the very highest
place at the Roman tables, and was especially famous : First, because it
was supposed to ruminate ; in allusion to which, Ovid says, Halieut. 1. 118,
" But, on the other hand, some fishes extend themselves on the sands
covered with weeds, as the scarus, which fish alone ruminates the food it
has eaten." Secondly, because, as Aristotle, B. viii . c. 2, and Ælian, B. i.
c. 2, inform us, it lived solely on vegetables. Thirdly, because it had the
faculty of producing a sound, as we learn from Oppian, Halieut. B. i.
1. 134, and Suidas. Fourthly, for its salacious propensities, numbers being
taken by means of a female attached to a string, Oppian, Halieut. B. iv.
1. 78, and Ælian, B. i. c. 2. Fifthly, for its remarkable sagacity in afford-
ing assistance to another, when taken in the net ; relative to which Ovid
has the following curious passage, Halieut. 1. 9, et seq. "The scarus is
caught by stratagem beneath the waves, and at length dreads the bait
fraught with treachery. It dares not strike the osiers with an effort of its
head ; but, turning away, as it loosens the twigs with frequent blows of its
tail, it makes its passage, and escapes safely into the deep. Moreover, if
perchance any kind scarus, swimming behind, sees it struggling within the
osiers, he takes hold of its tail in his mouth, as it is thus turned away, and
so it makes its escape." Oppian, Halieut. B. iv. 1. 40, and Ælian, Hist.
Anim. B. i. c. 4, mention the same circumstance. We find that it was
highly esteemed by the Roman epicures, even in early times, it being men-
tioned by Ennius and Horace. It was salted with the intestines in it ; and
Martial, B. xiii. Ep. 84, seems to speak of it as not being good to eat with-
out them. It was a high-coloured fish, so much so, that Marcellus Sidetes
called it " floridum," while by Oppian it is called Touriλov, or " variegated."
Rondelet thinks that it was one of spari or the labri, while Belon describes
as such, a fish now unknown to zoologists, the tail of which, he says, has
projecting spines. Aldrovandus calls it by the name of Scarus Cretensis, a
species of the genus which at present goes by the name of Scarus, and which
is distinguished by osseous jaw-bones, resembling in shape the beak of a
parrot. Cuvier says, that on finding from Belon that the name oκάρog was
still in use in the Egean Sea, he ordered the various kinds of it to be
brought to Paris ; upon which he found that they exactly resembled the
Scarus Cretensis of Aldrovandus, and he consequently has no doubt that it
is essentially the same fish as the scarus of the Greeks and Romans. From
the resemblance above stated, it is not uncommonly called the " parrot-
fish ;" while by some it has been thought to have resembled our char.
11 See B. v. cc. 32, 41.
Chap. 30.] FISHES. 401

districts of Campania. During five years, the greatest care

was taken that those which were caught should be returned to
the sea ; but since then they have been always found in great
abundance off the shores of Italy, where formerly there were
none to be taken. Thus has gluttony introduced these fish, to
be a dainty within its reach, and added a new inhabitant to
the seas so that we ought to feel no surprise that foreign
birds breed at Rome.
The fish that is next in estimation for the table is the mus-
tela,12 but that is valued only for its liver. A singular thing
to tell of the lake of Brigantia,13 in Rhætia, lying in the
midst of the Alps, produces them to rival even those of the
sea. 14

CHAP. 30. - THE VARIOUS KINDS OF MULLETS, AND THE SARGUS

THAT ATTENDS THEM.

Of the remaining fish that are held in any degree of esteem,

the mullet 15 is the most highly valued, as well as the most
abundant of all ; it is of only a moderate size, rarely exceeds
two pounds in weight, and will never grow beyond that weight
in preserves or fish-ponds. These fish are only to be found in
the Northern Ocean, 16 exceeding two pounds in weight, and
even there in none but the more westerly parts. As for the
other kinds, the various species are numerous ; some¹7 live
upon sea-weed, while others feed on the oyster, slime, and the
flesh of other fish. The more distinctive mark is a forked

12 Or weasel-fish. Cuvier is of opinion that Hardouin is right in his

conjecture, that this is the Lote, or Gadus lota of Linnæus, which is still
called motelle in some of the provinces of France. Its liver, he says, is one
of the greatest delicacies that can be eaten.
13 The present Boden See, or Lake of Constance.
14 Instead of " marinis," Sillig adopts the reading " murænis," making
them to rival the muræna even. The other, however, seems to be the pre-
ferable reading .
15 Cuvier says that this is the rpiyλa of the Greeks, the triglia of mo-
dern Italy, the rouget of Provence, and the Mullus barbatus of Linnæus.
16 The coasts of La Manche, Cuvier says, and the Gulf of Gascony pro-
duce a kind of mullet of larger size than usual, varied with stripes of a
yellow colour. This, the Mullus surmuletus of Linnæus, is also to be found
in the Mediterranean, but much more rarely than the smaller kind, which
is red all over.
17 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 5 ; Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 41 ;
and Oppian, Halieut. B. iii. 1. 435.
VOL. II. DD
 402 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

beard, that projects beneath the lower lip. The lutarius,18 or

mud-mullet, is held in the lowest esteem of all. This last is
always accompanied 19 by another fish, known as the sargus,
and where the mullet stirs up the mud, the other finds aliment
for its own sustenance. The mullet that is found on the coast
is not20 highly esteemed, and the most esteemed of all have a
strong flavour21 of shell-fish. Fenestella is of opinion, that
this fish received its name of mullet [mullus] from its resem-
blance to the colour of the red or mullet-coloured shoes.22 The
mullet spawns three 23 times a year : at all events, the fry
makes its appearance that number of times. The masters in
gastronomy inform us, that the mullet, while dying, assumes
a variety of colours and a succession of shades, and that the
hue of the red scales, growing paler and paler, gradually
changes, more especially if it is looked at enclosed in glass.24
18 Hardouin says that it is larger than the sea-mullet ; and that it dwells
in muddy or slimy spots in the vicinity of the sea-shore.
19 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 5.
20 Probably from the fact of its living in the mud. " Doctors differ"
on this point. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 16, says that shore-fish
are superior to those caught out at sea ; while Seneca, on the other hand,
Nat. Quæst. B. iii. c. 18, says that rock-fish and those caught out at sea
are the best.
21 He would almost seem to imply by this that they feed upon shell-fish :
but Hardouin has a note to the effect, that Pliny does not mean that they
live on shell-fish, as it would be impossible for them to break the shell
to devour the fish within, but only that they have the same flavour as shell-
fish. But query as to this explanation .
22 On the other hand, Isidorus says that the mullet-coloured shoes were
so called from the colour of the fish, which, indeed, is most probable. These
shoes were made of a kind of red Parthian leather, probably not unlike our
morocco leather. Festus seems to say that they were worn in general by
all the patricians ; but the passage of Varro which he quotes, only shows
that they were worn by the curule magistrates, the consul, prætor, and cu-
rule ædile.
23 Hence their Greek name, rpiyλa, according to Oppian, Halieut. B. i.
1.590.
24 Seneca has a passage on this subject, Quæst. Nat. B. iii. c. 18, which
strongly bespeaks the barbarous tastes of the Romans. He says : " A mul
let even, if just caught, is thought little of, unless it is allowed to die in
the hand of your guest. They are carried about enclosed in globes of
glass, and their colour is watched as they die, which is changed by the
struggles of death into various shades and hues." And again : " There is
nothing, you say, more beautiful than the colours of the dying mullet ; as
it struggles and breathes forth its life, it is first purple, and then a paleness
gradually comes over it ; and then, placed as it is between life and death,
an uncertain hue comes over it."
Chap. 31. ] FISHES. 403

M. Apicius, a man who displayed a remarkable degree of in-

genuity in everything relating to luxury, was of opinion, that
it was a most excellent plan to let the mullet die in the pickle
known as the " garum of the allies " 25-for we find that even
this has found a surname and he proposed a prize for any
one who should invent a new sauce,26 made from the liver of
this fish. I find it much easier to relate this fact, than to state
who it was that gained the prize.

CHAP. 31.- ENORMOUS PRICES OF SOME FISH.

Asinius Celer, 27 a man of consular rank, and remarkable for
his prodigal expenditure on this fish, bought one at Rome,
during the reign of Caius,28 at the price of eight thousand ses-
terces .29 A reflection upon such a fact as this will at once lead
us to turn our thoughts to those who, making loud complaints
against luxury, have lamented that a single cook cost more
money to buy than a horse ; while at the present day a cook
is only to be obtained for the same sum that a triumph would
cost, and a fish is only to be purchased at what was formerly
the price for a cook ! indeed , there is hardly any living being
held in higher esteem than the man who understands how, in
the most scientific fashion, to get rid of his master's property.
(18. ) Licinius Mucianus relates, that in the Red Sea there
was caught a mullet eighty 30 pounds in weight. What a price
25 This anchovy, pickle, or fish-sauce, will be found more fully spoken
of in B. xxxi. c. 44.
26 Alecem. See B. xxxi. c. 44. Seneca speaks of this cruel custom of
pickling fish alive, Quæst. Nat. B. iii. c. 17. "Other fish, again, they
kill in sauces, and pickle them alive. There are some persons who look
upon it as quite incredible that a fish should be able to live under-ground.
How much more so would it appear to them, if they were to hear of a fish
swimming in sauce, and that the chief dish of the banquet was killed at the
banquet, feeding the eye before it does the gullet ?
27 He may have been the son of C. Asinius Gallus, who was consul B.C.
8 ; but he does not appear to have ever been consul himself.
28 The reign of the Emperor Caligula.
29 Juvenal, Sat. iv. 1. 15, speaks of a mullet being bought for 6000 ses-
terces, a thousand for every pound, and Suetonius tells us that in the reign
of Tiberius three mullets were sold for 30,000 sesterces. It is in allusion
to this kind of extravagance that Juvenal says, in the same Satire, that it
is not unlikely that the fisherman could be bought as a slave for a smaller
sum than the fish itself. At the above rate, each of these mullets sold for
about £70 of our money.
30 Cuvier says that although the mullet of the Indian Seas is in general
404 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

would have been paid for it by our epicures, if it had only been
found off the shores in the vicinity of our city !

CHAP. 32. - THAT THE SAME KINDS ARE NOT EVERYWHERE

EQUALLY ESTEEMED.
There is this also in the nature of fish, that some are more
highly esteemed in one place, and some in another ; such, for
instance, as the coracinus³¹ in Egypt, the zeus,32 also called the
34
faber, at Gades, the salpa, in the vicinity of Ebusus,35 which
is considered elsewhere an unclean fish, and can nowhere36 be
thoroughly cooked, wherever found, without being first beaten
with a stick in Aquitania, again, the river salmon 37 is pre-
ferred to all the fish that swim in the sea.

larger than ours, it is never found at all approaching the weight here men-
tioned.
31 The bolty of the modern Egyptians, as previously mentioned.
32 Or Jove-fish. Cuvier says that Gillius has applied the name of
"faber " to the dory, or fish of Saint Peter, and has stated that the Dal-
matians, who call it the " forga," pretend that they can find in its bones all
the instruments of a forge. After him, other modern naturalists have called
the same fish Zeus faber ; but nothing, Cuvier says, goes to prove that the
dory is the fish so called by the ancients. The epithet even of ".rare,"
given to it by Ovid, Halieut. 1. 112, is far from applicable to the dory,
which is common enough in the Mediterranean. If, indeed, the xaλKÉvs
of the Greeks were the same as the " faber," as, indeed, we have reason to
suppose, it would be something in favour of the dory, as Athenæus, B. vii.,
says that the xaλkévç is of a round shape : but then, on the other hand,
Oppian, Halieut. B. v. 1. 135, ranks it among the rock-fish which feed near
rocks with herbage on them ; while the dory is found only in the deep sea.
33 Or " blacksmith."
34 Cuvier says that this fish has still the same name in Italy ; that it is
called the " saupe " in Provence, and the " vergadelle " in Languedoc, being
the Sparus salpa of Linnæus ; and that it still answers to all the ancient
characteristics of the salpa, eating grass and filling its stomach, and having
numerous red lines upon the body. It is common, and bad eating, but is
no better at Ivica, the ancient Ebusus, than anywhere else. M. De la
Roche, when describing the fishes of that island, says expressly that the
flesh of the saupe is but very little esteemed there. Ovid, Halieut. 1. 122,
speaks of it as " deservedly held in little esteem."
35 See B. iii. c. 11.
36 Neither at Ebusus nor anywhere else.
37 Hardouin remarks, that Pliny and Ausonius are the only Latin writers
that mention this fish ; while not one among the Greeks speaks of it. It
was probably a native of regions too far to the north for them to know
much about it. In this country it holds the same rank that the scarus and
the mullet seem to have held at the Roman tables,
 Chap. 33.] FISHES. 405

CHAP. 33. - GILLS AND SCALES.

Some fishes have numerous gills, others again single 38³ ones,
others double ; it is by means of these that they discharge the
water that has entered the mouth. A sign of old age" is the
hardness of the scales, which are not alike in all. There are
two lakes of Italy at the foot of the Alps, called Larius and
Verbanus, in which there are to be seen every year, at the
rising of the Vergiliæ,¹¹ fish remarkable for the number of their
scales, and the exceeding sharpness 42 of them, strongly resem-
bling hob-nails 43 in appearance ; these fish, however, are only
to be seen during that month, and no longer.
38 He must mean single ones, on each side of the head. Cuvier remarks,
that the present passage is from a longer one in Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B.
ii. c. 13, which, however, has come down to us in such a corrupt and frag-
mentary state, that it is totally unintelligible, or, at all events, does not cor-
respond with modern experience. No fish, he says, is known to us that
has one or two gills only. The Lophii of the system of Linnæus have three
gills on each side, and the greater number of fish four, with a half one at-
tached to the opercule. Some cartilaginous fish, again, have five or six,
and the lampreys seven.
39 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iii. c. 10.
40 The modern Lago di Como, and Lago Maggiore. See B. iii. c. 23.
41 See c. 20, as to the Vergiliæ.
42 Cuvier says, that in various species of the cyprinus, and more especially
the rubellio, the Cyprinus rutilus of Linnæus, the roach, the Cyprinus jeses
of Linnæus, and the bream, the Cyprinus brama of Linnæus, the male has,
during the spawning season, little warts adhering to the skin and scales.
This appearance has been remarked in especial on a species found in the
lakes of Lombardy, known there as the " pigo," and similar to the roach
of other countries . It is most probable that it is to this appearance that
Pliny alludes. Rondelet, in his book on Fishes, gives a representation of
it, and calls it " pigus,"or " cyprinus clavatus ;" but he wrongly, like Pliny,
takes it to be a peculiar genus of fish.
43 " Clavorum caligarium "—" nails for the caliga." This was a strong,
heavy sandal, worn by the Roman soldiers. It was worn by the centurions,
but not by the superior officers ; and from the use of it, the common sol-
diers, including the centurions, were distinguished by the name of " cali-
gati." The Emperor Caligula received that cognomen when a boy, in con-
sequence of wearing the " caliga," and being inured to the life of a common
soldier. The hob-nails with which the " caliga " was studded are mer-
tioned again in B. xxii. c. 46, and B. xxxiv. c. 41. Josephus tells us of
the death of a Roman centurion, which was occasioned by these nails. As
he was running over the marble pavement of the temple of Jerusalem, his
foot slipped, and he was unable to rise, upon which he was overpowered
by the Jews, and slain. After the decline of the Roman empire, the caliga
was no longer worn by the soldiers, but was assumed by the monks and re-
cluses.
4 Dalechamps says, that in a similar manner, in the lake known by the
406 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

CHAP. 34. ( 19 . )— FISHES WHICH HAVE A VOICE.- FISHES WITH-

OUT GILLS.
45
Arcadia produces a wonder in its fish called exocœtus,15 from
the fact that it comes ashore to sleep. In the neighbourhood
of the river Clitorius, this fish is said to be gifted with powers
of speech, and to have no gills ;" by some writers it is called
the adonis.

CHAP. 35. - FISHES WHICH COME ON LAND. THE PROPER TIME FOR
CATCHING FISH .

Those fish, also, which are known by the name of sea-mice,

name of Paladru, fish of most delicate flavour, called " umble," were to
be taken in the month of December, and at no other part of the year ; so,
too, the alausa, which are found in the Rhine, near Strasburg, in the month
of May only, and at no other time.
45 ' ATÒ TÕU EEw koɩrāv, “ from its sleeping out of the water." This
fish is also mentioned by Theophrastus, in his Fragment on the " Fish that
live on dry land ;" by Clearchus the Peripatetic, as quoted by Athenæus,
B. viii.; Oppian, in his Halieutics, B. i. 1. 158 ; and Ælian, Hist. Anim.
B. ix. c. 36. The fish, however, mentioned by all these authorities, is a sea-
fish, while that of Pliny, being found in Arcadia, must, of necessity, be a river
fish. The proper name of the fish here mentioned by him was Toikiλias,
Hardouin says, so called fromthe variety of its colours. Cuvier says, that
the fish here mentioned is not the Exocœtus of Linnæus, which is one of
the flying fish, but is clearly of opinion that it is one of the genus Blen-
nius, or Gobio, that is alluded to ; for these small fish are often to be found
left on the shore when the waters retire, and have the property of being
able to remain alive for a considerable time without water.
46 In the river Aroanius, which falls into the Clitorius. Pausanias
mentions this story, but adds, that he never could hear the fish, although
he often went there to listen, Mnaseas of Patræ, an author quoted by
Athenæus, B. viii., also mentions these vocal fishes.
47 Cuvier understands this to mean only, that the openings of the gills
are remarkably small : for, as he says, there is no fish whatever without
gills. It is very possible, however, that Pliny may have mistranslated a
passage found in Athenæus, and quoted from Clearchus the Peripatetic,
in which he says that some fish have a voice, and yet have no throat,
Bpóyxov ; which may have, possibly, been mistaken by our author for
βράγχια, “ gills.”
48 " Marini mures." Cuvier says, that according to Oppian, Halieut. B.
v. c. 174, et seq., the sea-mice, small as they are, attack other fish, and
offer resistance even to man himself. Their skin, he says, is very solid,
and their teeth very strong. Theophrastus names them along with seals
and birds, as feeding both on land and at sea. Cuvier is somewhat at a
loss whether to pronounce them, with Dalechamps, to be a kind of turtle.
If so, he considers that this would be the little turtle, Testudo coriacea of
 Chap. 36.] FISHES. 407

as well as the polypi " and the murænæ, 50 are in the habit of
coming ashore- besides which, there is in the rivers of India³¹
one kind that does this, and then leaps back again into the
water-for they are found to pass over into standing waters and
streams. Most fishes have an evident instinct, which teaches
them where to spawn in safety ; as in such places there are no
enemies found to devour their young, while at the same time
the waves are much less violent. It will be still more a matter
of surprise, to find that they thus have an appreciation of cause
and effect, and understand the regular recurrence of periods,
when we reflect how few persons there are that know that the
most favourable time for taking fish is while the sun is passing
through the sign of Pisces.51

CHAP. 36. (20. ) - CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES, ACCORDING TO THE

SHAPE OF THE BODY.

Some sea-fish are flat, such, for instance, as the rhombus,52

the sole,53 and the sea- sparrow ;54 which last only differs from
Linnæus, which is by no means uncommon in the Mediterranean. He
suggests, however, that there are equal grounds for taking it to be the
Flasco psaro, or Tetrodon lineatus of Linnæus.
49 The Sepia octopodia of Linnæus.
50 The Muræna helena of Linnæus. This animal, Cuvier says, like the
eel, is able to live out of water, in consequence of the minute size of the
branchial orifices, as Theophrastus very accurately explains. It is a com-
mon opinion that they come out of the water in search of others of their
kind ; but Spallanzani was informed by the fishermen of Comacchio, that
this hardly ever is the case, and that they will only leave the water when
compelled. The polypus also crawls very briskly on the shore when it has
been thrown up by the tide, and moves with considerable swiftness.
51 This is also stated by the author of the treatise, De Mirab. Auscult.
c. 72 ; and Theophrastus, in his work on the "Fishes that can live on land,"
says, that these Indian fishes resemble the mullet. Cuvier says, that these
fish are those known as the various species of the genusOphicephalus of
Bloch, which bear a strong resemblance to the mullet in the head and
body. Mr. Hamilton Buchanan, in his " History of the Fishes of Bengal,"
says, that these fish crawl on the grass to so great a distance from their
rivers, that the people absolutely believe that they must have fallen from
heaven.
·
51 Or the " Fishes." As if, indeed, Hardouin says, the resemblance of
name given to the constellation could have any effect upon the fish !
52 The turbot, Pleuronectes maximus of Linnæus.
53 Pleuronectes solea of Linnæus.
54 " Passer." Probably our " plaice" -the Pleuronectes platessa of
Linnæus.
408 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX .

the rhombus in the lateral position of the body. The rhombus

lies with the right side upwards," while in the sea-sparrow the
left side is uppermost. Some sea-fish, again, are long, as the
muræna and the conger.

CHAP. 37.— THE FINS OF FISH, AND THEIR MODE OF SWIMMING.

Hence it is that there is a difference,56 also, in the fins of
fish, which have been given them to serve in place of feet, none
59
having more than four," some two 58 only, and others none.
60
It is in Lake Fucinus only that there is a fish found that has
eight fins for swimming. Those fishes which are long and
slimy, have only two at most, such, for instance, as eels and
congers : others, again, have none, such as the muræna, which
is also without gills.62 All these fish make their way in the
sea by an undulatory motion of the body, just as serpents do
on land ; on dry land, also, they are able to crawl along, and
hence those of this nature are more long-lived than the others.
64
Some of the flat-fish, also, have no fins, the pastinacæ, for in-
stance for these swim broad- wise- those, also, which are
known as the " soft " fish, such as the polypi, for their feet 65
serve them in stead of fins.
55 The pleuronectes in general, Cuvier says, have the two eyes situate on
the same side of the body. The turbot has them on the left side, and lies
on the sand on the right side, while the plaice or the flounder has the eyes
on the right, and lies on the left side-the reverse of what Pliny says.
56 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i . c. 6.
57 By this Pliny means, Cuvier says, only the symmetrical fins, or pairs
of fins, the pectoral namely, which are in place of arms, and the ventral,
which are instead of feet ; of which, in fact, no fish has more than two
pairs. Pliny does not include in this statement the dorsal, anal, and pec-
toral fins.
58 Eels and congers, for instance, which have but one pair.
59 Murænæ and lampreys. 60 See B. iii. c. 17.
61 Cuvier thinks that there can be no question that he is speaking here
of some mollusc or crustaceous animal.
62 Murænæ, like eels, have gills, but the orifice, Cuvier says, is much
smaller than in the eel, and the opercula, under the skin, are so small as to
be hardly perceptible ; indeed, so much so, that modern naturalists, Lacepède,
for instance, have denied the fact of their existence.
63 Aristotle, De Part. Anim. B. iv. c. 13, and Hist. Anim. B. i. c, 6.
64 Or sting-ray. On the contrary, Cuvier says, the pastinaca, more than
any other ray, has large pectoral fins, horizontally placed ; but they adhere
so closely to the body that they do not appear to be fins, unless closely
examined.
65 By this name, Cuvier says, he calls the tentacles or feelers, which
Chap. 39.] FISHES. 409

CHAP. 38. (21 . )—EELS.

Eels live eight years ; they are able to survive out of water
67
as much as six days, when a north-east wind blows ; but when
the south wind prevails, not so many. In winter,68 they can-
not live if they are in very shallow water, nor yet if the water
is troubled. Hence it is that they are taken more especially
about the rising of the Vergiliæ,69 when the rivers are mostly
in a turbid state. These animals seek their food at night ;
they are the only fish the bodies of which, when dead, do not
float 70 upon the surface.
(22.) There is a lake called Benacus," in the territory of
Verona, in Italy, through which the river Mincius flows.72 At
the part of it whence this river issues, once a year, and mostly
in the month of October, the lake is troubled , evidently by the
73
constellations of autumn, and the eels are heaped together "
by the waves, and rolled on by them in such astonishing mul-
titudes, that single masses of them, containing more than a
thousand in number, are often taken in the chambers 75 which
are formed in the bed of the river for that purpose.

CHAP. 39. (23 .)-— THE MURÆNA.

The muræna brings forth every month, while all the other
adhere to the head of the polypus, and which it uses equally for the pur-
pose of swimming or crawling.
66 Spallanzani, in his " Nat. Hist. of the Eel in the Lagunes of Comac-
chio," says, that immediately after their birth they retreat to the Lagunes,
and at the end of five years re-enter the river Po.
67 Eighty or a hundred hours at most, Spallanzani says.
68 Cold, or a foul state of the water, Cuvier says, is very destructive to
the eel.
69 Or Pleiades, See c. 20.
70 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 75, says the same, and likewise that
they feed mostly at night. The reason for their not floating when dead, he
says, is their peculiar conformation ; the belly being so remarkably small
that the water cannot find an entrance ; added to which they have no fat
upon them.
71 See B. iii. c. 23. 72 See B. iii. c. 20.
73 The setting of the Pleiades or the rising of Arcturus. See B. ii. c. 47.
74 Spallanzani informs us that the fishermen of the Lagunes of
Comacchio form with reeds small chambers, by means of which they take
the eels when endeavouring to re-enter the river Po ; in these such vast
multitudes are collected, that they are absolutely to be seen above the
surface of the water.
75 Excipulis.
410 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

fishes spawn only at stated periods : the eggs of this fish

increase with the greatest rapidity. It is a vulgar " belief
that the muræna comes on shore, and is there impregnated
by intercourse with serpents. Aristotle78 calls the male,
which impregnates the female, by the name of " zmyrus ;"
and says that there is a difference between them, the muræna
79
being spotted and weakly, while the zmyrus is all of one
colour and hardy, and has teeth which project beyond the
mouth. In northern Gaul all the murænæ have on the
right jaw seven spots, which bear a resemblance to the con-
stellation of the Septentriones, and are of a gold colour,
shining as long as the animal is alive, but disappearing as soon
as it is dead. Vedius Pollio,82 a Roman of equestrian rank,
and one of the friends of the late Emperor Augustus, found a
method of exercising his cruelty by means of this animal, for
he caused such slaves as had been condemned by him, to be
thrown into preserves filled with murænæ ; not that the land
Hardouin says, that though this assertion is repeated by Pliny in
c. 74 of the present Book, it is a mistake ; we learn, however, from
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 11, and Athenæus, B. vii., that the young
of the muræna are remarkable for the quickness of their growth.
77 This vulgar belief is, however, followed by Oppian, Halieut. B. i.
c. 555 ; Athenæus, B. vii.; Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. i . c. 50, and B. ix. c. 66 ;
and Nicander, Theriac., who, however, adds, " if indeed it is the truth." It
is also alluded to by Basil, in Hexaem. Homil. vii., and Ambrose, Homil.
v. c. 7.
78 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 11, only quotes this story as he had
heard it, and does not vouch for its truth. Doro, as quoted by Athenæus,
B. vii., makes the zmyrus and the muræna to be of totally different genera.
The zmyrus, he says, is without bone, the whole of it is eatable, and it is
remarkable for the tenderness of the flesh. There are two kinds, of which
the best, he says, are those which are black.
79 The common murana, Cuvier says, is spotted with brown and
yellow, but there is a larger kind, with stronger teeth and brown all over,
the Muræna Christini, of Risso. This, he has no doubt, is the zmyrus of
the ancients. Modern naturalists, he says, have incorrectly called Muræna
zmyrus, a small kind of conger, which has yellow spots upon the neck.
80 Cuvier has already made some remarks on this passage in one of his
Notes to c. 24 of the present Book. See p. 395.
81 The Seven Terriones, or plough oxen. The constellation of Ursa
Major was thus called by the Romans.
82 This wretched man was originally a freedman, and though he was on
one occasion punished by Augustus for his cruelty, he left him a great part
of his property. He died B.C. 15. He is supposed to be the same person
as the one against whom Augustus wrote some Fescennine verses, men-
tioned by Macrobius, Sat. B. ii. c. 4.
Chap. 40.] FISHES . 411

animals would not have fully sufficed for this purpose, but
because he could not see a man so aptly torn to pieces all at
once by any other kind of animal. It is said that these fish
are driven to madness by the taste of vinegar. Their skin is
exceedingly thin ; while that of the eel, on the other hand, is
much thicker. Verrius informs us that formerly the children
of the Roman citizens, while wearing the prætexta, 83 were
flogged with eel- skins, and that, for this reason, no pecuniary
84
penalty could by law be inflicted upon them.

CHAP. 40. ( 24. ) —VARIOUS KINDS OF FLAT FISH.

There is another kind of flat fish, which, instead ofbones, has
cartilage, such, for instance, as the raia, the pastinaca, the
squatina,87 the torpedo,88 and those which, under their respective
Greek names, are known as the ox,89 the lamia,90 the eagle,⁹¹ and
93 Until the Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, they wore the toga
prætexta, or senatorial gown. The toga virilis was assumed at the Liber-
alia, in the month of March ; and though no age appears to have been
positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place, as a general rule,´
on the feast which next followed the completion of the fourteenth year ;
though it is not certain that the completion of the fourteenth year was not
always the time observed. So long as a male wore the prætexta, he was
considered " impubes," and when he had assumed the toga virilis, he was
"pubes." Hence the word " investis," or " prætextatus," (here employed),
was the same as impubes.
84 Thus the " impubes " paid, as Hardouin says, “ not in money, but in
skin." Isidorus, in his Glossary, says, 66 6 Anguilla , is the name given to
the ordinary ' scutica,' or whip with which boys are chastised at school."
The witty Rabelais says, B. ii. c. 30, "Whereupon his master gave him
such a sound lashing with an eel-skin, that his own would have been worth
nothing to make bag-pipe bags of." 85 The ray.
86 The sting-ray; the Raia pastinaca of Linnæus.
87 The angel-fish ; the Squalus squatina of Linnæus.
88 The Raia torpedo of Linnæus.
89 Galen, in his explanation of words used by Hippocrates, speaks of the
Bous laλáoσios, which is also described by Oppian, Halieut. B. ii. 1. 141 ,
et seq. He speaks of it as growing to the length of eleven or twelve cubits,
and having small, weak teeth, which are not easily seen, and compares it
in appearance to the roof of a house. Cuvier thinks, that although its
horns are not mentioned, a species of large horned ray is alluded to, which
is known by the modern naturalists by the name of Cephalopterus, and he
thinks it very likely these horns may have given it its Greek appellation .
Indeed Pliny himself, in another place, B. xxxii. c. 53, speaks of it under
the name of " cornuta," the " horned-fish."
90 A species of ray, most probably.
91 Cuvier suggests that this was the mylobates, the Raia aquila of Lin-
412 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.
92 93
the frog. Inthis number, also, the squali ought to be included,
although they are not flat fish. Aristotle was the first to call
94
these fish by the one generic name of λάx , which he has
given them : we, however, have no mode of distinguishing them, ""
unless, indeed, we choose to call them the " cartilaginous
fishes. All these fish are carnivorous, and feed lying on their
backs, just as dolphins do, as already noticed ; while the other
97
fishes, too, are oviparous, this one kind, with the exception of
that known as the sea-frog, is viviparous, like the cetacea.⁹
CHAP. 41. (25 . )—THE ECHENEIS, AND ITS USES IN ENCHANT-
MENTS.
There is a very small fish" that is in the habit of living
among the rocks, and is known as the echeneis.¹ It is believed
that when this has attached itself to the keel of a ship its pro-
næus, which probably obtained this name on account of the width of the
pectoral fins, and its peculiar shape.
92 Bárpaxos aλuus, the sea-frog, the Lophius piscatorius of Linnæus,
and the baudroie of the French. Cuvier remarks, that though there is
little solidity or firmness in the bones of this animal, it is not properly a
cartilaginous fish.
93 This is borrowed from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v., who, however, says,
Kai Távтa Tà yaλɛwồŋ ; from which Massarius, Turnebus, and Hippolytus
Salvianus are inclined to read " galei," instead of " squali." Both terms,
however, Hardouin says, are used to denote the genus which the French
call " chiens de mer," " dog-fish."
94 It is curious that Aristotle, though he was the inventor of this name,
has nowhere stated in what it originated. Galen, De Alim. Fac. B. iii.
c. 36, says that it is áπo rov σéλas exeiv, from the fact of their shining at
night.
95 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 5, and De Part. Anim. B. iv. c. 13.
96 In c. 7 of the present Book.
97 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 8.
98 Cuvier says that it is true that the sea-frog is oviparous ; but it is
far from being the case that all the cartilaginous fishes but it are viviparous.
The rays, for instance, produce large eggs of a square shape, and enveloped
with a very hard horny shell. Aristotle, Hist. Anim . B. viii. c. 5, and B.
ii. c. 16, makes the same exception as to the sea-frog or frog-fish.
99 This is also from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 17. Oppian also
mentions it, Halieut. B. i. 1. 223, et seq. , but he gives it all the character-
istics of the modern lamprey.
1 This is the Echeneis remora of Linnæus, Cuvier says. It has upon
the head an organ, by means of which it can attach itself to any body.
It is thus enabled to fasten to ships and larger fishes ; but as for staying a
ship, it has not, as Cuvier remarks, the slightest power over the very small-
est boat. All the eloquence, therefore, which Pliny expends upon it, in B.
xxxii. c. 1, is entirely thrown away.
Chap. 41.] FISHES . 413

gress is impeded, and that it is from this circumstance that it

takes its name. For this reason, also, it has a disgraceful
repute, as being employed in love philtres,³ and for the pur-
pose of retarding judgments and legal proceedings -evil pro-
perties, which are only compensated by a single merit that it
possesses-it is good for staying fluxes of the womb in preg-
nant women, and preserves the foetus up to birth it is never
used, however, for food. Aristotle is of opinion that this fish
has feet, so strong is the resemblance, by reason of the form and
position of the fins.
Mucianus speaks of a murex' of larger size than the purple,
with a head that is neither rough nor round ; and the shell
of which is single, and falls in folds on either side.' He tells
us, also, that some of these creatures once attached themselves
to a ship freighted with children of noble birth, who were
being sent by Periander for the purpose of being castrated,
and that they stopped its course in full sail ; and he further
2 ᾿Απὸ τοῦ ἔχειν νῆας. "From holding back ships."
3 Used for the purpose of bringing back lost love, or preventing incon-
stancy.
4 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B, ii . c. 17.
5 Hardouin says that it is very possible that Aristotle may have written
to this effect in some one of the fifty books of his that have perished, but that
such is not the case in his account given of this fish in his Hist. Anim. B.
ii. c. 17, for there he expressly says, " There are some people that say this
fish has feet, whereas it has none at all ; but they are deceived by the fins,
which bear a resemblance to feet." Cuvier says he cannot see in what way
the fins of the remora, or sucking-fish, resemble feet, any more than those
belonging to any other fish.
6 Cuvier says, that the shell-fish to which Pliny here ascribes a power
similar to that of the remora, is, if we may judge from his description of
it, of the genus called Cypræa, and has very little doubt that its peculiar
form caused its consecration to Venus, fully as much as its supposed mi-
raculous powers. He also remarks that Hardouin, in his Note upon this
passage, supposes an impossibility, in suggesting that the lips of this shell-
fish can bite the sides of a ship ; these lips or edges being hard and im-
moveable. For some curious particulars as to the peculiar form of some
kinds of Cypræa, or cowry, and why they more especially attracted atten-
tion, and were held sacred to Venus, see the discussion on them, in the
Defence made by Apuleius against the charge of sorcery, which was brought
against him.
7 Rondelet, B. xiii. c. 12, says that this kind of shell was formerly used
for the purpose of smoothing paper.
8 Herodotus tells us, B. iii . c. 48, that these were 300 boys of noble
families of the Corcyræans, and that they were being sent from Periander
of Corinth, to Alyattes, king of Sardes.
414 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

says, that the shell-fish which did this service are duly ho-
noured in the temple of Venus,' at Cnidos. Trebius Niger
says that this fish is a foot in length, and that it can retard
the course of vessels, five fingers in thickness ; besides which,
it has another peculiar property-when preserved in salt, and
applied, it is able to draw up gold which has fallen into a well,
however deep it may happen to be."*

CHAP. 42. (26 . ) - FISHES WHICH CHANGE THEIR COLOUR.

The mæna changes 10 its white colour, and in summer be-
comes swarthy. The phycis¹¹ also changes its colour, and
9 Venus was fabled to have emerged from the sea in a shell.
9* Rabelais refers to these wonderful stories about the echeneis or remora,
B. iv. c. 62 : " And indeed, why should he have thought this difficult, seeing
that an echeneis or remora, a silly, weakly fish, in spite of all the
winds that blow from the thirty-two points of the compass, will in the
midst of a hurricane make you, the biggest first-rate, remain stock still, as
if she were becalmed, or the blustering tribe had blown their last ; nay,
and with the flesh of that fish, preserved with salt, you may fish gold out
of the deepest well that ever was sounded with a plummet ; for it will
certainly draw up the precious metal."
10 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 34 ; Elian, Hist . Anim. B. xii. c.
48. Rondelet is of opinion that this mæna was the fish still called menola
by the people of Liguria and Rome. It was a fish little valued, and we
find it called by Martial, " inutilis mæna," B. xii. Epigr. 30. Cuvier
says, that if it does not change from white to black, as Pliny states, its
colours are much more lively in the spring. It also has an offensive smell
at certain times, as is noticed by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 30, and
to which Martial alludes in the above epigram. Ovid also mentions it as
a fish of no value ; held, in all probability, in the same degree of estimation
as a sprat with us. It is, no doubt, the Sparus mæna of Linnæus.
11 We learn from Aristotle, B. viii. c. 30, that the phycis was a whitish
fish, which in the spring assumed a variegated colour. In an Epigram of
Apollonides it is called " red ;" and Speusippus, as quoted in Athenæus,
B. v., says that it is similar to the perch and the channe. Ovid speaks of
it as frequenting the shore, and Oppian represents it as dwelling among
the sea-weed on the rocks. It also lived on shrimps, and its flesh was
light and wholesome ; while its most singular property was that of making
its nest among the fucus or sea-weed, whence its name. All these charac-
teristics, Cuvier says, are to be found, from what Olivi states, in the "go " of
the Venetians, found in the Adriatic, the Gobius of Linnæus ; the male of
which in the spring makes a nest of the roots of the zostera in the mud,
in which the female lays her eggs, which are fecundated by itself, and
then protected by it against the attacks of enemies. This is probably the
fish that is alluded to by Ovid, Halieut. 1. 121, " The fish that imitates,
beneath the waves, the pretty nests of the birds. "
Chap. 43.] FISHES. 415

while at other times it is white, in spring it is parti-coloured.

This last is the only fish that builds itself a nest ; it makes it
of sea-weed, and there deposits its eggs.

CHAP. 43. - FISHES WHICH FLY ABOVE THE WATER. THE SEA-
SWALLOW. - THE FISH THAT SHINES IN THE NIGHT. -THE
HORNED FISH. - THE SEA-DRAGON.

The sea-swallow, 12 being able to fly, bears a strong resem-

blance to the bird of that name ; the sea-kite¹³ too, flies as well.
(27.) There is a fish that comes up to the surface of the sea, 14
known, from the following circumstance, as the lantern-fish :'
thrusting from its mouth a tongue that shines like fire, it emits
a most brilliant light on calm nights. Another fish, which,
from its horns, has received its name, ¹ raises them nearly a
12 This name, Cuvier observes , is still common on the coasts of the
Mediterranean, to two kinds of flying fish, the Dactylopterus, or Trigla
volitans of Linnæus, and the Exocoetus volitans of Linnæus. It is to the
first, he thinks, that the ancients more especially gave the name of swallow,
although Salvianus and Belon are of the contrary opinion. Oppian,
Halieut. B. ii. ll. 457-461 , ranks the sea-swallow with the scorpion, the
dragon, and other fish the spines of which produce mortal wounds, and
Elian, B. ii. c. 5, states to the same effect. But the exocœtus has no
spines, while the dactylopterus has terrible ones on its præopercules. Speu-
sippus also, as quoted in Athenæus, B. vii., gives no less decisive testimony,
in saying that the sea-cuckoo, the trigla, and the sea-swallow, have a
strong resemblance to each other ; the fact being that the dactylopterus is
of the same genus as the sea-cuckoo, the Trigla cuculus of Linnæus.
13 Ovid, Halieut. 1. 96, speaks of this fish as having a black back. Cu-
vier therefore suggests that it may possibly be the perlon, the Trigla hi-
rundo of Linnæus, the back of which is of a dark brown, and the great
size of the pectoral fins of which may have given rise to the notion of its
being able to fly. It is also very possible, he says, that it may have been
the exocœtus, the back of which is of a blue colour.
14 Lucerna. Probably, as Cuvier says, one of those numerous molluscs,
or zoophytes, which give out a brilliant light, and perhaps the Pyrosoma ""
of Péron. No period being found in the MSS . after the word " milvus
-" kite," it was long thought that this passage applied to the sea-kite ;
and it is owing to this circumstance that we find the ichthyologists enume-
rating a Trigla lucerna. The correction, however, is approved of by Cuvier,
who says that he has found none of the genus trigle to give forth a light ;
except, indeed, when, like other fish, it begins to be putrid.
15 Probablythe " cornuta," mentioned in the Note on the sea-ox in c. 40 ;
see p. 411. Cuvier says that it was long supposed that the fish here alluded
to might be the Malarmat of the Mediterranean, the Trigla cataphracta of
Linnæus, the muzzle of which is divided into two horns ; but then they
are only half an inch long, instead of a foot and a half. He is of opinion,
416 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

foot and a half above the surface of the water. The sea-
dragon, ¹ again, if caught and thrown on the sand, works out
a hole for itself with its muzzle, with the most wonderful
celerity.
CHAP. 44. (28.)- FISHES WHICH HAVE NO BLOOD. — FISHES KNOWN
AS SOFT FISH.
The varieties of fish which we shall now mention are those
which have no blood : they are of three kinds¹ —first, those
which are known as " soft ;" next, those which have thin crusts ;
and, lastly, those which are enclosed in hard shells . The soft
fish are the loligo, 18 the sæpia, ¹ the polypus,20 and others of a
similar nature. These last have the head between the feet
and the belly, and have, all of them, eight feet : in the sæpia
and the loligo two of these feet are very long and rough,
and by means of these they lift the food to their mouth, and
attach themselves to places in the sea, as though with an
anchor ; the others act 22 as so many arms, by means of which
they seize their prey.2
therefore, that it is the great horned ray, now known as the cephalopterus,
which, being often fifteen feet and more in diameter, answers much better
to the description of its size implied by Pliny from the length of its horns.
It is also mentioned under the name of cornuta in B. xxxii. c. 53, in com-
pany with the saw-fish, the sword-fish, the dog-fish, and other large fishes.
16 Cuvier is of opinion, that Rondelet is correct in his suggestion that
this is the sea-spider, called the " vive " in France, the viver or weever
with us, and the Trachinus draco of Linnæus, which fish is still called
dpákaiva by the modern Greeks. Pliny, in c. 48 of the present Book,
charges the sea-spider with doing much mischief, by means of the spines or
stickles on its back. Now Elian, B. ii . c. 50, and Oppian, Halieut. 1. 458,
say the same of the sea-dragon ; and this is a well-known property of the
modern vive, the Trachinus draco of Linnæus. Pliny speaks more especially,
in B. xxxii. c. 53, of the wounds which it makes with the spines or stickles
of its opercules, which the vive is also able to inflict ; and in addition to
this, it has the power of burrowing into the sand in a most incredibly short
space of time.
17 Cuvier remarks, that this division of the bloodless fish by Aristotle into
the mollusca, testacea, and crustacea, has been followed by naturalists almost
down to the present day.
18 The Sæpia loligo of Linnæus ; the calmar of the French, or ink-fish.
19 The Sæpia officinalis of Linnæus ; the seche of the French ; our cuttle-
fish.
20 The Sæpia octopodia of Linnæus, or eight-footed cuttle-fish.
21 Cuvier remarks, that this account of the arms or feelers of the sæpia
and loligo is very exact.
22 66 Quibus venantur." Hardouin suggests that the proper reading
Chap. 46. ] THE POLYPUS . 417

CHAP. 45. ( 29 . ) —THE SÆPIA, THE LOLIGO, THE SCALLOP.

The loligo is also able to dart above the surface of the water,
and the scallop does the same, just like an arrow as it were.
In the sæpia,23 the male is parti-coloured, blacker than the
female, and more courageous. If the female is struck with a
fish-spear, the male comes to her aid ; but the female, the in-
stant the male is struck, takes to flight. Both of them, as
soon as ever they find themselves in danger of being caught,
discharge a kind of ink, which with them is in place of
blood, 25 and thus darkening the water, take to flight.

CHAP . 46.-THE POLYPUS .

There are numerous kinds of polypi . The land polypus is

larger than that of the sea ; they all of them use their arms27 as
feet and hands ; and in coupling they employ the tail , which is
forked and sharp. The polypus has a sort of passage in the
back,29 by which it lets in and discharges the water, and which
would be " quibus natant "-" by means ofwhichthey swim ;" for Aristotle
says, in the corresponding passage, " with the fins that surround the body
they swim."
23 Plautus has a line in his Rudens, which shows that when the sæpia
was cooked for table, it was customary to take the eyes out. " Bid them
knock out his eyes, just as the cooks do with the sæpia."
24 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 2, states to a similar effect, as also
Elian, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 34 ; Oppian, Halieut. B. iii. 1. 156 .
25 This so-called ink, Cuvier says, is neither their blood nor their bile,
but a liquid that is secreted in a bag peculiar to the animal. It is said,
that it is from the juices of certain polypi of the Eastern seas, that the
genuine Indian or Chinese ink is made ; but M. Abel Remusat assures us
that he has found nothing in the Chinese writers to confirm this conjecture.
26 This, as Hardouin says, is the polypus which is found on the sea-
shore, and which more frequently comes on dry land than the other kinds.
27 The arms of the polypus have numerous names with the Latin authors.
Ovid calls
"" them " flagella,"- 99-" whips ;" others again, " cirri "-" curls ;"
"pedes -" feet ;" 66 crura "legs ;" and " crines "-" hair."
28 This, Cuvier says, is quite unintelligible ; for all the polypi have an
oval body, of the shape of a bag, and there is nothing in them that bears
any resemblance to a tail, forked or otherwise.
29 This channel, Cuvier says, is in form of a funnel reversed, by means
of which the animal draws in and ejects the water that is requisite for its
respiration, and discharges the ink and other excretions. It is in the fore-
part of the body, and at the orifice of the bag, and not on the back, as
Pliny says ; but, as Cuvier remarks, it was very easy for a person to be
deceived in this matter, as the head, being in form of a cylinder, and
VOL. 11. E E
418 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX .

it shifts from side to side, sometimes carrying it on the right,

and sometimes on the left. It swims obliquely,30 with the
head on one side, which is of surprising hardness while the
animal is alive, being puffed out with air.31 In addition to
this, they have cavities 32 dispersed throughout the claws,
by means of which, through suction, they can adhere to
objects ; which they hold, with the head upwards, so tightly,
that they cannot be torn away. They cannot attach them-
selves, however, to the bottom of the sea, and their reten-
tive powers are weaker in the larger ones. These are the
only soft fish that come on dry land, and then only where
the surface is rugged : a smooth surface they will not come
near. They feed upon the flesh of shell-fish, the shells of
which they can easily break in the embrace of their arms :
hence it is that their retreat may be easily detected by the pieces
of shell which lie before it. Although, in other respects, this
is looked upon as a remarkably stupid kind of animal, so much
so, that it will swim towards the hand of a man, to a certain
extent in its own domestic matters it manifests considerable
intelligence. It carries its prey to its home, and after eating
all the flesh, throws out the debris, and then pursues such
small fish as may chance to swim towards them. It also
changes its colour according to the aspect of the place where
it is, and more especially when it is alarmed. The notion is
entirely unfounded that it gnaws35 its own arms ; for it is from
the congers that this mischance befalls it ; but it is no other

fringed with the so-called feet, cannot be said to be distinguished into an

upper and lower side.
30 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 2, says that the animal is obliged to
do so, on account of the situation of the eyes.
31 But Aristotle says, kabáπep iμπεpvonμévny, " as though it were
puffed out with air."
32 " Acetabulis ." The acetabulum was properly a vinegar cruet, in
shape resembling an inverted cone ; from a supposed similarity in the
appearance, it is here applied to the suckers of the polypus. The Greek
name is κοτυληδὼν.
33 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 59.
34 Cuvier says, that the changes of colour of the skin of the polypus
are continual, and succeed each other with an extreme rapidity ; but that
it has not been observed, any more than the chameleon , to take the colour
of objects in its vicinity.
35 This notion is mentioned by Athenæus, Pherecrates, Alcæus, Hesiod,
Oppian, and Elian.
Chap. 48. ] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF POLYPI. 419

than true that its arms shoot forth again, like the tail in the
colotus36 and the lizard.37

CHAP. 47.-
.— THE NAUTILUS, OR SAILING POLYPUs .
Among the most remarkable curiosities is the animal which
has the names of nautilus, or, as some people call it, the
pompilos. Lying with the head upwards, it rises to the surface
of the water, raising itself little by little, while, by means of
a certain conduit in its body, it discharges all the water, and
this being got rid of like so much bilge- water as it were, it
finds no difficulty in sailing along. Then, extending back-
wards its two front arms, it stretches out between them a
membrane³⁹ of marvellous thinness, which acts as a sail
spread out to the wind, while with the rest of its arms it
paddles along below, steering itself with its tail in the middle,
which acts as a rudder. Thus does it make its way along the
deep, mimicking the appearance of a light Liburnian bark ;
while, if anything chances to cause it alarm, in an instant it
draws in the water, and sinks to the bottom.41

CHAP. 48. ( 30 . ) — THE VARIOUS KINDS OF POLYPI ; THEIR

SHREWDNESS.
Belonging to the genus of polypi is the animal known as the
36 Cuvier says, that Pliny states, in B. xxix. c. 28, that the colotis, or
colotes of the Greeks, is the same as their ascalabotes, the " stellio" of the
Latins. This stellio is the same as the " gecko" of the moderns, and the
species known in Italy and Greece is the same as the " wall gecko" of the
French, or the tarente of the Provencals. From what Pliny says here
about its tail, it would appear to have been a lizard ; but its identity
with the stellio, Cuvier says, is very doubtful. It will be mentioned more
at length in B. xi. c. 31.
37 It is very true, Cuvier says, that the tail of the gecko and lizard will
grow again after it has been cut off, but without vertebræ. As to the
arms of the polypus, he says, it is very possible, seeing that the horns of
the snail, which belongs to the same family, will grow again.
38 This account of the nautilus, Cuvier says, the Argonauta argo of
Linnæus, wonderful as it may appear, has been often confirmed by modern
observation.
39 This, Cuvier says, is not a membrane between the two feet or tenta-
cles, but a distinct membranous delatation of the extremity of each of those
two organs.
40 These vessels have been already remarked upon in Note 33 to c. 5 of
the present Book.
41 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 61 .
EF 2
 420 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.
42
ozæna, being so called from the peculiarly strong smell
exhaled by the head ; 43 in consequence of which, the mu-
44
rænæ pursue it with the greatest eagerness. The polypi
keep themselves concealed for two months in the year ; they
45
do not live beyond two years, and always die of consump-
tion, the females even sooner, 46 and mostly after bringing
forth. I must not omit here the observations which L. Lu-
cullus, the proconsul of Bætica, made with reference to the
polypus, and which Trebius Niger, one of his suite, has pub-
lished. He says that it is remarkably fond of shell-fish, and
that these, the moment that they feel themselves touched by
it, close their valves, and cut off the feelers of the polypus,
thus making a meal at the expense of the plunderer. Shell-
fish are destitute of sight, and, indeed, all other sensations but
those which warn them of hunger and the approach of danger.
Hence it is, that the polypus lies in ambush 47 till the fish opens
its shell, immediately upon which, it places within it a small
pebble, taking care, at the same time, to keep it from touch-
ing the body of the animal, lest, by making some movement,
it should chance to eject it. Having made itself thus se-
cure, it attacks its prey, and draws out the flesh, while the
other tries to contract itself, but all in vain, in consequence of
the separation of the shell, thus effected by the insertion of
the wedge. So great is the instinctive shrewdness in animals
that are otherwise quite remarkable for their lumpish stu-
pidity.
In addition to the above, the same author states, that there
is not an animal in existence, that is more dangerous for its
powers of destroying a human being48 when in the water.

42 From ow, " to emit an odour." This was a small kind of polypus.
43 Cuvier remarks that, in this Chapter, there are many details relative
to the polypus, that have not been observed by modern naturalists ; but
they may have been observed by the Greeks, upon whose shores and islands
the animal was much more frequently to be found than in the west of
Europe.
44 Oppian, Halieut. B. ii . 1. 260, describes the battles of these animals
with the polypus. He also says, B. iii. c. 198, that they are attracted by
the smell of the flesh of the polypus, and so are easily taken.
45 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 59.
46 Oppian, Halieut. B. i . 1. 551 , says, that they hardly live a year ; and
Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 28, states to a similar effect.
47 Basil attributes a similar craftiness to the crab ; Hexaem. Homil. vii.
46 The fishermen at the present day, upon the coast of Normandy, say
Chap. 48.] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF POLYPI. 421

Embracing his body, it counteracts his struggles, and draws

him under with its feelers and its numerous suckers, when, as
often is the case, it happens to make an attack upon a ship-
wrecked mariner or a child . If, however, the animal is turned
over, it loses all its power ; for when it is thrown upon the
back, the arms open of themselves.
The other particulars, which the same author has given,
appear still more closely to border upon the marvellous. At
49
Carteia, in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of
coming from the sea to the50 pickling - tubs that were left
open, and devouring the fish laid in salt there-for it is quite
astonishing how eagerly all sea-animals follow even the very
smell of salted condiments, so much so, that it is for this rea-
son, that the fishermen take care to rub the inside of the wicker
51
fish-kipes 5¹ with them. - At last, by its repeated thefts and
immoderate depredations, it drew down upon itself the wrath
of the keepers of the works. Palisades were placed before
them , but these the polypus managed to get over by the aid of
a tree,52 and it was only caught at last by calling in the as-
sistance of trained dogs, which surrounded it at night, as it
was returning to its prey ; upon which, the keepers, awakened
by the noise, were struck with alarm at the novelty of the
sight presented . First of all, the size of the polypus was enor-
mous beyond all conception ; and then it was covered all over

that the polypus, which they call the chatrou, is a most formidable enemy to
swimmers and divers ; for when it has embraced any of the limbs with its
tentacles, it adheres with such tenacity, that it is quite impossible for a
person to disengage himself, or to move any of his limbs.
49 In Spain ; see B. iii . c. 3. Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 13, tells a
similar story about a polypus at Puteoli.
50 " Lacus ;" large tubs used in the process of pickling. This story,
Cuvier observes, is only surpassed by those told bythe Norwegians relative
to the " kraken" oftheir seas, which, according to some versions of the fable,
is a polypus of such vast size, that sailors have sometimes mistaken it for
an island.
51 Nassis." The " nassa" was a contrivance for catching fish by
the junction of osier or willow rods. It was probably made in the shape
of a large bottle with a narrow mouth, and placed with the mouth facing
the current. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 8, states, that the fishermen ,
when they were desirous of bringing the fish out of their holes, were in the
habit of rubbing the mouth of the holes with salted flesh.
52 Oppian, Halieut. B. i . c. 310, tells a story of a polypus, of the
ozæna species, that was in the habit of climbing trees, and plundering the
fruit.
422 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

with dried brine, and exhaled a most dreadful stench. Who

could have expected to find a polypus there, or could have re-
cognized it as such under these circumstances ? They really
thought that they were joining battle with some monster, for
at one instant, it would drive off the dogs by its horrible
fumes,53 and lash at them with the extremities of its feelers ;
while at another, it would strike them with its stronger arms,
giving blows with so many clubs, as it were ; and it was only
with the greatest difficulty that it could be dispatched with
the aid of a considerable number of three- pronged fish-spears.
The head of this animal was shewn to Lucullus ; it was in
size as large as a cask of fifteen amphora, and had a beard,54
to use the expressions of Trebius himself, which could hardly
be encircled with both arms, full of knots, like those upon a club,
and thirty feet in length ; the suckers or calicules,5 as large as
an urn, resembled a basin in shape, while the teeth again were
of a corresponding largeness : its remains, which were care-
fully preserved as a curiosity, weighed seven hundred pounds.
The same author also informs us, that specimens of the sæpia
and the loligo have been thrown up on the same shores of a
size fully as large in our own seas56 the loligo is sometimes
found five cubits in length, and the sæpia, two. These ani-
mals do not live beyond two years.

-THE SAILING NAUPLIUS .

CHAP. 49.-
Mucianus also relates that he had seen, in the Propontis,
another curious resemblance to a ship in full sail.57 There is
53 " Afflatu terribili." This, as Hardouin says, may either mean its
had smell, or stinking water, ejected from its canal.
5 Its arms or feelers. The amphora, as a measure of capacity, held
about nine English gallons.
55 "Caliculis ;" literally, "little glasses." Its " acetabula," or suckers,
are so called from their peculiar shape.
56 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 2, says the same ; but, as Hardouin
observes, he must mean the Ionian sea.
57 Cuvier says, that this is only a reproduction, under another name, and
with other details, of the story of the nautilus or argonauta ; but under the
impression that the polyp is not the animal which owns the shell, but is
only its associate. It has also been asserted in modern times, he says, that
the polyp has seized this shell by force from some other animal, in order
to convert it into its boat ; but the opinion has not been adopted, as the
shell of the nautilus has been never found in the possession of any other
animal.
Chap. 50.] SEA-ANIMALS. 423

a shell-fish, he says, with a keel, just like that of the vessel

which we know by the name of acatium,58 with the poop
curving inwards, and a prow with the beak attached. In
this shell-fish there lies concealed also an animal known as the
nauplius, which bears a strong resemblance to the sæpia, and
only adopts the shell-fish as the companion of its pastimes .
There are two modes, he says, which it adopts in sailing ;
60
when the sea is calm, the voyager hangs down its arms, and
strikes the water with a pair of oars as it were ; but if, on the
other hand, the wind invites, it extends them, employing
them by way of a helm, and turning the mouth of the shell to
the wind. The pleasure experienced by the shell-fish is that
of carrying the other, while the amusement of the nauplius
consists in steering ; and thus, at the same moment, is an in-
stinctive joy felt by these two creatures, devoid as they are of
all sense, unless, indeed, a natural antipathy to man— for it is
a well -known fact, that to see them thus sailing along, is a bad
omen, and that it is portentous of misfortune to those who
witness it.
СНАР. 50.. -SEA-ANIMALS, WHICH ARE ENCLOSED WITH A CRUST ;
THE CRAY-FISH .
The cray-fish, which belongs to that class of animals which
is destitute of blood , is protected by a brittle crust. This
creature keeps itself concealed for five months, and the same is
the case with crabs, which disappear for the same period . At
the beginning of spring, however, they both of them, after the
58 Probably borrowed from the Greeks, who called it aкaros. It is sup-
posed to have been a small boat, similar to the Roman " scapha ;" like our
"skiff" probably.
59 The " rostrum" of the ancient ships of war.
60 "Palmulis." This word also means the blade or broad part of an oar ;
in which sense it may, perhaps, be here taken.
61 " Locusta ;" literally, the "locust" of the sea. By this name is meant,
Cuvier says, the "langouste" of the French (our cray-fish ) , which has no
large forcipes, and has a thorax covered with spines ; the Palinurus quad-
ricornis of the naturalists. This is clearly the kápaßoç of Aristotle, Hist.
Anim. B. viii. c. 23 ; for we generally find it thus translated by Pliny,
when he borrows anything from that philosopher. We know that the body
of this animal was spiny, from the fact that Tiberius, as we learn from
Suetonius, cruelly caused the face of a fisherman who had offended him, to
be rubbed with a locusta.
62 Aristotle, and Theophrastus, in his " Treatise on Animals which
conceal themselves, " state to a similar effect.
424 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

manner of snakes, throw off old age, and renew their coverings.
While other animals swim on the water, cray-fish float with a
kind of action like creeping. They move onwards, if there is
nothing to alarm 63 them, in a straight line, extending on each
side their horns, which are rounded at the point by a ball
peculiar to them ; but, on the other hand, the moment they
are alarmed, they straighten these horns, and proceed with
a sidelong motion. They also use these horns when fight-
ing with each other. The cray-fish is the only animal that
has the flesh in a pulpy state, and not firm and solid, unless
it is cooked alive in boiling water.
65
(31. ) The cray-fish frequents rocky places, the crab spots
which present a soft surface. In winter they both choose
such parts of the shore as are exposed to the heat of the sun,
and in summer they withdraw to the shady recesses of deep
inlets of the sea. All fish of this kind suffer from the cold of
winter, but become fat during autumn and spring, and more
particularly during the full moon ; for the warmth of that lumi-
nary, as it shines in the night, renders the temperature of the
weather more moderate.

CHAP. 51.- THE VARIOUS KINDS OF CRABS ; THE PINNOTHERES,

THE SEA URCHIN, COCKLES, AND SCALLOPS.
There are various kinds of crabs, 67 known as carabi,“ astaci, “
63 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii . c. 4, states to a similar effect.
64 Aristotle, loc. cit. , and Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 25, state to the
same effect.
65 Hardouin says, that this must be only understood of the kind of crab
known as the " astacus ; " that being the one mentioned by Aristotle, in
the passage from which Pliny has borrowed.
66*He mentions, in B. ii. c. 41 , the effect which the rays of the moon
have upon the growth of shell-fish.
67 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 2, has a somewhat similar passage.
" The kinds of crabs are numerous, and not easily to be enumerated.
First, there are those known as maiæ, then the paguri, which are also
called ' heracleotici ;' and, after them, the river crabs. There are others,
again, of a smaller size, and which, for the most part, are known by no
name in particular."
68 This is, no doubt, the cray-fish, the same animal that has been called
the "locusta" in the preceding Chapter. Aristotle states, B. iv. c. 8, that
the carabus has the thorax rough and spiny. It is most probable, that it
is from this name that our word " crab" is derived.
69 Cuvier says, that the astacus, which is very accurately described by
Chap. 51. ] VARIOUS KINDS OF CRABS . 425

maiæ,70 paguri," heracleotici," lions,73 and others of less

note. The carabus differs from other crabs, in having a tail :
in Phoenicia they are called hippoi,75 or horses, being of such
extraordinary swiftness, that it is impossible to overtake
them. Crabs are long-lived, and have eight feet, all of
which are bent obliquely. In the female the first foot is

Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 8, is indisputably the homard of the

French (the common lobster of the English) ; the Cancer gammarius of
Linnæus. Pliny, in another place, B. xxx. c. ii. , describes it himself under
the name of elephantus.
70 Cuvier remarks, that according to Aristotle, B. iv. c. 2, the maiæ are
in the number of the kapkivo , or, crabs that have a short tail concealed
beneath the body, being those ofthe largest kind. The same philosopher,
De Part. Anim. B. iv. č. 8, adds, that these have also short feet and a hard
shell. Cuvier says, that many writers have applied this name to the crabs
at the present day belonging to the genus inachus, and more especially the
Cancer maia of Linnæus. He is more inclined, however, to think that the
maia was the common French crab, known as poupart or tourtue, the
Cancer pagurus of Linnæus.
71 Hardouin says, that these are the same that the Venetians were in the
habit of calling " cancro poro," the last word being a corruption, as he
thinks, of pagurus. Aristotle says, loc. cit., that they were crabs of mid-
dling size.
72 Or Heracleotic crabs. Aristotle says, De Partib. Anim. B. iv. c. 8,
that these crabs had shorter feet and thinner than those of the maiæ.
Cuvier suggests, that these may be the commonest kind of crab, the Cancer
mænas of Linnæus, or a species very similar.
73 "Leones." This name is not found in Aristotle's account, but it is
found in Athenæus, B. iii. c. 106 ; and in Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xiv. c. 9.
According to Diphilus, as quoted by Athenæus, it was of larger size than
the astacus. Elian describes it as more slender in shape than the cray-
fish, and partly of a bluish colour, and with very large forcipes, in which
it resembles, Cuvier says, the homard of the French. It is possible, how-
ever, he adds, that it may have been only a second name given to the
astacus already mentioned ; as both Pliny and Ælian, who were not criti-
cal observers, are very liable to make errors in names.
74 Aristotle, Cuvier observes, states the carcini, or crabs, have no tail,
the fact being that the tail is extremely small, and is concealed, as it were,
in a furrow in the under part of the body. The cray-fish, on the other
hand, has a large and broad tail.
75 ' ITTоi. The more common reading is inπiç, " horsemen." Cuvier
thinks, that in all probability, these are a kind of crab with very long legs,
vulgarly known as the sea-spider ; the Macropodia and the Leptopodia of
Linnæus.
76 Hardouin remarks, that Aristotle says this only of the carabi, or
cray-fish, and not of the crabs in general ; and that, on the contrary, in B.
v. c. 7, he says, that in the crab the male does not differ in conformation
 426 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

double, in the male single ; besides which, the animal has two
claws with indented pincers. The upper part only of these
fore-feet is moveable, the lower being immoveable : the right
claw is the largest in them all." Sometimes they assemble
together in large bodies ;78 but as they are unable to cross the
mouth of the Euxine, they turn back again and go round by
land, and the road by which they travel is to be seen all beaten
down with their foot-marks.
79
The smallest crab of any is that known as the pinnotheres,"
and hence it is peculiarly exposed to danger ; its shrewdness,
however, is evinced by its concealing itself in the shell of the
oyster ; and as it grows larger, it removes to those of a larger
size.
Crabs, when alarmed, go backwards as swiftly as when
moving forwards. They fight with one another like rams,
butting at each other with their horns. They have⁰ a mode of
81
curing themselves of the bites of serpents. It is said, ³¹ that
from the female, except in the opercule. There seems, in reality, to be
no foundation for the statement here made by Pliny.
77 Both in the crab and the cray-fish, Aristotle says.
78 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vii. c. 24, calls this kind of crab dpoμiac,
the " runner," from the great distance it is known to travel. He says,
that they meet together, coming in one by one, at a certain bay in the
Thracian Bosporus, where those who have arrived wait for the others ; and
that on finding that the waves of the Euxine are sufficiently violent to
sweep them away, they unite in a dense body, and then waiting till the
waters have retired, make a passage across the straits.
79 Cuvier remarks, that Hardouin is correct in considering this the same
as the crab known in France as Bernard the Hermit (our hermit-crab) , the
Cancer Bernardus of Linnæus, a species of the genus now known as the
Pagur. This animal hides its tail and lower extremities in the empty shells
of whelks, or other univalves. Cuvier suggests that our author committed
a slip of the pen, in using the word oyster here for shell-fish. This is the
KaρKívιov, probably, of Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c . 15, and De Part.
Anim. B. iv. c. 8 ; and it is most probable that, as Cuvier states, the real
TIVνornons of Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 4, and B. v. c. 14, was
another of the crustacea, of which Pliny speaks under the same name in
c. 66. This last is a small crab, that lives in the shells of bivalves, such
as mussels, &c., but not when empty. See the Notes to c. 66.
80 This circumstance is more fully treated of in B. xxxii. c. 19.
81 Our author speaks rather more guardedly here than usual ; and Har-
douin seems almost inclined to believe the story. Ovid also alludes to this
story in the Met . B. xv. 1. 370, et seq. " If you take off the bending claws
from the crab of the sea-shore, and bury the rest in the earth, a scorpion
will come forth from the part so buried, and will threaten with its crooked
tail."
Chap. 51. ] VARIOUS KINDS OF CRABS . 427

while the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, the dead
bodies of the crabs, which are lying thrown up on the shore,
are transformed into serpents.
To the same class82 also belongs the sea-urchin,83 which has
spines in place of feet ; its mode of moving along is to roll
like a ball, hence it is that these animals are often found with
their prickles rubbed off. Those among them which have the
longest spines of all, are known by the name of echinometræ,85
while at the same time their body is the very smallest. They
are not all of them of the same glassy colour ; in the vicinity
of Torone they are white," with very short spines . The eggses
of all of them are bitter, and are five in number ; the mouth
is situate in the middle of the body, and faces the earth.89 It is
said 90 that these creatures foreknow the approach of a storm at
sea, and that they take up little stones with which they cover⁹
themselves, and so provide a sort of ballast against their volu-
bility, for they are very unwilling by rolling along to wear
away their prickles. As soon as seafaring persons observe
this, they at once moor their ship with several anchors.
(32. ) To the same genus also belong both land and water⁹3
snails, which thrust the body forth from their abode, and
extend or contract two horns, as it were. They are without

82 Of animals covered with a thin crust.

83 The sea-urchin, the herisson de mer of the French, and the Echinus
of Linnæus.
94 Cuvier remarks, that it does not use the spines or prickles for this
purpose, but that it moves by means of tentacules, which it projects from
between its prickles.
85 The Echinus cidaris of Linnæus ; with a small body, and very long
spines. The name, according Hardouin, is from the Greek, meaning
the " mother of the echini."
86 See B. iv. c. 17.
87 The same, Cuvier says, with the Echinus spatagus of Linnæus.
88 Not " ova," Cuvier says, but " ovaria " rather. Each urchin has five
"ovaria," arranged in the form of stars. They are supposed to be herma-
phroditical, but there is considerable doubt on the subject.
89 The mouth of the sea-urchin, armed with five teeth, is generally turned
to the ground, Cuvier says.
90 Plutarch, in his Book " on the Instincts ofAnimals," Oppian, Halieut.
B. ii. 1. 225, and Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vii . c. 44, all mention this.
91 This idea probably arose from the fact of their being sometimes found
with stones sticking between their spines or prickles.
92 The thin-crusted animals.
93 Known to us as periwinkles.
428 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

eyes," and have, therefore, to feel their way, by means of

these horns.
(33. ) Sea-scallops are considered to belong to the same
class, which also conceal themselves during severe frosts and
great heats ; the onyches, 96 too, which shine in the dark like
fire, and in the mouth even while being eaten.

CHAP. 52.- VARIOUS KINDS OF SHELL-FISH.

Let us now pass on to the murex and various kinds of shell-

fish, which have a stronger shell, and in which Nature, in her
sportive mood, has displayed a great variety- so many are
the various hues of their tints, so numerous are their shapes,
98
flat, concave, " long, ' crescent-shaped, " rounded into a globe,
cut³ through into a semi-globe, arched in the back, smooth,
rough, indented, streaked, the upper part spirally wreathed, the
edge projecting in a sharp point, the edge wreathed outwards,* or
else folding inwards." And then, too, there are the various dis-
94 It is now known, thanks to the research of Swammerdam, that the
black points at the extremity of the great horns of the land snail, or Helix
terrestris, and at the base of them in the water snail, are eyes.
95 "Pectines in mari ;" literally, " sea-combs." The French still call
them by a similar name, " peignes." They are known also in France as
" coquilles de St. Jaques," or St. James's shells ; probably, because worn
by pilgrims who had visited the shrine of St. Jago, at Compostella. In-
deed, the scallop shell was a favourite emblem with the palmers and pil-
grims of the middle ages, who were in the habit of wearing it on their
return in the hat.
96 He Latinizes the Greek name, calling it " unguis '—" a nail ; " and,
according to Varro, they were so called from their resemblance to the hu-
man nail. Pliny mentions them again in c. 87 of this Book, and in B.
xxxii. c. 53, where he states that they are also called " dactyli," or "fin-
gers." Cuvier says, that under this name are meant the pholades, a bi-
valve shell-fish, which give forth a very brilliant light.
97 Univalves, with a thick spinous shell.
98 The flat shell-fish, for instance, according to Cuvier, of the genus
patella, or lepas.
99 Other fish of the genus patella, only more concave ; the haliotes, for
instance.
1 Forming a prolonged cone, Cuvier says, like the cerites.
2 The mouth of which is shaped like a crescent ; such as the helices,
Cuvier says.
3 The nerites, Cuvier says, which are cut into two hemispheres.
4 Such as many of the whelks, Cuvier says.
5 The whelks that have the edge turned inwards, so that one lip appears
to fold under the other.
Chap. 53.] APPLIANCES OF LUXURY FOUND IN THE SEA. 429

tinctions ofrayed shells, long-haired' shells, wavy- haired shells,

channelled shells, pectinated shells, imbricated shells, reticu-
lated shells, shells with lines oblique or rectilinear, thick- set
shells, expanded shells, tortuous shells, shells the valves of
which are united by one small knot, shells which are held to-
gether all along one side, shells which are open as if in the
8
very act of applauding, and shells which wind, resembling a
conch. The fish of this class, known as the shells of Venus,10
are able to navigate the surface of the deep, and, presenting to
the wind their concave side, catch the breeze, and sail along on
the surface of the sea. Scallops are also able to leap¹¹ and
fly above the surface of the water, and they sometimes employ
their shell by way of a bark.

CHAP. 53. (34 . )— WHAT NUMEROUS APPLIANCES OF LUXURY ARE

FOUND IN THE SEA.

But why mention such trifles as these, when I am sensible

that no greater inroads have been made upon our morals, and
no more rapid advances have been made by luxury, than
those effected through the medium of shell-fish ? Of all the
elements that exist, the sea is the one that costs the dearest
to the belly ; seeing that it provides so many kinds of meats,

• As no two naturalists might probably agree as to the exact meaning of

the terms here employed, it has been thought advisable to give the passage
as it appears in the original : " Jam distinctione virgulata, crinita, crispa,
cuniculatim, pectinatim divisa, imbricatim undata, cancellatim reticulata,
in obliquum, in rectum expansa, densata, porrecta, sinuata, brevi nodo le-
gatis, toto latere connexis, ad plausum apertis, ad buccinum recurvis."
7 In allusion, probably, to the streaks or lines drawn upon the exterior of
the shell.
8 With the mouth wide open, like that of a person in the act of ap-
plauding.
9 By "ad buccinum recurvis," he probably alludes to a whelk, or fish
with a turbinated shell, resembling the larger conch or trumpet shell, which
Triton is sometimes described as blowing.
10 Probably some of the Cypræa ; which have been already alluded to in
Note 6 to c. 41 of the present Book. Cuvier remarks, that there are many
of the univalve shell-fish that float on the surface of the water, but none,
with the exception of the argonauta or nautilus, are known to employ a
membranous sail.
11 Cuvier says, that he has been informed that the scallop, by suddenly
bringing together the valves of its shell, is able to make a bound, and leap
above the surface of the water.
430 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX:

so many dishes, so many exquisite flavours derived from fish,

all of which are valued in proportion to the danger undergone
by those who have caught them.
(35. ) But still, how insignificant is all this when we come
to think of our purple, our azure, ¹2 and our pearls ; it was not
enough, forsooth, for the spoils of the sea to be thrust down
the gullet- but they must be employed as well to adorn the
hands, the ears, the head, the whole body, in fact, and that
of the men pretty nearly as much as the women. What has
the sea to do with our clothes 13 What is there in com-
mon between waves and billows and a sheep's fleece ? This
one element ought not to receive us, according to ordinary
notions, except in a state of nakedness. Let there be ever
so strong an alliance between it and the belly, on the score of
gluttony, still, what can it possibly have to do with the
back ? It is not enough, forsooth, that we are fed upon what
is acquired by perils, but we must be clothed, too, in a similar
way; so true it is, that for all the wants of the body, that
which is sought at the expense of human life, is sure to
please us the most. -

CHAP. 54. — PEARLS ; HOW THEY ARE PRODUCED, AND WHERE.

The first rank then, and the very highest position among all
valuables, belongs to the pearl. It is the Indian Ocean that
principally sends them to us : and thus have they, amid those
monsters so frightful and so huge which we have already de-
14
scribed, to cross so many seas, and to traverse such lengthened
tracts of land, scorched by the ardent rays of a burning sun :
and then, too, by the Indians themselves they have to be sought
in certain islands, and those but very few in number. The
most productive of pearls is the island of Taprobane, and that
of Stoïdis, as already mentioned 15 in the description of the

12 Ajasson says, that the words " purpuras, conchylia," here signify not
the fish themselves, but the various tints produced by them ; the purpura
and the conchylium being, in fact, exactly the same fish, though, as will be
explained in c. 60 of the present Book, by various modes of treatment,
various colours were extracted from them. See also B. xxi. c. 22.
13 Dalechamps notices here an ancient proverb, which says, 66 Qui nare
vult, se exuit." "He who wishes to swim, takes off his clothes ."
14 In c. 2 of the present Book.
15 In B. vi. cc. 24 and 28.
Chap. 54. ] PEARLS. 431

world ; Perimula, 16 also, a promontory of India. But those

are most highly valued which are found in the vicinity of
Arabia," in the Persian Gulf, which forms a part of the Red
Sea.
The origin 18 and production of the shell-fish is not very dif-
ferent from that of the shell of the oyster. When the genial
season of the year 19 exercises its influence on the animal, it is
said that, yawning, as it were, it opens its shell, and so receives
a kind of dew, by means of which it becomes impregnated ;
and that at length it gives birth, after many struggles, to the
burden of its shell, in the shape of pearls, which vary accord-
ing to the quality of the dew. If this has been in a perfectly
pure state when it flowed into the shell, then the pearl pro-
duced is white and brilliant, but if it was turbid, then the
pearl is of a clouded colour also ; if the sky should happen to
have been lowering when it was generated, the pearl will be
of a pallid colour ; from all which it is quite evident that the
quality of the pearl depends much more upon a calm state of
the heavens than of the sea, and hence it is that it contracts a
cloudy hue, or a limpid appearance, according to the degree of
serenity of the sky in the morning.
If, again, the fish is satiated in a reasonable time, then the
pearl produced increases rapidly in size. If it should happen
to lighten at the time, the animal shuts its shell, and the pearl
is diminished in size in proportion to the fast that the animal
has to endure but if, in addition to this, it should thun-

16 See B. vi. c. 23. Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xv. c. 8, says to the same
effect, but calls it " Perimuda, a city of India."
17 Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. x. c. 13. It has been already remarked, in the
sixth Book, that the ancients looked upon the Persian Gulf as forming
part of the Erythræan or Red Sea,
18 The pearl itself, Cuvier says, is nothing else but an extravasation, so
to say, of the juices, whose duty it is to line the interior of the shell, to
thicken and so amplify it ; and consequently, it is produced by a malady.
It is possible, he says, for them to be found in all shell-fish ; but they have
no beauty in them, unless the interior of the shell, the nacre, or, as we call
it, the mother of pearl, is lustrous and beautiful itself. Hence it is, that
the finest of them come from the east, and are furnished by the kind of
bivalve, called by Linnæus, " Mytilus margaritiferus," which has the most
beautiful mother of pearl in the interior that is known. The parts of the
Indian sea which are mentioned by Pliny, are those in which the pearl
oyster is still found in the greatest abundance.
19 All this theory, as Cuvier says, is totally imaginary.
432 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX,

der 20 as well, then it becomes alarmed, and closing the shell in

an instant, produces what is known as a physema," or pearl-
bubble, filled with air, and bearing a resemblance to a pearl,
but in appearance only, as it is quite empty, and devoid of
body ; these bubbles are formed by the abortion of the shell-
fish. Those which are produced in a perfectly healthy state
consist of numerous layers, so that they may be looked upon,
not inappropriately, as similar in conformation to the callosities
on the body of an animal ; and they should therefore be cleaned
by experienced hands. It is wonderful, however, that they
should be influenced thus pleasurably by the state of the hea-
vens, seeing that by the action of the sun the pearls are turned
of a red colour, and lose all their whiteness, just like the human
body. Hence it is that those which keep their whiteness the
best are the pelagiæ, or main- sea pearls, which lie at too
great a depth to be reached by the sun's rays ; and yet these
even turn yellow with age, grow dull and wrinkled, and it
is only in their youth that they possess that brilliancy which
is so highly esteemed in them. When old, too, the coat grows
thick, and they adhere to the shell,22 from which they can
23
only be separated with the assistance of a file. Those pearls
which have one surface flat and the other spherical, opposite
24
to the plane side, are for that reason called tympania, or tam-
bour-pearls. I have seen pearls still adhering to the shell ;
for which reason the shells were used as boxes for unguents.
In addition to these facts, we may remark that the pearl is
soft 25 in the water, but that it grows hard the instant it is
taken out.

20 Isidorus of Charax, in his description of Parthia, commended by

Athenæus, B. iii., says, on the other hand, that the fish are aided in bring-
ing forth, by rain and thunder.
21 From the Greek pvonua, " air-bubble."
22 It sometimes happens, Cuvier says, that the secretion which forms the
mother-of-pearl makes tubercles in the interior of the shell, which are the
pearls adhering to the shell here spoken of.
23 Persius alludes to this in Sat. ii. 1. 66. " Hæc baccam concha
rasisse ;" "to file the pearl away from its shell."
24 From this passage we learn that the " tympana," or hand-drums of
the ancients, were often of a semiglobular shape, like the kettle-drums of
the present day.
25 Cuvier remarks that this is not the fact : the concretions are perfectly
hard before the animal leaves the water.
Chap. 55.] HOW PEARLS ARE FOUND.. 433

CHAP. 55. - HOW PEARLS ARE FOUND.

The fish, as soon as ever it perceives the hand,26 shuts
its shell and covers up its treasures, being well aware that it is
for them that it is sought ; and if it happens to catch the hand,27
it cuts it off with the sharp edge of the shell. And no punish-
ment is there that could be more justly inflicted . There are
other penalties added as well, seeing that the greater part of
these pearls are only to be found among rocks and crags, while
on the other hand, those which lie out in the main sea are ge-
nerally accompanied by sea-dogs. 28 And yet, for all this, the
women will not banish these gems from their ears! Some
writers say," that these animals live in communities, just like
swarms of bees, each of them being governed by one remark-
able for its size and its venerable old age ;30 while at the same
time it is possessed of marvellous skill in taking all due pre-

26 Isidorus of Charax, as quoted by Athenæus, B. iii.; and Elian,

Hist. Anim. B. x. c. 20, make similar statements . Rondelet, in his treatise
on Testaceous Fishes, B. i., complains of Pliny using the word " videt,"
""' sees," in the present passage ; but, as Hardouin says, he only uses it in
a free sense, meaning, "is aware of the approach of," or "has a perception
of."
27 Isidorus of Charax, in Athenæus, B. iii., tells a similar story ; but
modifies it by saying that the fish sometimes cuts off the fingers of the
divers, and not the hands.
28 " Canes marini." He calls by this name the same animal that a little
further on he describes by the name of " canicula," " dog-fish " alluding,
probably, under that name to various species of the shark. Procopius, in
his book, De Bell. Pers. B. i. c. 4, has a wonderful story in relation to this
subject. He says, that the sea-dogs are wonderful admirers of the pearl-
fish, and follow them out to sea ; that when the sea-dogs are pressed by
hunger, they go in quest of prey, and then return to the shell-fish and gaze
upon it. A certain fisherman, having watched for the moment when the
shell-fish was deprived of the protection of its attendant sea-dog, which
was seeking its prey, seized the shell-fish, and made for the shore. The
sea-dog, however, was soon aware of the theft, and making straight
for the fisherman, seized him. Finding himself thus caught, he made a
last effort, and threw the pearl-fish on shore, immediately on which he was1
torn to pieces by its protector.
29 Such, for instance, as Megasthenes, quoted by Arrian in his Indica,
and Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xv. c. 8.
30 Hardouin suggests that a preferable reading to " vetuslate," would
be " venustate," by its beauty ; and indeed, Elian, in the corresponding
passage, Hist. Anim. B. xv. c. 8, says, that the chief is remarkable " for its
size, and the extreme beauty of its colours."
VOL. II. FF
 434 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX .

cautions against danger ; the divers, they say, take especial care
to find these, and when once they are taken, the others stray to
and fro, and are easily caught in their nets. We learn also
that as soon as they are taken they are placed under a thick
layer of salt in earthen-ware vessels ; as the flesh is gradually
31
consumed, certain knots, which form the pearls, are dis-
engaged 32 from their bodies, and fall to the bottom of the
vessel.

CHAP. 56. - THE VARIOUS KINDS OF PEARLS.

There is no doubt that pearls wear with use, and will change
their colour, if neglected. All their merit consists in their
whiteness, large size, roundness, polish, and weight ; qualities
which are not easily to be found united in the same ; so much
so, indeed, that no two pearls are ever found perfectly alike ;
and it was from this circumstance, no doubt, that our Roman
luxury first gave them the name of " unio, "33 or the unique
gem : for a similar name is not given them by the Greeks ; nor,
indeed, among the barbarians by whom they are found are
they called anything else but " margarita."934 Even in the very
whiteness of the pearl there is a great difference to be ob-
served. Those are of a much clearer water that are found in
the Red Sea,35 while the Indian pearl resembles in tint the
scales 36 of the mirror-stone, but exceeds all the others in size.
The colour that is most highly prized of all, is that of those
31 "Nucleos." The Greek authors occasionally call them " stones"
and "bones." Tertullian calls them " maladies of shell-fish and warts" —
"concharum vitia et verrucas."
32 Cuvier says, that the most efficient mode of extracting all the con-
cretions that may happen to be concealed in the body of the animal, is to
leave the flesh to dissolve in water, upon which the concretions naturally
fall to the bottom.
33 Isidorus and Solinus, however, say that the pearl is so called, because
two are never found together. The derivation given by Pliny is, however,
the more probable one. From the Latin " unio," comes our word
"onion ;" which, like the pearl, consists of numerous coats, one laid
upon the other.
34 Hence we must conclude that the word "margarita" is not of Greek,
but Eastern origin.
35 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xv. c. 8, says, that the Indian pearls, and
those which come from the Red Sea, are the best.
36 The laminæ of the lapis specularis, described by Pliny, B. xxxvi.
c. 45.
Chap. 56. ] PEARLS . 435

which are thence called alum-coloured" pearls. Long pearls

also have their peculiar value ; those are called " elenchi, "
which are of a long tapering shape, resembling39our alabaster 38
boxes in form, and ending in a full bulb." Our ladies
quite glory in having these suspended from their fingers, or
two or three of them dangling from their ears. For the pur-
pose of ministering to these luxurious tastes, there are various
names and wearisome refinements which have been devised by
profuseness and prodigality ; for after inventing these ear- rings,
they have given them the name of " crotalia,' 9940 or castanet
pendants, as though quite delighted even with the rattling of
the pearls as they knock against each other ; and now, at the
present day, the poorer classes are even affecting them, as
people are in the habit of saying, that " a pearl worn by a
woman in public, is as good as a lictor 41 walking before her."
Nay, even more than this, they put them on their feet, and
that, not only on the laces of their sandals, but all over the

37 Exaluminatos ." It is clear from this passage that Pliny was ac-
quainted with our alum, as he here clearly implies that the alum known
to him was of a white colour. Beckmann, however, in his History of
Inventions, asserts that our alum was certainly not known to the Greeks
and Romans, and that their " alumen" was nothing else but vitriol, the
green sulphate of iron, and that not in its pure state, but such as forms
in mines. Pereira, however, in his Materia Medica, says, that there can
be little doubt that Pliny was acquainted with our alum, but did not dis-
tinguish it from sulphate of iron, as he informs us that one kind of alum
was white, and was used for dyeing wool of various colours. It is men-
tioned more fully in B. xxxv. c. 52, where he speaks of its use in dyeing.
38 These alabaster boxes for unguents are mentioned by Pliny in
B. xxxvi. c. 12. They were usually pear-shaped ; and as they were held
with difficulty in the hand, on account of their extreme smoothness, they
were called aláẞaorpa, from à, " not," and λaßéolai, "to be held."
The reader will recollect the offer made to our Saviour, of the " alabaster
box of ointment of spikenard, very precious." Matt. xxvi. 7. Mark
είν. 3.
39 Seneca, Benef. B. vii . c. 9, speaks of them as hanging in tiers from
the ears of the Roman matrons, two and two ; and he says that they are
not satisfied unless they have two or three patrimonies suspended from each
ear.
40 From their resemblance to " crotala," used by dancers, and similar to
our castanets.
41 That the pearls as fully bespeak the importance of the wearer, as the
lictor does of the magistrate whom he is preceding. The honour of being
escorted by one or two lictors, was usually granted to the wives and other
members ofthe imperial family.
FF 2
 436 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX .

shoes ; it is not enough to wear pearls, but they must tread

upon them, and walk with them under foot as well.
Pearls used formerly to be found in our sea, but more fre-
quently about the Thracian Bosporus ; 13 they were of a red
colour, and small, " and enclosed in a shell-fish known by the
name of " myes." In Acarnania there is a shell-fish called
"pina,'," 45 which produces pearls ; and from this it is quite
evident that it is not one kind of fish only that produces them.
Juba states also, that on the shores of Arabia there is a shell-
fish which resembles a notched comb, and covered all over with
hair like a sea-urchin, and that the pearl lies imbedded in its
flesh, in appearance bearing a strong resemblance to a hail-
stone." No such shell-fish, however, as these are ever brought to
Rome. Nor yet are anypearls of value found in Acarnania, being
shapeless, rough, and of a marble hue ; those are better which
are found in the vicinity of Actium ; but still they are small,
which is the case also with those found on the coast of Mauri-
tania. Alexander Polyhistor and Sudines are of opinion that
as they grow old their tints gradually fade.

CHAP. 57. - REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH PEARLS—

THEIR NATURE.

It is quite clear that the interior of the pearl is solid, as no

fall is able to break it. Pearls are not always found in the
middle of the body of the animal, but sometimes in one place,
42 Even on the " socculus," or “ soccus," a shoe or slipper which did not
require any " obstragulum," or tie. We find from Seneca, De Ben. B. ii.
c. 12, and Pliny, B. xxxvii. c. 6, that Caligula wore gold and pearls upon
his socculi.
43 Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xv. c. 8, states to this effect from Juba.
44 They are found also, Ajasson says, at the present day, in some of the
coldest rivers and torrents of Auvergne.
45 Or " pinna," the Greek name of this kind of pearl oyster.
46 Cuvier remarks, that he is here probably speaking of some spiny
bivalve, perhaps the Spondylus of Linnæus.
47 " Grandini." But Hardouin thinks, and probably correctly, that the
meaning here of the word is the " measles of swine;" for Androsthenes, in
Athenæus, B. iii. , has a similar passage, in which he says : "The stone
(i . e. pearl) grows in the flesh of the shell-fish, just as the measles grow in
the flesh of swine."
48 He is also mentioned in B. xxxvi. c. 12, and B. xxxvii. cc. 9, 11 , 23,
35, and 50, as a writer on gems ; but nothing else seems to be known of
him.
Chap. 58.] PEARLS. 437

and sometimes another. Indeed, I have seen some which lay

at the edge of the shell, just as though in the very act of
coming forth, and in some fishes as many as four or five.
Up to the present time, very few have been found which ex-
ceeded half an ounce in weight, by more than one scruple. It
is a well-ascertained fact, that in Britannia " pearls are found,
though small, and of a bad colour ; for the deified Julius Cæsar 50
wished it to be distinctly understood, that the breast- plate
which he dedicated to Venus Genetrix, in her temple, was
made of British pearls.
CHAP. 58. - INSTANCES OF THE USE OF PEARLS.
I once saw Lollia Paulina,52 the wife of the Emperor Caius 63
—it was not at any public festival, or any solemn ceremonial,
but only at an ordinary wedding entertainment 54—covered
49 Cuvier observes, that most of the rivers and lakes of the north of
Europe possess the mya margarifera the pearls of which, though much
inferior to those of the East, are sufficiently esteemed to be made an article
of commerce. Bad pearls, of a dead marble colour, are also very frequently
found in the mussels taken off our coasts. Pearls have in modern times
declined very considerably in value ; those of about the size of a large pea
can be purchased, of very fine quality, for about a guinea each, while those
of the size of a pepper-corn sell at about eighteen-pence. Seed pearls, of
the size of small shot, are of very little value. Tavernier speaks of a re-
markable pearl, that was found at Catifa, in Arabia, the fishery probably
alluded to by Pliny, in C. 54, and which he bought for the sum of £110,000,
some accounts say £10,000, of our money. It is pear-shaped, the elenchus
of the ancients, regular, and without blemish. The diameter is .63 of an
inch, at the largest part, and the length from two to three inches. It is
said to be in the possession of the Shah of Persia.
50 Tacitus, in his Agricola, says that pearls of a tawny and livid colour
are thrown up on the shores of Britain, and there collected. Suetonius
absolutely says, c. 4, that Julius Cæsar invaded Britain in the hope of
obtaining pearls, in the weight and size of which he took considerable
interest.
51 By the inscription placed beneath the thorax, or breast-plate.
52 The grand-daughter of M. Lollius, and heiress to his immense wealth.
She was first married to C. Memmius Regulus ; but was divorced from
him, and married to the Emperor Caligula, who, however, soon divorced
her. At the instigation of Agrippina, Claudius first banished her, and
then caused her to be murdered. A sepulchre to her honour was erected
in the reign of the Emperor Nero.
53 Caligula .
54 Or rather "betrothal entertainment," "sponsalium cœna.'" The
"sponsalia " were not an unusual preliminary of marriage, but were not
absolutely necessary .
438 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

with emeralds and pearls, which shone in alternate layers upon

her head, in her hair, in her wreaths, in her ears, upon her neck,
in her bracelets, and on her fingers, and the value of which
amounted in all to forty millions 55 of sesterces ; indeed 56 she
was prepared at once to prove the fact, by showing the receipts
and acquittances. Nor were these any presents made by a
prodigal potentate, but treasures which had descended to her
from her grandfather, and obtained by the spoliation of the
provinces. Such are the fruits of plunder and extortion ! It
was for this reason that M. Lollius 57 was held so infamous all
over the East for the presents which he extorted from the kings ;
the result of which was, that he was denied the friendship of
Caius Cæsar, and took poison ;58 and all this was done, I say,
that his grand-daughter might be seen, by the glare of lamps,
covered all over with jewels to the amount of forty millions
of sesterces ! Now let a person only picture to himself, on
the one hand, what was the value of the habits worn by
Curius or Fabricius in their triumphs, let him picture to him-
self the objects displayed to the public on their triumphal
litters,58 and then, on the other hand, let him think upon this
Lollia, this one bit 59 of a woman, the head of an empire, taking
her place at table, thus attired ; would he not much rather
that the conquerors had been torn from their very chariots,
than that they had conquered for such a result as this ?

55 7,600,000 francs, Hardouin says ; which would make £304,000 of our

money.
56Ipsa confestim parata mancupationem tabulis probare."
57 He was proprætor of the province of Galatia, Consul B.C. 21 , and
B.C. 16 legatus in Gaul ; where he suffered a defeat from certain of the
German tribes. He was afterwards appointed by Augustus tutor to his
grandson, C. Cæsar, whom he accompanied to the East in B.C. 2. He was
a personal enemy of Tiberius, which may in some measure account for the
bad character given him by Velleius Paterculus, who describes him as more
eager to make money than to act honourably, and as guilty of every kind
of vice. Horace, on the other hand, in the ode addressed to him, Carm. iv.
9, expressly praises him for his freedom from all avarice. His son, M.
Lollius, was the father of Lollia Paulina.
58 This does not appear to be asserted by any other author ; but Velleius
Paterculus almost suggests as much, B. ii. , 66 Cujus mors intra paucos dies
fortuita an voluntaria fuerit ignoro .' It was said that he was in the habit
of selling the good graces of Caius Cæsar to the Eastern sovereigns for sums
of money.
58 " Fercula." See vol. i . p. 400, Note 1 .
59 “ Unam imperii mulierculam accubantem.”
Chap . 58. ] PEARLS. 439

Nor, indeed, are these the most supreme evidences of luxury.

There were formerly two pearls, the largest that had been ever
seen in the whole world : Cleopatra, the last of the queens of
Egypt, was in possession of them both, they having come to
her by descent from the kings of the East. When Antony
had been sated by her, day after day, with the most exquisite
banquets, this queenly courtesan, inflated with vanity and dis-
dainful arrogance, affected to treat all this sumptuousness and
all these vast preparations with the greatest contempt ; upon
which Antony enquired what there was that could possibly be
added to such extraordinary magnificence. To this she made
answer, that on a single entertainment she would expend ten
millions 60 of sesterces. Antony was extremely desirous to
learn how that could be done, but looked upon it as a thing
quite impossible ; and a wager was the result. On the follow-
ing day, upon which the matter was to be decided, in order
that she might not lose the wager, she had an entertainment
set before Antony, magnificent in every respect, though no
better than his usual repast. Upon this, Antony joked
her, and enquired what was the amount expended upon it ; to
which she made answer that the banquet which he then be-
held was only a trifling appendage 61 to the real banquet, and
that she alone 62 would consume at the meal to the ascertained
value of that amount, she herself would swallow the ten
millions of sesterces ; and so ordered the second course to be
served. In obedience to her instructions, the servants placed
before her a single vessel, which was filled with vinegar, a
liquid, the sharpness and strength of which is able 63 to dis-
60 A fourth of the sum mentioned in Note 55.
61 " Corollarium."
62 "Et consumpturam eam cœnam taxationem confirmans."
63 " It was because pearls are calcareous, that Cleopatra was able to dis-
solve hers in vinegar, and by these means to gain a bet from her lover, as
we are told by Pliny, B. ix. c. 58, and Macrobius, Sat. B. ii. c. 13. She
must, however, have employed stronger vinegar than that which we use
for our tables ; as pearls, on account of their hardness and their natural
enamel, cannot be easily dissolved by a weak acid. Nature has secured
the teeth of animals against the effect of acids, by an enamel covering,
which answers the same purpose ; but if this enamel happens to be injured
only in one small place, the teeth soon spoil and rot. Cleopatra, perhaps,
broke and pounded the pearls [pearl] ; and it is probable that she after-
wards diluted the vinegar with water, that she might be able to drink it ;
though dissolved calcareous matter neutralizes acids, and renders them imper-
 440 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

solve pearls. At this moment she was wearing in her ears

those choicest and most rare and unique productions of Nature ;
and while Antony was waiting to see what she was going to
do, taking one of them from out of her ear, she threw it into the
vinegar, and directly it was melted, swallowed it. Lucius
64
Plancus, who had been named umpire in the wager, placed
his hand upon the other at the very instant that she was
making preparations to dissolve it in a similar manner, and
declared that Antony had lost- an omen which,65 in the result,
was fully confirmed . The fame of the second pearl is equal
to that which attends its fellow. After the queen, who had
thus come off victorious on so important a question, had been
seized, it was cut asunder, in order that this, the other half of
the entertainment, might serve as pendants for the ears of
Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome.

CHAP. 59. - HOW PEARLS FIRST CAME INTO USE AT ROME.

Antony and Cleopatra, however, will not bear away the palm
of prodigality in this respect, and will be stripped of even
this boast in the annals of luxury. For before their time,
"
Clodius, the son of the tragic actor Esopus," had done the
ceptible to the tongue. That pearls are not peculiar to one kind of shell-
fish, as many believe, was known to Pliny." Beckmann's History of In-
ventions, vol. i. p. 258, note 1, Bohn's Ed. We may remark, however
that as the story is told by Pliny, there is no appearance that Cleopatra
pounded the pearl. It is more likely that she threw it into the vinegar,
and immediately swallowed it, taking it for granted that it had melted.
64 Macrobius, Saturn. B. iii. says, " Monatius " Plancus. His name
was in reality Lucius Munatius Plancus. He afterwards deserted Antony,
and took the side of Octavianus ; and it was on his proposal that Octa-
vianus received the title of Augustus in B.C. 27. He built the temple of
Saturn, in order to secure the emperor's favour. It is not known in what
year he died.
65 "Omine rato." He means, that in the result, it was only too true
that Antony was " victus," conquered, and that by his enemy Octavianus.
66 Claudius, or Clodius Esopus, was the most celebrated tragic actor at
Rome in the time of Cicero, and was probably a freedman of the Clodian
family. Horace and other authors put him on a level with Roscius.
From Cicero we learn that his acting was characterized chiefly by strong
emphasis and vehemence. Cicero characterizes him as a 66 summus arti-
fex," a 66 consummate artist." He was a firm friend of Cicero, whose
cause he advocated indirectly more than once during his banishment
from Rome. It appears from Pliny, B. x. c. 72, that he was far from
frugal, though he left a large fortune to his spendthrift son, Clodius
Chap. 60.J THE MUREX . 441

same at Rome ; having been left by his father heir to his am-
ple wealth and possessions. Let not Antony then be too
proud, for all his trumvirate, since he can hardly stand in com-
parison with an actor ; one, too, who had no wager to induce
him—a thing which adds to the regal munificence of the act
-but was merely desirous of trying, by way of glorification
to his palate, what was the taste of pearls. As he found it to
be wonderfully pleasing, that he might not be the only one to
know it, he had a pearl set before each of his guests for him
to swallow. After the surrender of Alexandria, pearls came
into common and, indeed, universal use at Rome; but they
first began to be used about the time of Sylla, though but of
small size and of little value, Fenestella says-in this, how-
ever, it is quite evident that he is mistaken, for Ælius Stilo
tells us, that it was in the time of the Jugurthine war, that
the name of " unio " was first given to pearls of remarkable
size.

CHAP. 60.- THE NATURE OF THE MUREX AND THE PURPLE.

And yet pearls may be looked upon as pretty nearly a pos-

session of everlasting duration-- they descend from a man to
his heir, and they are alienated from one to another just like
any landed estate. But the colours that are extracted from
the murex and the purple fade from hour to hour ; and yet
luxury, which has similarly acted as a mother to them, has
set upon them prices almost equal to those of pearls.

Esopus. This man, among his other feats, dissolved in vinegar (or at
least attempted to do so), a pearl worth about £8000, which he took from
the ear-ring of Cæcilia Metella. It is alluded to by Horace, B. ii. Sat. iii.
1. 239.
67 Or " conchylium." We find that Pliny generally makes a difference
between the colours of the " murex," or 66 conchylium," and those of the
" purpura," or " purple." Cuvier says, that they were the names of dif-
ferent shell-fish which the ancients employed for dyeing in purple of
various shades. It is not known exactly, at the present day, what species
they employed ; but it is a fact well ascertained, that the greater part of
the univalve shell-fish, more especially the Buccini and Murices of Lin-
næus, distil a kind of red liquid. The dearness of it arose, Cuvier thinks,
from the remarkably small quantity that each animal afforded. Since the
coccus, or kermes, he says, came to be well known, and more especially
since the New World has supplied us with cochineal, we are no longer
necessitated to have recourse to the juices of the murex.
442 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

(36.) Purples live mostly seven years. Like the murex,

they keep themselves in concealment for thirty days, about the
time ofthe rising of the Dog-star ; in the springseason they unite
in large bodies, and by rubbing against each other, produce a
viscous spittle, from which a kind of wax is formed . The
murex does the same ; but the purple" has that exquisite
juice which is so greatly sought after for the purpose of dyeing
cloth, situate in the middle of the throat. This secretion
consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which
the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the
tint of a rose somewhat inclining to black. The rest of the
body is entirely destitute of this juice. It is a great point to
take the fish alive ; for when it dies, it spits out this juice.
From the larger ones it is extracted after taking off the shell ;
but the small fish are crushed alive, together with the shells,
upon which they eject this secretion.
In Asia the best purple is that of Tyre, in Africa that
of Meninx and the parts of Gætulia that border on the
Ocean, and in Europe that of Laconia. It is for this colour
that the fasces and the axes"¹ of Rome make way in the
crowd ; it is this that asserts the majesty of childhood ;72 it is
this that distinguishes the senator73 from the man of equestrian
rank ; by persons arrayed in this colour are prayers ad-

68 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14, says, " about six." The murex of
Pliny is the knpug of Aristotle.
69 Aristotle says, that the purple consists of three parts, the upper being
the rpaynλos, or neck ; the middle the μnxwv, or poppy ; and the lower
the veμny, or trunk ; and that the juice lies between the first and second
of these parts, or the throat. This juice, which Pliny calls "flos,"
66 flower," "ros," "dew," and "succus," "juice," is distilled, Cuvier
says, not from the fauces of the animal, but from the mantle or mem-
branous tissue which lines the sheli.
70 See B. v. c. 7. See also B. vi. c. 36.
71 Which preceded the Roman consuls, who were clothed with the toga
prætexta, the colour of which was Syrian purple.
72 Hardouin seems to think that " majestate pueritia" means " children
of high birth ;" but it was the fact that all children of free birth wore the
prætexta, edged with purple, till they attained puberty . It is much more
probable that by these words Pliny means the " majesty of youth," in its
simplicity and guileless nature, that commands our veneration and respect.
75 He means that the purple laticlave or broad hem of the senator's toga
distinguished him from the eques, who wore a toga with an angusticlave,
or narrow hem.
74 From Cicero, Epist. Ad. Attic. B. ii. Ep. 9, we learn that purple
Chap. 61. ] DIFFERENT KINDS OF PURPLES. 443

dressed to propitiate the gods ; on every garment it sheds a

lustre, and in the triumphal vestment it is to be seen min-
gled with gold. Let us be prepared then to excuse this
frantic passion for purple, even though at the same time we
are compelled to enquire, why it is that such a high value has
been set upon the produce of this shell-fish , seeing that while
in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour itself
is harsh, of a greenish hue, and strongly resembling that of
the sea when in a tempestuous state ?
The tongue of the purple is a finger" in length, and by
means of this it finds subsistence, by piercing other shell-
fish,78 so hard is the point of it. They die in fresh water, and
in places where rivers discharge themselves into the sea ;
otherwise, when taken, they will live as long as fifty days on
their saliva. All shell-fish grow very fast, and purples more
especially ; they come to their full size at the end of a year.

CHAP. 61. - THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PURPLES.

Were I at this point to pass on to other subjects, luxury, no

doubt would think itself defrauded of its due, and so accuse
me of negligence ; I must therefore make my way into the
very workshops even, so that, just as among articles of food
the various kinds and qualities of corn are known, all those
who place the enjoyment of life in these luxuries, may have
a still better acquaintance with the objects for which they
live.79

was worn by the priests when performing sacrifice. Ajasson, however,

agrees with Dalechamps in thinking that this passage bears reference to
the consuls, who wore purple when sacrificing to the gods.
75 The prætexta, for instance, the laticlave, the chlamys, the paluda-
mentum, and the trabea.
76 On the occasion of a triumph, the victor was arrayed in a toga
picta," an embroidered garment, which, from the present passage, would
appear to have been of purple and gold. Pliny tells us, B. xxxiii. c. 19,
that Tarquinius, on his triumph over the Sabines, wore a robe of cloth of
gold.
77 Aristotle says the same, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14, and De Partib.
Anim. B. ii. c. 17. Cuvier says, that the buccinus and murex have a long
neck, in which there is a tongue armed with little teeth, but very sharp,
by means of which the animal is enabled to pierce other shell-fish.
78 " Conchylia ;" other fish of the same kind apparently ; as Pliny uses
the word " conchylium" synonymously with “ murex.
79 Præmia vitæ suæ."""
444 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

There are two kinds of fish that produce the purple colour ;
the elements in both are the same, the combinations only are
different ; the smaller fish is that which is called the " bucci-
num," from its resemblance to the conch by which the sound
of the buccinus or trumpet is produced, and to this circum-
stance it owes its name : the opening in it is round, with an
incision in the margin.s80 The other fish is known as the
66
purpura," or purple, and has a grooved and projecting muz-
zle, which being tubulated on one side in the interior, forms
a passage for the tongue ; besides which, the shell is studded
with points up to the very apex, which are mostly seven in
number, and disposed 83 in a circle ; these are not found on the
buccinum, though both of them have as many spirals as they
are years old. The buccinum attaches itself only to crags,
and is gathered about rocky places.
84
(37. ) Purples also have another name, that of " pelagiæ :
there are numerous kinds of them, which differ only in their
element and place of abode. There is the mud purple, which
is nurtured upon putrid mud ; and the sea-weed purple, which
feeds on sea-weed ; both of which are held in the very lowest
esteem. A better kind is the reef-purple, " which is collected
on the reefs or out at sea ; still, however, the colour extracted
from this is too light and thin. 88Then, again, there is the variety
known as the pebble-purple, so called from the pebbles of
the sea, and wonderfully well adapted for dyeing ; and, better
80 Cuvier says that the buccini, properly so called, have at the bottom of
the orifice of the shell an incision, which is the characteristic of the genus.
Our whelks are the best known specimen of the buccinum that we have.
They received their name, he says, from the buccinum, or buccina, the conch-
shell, (with which Triton is commonly painted), and that in its turn was so
called from its resemblance to a buccina, trumpet or herdsman's horn.
82 It is not the tongue, Cuvier says, that occupies this passage, but a
prolongation of the skin or coat that envelopes the animal, and its office
is to conduct to the branchia the water necessary for the purposes of res-
piration.
83 This description, Cuvier says, is applicable to the Murex brandaris,
the Murex tribulus of Linnæus, and other species that denote their growth
by the increase of the spirals furnished with spines.
84 Or " deep sea " purples. Dalechamps remarks, that Pliny here un-
wittingly gives to the purples in general, a name which only belonged tc
one species ; there being some that only frequent the shore, and are not
found out at sea.
85 " Lutensis." 86 46
Algensis."
87 " Tæniensis." 88 Calculensis. "
Chap. 62.] HOW WOOLS ARE DYED. 445

than any of them, that known by the name of " dialutensis,"se

because of the various natures of the soil on which it feeds.
Purples are taken with a kind of osier kipe " of small size, and
with large meshes ; these are cast into the sea, and in them
cockles are put as a bait, that close the shell in an instant,
and snap at an object, just as we see mussels do. Though half
dead, these animals, as soon as ever they are returned to the
sea, come to life again, and open their shells with avidity ;
upon which the purples seek them, and commence the attack,
by protruding their tongues. The cockles, on the other hand,
the moment they feel themselves pricked, shut their shells,
and hold fast the object that has wounded them : in this way,
victims to their greediness, they are drawn up to the surface
hanging by the tongue.

CHAP. 62. (38 . )— HOW WOOLS ARE DYED WITH THE JUICES OF THE
PURPLE.
The most favourable season for taking these fish is after the
rising of the Dog- star, or else before spring ; for when they have
once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no
consistency : this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers'
workshops, although it is a point of primary importance.
After it is taken, the vein is extracted, which we have pre-
viously
93 spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sexta-
rius about to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient
to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no
69 From the Greek diaλvròs, " free," or " roving ;" in consequence of
its peculiar mode of life.
90 Nassis. See Note 51 in p. 421.
91 " Quum cerificavere." Cuvier remarks that Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
B. v. c. 14, says, that these shell-fish make " waxen combs," meaning
thereby collections of cells, similar to those formed by the bee ; and it is
to this notion that Pliny refers in the use of the word " cerificavere." Itis
the fact, Cuvier says, that the univalve sea shell-fish, and more particularly
the buccini and the murices, envelope their eggs with glutinous vesicles of
varied forms, according to the respective species ; which, when massed to-
gether, may be not inappropriately termed " combs."
92 In c. 60. As Cuvier remarks, with considerable justice, this descrip-
tion by Pliny of the process of dyeing in purple, is very difficult to explain,
seeing that the art is now entirely lost. Reaumur, he says, made some
attempts at dyeing with a small buccinum found off the French coasts, the
Buccinum lapillus of Linnæus ; but without any result.
93 About twenty ounces.
446 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX .

more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is
in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin,93 and
94
every hundred amphora ought to be boiled down to five hun-
dred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat ; for
which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel,
which communicates with the furnace ; while thus boiling,
the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh,
which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day,
generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquified
state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been
cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial ; but until
such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those
preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that
inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is
of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five
hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it
has fully imbibed the colour. The juice of the buccinum
is considered very inferior if employed by itself, as it is found
to discharge its colour ; but when used in conjunction with
that of the pelagiæ, it blends with it very well, gives a bright
lustre to its colour, which is otherwise too dark, and imparts
the shining crimson hue of the kermes-berry, a tint that is
particularly valued . By the admixture of their respective
virtues these colours are thus heightened or rendered sombre
by the aid of one another. The proper proportions for mixing
are, for fifty pounds of wool, two hundred pounds ofjuice of the
buccinum and one hundred and eleven ofjuice of the pelagiæ.

93 Because iron or brazen vessels might impart a tinge to the colour.

The same would probably be the case if the word " plumbo " were to be
considered as signifying " lead." As, however, Pliny uses this word in
the signification of " tin," it is most probable that that is his meaning.
Littré, however, translates the word " plombe," " lead."
94 Hardouin says, that the weight of the contents of the amphora would
be about eighty pounds : it would therefore take eight thousand pounds of
material to make five hundred pounds of dye. The passage, however, which
runs as follows, " Fervere in plumbo, singulasque amphoras centenas ad
quingentenas medicaminis libras æquari," may be rendered, " It is then
set to boil in vessels of tin, and every hundred amphora of water ought to
be proportioned to five hundred pounds of the material ;" indeed, this
is probably the correct translation, though Littré, who is generally very
exact, adopts that given in the text. 1
95 " Alligatur :" which word may also mean, that mixed with the buc-
cinum, it will hold fast, and not speedily fade or wash out.
Chap. 63. ] WHEN PURPLE WAS FIRST USED AT ROME . 447

From this combination is produced the admirable tint known

as amethyst colour.96 To produce the Tyrian hue the wool is
soaked in the juice of the pelagia while the mixture is in an
uncooked and raw state ; after which its tint is changed by
being dipped in the juice of the buccinum. It is considered of
the best quality when it has exactly the colour of clotted blood,
and is of a blackish hue to the sight, but of a shining ap-
pearance when held up to the light ; hence it is that we find
Homer speaking of " purple blood ." "

CHAP. 63. (39 . ) - WHEN PURPLE WAS FIRST USED AT ROME : WHEN
THE LATICLAVE VESTMENT AND THE PRÆTEXTA WERE FIRST
WORN.

I find that, from the very first, purple has been in use at
Rome, but that Romulus employed it for the trabea.98 As to
the toga prætexta and the laticlave99 vestment, it is a fact well
ascertained, that Tullus Hostilius was the first king who made
use of them, and that after the conquest of the Etruscans . Cor-
nelius Nepos, who died in the reign of the late Emperor
Augustus, has left the following remarks : " In the days of
my youth," says he, " the violet purple was in favour, a pound
of which used to sell at one hundred denarii ; and not long
after, the Tarentine¹ red was all the fashion. This last was

96 So called from the gem of that name ; see B. xxxvii. c. 40.

97 Aiμarı Tорpvpéų. Il. P. 1. 360, for instance.
98 The " trabea " was similar in cut to the toga, but was ornamented
with purple horizontal stripes. Servius mentions three kinds of trabea ;
one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods, another of purple and
white, and another of purple and saffron, which belonged to the augurs.
The purple and white trabea was the royal robe, worn by the early kings,
and the introduction of which was assigned to Romulus. The trabea was
worn by the consuls in public solemnities, such as opening the temple of
Janus. The equites also wore it on particular occasions ; and it is some-
times spoken of as the badge of the equestrian order.
99 The latus clavus, or laticlave, was originally worn on the tunic, and
was a distinctive badge of the senatorian order. It consisted of a single
broad band of purple colour, extending perpendicularly from the neck down
the centre of the tunic. The right of wearing the laticlave was given to
children of the equestrian order, at least, as we learn from Ovid, in the
reign of Augustus .
I Hardouin says, that in his time there were still to be seen the remains
of the ancient dyeing houses at Tarentum, the modern Otranto, and that
vast heaps of the shells of the murex had been discovered there.
448 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

succeeded by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought

for even one thousand denarii per pound. P. Lentulus Spin-
ther, the curule ædile, was the first who used the dibapha for
the prætexta, and he was greatly censured for it ; whereas
now-a-days," says he, " who is there that does not have purple
hangings to his banqueting-couches, even ?"
This Spinther was ædile in the consulship of Cicero, and in
the year from the Building of the City, 691. " Dibapha" was
the name given to textures that had been doubly dyed, and
these were looked upon as a mighty piece of costly extrava-
gance ; while now, at the present day, nearly all the purple
cloths that are reckoned of any account are dyed in a similar
manner.

CHAP. 64.- FABRICS CALLED CONCHYLIATED.

Fabrics that are called conchyliated are subjected to the

same process in all other respects, but without any admixture
of the juice of the buccinum ; in addition to which, the liquid
is mixed with water and human urine in equal parts, one-
half only of the proportion of dye being used for the same quan-
tity of wool. From this mixture a full colour is not obtained,
but that pale tint, which is so highly esteemed ; and the clearer'
it is, the less of it the wool has imbibed.
(40.) The prices of these dyes vary in proportion to the
quantity produced by the various shores ; still, however, those
who are in the habit of paying enormous prices for them, may
as well be informed that on no occasion ought the juice of

2 Cloths doubly dyed, or twice dipped : from the Greek dig, twice, and
βάπτω, to dip.
3 " Triclinaria." This word probably signified not only the hangings of
the table couches, but the coverings, and the coverlets which were spread
over the guests while at the meal.
4 " Pro indiviso."
5 " Dimidia et medicamina adduntur." This, no doubt, is the sense of
the passage, as it is evident that only a thinner dye was required for tint,
though at first sight it would appear as though one-half more were re-
quired for the same quantity of wool. The quantity therefore would be
155 pounds of dye to fifty pounds of wool.
6 "Tantoque dilutior, quanto magis vellera esuriunt." This seems to
be the meaning of the passage : some commentators would read " diluci-
dior" for " dilutior," and it would appear to be preferable.
 Chap. 65.j THE AMETHYST, ETC. TINTS . 449

of the pelagia to exceed fifty," and that of the buccinum one

hundred sesterces for one hundred pounds.8

CHAP. 65.-
-THE AMETHYST, THE TYRIAN, THE HYSGINIAN, AND
THE CRIMSON TINTS.
But no sooner have we finished with one branch of this
subject than we have to begin upon another, for we find that
it is made quite a matter of sport to create expense ; and not
only this, but the sport must be doubled by making new mix-
tures and combinations, and falsifying over again what was
a falsification of the works of Nature already ; such, for in-
stance, as staining tortoise-shell, ' alloying gold with silver for
the purpose of making electrum, ¹º and then adding copper to
the mixture to make Corinthian metal. "1
(41. ) It was not sufficient to have borrowed from a precious
stone the name of " amethyst " for a dye, but when we have ob-
tained this colour we must drench it over again with Tyrian
12
tints, ¹² so that we may have an upstart name 13 compounded of
both, and at the same moment a two-fold display of luxury ;
for as soon as ever people have succeeded in obtaining the
conchyliated colour, they immediately begin to think that it
will do better as a state of transition to the Tyrian hues .
There can be little doubt that this invention is due to some.
artist who happened to change his mind, and alter a tint
with which he was not pleased : hence a system has taken its
rise, and spirits, ever on the rack for creating wonders, have
transformed what was originally a blunder into something
quite desirable ; while, at the same time, a double path has
7 There can be little doubt that Salmasius is right in his conjecture that
the reading
"" here should be " quingentos," " five hundred," instead of " quin-
quagenos, "fifty:" as it is evident from what Pliny has said in previous
Chapters, that the juices of the pelagia were considerably more valuable
than those of the buccinum.
8 He states this by way of warning to those who are in the habit of
paying enormous prices for dyes, such as one hundred denarii for a pound,
as mentioned in the last Chapter.
9 This is mentioned more fully in B. xvi. c. 84.
10 See B. xxxiii . c. 23. Electrum was an artificial metal, resembling
amber in colour, and consisting of gold alloyed with one-fifth part of
silver.
11 See B. xxxiv. c. 3. It was a mixture of gold, silver, and copper.
12 Described at the end of c. 62.
13 Nomen improbum."
VOL. II. G G
450 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

been pointed out to luxury, in thus making one colour carry

another, and thereby become, as they say, softer and more
mellow. And what is even more than this, human ingenuity
has even learned to mingle with these dyes the productions of
the earth, and to steep in Tyrian purple fabrics already dyed
crimson with
14 the berry of the kermes, in order to produce the
hysginian tint. The kermes of Galatia, a red berry which
we shall mention when we come to speak 15 of the productions
of the earth, is the most esteemed of all, except, perhaps, the
one that grows in the vicinity of Emerita,16 in Lusitania.
However, to make an end, once for all, of my description of
these precious dyes, I shall remark, that the colour yielded by
this grain" when a year old, is of a pallid hue, and that if it is
more than four years old, it is quickly discharged : hence we
find that its energies are not developed either when it is too
young or when old.
I have now abundantly treated of an art, by means of which
men, just as much as women, have an idea that their appearance
may be set off to the greatest possible advantage.

CHAP. 66. (42 . ) — THE PINNA, AND THE PINNOTHERES.

Belonging to the shell-fish tribe there is the pinna 18 also :
it is found 19 in slimy spots, always lying upright, and never
14 From the Greek voyivos, after the herb hysge, which was used in
dyeing. Judging from the present passage, it would almost appear to have
been the colour now known as puce. See B. xxi. c. 36 and c. 97 ; and B.
XXXV. c. 26.
15 See B. xvi. c. 8, and B. xxiv. c. 4.
16 See B. iv. c. 35.
17 This is in reality the Coccus ilicis of Linnæus, a small insect of the
genus Coccus, the female of which, when impregnated, fastens itself to a
tree from which they derive nourishment, and assumes the appearance of a
small grain on which account they were long taken for the seeds of the
tree, and were hence called grains of kermes. They are used as a red and
scarlet dye, but are very inferior to cochineal, which has almost entirely
superseded the use of the kermes. The colour is of a deep red, and will
stand better than that of cochineal, and is less liable to stain.
18 Or pina. The Pinna marina, Cuvier says, is a large bivalve shell-fish,
which is remarkable for its fine silky hair, by means of which it fastens
itself to the bottom of the sea.
19 The poet Oppian, Halieut. B. ii. 1. 186, relates the same story about
the pinna and its protector ; which is also mentioned by Cicero, Plutarch,
and Aristotle.
Chap. 67. ] SENSITIVENESS OF WATER ANIMALS. 451

without a companion, which some writers call the pinnotheres,20

and others, again, pinnophylax, being a small kind of shrimp,
or else a parasitical crab. The pinna," which is destitute of
sight, opens its shell, and in so doing exposes its body within
to the attacks of the small fish, which immediately rush upon it,
and finding that they can do so with impunity, become bolder
and bolder, till at last they quite fill the shell. The pinno-
theres, looking out for the opportunity, gives notice to the
pinna at the critical moment by a gentle bite, upon which
the other instantly closes its shell, and so kills whatever it has
caught there ; after which, it divides the spoil with its com-
panion.
CHAP. 67. THE SENSITIVENESS OF WATER ANIMALS ; THE TORPEDO,
THE PASTINACA, THE SCOLOPENDRA, THE GLANIS, AND THE
RAM-FISH.
Upon 22 reflecting on such facts as these, I am the more in-
clined to wonder at the circumstance that some persons have
been found who were of opinion that the water animals are
devoid of all sense. The torpedo 23 is very well aware of the
extent of its own powers, and that, too, although it experiences
no benumbing effects from them itself. Lying concealed in
20 We have already had an account of one pinnotheres, in c. 51. Some
of the editions, however, make a difference in the spelling of the name,
and call the animal mentioned in the 51st Chapter, " pinnotheres," and
the one here spoken of, the " pinnoteres," the " guardian of the pinna ;"
from the Greek verb rηpew, "to keep," or " guard." 66'Pinnophylax "
has the same meaning.
21 Cuvier says, that in the shell of the pinna, as, in fact, of all the bi-
valves, there are often found little crabs, which are, as it were, imprisoned
there ; and that it is this fact that has given rise to the story of the treaty
of amity between these two animals, which appears in various authors, and
is related in various forms, which only agree in being devoid of truth. Cu-
vier says that a careful distinction must be made between the pinnotheres
of this Chapter, the one of which Aristotle makes mention, and that which
is mentioned by Pliny in c. 51 , the hermit-crab of the moderns. There
can, however, be but little doubt that they are different accounts of the
same animal.
22 The whole, nearly, of this Chapter is taken from Aristotle, B. v. c. 16.
23 Plutarch speaks ofthis fish, in his " Treatise on the Instincts of Ani-
mals ;" also Oppian, Halieut. B. ii. 1. 62. The Raia torpedo of Linnæus,
Cuvier says, has on each side of the body a galvanic organ, which produces
an electric shock, similar to that communicated by the use of the Leyden
vial. By this means it baffles its enemies, and drives them away ; or else,
having stupefied them, devours them at its leisure.
GG 2
452 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

the mud, it awaits the approach of the fish, and, at the moment
that they are swimming above in supposed security, commu-
nicates the shock, and instantly darts upon them : there is no
delicate morsel in existence that is preferred to the liver
of this fish. And no less wonderful, too, is the shrewdness 25
26
manifested by the sea-frog, which is known by us as the
"fisher." Stirring up the mud, it protrudes from the surface
two little horns, which project from beneath the eyes, and so
attracts the small fish which are sporting around it, until at
last they approach so close that it is able to seize them. In a
similar manner, too, the squatina and the rhombus conceal
themselves, but extend their fins, which, as they move to and
fro, resemble little worms ; the ray also does the same. The
pastinaca,28 too, lies lurking in ambush, and pierces the fish
as they pass with the sting with which it is armed. An-
other proof of instinctive shrewdness is the fact, that although
the ray is the very slowest of all the fish in its movements, it
is found with the mullet in its belly, which is the swiftest of
them all.
(43. ) The scolopendra," which bears a strong resemblance30
24 Cuvier confirms this statement. The liver of the torpedo, he says, is
very delicate eating, as, indeed, is that part in most of the ray genus.
25 Oppian, Halient. B. ii. 1. 86 ; Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 24 ; and
Cicero, De Nat. Deor. make mention of this.
26 The Lophius piscatorius of Linnæus, the baudroie of the French.
This is a fish, Cuvier says, with a large wide mouth, and having upon the
top of the head moveable filaments, surmounted by a sort of membranous
lashes. It seems that it is the fact that it buries itself in the sand, and
then employs the artifice here mentioned by Pliny, for the purpose of at-
tracting the fish that serve as its food.
27 Or turbot. This fish, the Pleuronectes maximus of Linnæus, and the
Squalus squatina of Linnæus, presents no sufficiently distinct filaments at the
extremity ofthe fins to justify what Pliny says. But the word " rhombus,"
Cuvier says, which ordinarily means the common turbot, here means the
psetta of the Greeks, the Pleuronectes rhombus of Linnæus , which has the
anterior radii of the dorsal fin separated, and forming small filaments. For
an account of the psetta, see c. 24, p. 396.
28 The sting-ray, the Raia pastinaca of Linnæus. This fish, Cuvier
says, has upon the tail a pointed spine, compressed and notched like a saw,
which forms a most dangerous weapon. It is again mentioned in c, 72 of
the present Book, under its Greek name of “trigon."
29 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 17, and B. ix. c. 51 ; Oppian, Halieut.
B. ii. 1. 424 ; and Elian, Hist. Anim. B. vii. c. 35, make a similar state-
ment as to the scolopendra.
30 The animal, Cuvier says, which is here mentioned as the scolopendra,
Chap. 68. ] THE SEA- NETTLE. 453

to the land insect which we call a centipede, if it chances to

swallow a hook, will vomit forth all its intestines, until it has
disengaged itself, after which it will suck them in again. The
sea-fox 31 too, when exposed to a similar peril, goes on
swallowing the line until it meets with a weak part of it,
and then with its teeth snaps it asunder with the greatest ease.
The fish called the glanis32 is more cautious ; it bites at the
hooks from behind, and does not swallow them, but only strips
them of the bait.
(44.) The sea-ram33 commits its ravages just like a wary
robber ; at one time it will lurk in the shadow of some large
vessel that is lying out at sea, and wait for any one who may
be tempted to swim ; while at another, it will raise its head
from the surface of the water, survey the fishermen's boats,
and then slily swim towards them and sink them.

CHAP. 68. (45. )— BODIES WHICH HAVE A THIRD NAture, that

OF THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE COMBINED THE SEA-NETTLE.
Indeed, for my own part, I am strongly of opinion that there
is sense existing in those bodies which have the nature of
neither animals nor vegetables, but a third which partakes of
35
them both :-sea-nettles and sponges, I mean. The sea-nettle
wanders to and fro by night, and at night changes its locality.
These creatures are by nature a sort of fleshy branch,36 and are
nurtured upon flesh. They have the power of producing an
is in reality of the class of worms that have red blood, or annelides, such,
for instance, as the Nereides of larger size. These having on the sides ten-
tacles, which bear a strong resemblance to feet, and sharp jaws, might, he
says, be very easily taken for scolopendræ. They have also a fleshy trunk,
often very voluminous, and so flexible that it can be extended or withdrawn,
according to the necessities of the animal. It is this trunk, Cuvier thinks,
that gave occasion to the story that it could disgorge its entrails, and then
swallow them again.
31 This fish, Čuvier says, was doubtless a species of squalus ; which have
the power, in consequence of the sharpness of their saw-like teeth, of cutting
a line with the greatest ease. It is mentioned by Aristotle, B. ix. c. 52 ;
Ælian, Var. Hist. B. i. c. 43 ; andOppian, Halieut. B. iii. 1. 144.
32 The fish that has been previously mentioned in c. 17 of this Book,
under the name of silurus.
33 Aries." The Delphinus orca of Linnæus. See c. 4 of the present
Book. 34 The zoophytes, or the zoödendra.
35 The wandering urticæ, or sea-nettles, are the Medusa of Linnæus ,
the stationary nettle is the Actinia of the same naturalist.
36 Carnosæ frondis his natura."
454 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX .

itching, smarting pain," just like that caused by the nettle found
on land. For the purpose of seeking its prey, it contracts and
stiffens itself to the utmost possible extent, and then, as a
small fish swims past, it will suddenly spread out its branches,
and so seize and devour38 it. At another time it will assume
the appearance of being quite withered away, and let itself be
tossed39 to and fro by the waves like a piece of sea-weed, until
it happens to touch a fish. The moment it does so, the fish
goes to rub itself against a rock, to get rid of the itching ; im-
mediately upon which, the nettle pounces upon it. By night
also it is on the look-out for scallops and sea- urchins. When
it perceives a hand approaching it, it instantly changes its.
colour, and contracts itself ; when touched it produces a
burning sensation, and if ever so short a time is afforded,
makes its escape. Its mouth is situate, it is said, at the root or
lower part,40 and the excrements " are discharged by a small
canal situated above.

CHAP. 69. -SPONGES ; THE VARIOUS KINDS OF THEM, AND WHERE

THEY ARE PRODUCED : PROOFS THAT THEY ARE GIFTED WITH
LIFE BY NATURE.
We find three kinds of sponges mentioned ; the first are
37 Many species of the medusa, Cuvier says, and other animals of the
same class, the physalus more especially, cause an itching sensation in the
skin when they are touched. This is noticed also by Elian, Hist. Anim.
B. vii. c. 35 ; and by Diphilus of Siphnos, in Athenæus, B. iii.
38 This is true, Cuvier says, and more especially with reference to the
actiniæ. They have the mouth provided with numerous fleshy tentacles,
by means of which they can seize very small animals which come within
their reach, which they instantly swallow.
39 Cuvier says, that this is the case more especially with the medusæ
and the physali.
40 " Ora ei in radice." Aristotle, however, says, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 5,
and B. viii. c. 3, that the sea-nettle has the mouth situate iv μéo , " in the
middle of the body." Hardouin attempts to explain the passage on the
ground that Pliny has made a mistake, in an endeavour to suit his similitude
of a tree to the language of Aristotle. Cuvier says, that there exists one
genus or species of the meduse, which appears to feed itself by the aid of
an apparatus of branches, and is divided into such a multitude of filaments,
almost innumerable, that it bears a strong resemblance to the roots of a
tree or vegetable. It is this kind, he says, that he has called by the name
of " Rhizostomos."
41 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 3, says the same ; though, on the
other hand, in the Fourth Book, he says that the animal has no excrements,
although it has a mouth, and feeds.
42 Cuvier remarks, that there are a great many more than three kinds
Chap. 69.] SPONGES. 455

thick, very hard, and rough, and are called "tragi :"43 the
second, are thick, and much softer, and are called " mani .9944 ;'
of the third, being fine and of a closer texture, tents for sores
66
are made ; this last is known as Achillium .' 9745 All of these
sponges grow on rocks, and feed upon46 shell- and other
fish, and slime. It would appear that these creatures, too, have
some intelligence ; for as soon as ever they feel the hand
about to tear them off, they contract themselves, and are sepa-
rated with much greater difficulty : they do the same also
when the waves buffet them to and fro. The small shells that
are found in them, clearly show that they live upon food :
about Torone48 it is even said that they will survive after they
have been detached, and that they grow again from the roots
of sponges, but that Pliny here is only enumerating those which were em-
ployed for domestic use.
43 In the singular, " tragus," from the Greek rpayòs, a goat, on account
of their strong smell, which they contract from the mud and slime in which
they are found.
44 Probably from the Greek μávos, " rare," "in small quantities ;" in
allusion to the comparative rarity of this kind of sponge.
45 A term merely used, as Cælius Rhodiginus says, to denote the strength
of its texture.
46 Cuvier says, that though sometimes shells and small animals are found
lodged in the sponge, they do not afford it any nourishment. Having no
mouth, it can only live and increase by the inhalation of substances dis-
solved in the water of the sea.
47 " Sensere." Cuvier says, that many observers have stated that this is
the only sign of animal life that the sponge affords ; but that Grant assures
us that it does not even afford that. The fact is, however, that " the sponge
itself is a cellular, fibrous tissue, produced by small animals, almost imper-
ceptible, called polypi, and living in the sea. This tissue is said to be
covered in its native state with a sort of semifluid thin coat of animal jelly,
susceptible of a slight contraction or trembling on being touched ; which, in
fact, is the only symptom of vitality displayed by the sponge. After death,
this gelatinous substance disappears, and leaves only the skeleton or sponge,
formed by the combination of a multitude of small capillary tubes, capable
of receiving water in the interior, and of becoming thereby distended.
Though different in their nature, sponges are analogous in their formation
to coral. On being examined with a power of about 500 linear, the fleshy
matter of the living sponge is to be distinctly observed, having in its interior
gemmæ, which are considered to be the young. These are occasionally
given off from the mass of living matter . The greater portion of the mass
of sponge consists of small cylindrical threads or fibres, varying in size.
The spiculæ are not found within these, but in the large and flattened
fibres, and varying in number from one to three or more, imbedded in their
substance. " From Brande's Dictionary.
48 See B. iv. c. 17.
 456 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

which have been left adhering to the rock. They leave a

colour similar to that of blood upon the rock from which they
have been detached, and those more especially which are pro-
duced in the Syrtes of Africa.¹9
The manos is the one that grows to the largest size, but the
softest of all are those found in the vicinity of Lycia. Where
the sea is deep and calm, they are more particularly soft, while
those which are found in the Hellespont are rough, and those in
the vicinity of Malea coarse.50 When lying in places exposed
to the sun, they become putrid : hence it is that those which
are found in deep water are the best. While they are alive, they
are of the same blackish colour that they are when saturated
with water. They adhere to the rock not by one part only,
nor yet by the whole body : and within them there are a
number of empty tubes, generally four or five in number, by
means of which, it is thought, they take their food. There
are other tubes also, but these are closed at the upper extremity ;
and a sort of membrane is supposed to be spread beneath
the roots by which they adhere. It is well known that
sponges are very long-lived. The most inferior kind of all are
those which are called " aplysiæ, " 51 because it is impossible to
clean them these have large tubes, while the other parts of
them are thick and coarse.

CHAP. 70. (46 . )— DOG - FISH.52

Vast numbers of dog-fish infest the seas in the vicinity of
the sponges, to the great peril of those who dive for them.
These persons say that a sort of dense cloud gradually thickens
over their 53 heads, bearing the resemblance of some kind of
49 This, to the end of the Chapter, is almost verbatim from Aristotle, Hist.
Anim. B. iv. c. 17.
50 See B. iv. cc. 8, 10.
51 ' Aπλvoia , from ȧ, " not," and rλuvw, " to wash." These aplysia
or halcyones, Cuvier says, are a kind of sponge, of too thick and compact a
nature to admit of their being washed. It is arbitrarily, he says, that
Linnæus has applied this name to a species of the molluscæ, which is, in
reality, the sea-hare of the ancients.
52 It is pretty clear that under the name of " canicula," " dog-fish,” or
" canis marinus," " sea-dog," Pliny includes the whole genus of sharks.
53 Rondelet and Dalechamps absolutely interpret this passage as though
it were the dog-fish and flat-fish over whose eyes this cloud comes, and
the latter proceeds to describe it as a malady which hinders the fish from
taking its own part in the combat. Hardouin, however, detects this
 Chap. 70.] THE DOG-FISH. 457

animal like a flat- fish,54 and that, pressing downward upon them,
it prevents them from returning to the surface. It is for this
reason that they carry stilettos with them, which are very
sharp at the point, and attached to them by strings ; for if they
did not pierce the object with the help of these, it could not
be got rid of. This, however, is entirely the result, in my
opinion, of the darkness and their own fears ; for no person
has ever yet been able to find, among living creatures, the fish-
cloud or the fish-fog, the name which they give to this enemy
of theirs.
The divers, however, have terrible combats with the dog-
fish, which attack with avidity the groin, the heels, and all
the whiter parts of the body. The only means of ensuring
safety, is to go boldly to meet them, and so, by taking the
initiative, strike them with alarm : for, in fact, this animal
is just as frightened at man, as man is at it ; and they are on
quite an equal footing when beneath the water. But the mo-
ment the diver has reached the surface, the danger is much
more imminent ; for he loses the power of boldly meeting his
adversary while he is endeavouring to make his way out of the
water, and his only chance of safety is in his companions, who
draw him along by a cord that is fastened under his shoulders .
While he is engaging with the enemy, he keeps pulling this
cord with his left hand, according as there may be any sign of
immediate peril, while with the right he wields the stiletto,
which he is using in his defence. At first they draw him along
at a moderate pace, but as soon as ever they have got him close
to the ship, if they do not whip him out in an instant, with
the greatest possible celerity, they see him snapped asunder ;
and many a time, too, the diver, even when already drawn
out, is dragged from their hands, through neglecting to aid the
efforts of those who are assisting him, by rolling up his body
in the shape of a ball. The others, it is true, are in the mean-
time brandishing their pronged fish-spears ; but the monster
has the craftiness to place himself beneath the ship, and so
absurdity, and justly reprehends it ; though it must be confessed that there
is some obscurity in the passage, arising from the way in which it is
worded.
54 Cuvier thinks it not improbable that it may have been some ofthe
large rays that were seen by the divers, and more especially, the largest of
them all, the Cephalopterus .
55 " Stilos."
 458 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

wage the warfare in safety. Consequently, every possible

56
care is taked by the divers to look out for the approach of
this enemy.
(47. ) It is the surest sign of safety to see flat-fish, which
never frequent the spots where these noxious monsters are
found and it is for this reason that the divers57 call them sacred.

CHAP. 71. - FISHES WHICH ARE ENCLOSED IN A STONY SHELL- SEA

ANIMALS WHICH HAVE NO SENSATION- OTHER ANIMALS WHICH
LIVE IN THE MUD.
Those ' animals, however, it must be admitted, which lie en-
closed in a stony shell, have no sensation whatever- such as
the oyster,58 for instance. Many, again, have the same nature
as vegetables ; such as the holothuria," the pulmones, ⁰ and
the sea-stars.61 Indeed, I may say that there is no land produc-
56 Cælius Rhodigonus, B. xxv. c. 16, states that the divers for sponges
were in the habit of pouring forth oil at the bottom of the sea, for the
purpose of increasing the light there ; and Pliny states the same in B. ii.
c. 106.
57 Cuvier says, that the name of "sacred fish" has been given to several
fish of very different character ; such as the anthias , or aulopias of Aris-
totle, B. ix. c. 37, the pompilus and the dolphin (Athenæus, B. vii.), be-
cause it was thought that their presence was a guarantee against the
vicinity of dangerous fish. The authors, however, that were consulted by
Pliny, seem to have given this name to the flat-fish, the Pleuronectes of
Linnæus ; and in fact, unprovided as they are with any means of defence,
their presence is not unlikely to prove, in a very great degree, the absence
of the voracious class of fishes.
58 It is singular that Pliny, after his numerous stories as to the sen-
sitiveness of numerous bivalves, should make this statement in reference
to the oyster ; for, on the contrary, as Cuvier says, the oyster, in common
with the other bivalves, is extremely sensitive to the touch.
59 Cuvier says, that the different zoöphytes, the sea-star, at least, are
far from having the life of vegetables only ; for that they are real animals,
which have the sense of touch, a voluntary power of motion more or less
complete, and seize and devour their prey. It is not, however, very well
known, he says, what was the " holothurium" of the ancients. Aristotle,
Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 1 , ranks it, as well as the oyster, among the animals
which, without being attached to any object, have not the faculty of
moving; and in his work, De Part. Anim. B. iv. c. 5, he adds, that the
holothurium and the pulmo only differ from the sponge in being detached.
Cuvier is of opinion, however, that they both belong to the halcyones, the
round kinds of which easily detach themselves from the places upon which
they have grown.
60 Pulmo, " the sea-lungs."
61 Or, as we call it, the star-fish.
Chap. 72.] VENOMOUS SEA-ANIMALS. 459

tion which has not its like in the sea .62 no, not even those insects
which frequent our public-houses63 in summer, and are so trouble-
some with their nimble leaps, nor yet those which more es-
pecially make the human hair their place of refuge ; for these
are often drawn up in a mass 4 collected around the bait. This,
too, is supposed to be the reason why the sleep of fish is some-
times so troubled in the night. Upon some fish, indeed, these
animals breed 65 as parasites : among these, we find the fish
known as the chalcis.66

CHAP. 72. (48 . )- VENOMOUS SEA-ANIMALS.

Nor yet are dire and venomous substances foundwanting inthe
sea : such, for instance, as the sea-hare " of the Indian seas,
62 " Adeoque nihil non gignitur in mari."
63 " Cauponarum." 66 Caupona" had two significations ; that of an inn
where travellers obtained food and lodging, and that of a shop where wine
and ready-dressed meat were sold. A lower kind of inn was the popina,
which was principally frequented by the slaves and lower classes, and was
mostly used as a brothel as well.
64 He alludes to various kinds of sea-animals, called sea-lice and sea-
fleas. Cuvier says, that there are some crustacea which have been called
sea-fleas and sea- lice, some of which kinds are parasites, and are attached
to various fishes and cetacea. Thus, he says, a pycnogonum is commonly
named " pediculus balænæ," or the " whale-louse;" one of the calygæ is
called the " fish-flea," another the " mackerel-flea." The name of sea-flea,
he observes, has been given more especially to a very diminutive kind of
shrimp, in consequence of its power of leaping from place to place.
65 Aristotle says, that the chalcis is greatly tormented by sea-fleas, which
attach themselves to its gills. Cuvier remarks, that a great number of
fish are subject to have the gills attacked by parasitical animals of the
genus Lernæa or that of the monoculi of Linnæus, which have been divided
into many classes since. They have nothing in common, he says, with the
land-flea, except the name and the property of living at the expense of
other animals.
66 The ancients, Cuvier says, speak of their chalcis as being of a similar
nature to the thryssa and the sardine (Athenæus, B. vii.), gregarious fishes,
which live both in the sea and in fresh water, and the flesh of which was
salted. Hence he concludes that it was the same as the Clupea ficta of
Lacepède, the “ finte" of the French, and the agone of Lombardy,
which unites all these characteristics, and is sometimes called the "sar-
dine" of the Lago di Garda.
67 It is mentioned again in B. xxiii. c. 3. Cuvier says, that the sea-
hare of the ancients is the mollusc_to which Linnæus has injudiciously
given the name of aplysia, which Pliny gives to certain of the sponge
genus, and to which nomenclature of Linnæus the modern naturalists have
assented. (See N. 51, p. 456. ) Its tentacles and its muzzle, he says, resemble
460 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

which is even poisonous by the very touch, and immediately

produces vomiting and disarrangement of the stomach. In
our seas it has the appearance of a shapeless mass, and only
resembles the hare in colour ; in India it resembles it in its
larger size, and in its hair, which is only somewhat coarser :
there it is never taken alive. An equally deadly animal is the
sea-spider, which is especially dangerous for a sting which it
has on the back : but there is nothing that is more to be dreaded
70
than the sting which protrudes from the tail of the trygon,'
by our people known as the pastinaca, a weapon five inches in
length. Fixing this in the root of a tree, the fish is able to
kill it ; it can pierce armour too, just as though with an arrow,
and to the strength of iron it adds all the corrosive qualities of
poison.

CHAP. 73. (49 . )- THE MALADIES OF FISHES.

We do not find it stated that all kinds of fishes are subject
to epizootic diseases," like other animals of a wild nature :
the muzzle and ears ofthe hare, closely enough to have caused this appellation.
As its smell is disagreeable, and its figure repulsive, a multitude of mar-
vellous, and indeed fatal qualities, he says, have been ascribed to this animal,
which fishermen still speak of, but which, nevertheless, are not confirmed by
actual experience. The only true fact that can be alleged against it is,
that it secretes from an organ, situate in its body, a kind of acrid liquid.
As to the Indian sea-hare, the body of which was covered with hair, Cuvier
professes himself quite at a loss to know what it might be ; but he thinks
that this name must have been given to some tetrodon, which may have
received the name from the cleft in the jaw and the skin, bristling with fine
and minute spines. The sailors, he says, attribute to the tetrodon certain
venomous properties.
68 Cuvier says, that there is reason to believe that this is the same as
the vive of the French (probably our weever), the Trachinus draco of
Linnæus. This creature, with the spiny projections of its first dorsal fin,
is able to inflict wounds that are extremely difficult to cure ; not because
they are venomous in any degree, but because the extremities being very
minute, sharp, and pointed, penetrate deep into the flesh. See c. 43 of
this Book.
70 Or sting-ray, mentioned in c . 40 and c. 67 of this Book ; so called
from the Greek TpUy@v. Cuvier says, that this sting, or spine, is sharp,
like a saw; and that when it has penetrated the flesh, it cannot be got out
without enlarging the wound. This it is, and not its fancied poisonous
qualities, that renders its wound so dangerous ; and as for its action upon
trees and iron, they are entirely fabulous.
71 Noonμara Xoiµúdŋ, as Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 25, calls
them.
Chap. 74. ] GENERATION OF FISHES. 461

but it is evidently the fact that individuals 72 among them are

attacked by maladies, from the emaciated appearance that many
present, while at the same moment others of the same species
are taken quite remarkable for their fatness.

CHAP. 74. ( 50. ) — THE GENERATION OF FISHES.

The curiosity and wonder which have been excited in man-
kind by this subject, will not allow me any longer to defer
giving an account of the generation of these animals . Fishes
couple by rubbing their bellies 73 against one another ; an ope-
ration, however, that is performed with such extraordinary
74
celerity as to escape the sight. Dolphins also, and other
animals of the cetaceous kind, couple in a similar manner,
though the time occupied in so doing is somewhat longer. The
female fish, at the season for coupling, follows the male, and
strikes against its belly with its muzzle ; while the male in its
turn, when the female is about to spawn, follows it and devours75
the eggs . But with them, the simple act of coupling is not
sufficient76 for the purposes of reproduction ; it is necessary
for the male to pass among the eggs which the female has pro-
duced, in order to sprinkle them with its vitalizing fluid. This
does not, however, reach all the eggs out of so vast a multi-
tude ; indeed, if it did, the seas and lakes would soon be filled,
seeing that each female produces these eggs in quantities in-
numerable."
72 Cuvier says, that there are some maladies by which individuals are
attacked ; but that it is not uncommonly the case that certain species are
attacked universally, as it were, by a sort of epidemic. There was an
instance of this, he says, in the lake of the valley of Montmorency, where
numbers of the fish were suddenly to be seen floating dead on the surface,
the skin of which was covered with red spots, while at the same time their
flesh had become disagreeable to the taste, and unwholesome.
73 Cuvier says, that this is not the case in general ; but that some,
more especially those which are viviparous, actually do couple ; while, on
the other hand, in most, the male does nothing else but besprinkle with the
milt the eggs which the female has deposited, as is stated by Pliny a little
further on.
74 These belong to the cetacea ; which, as Cuvier says, are now uni-
versally placed among the mammifera, and not among the fishes. They
couple, he says, in the same manner as quadrupeds do in general.
75 As Aristotle says, "from those that are left the fishes are produced."
76 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 12.
77 It has been calculated, Cuvier says, that a female cod, or sturgeon,
produces in a year more than one hundred thousand eggs.
462 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX.

(51. ) The eggs 78 of fishes grow in the sea ; some of them

with the greatest rapidity, those of the muræna, for instance ;
others, again, somewhat more slowly. Those among the flat
fishes," whose tails or stings are not in the way, as well as
those of the turtle kind, couple the one upon the other :
the polypus by attaching one of its feelers to the nostrils 80
of the female, the sæpia and loligo, by means of the tongue ;
uniting the arms, they then swim contrary ways ; these last also
bring forth at the mouth. The polypi, however, couple.
with the head downwards towards the ground, while the rest
of the soft 82 fish couple backwards in the same manner as the
dog ; cray-fish and shrimps do the same, and crabs employ the
mouth.
Frogs leap the one upon the other, the male with its fore-
feet clasping the armpits of the female, and with its hinder
ones the haunches. The female produces tiny pieces of black
flesh, which are known by the name of gyrini,83 and are only
78 Cuvier says, that the eggs of the common fishes, of toads, frogs, &c.,
have no shells, but only a membranous tunic ; and when they have been
once fecundated, they imbibe the surrounding moisture, and increase till
they produce the animal.
79 It is probable, Cuvier thinks, that this passage relates more especially
to the ray genus, but that there is no very positive knowledge as to the
mode in which they do couple. It is probable, he suggests, that they may
do it in the manner above mentioned, by the attrition of the belly. As to
the turtle genus, he says, it is certain that the male mounts the back of the
female ; and in some species the sternum of the male is concave, the better
to adapt itself to the convex callipash of the female.
80 More properly, the physeter, passage, or orifice.
81 Cuvier remarks, that this account of the coupling of the cephalopodes
is taken from Aristotle. He says, that he is not aware whether modern
observation has confirmed these statements, and almost doubts whether,
considering the organization of these animals, it is not almost more pro-
bable that they do not couple at all, and that the male, as in the case of
most other fishes, only fecundates the eggs after they have been deposited
by the female.
82 Cuvier says, that whatever may be the sense in which the word
"mollia" is here taken, the assertion is not correct. The gasteropod
molluscs, he says, whether hermaphroditical, or whether of separate sexes,
couple side to side. The acephalous molluscs do not couple at all, and
each individual fecundates its own eggs. The crustacea couple by attrition
of the belly.
83 "Tadpoles." There is both truth and falsehood, Cuvier says, in the
statements here made relative to the tadpole. Frogs, he says, produce
eggs, from which the tadpole developes itself, with a tail like that of a fish.
The feet, however, are not produced by any bifurcation of the tail, but
Chap. 74.] GENERATION OF FISHES. 463

to be distinguished by the eyes and tail ; very soon, how-

ever, the feet are developed, and the tail, becoming bifurcate,
forms the hind legs. It is a most singular thing, but, after a
84
life of six months' duration, frogs melt away into slime,
though no one ever sees how it is done ; after which they come
85
to life again in the water during the spring, just as they were'
before. This is effected by some occult operation of Nature,
and happens regularly every year.
Mussels, also, and scallops are produced in the sand by the
spontaneous 86 operations of nature. Those which have a harder
shell, such as the murex and the purple, are formed from a
viscous fluid like saliva, just as gnats are produced from liquids
turned sour,87 and the fish called the apua,887 from the foam of
the sea when warm, after the fall of a shower.
Those fish, again, which are covered with a stony coat, such
as the oyster, are produced from mud in a putrid state, or else
from the foam that has collected around ships which have been
lying for a long time in the same position, about posts driven
into the earth, and more especially around logs of wood.88 It
has been discovered, of late years, in the oyster-beds,89 that
shoot out at the base of the tail, and in the same proportion that they grow,
the tail decreases, till at last it entirely disappears.
84 Frogs, Cuvier says, conceal themselves in mud and slime during the
winter, but, of course, are not changed into it.
85 "Quæ fuere." Just in the same state, he probably means to say, in
which they were when they were melted into slime, and not as they were
when in the tadpole state.
86 All that is asserted here, Cuvier says, about the spontaneous opera-
tions of nature is totally false. Everything connected with the eggs and
the generation of the mussel, the murex, and the scallop is now clearly
ascertained.
87 " Acescente humore." Hardouin has suggested that the proper
reading may be " arescente humore" -" from moisture dried up ; " for, he
remarks, Aristotle, in his Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 18, states, that the
"empides," gnats formed from the ascarides in the slime of wells, are
more frequently produced in the autumn season.
67 The apua, or aphyæ, Cuvier says, are nothing else but the fry of fish
of a large kind.
8 Cuvier says, that some of the shell-fish deposit their eggs upon stakes
and piles, which are driven down into the water among sea-weed, and the
bottoms of old ships : but that many of them perish from the solutions
formed by those bodies in a state of rottenness, or, at all events, are not
produced from their decomposition.
89 " Ostreariis." This was unknown to Aristotle, who, in his work De
Gener. Anim. B. iii. c. 11, expressly denies that the oyster secretes any
generative or fecundating liquid.
464 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. Book IX.

the animal discharges an impregnating liquid," which has the

appearance of milk. • Eels, again, rub themselves against rocks,
upon which, the particles" which they thus scrape from off their
bodies come to life, such being their only means of reproduction.
The various kinds of fishes do not couple out of their own kind,
with the exception of the squatina and the ray.92 The fish
that is produced from the union of these two, resembles a ray
in the fore part, and bears a name among the Greeks com-
pounded of the two.93
Certain animals are produced only at certain seasons of the
year, both in water and on the land, such, for instance, as scal-
lops, snails, and leeches, in the spring, which also disappear at
stated periods. Among fishes, the wolf-fish " and the trichias 5
bring forth twice in the year, as also do all kinds of rock-fish ;
96
the mullet and the chalcis thrice in the year, the cyprinus"
98
six times, the scorpæna twice, and the sargus in spring and
autumn. Among the flat-fish, the squatina brings forth twice
90 Cuvier says, that at the time of the oyster spawning, its body appears
swollen in some parts with a milky fluid, which is not improbably the fe-
cundating fluid. During this season the oyster is generally looked upon as
unfit for food ; among us, from the beginning of May to the end of July.
91 This, Cuvier remarks, is a mere vague hypothesis, as to the repro-
duction of the eel, without the slightest foundation. Pliny borrows it
from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 9.
92 The squatina and the ray do not interbreed, Cuvier observes, any
more than other fish ; and the Squatina raia, or rhinobatis, (which was
said to be their joint production), is a particular species, more flat in form
than the equalus, and longer than the ray.
93 Pivóẞaros, the squatinoraia."
94 66 Lupus." The Perca labrax of Linnæus ; see c. 28 of the present
Book.
95 The sardine. See c. 20 of the present Book.
96 See c. 71 of the present Book.
97 This name, Cuvier says, appears so rarely in the ancient writers, that
it is difficult to ascertain its exact signification. The moderns, he says,
have pretty generally agreed to give it to the carp, but without any good
and sufficient foundation. It was a lake or river fish, which, as Aristotle
says, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 14, deposited its eggs five or six times in the
year, and which had a palate so fleshy, that it might almost be mistaken
for a tongue, B. iv. c. 8, characteristics that appear well suited to the carp.
But then, on the other hand, Oppian mentions it, Halieut. B. i ., as a shore
fish, implying apparently that it belonged to the sea ; and Pliny himself,
in c. 25 of the present Book, does the same, by his words, " hoc et in mari
accidere cyprino. " The words " in mari," however, he has added, of his
own accord, to the account which he has derived from Aristotle.
98 The fish called the sea-scorpion . Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 11.
 Chap. 75. ] FISHES . 465

a year, being the only one that does so at the setting of the¹
Vergiliæ in autumn. Most fish spawn in the three months of
April, May, and June. The salpa brings forth in the autumn,
the sargus, the torpedo, and the squalus about the time of the
autumnal equinox. The soft fishes³ bring forth in spring, the
sæpia every month in the year ; its eggs adhere together with
a kind of black glutinous substance, in appearance like a bunch
of grapes , and the male is very careful to go among them and
breathe upon them, as otherwise they would be barren. The
polypi couple in winter, and produce eggs in the spring twisted
in spiral clusters, in a similar manner to the tendrils of the
vine ; and so remarkably prolific are they, that when the ani-
mal is killed in a state of pregnancy, the cavities of the head
are quite unable to contain the multitude of eggs enclosed
therein. They bring forth these eggs at the fiftieth day, but in
consequence of the vast number of them, great multitudes
perish. Cray-fish, and other sea-animals with a thinner crust,
lay their eggs one upon the other, and then sit upon them .
The female polypus sometimes sits upon its eggs, and at other
times closes the entrance of its retreat by spreading out its
feelers, interlaced like a net. The sæpia brings forth on dry
land, among reeds or such sea-weed as it may find growing
there, and hatches its eggs on the fifteenth day. The
loligo produces its eggs out at sea, clustered together like
those of the sæpia. The purple, the murex, and other fishes
of the same kind, bring forth in the spring. Sea-urchins have
their eggs at full moon during the winter ; sea-snails ' also are
produced during the winter season.
CHAP. 75. - FISHES WHICH ARE BOTH OVIPAROUS AND VIVIPAROUS.
The torpedo is known to have as many as eighty young
99 " Sola autumno, occasu Vergiliarum." Itseems questionable whether
• the reading should not be " solea :' "the sole in autumn, at the setting of
the Vergiliæ." 1 The Pleiades.
2 See c. 40 of the present Book.
3 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 11 .
4 " Prosequitur afflatu. " Aristotle says that it pours over them its ink
or atramentum, καταφυσᾷ τὸν θόλον.
5 Philostratus, Hist. B. v. c. 17, says that so full is it of eggs, that after
it is dead they will more than fill a vessel far larger than the cavities of its
head.
6 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14. 7 Our periwinkles.
VOL. II. H H
466 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book IX .
ones. It produces within itself 8 very soft eggs, which it then
transfers to another place in the uterus, and from that part
ejects them. The same is the case with all those fish to which
we have given the name of cartilaginous ; hence it is, that
these alone of all the fishes are at once viviparous and oviparous.
The male silurus is the only fish among them all that watches
the eggs after they are brought forth, often for as long a period
as fifty days, that they may not be devoured by other fish.
The females of other kinds bring forth their eggs in the course
of three days, if the male has only touched them.

CHAP. 76.- FISHES THE BELLY OF WHICH OPENS IN SPAWNING,

AND THEN CLOSES AGAIN.

The sea-needle,¹º or the belone, is the only fish in which the

multitude of its eggs, in spawning, causes the belly to open
asunder ; but immediately after it has brought forth, the wound
heals again : a thing which, it is said, is the case with the
blind-worm as well. The sea-mouse " digs a hole in the earth,
deposits its eggs there, and then covers them up. On the
thirtieth day it opens the hole, and leads its young to the
water.

CHAP. 77. (52 . )-FISHES WHICH HAVE A WOMB ; THOSE WHICH

IMPREGNATE THEMSELVES.

The fishes called the erythinus 12 and the channe¹³ are said to
8 All the chondropterygian fishes, Cuvier says, have, in addition to their
ovaries, real oviducts, which the ordinary fishes have not ; the lower part
of which, being detached, acts as the uterus, into which the eggs descend
when they have gained their proper size : and it is here that the young
ones burst forth from the egg, when the parent animal is viviparous.
9 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 13, says the same of the glanis, or
silurus.
10 The Syngnathus acus of Linnæus. This fish, Cuvier says, and in
general all of the same genus, has a channel situate under the tail, which
is opened by two moveable valves. In this they deposit their eggs at the
moment of excluding them. After this, the valves open, to give a passage
to the eggs, or the young enclosed in them. This circumstance, he says,
gave rise to the notion mentioned in the text.
11 Mentioned in c. 35 of the present Book. Cuvier says that the sea
tortoises, or turtles, to which no doubt this animal belonged, do deposit
their eggs much in the way here mentioned.
12 Both these fishes have been mentioned in c. 23 of the present Book.
13 Pliny means to say, Cuvier says, that all these fish are to be looked
 Chap. 79.] ARTIFICIAL OYSTER-BEDS.
467
have a womb ; and those which by the Greeks are called
trochi, 14 it is said, impregnate themselves . The young of all
aquatic animals are without sight at their birth.15

CHAP. 78. (53. )- THE LONGEST LIVES KNOWN AMONGST FISHES.

We have lately heard of a remarkable instance of length of
life in fish. Pausilypum 16 is the name of a villa in Campania ,
not far from Neapolis ; here, as we learn from the works of
M. Annæus Seneca, a fish is known to have died sixty years
after it had been placed in the preserves of Cæsar 17¹7 by Vedius
Pollio ; while others of the same kind, and its equals in age,
were living at the time that he wrote. This mention of fish-
preserves reminds me that I ought to mention a few more par-
ticulars connected with this subject, before we leave the aquatic
animals .

CHAP. 79. (54. ) —THE FIRST PERSON THAT FORMED ARTIFICIAL

OYSTER-BEDS.
The first person who formed artificial oyster- beds was Ser-

upon as females : and, in fact, he says, Cavolini discovered eggs and a milt
in every one that he examined ; so that they appear to have all the appli-
ances of self-fecundation.
14 Or wheel-fish : from the Greek rроxòs, " a wheel." It is not clearly
known what animal he alludes to under this name. Snails, Cuvier says, are
hermaphrodites, and so is the helix, but still they require sexual connection
for the purposes of reproduction. The greater part of the marine uni-
valves, on the other hand, are of separate sexes ; but the organ of the male
being proportionally of great length, and coiled in part beneath its mantle,
this fact may very possibly have given rise to the notion here mentioned
by our author, that the animal impregnates itself.
15 This can only be understood, Cuvier says, as applying to those animals
the young of which are still enveloped in the membranes of the egg : for
in general , the young of fish, from the moment of their birth, have eyes
of great beauty, and are remarkable for the quickness of their sight.
16 From the Greek Tavoiλvrov, " grief- assuaging." This was the
name of a splendid villa belonging to Vedius Pollio, and which he be-
queathed to Augustus. It was famous for its fish preserves ; and it was
here probably that Pollio kept his murenæ, previously mentioned by Pliny
as being fed on human flesh. The vicinity is still called Monte Posilipo.
17 " Cæsaris piscinis." This may either mean, preserves which had
their name from Cæsar, or preserves which afterwards belonged to Cæsar.
The work of Seneca, in which this circumstance was mentioned, is no
longer in existence.
пн 2
 468 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [B

gius Orata, 18 who established them at Baiæ, in the tim

Crassus, the orator, just before the Marsic War. Th
done by him, not for the gratification of gluttony, but 1
rice, as he contrived to make a large income by this e
of his ingenuity. He was the first, too, to invent h
baths, and after buying villas and trimming them
would every now and then sell them again.20 He, too,
first to adjudge the pre-eminence for delicacy of flavour
oysters of Lake Lucrinus ;21 for every kind of aquatic
is superior in one place to what it is in another. Thus
stance, the wolf-fish of the river Tiber is the best that is
between the two bridges,22 and the turbot of Ravenn
most esteemed, the murena of Sicily, the elops of Rhode
same, too, as to the other kinds, not to go through all th
of the culinary catalogue. The British 23 shores had no
sent their supplies, at the time when Orata thus ennob
Lucrine oysters : at a later period, however, it was
worth while to fetch oysters all the way from Brundi
the very extremity of Italy ; and in order that ther
24
exist no rivalry between the two flavours, a plan 1
15 He was a contemporary of L. Crassus, and was distinguish
great wealth, and his love of luxury and refinement, but possess
blemished character. His surname, Orata or Aurata, was given UV MAMM
is said, because he was remarkably fond of gold-fish-auratæ pisces-
though, according to other authorities, it was because he was in the habit
of wearing two very large gold rings.
19 " Pensiles balineas." This expression has been differently rendered by
various commentators, but it is now generally supposed to refer to the
manner in which the flooring of the bathing rooms was suspended over the
hollow cells of the hypocaust or heating furnace. This is called by Vi-
truvius, " Suspensura caldariorum."
20 "Ita mangonicatas villas subinde vendendo." -By the use of the
word " ita," Pliny may possibly mean that he was in the habit of filling
up the villas with the " balineæ pensiles," which he had invented. " Man-
gonizo" was to set off or trim up a thing, that it might sell again all the
better.
21 Varro speaks of those of Tarentum, as being the best. The Greeks
preferred the oysters of Abydos ; the Romans, under the empire, those of
Britain.
22 It does not appear to be known what two bridges are here alluded to ;
the Sublician, or wooden bridge, was probably one of them, and, perhaps,
the Palatine bridge was the other. The former was built by Ancus
Martius.
23 For some further account of the British oyster, see B. xxxii. c. 21 .
24 See B. xxxii. c. 21.
Chap. 81. ] PRESERVES FOR MURENÆ. 469

more recently hit upon, of feeding the oysters of Brundisium

in Lake Lucrinus, famished as they must naturally be after so
long a journey.

CHAP. 80.- WHO WAS THE FIRST INVENTOR OF PRESERVES FOR

OTHER FISH.

In the same age, also, Licinius Murena25 was the first to

form preserves for other fish ; and his example was soon fol-
lowed by the noble families of the Philippi and the Hortensii .
Lucullus had a mountain pierced near Naples, at a greater out-
lay even, than that which had been expended on his villa ;
and here he formed a channel,26 and admitted the sea to his
preserves ; it was for this reason that Pompeius Magnus gave
him the name of " Xerxes in a toga.'" 27 After his death, the fish
in his preserves was sold for the sum of four million sesterces.

CHAP. 81. ( 55 . )— WHO INVENTED PRESERVES FOR MURENÆ.

C. Hirrus 28 was the first person who formed preserves for
the murena ; and it was he who lent six thousand of these
fishes for the triumphal banquets of Cæsar the Dictator ; on
which occasion he had them duly weighed , as he declined to
receive the value of them in money or any other commodity .
His villa, which was of a very humble character in the interior,
sold for four millions of sesterces, in consequence of the valu-
able nature of the stock-ponds there Next after this, there
arose a passion for individual fish. At Bauli,30 in the territory

25 He was the first of this family, a branch of the Licinian gens, who
bore the surname of Murena, from his love for that fish, it was said. He,
like his father P. Licinius, attained the rank of prætor, and was a contem-
porary of the orator, L. Crassus.
26 " Euripum ."
27 "Xerxen togatum ," or "the Roman Xerxes," in allusion to Xerxes
cutting a canal through the Isthmus, which connected the Peninsula of
Mount Athos with Chalcidice . See B. iv. c. 17, and the Note, vol. i.
p. 300.
28 Probably the same person as the C. Hirrius Posthumius, who is
mentioned as a voluptuary by Cicero, De Fin. B. ii. c. 22, § 70. Varro
speaks of him, as expending the rent of his houses, amounting to twelve
millions of sesterces, in bait for his murenæ.
29 This is, probably, the meaning of " quadragies " here, though it has
been translated 400,000.
30 See B. iii. c. 9.
470 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

of Baiæ, the orator Hortensius had some fish-preserves, in

which there was a murena to which he became so much at-
tached, as to be supposed to have wept on hearing of its
death.31 It was at the same villa that Antonia,32 the wife of
Drusus, placed earrings upon a murena which she had become
fond of; the report of which singular circumstance attracted
many visitors to the place.

CHAP. 82. ( 56 . ) —WHO INVENTED PRESERVES FOR SEA-SNAILS.

Fulvius Lupinus33 first formed preserves for sea-snails,³¹ in

the territory of Tarquinii, shortly before the civil war between
Cæsar and Pompeius Magnus. He also carefully distinguished
them by their several species, separating them from one another.
The white ones were those that are produced in the district
of Reate ;35 those of Illyria were remarkable for the largeness
of their size ; while those from Africa were the most prolific ;
36
those, however, from the Promontory of the Sun were the
most esteemed of all. For the purpose, also, of fattening them,
he invented a mixture of boiled wine," spelt-meal, and other
substances ; so that fattened periwinkles even became quite an
object of gastronomy ; and the art of breeding them was brought
to such a pitch of perfection, that the shell of a single animal
would hold as much as eighty quadrantes.38 This we learn
from M. Varro.

31 Porphyry, Tzetzes, and Macrobius relate the same story.

32 See B. vii. c. 18, and B. xxxv. c. 36. Her grandson, Caligula, is
supposed to have hastened her death.
33 Hirpinius is the more common reading. He is mentioned in B. viii.
c. 78. If the reading " Lupinus " is adopted, nothing seems to be known
of this epicurean trifler.
34 Our periwinkles.
35 See B. iii. c. 17.
36 Off the coast of Africa, see B. v. c. 1. These periwinkles, or sea-
snails, are again mentioned in B. xxx. c. 15.
37 " Sapa." Must, or new wine, boiled down to one half, according to
Pliny; and one third, according to Varro.
38 The " quadrans" contained three cyathi, and was the fourth part of
a sextarius, which consisted of about a pint and a-half ; in which case the
contents of one of their shells would be no less than fifteen quarts !! A
statement to which no credit can be attached, unless, indeed, the sea-snail
was something quite different to our periwinkle.
 Chap. 83.] LAND FISHES. 471

CHAP. 83. (57 .)- LAND FISHES.

Besides these, there are still some wonderful kinds of fishes"⁹
which we find mentioned by Theophrastus : he says, that when
the waters subside, which have been admitted for the purposes
of irrigation in the vicinity of Babylon, there are certain fish
which remain in such holes as may contain water ; from these
they come forth for the purpose of feeding, moving along with
their fins by the aid of a rapid movement of the tail. If pur-
sued, he says, they retreat to their holes, and, when they have
reached them, will turn round and make a stand. The head
is like that of the sea-frog, while the other parts are similar
to those of the gobio, 40 and they have gills like other fish.
He says also, that in the vicinity of Heraclea and Crom-
41
na, and about the river Lycus, as well as in many parts
of the Euxine, there is one kind of fish which frequents the
waters near the banks of the rivers, and makes holes for
itself, in which it lives, even when the water retires and the
bed of the river is dry ; for which reason these fishes have to
be dug out of the ground, and only show by the movement
of the body that they are still alive. He says also, that in the
vicinity of the same Heraclea, when the river Lycus ebbs, the
eggs are left in the mud, and that the fish, on being produced
from these, go forth to seek their food by means of a sort of
fluttering motion, —their gills being but very small, in conse-
quence of which they are not in need of water ; for this
39 Cuvier remarks, that nothing is known of the fish of the Euphrates
here mentioned by Pliny from Theophrastus ; as, indeed, all particulars re-
lative to the fresh-water fish of foreign countries are the portion of Ichthy-
ology with which we are the least acquainted. Judging, however, from
what is stated as to their habits and appearance, they may be various spe-
cies of the genus Gobius of Linnæus, and more especially the one called
periophthalmus by Bloch. These species are in the habit of crawling
along the grass on the banks of rivers.
40 Generally considered the same as our gudgeon. It is called " cobio"
(from the Greek kwßiòg), by Pliny, in B. xxxii. c. 53. It was a worthless
fish, "Vilis piscis," as Juvenal says.
41 What Heraclea, if that is the correct reading, is meant here, it is
impossible to say. Cromna is mentioned in B. vi. c. 2.
42 Cuvier thinks, that Pliny here alludes to a species of loche, the
Cobitis fossilis of Linnæus, which keeps itself concealed in the mud, and
can survive a long time in it, after the water above it is absorbed. Hence
it is often found alive in the mud of drained marshes, or in the dried-up
beds of rivers.
472 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

reason it is that eels also can live so long out of water ; 42 and
that their eggs come to maturity on dry land, like those of the
sea-tortoise . In the same regions also of the Euxine, he
says, various kinds of fishes are overtaken by the ice, the gobio
more particularly, and they only betray signs of life, by
moving when they have warmth applied by the saucepan.
All these things, however, though very remarkable, still admit
of some explanation . He tells us also, that in Paphlagonia,
land fishes are dug up that are most excellent eating ; these, he
says, are found in deep holes or spots where there is no standing
water whatever, and he expresses his surprise at their being
thus produced without any contact with moisture, stating it as
his opinion, that there is some innate virtue in these holes, **
similar to that of wells ; as if, indeed, fishes really were to be
found in wells.45 However this may be, these facts, at all
events, render the life of the mole under ground less a matter
for surprise ; unless, perhaps, these fishes mentioned by Theo-
phrastus are similar in nature to the earth-worm.

CHAP. 84. (58 . )—THE MICE OF THE NILE.

But all these things, singular as they are, are rendered
credible by a marvel which exceeds them all, at the time of the
inundation of the Nile ; for, the moment that it subsides, little
mice46 are found, the first rudiments of which have been

42 * Cuvier remarks, that many fish, the orifice of the gills of which, like
those of the eel, is small, or which have in the interior of those parts
organs proper for the preservation there of water, are able, like the eel, to
live for some time on dry land ; such, for instance, as the periophthalmi
previously mentioned, the chironectes, the ophicephali, the anabas, and
others ; but it is difficult to say, he observes, of what species were those of
the Lycus, which are here mentioned.
43 Ör turtle. See c. 12 of the present Book.
44 It is most probable that Sillig is right in his supposition, that
"quam" should be read " æquam;" otherwise it does not appear that any
sense can be made of the passage. Schneider, in his commentaries upon
Theophrastus, Sillig says, quite despaired of either amending or explaining
this passage ; which, however, with Sillig's emendation is very easily to be
understood .
45 In accordance with the opinion of Vossius and Sillig, we read here
"in illis," instead of the common, and most probably incorrect, reading,
" in nullis."
46 Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 9., and Ovid, Met. B. i. 1. 422, et seq., tell
the same story, which, however, has no truth in it whatever.
Chap. 85.] HOW THE ANTHIAS IS TAKEN. 473

formed by the generative powers of the waters and the earth :

in one part of the body they are already alive, while in that
which is of later formation, they are still composed of earth.

CHAP. 85. (59. )- HOW THE FISH CALLED THE ANTHIAS

IS TAKEN.

Nor would it be right to omit what is said about the fish called
anthias, and which I find is looked upon as true by most
writers. I have already mentioned " the Chelidoniæ, certain
islands off the coast of Asia ; they are situate off a promontory
there, in the midst of a sea full of crags and reefs. These parts
are much frequented by this fish, which is very speedily taken
by the employment of a single method of catching it. A fish-
erman pushes out in a little boat, dressed in a colour resembling
that of his boat ; and every day, for several days together, at
the same hour, he sails over the same space, while doing which
he throws a quantity of bait into the sea. Whatever is thrown
from the boat is an object of suspicion to the fish, who keep
at a distance from what causes them so much alarm ; but after
this has been repeated a considerable number of times, one of
the fish, reassured by becoming habituated to the scene, at last
snaps at the bait. The movements of this one are watched
with the greatest care and attention, for in it are centred all
the hopes of the fishermen, as it is to be the means of securing
them their prey ; nor, indeed, is it difficult to recognize it,
seeing that for some days it is the only one that ventures to
come near the bait. At last, however, it finds some others to
follow its example, and by degrees it is better and better
attended, till at last it brings with it shoals innumerable.
The older ones, at length becoming quite accustomed to the
fisherman, easily recognize him, and will even take food from
his hands. Upon this, the man throws out, a little way beyond
the tips of his fingers, a hook concealed in a bait, and smug-
gles them out one by one, rather than catches them , standing
in the shadow of the boat and whipping them out of the water
with a slight jerk, that the others may not perceive it ;
while another fisherman is ready inside to receive them upon
pieces of cloth, in order that no floundering about or other
noise may scare the others away. It is of importance to know
47 B. v. c. 35.
 474 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX.

which has been the betrayer of the others, and not to take it,
otherwise the shoal will take to flight, and appear no more for
the future. There is a story that a fisherman, having quar-
relled once with his mate, threw out a book to one of these
leading fishes, which he easily recognized, and so captured it
with a malicious intent. The fish, however, was recognized
in the market by the other fisherman, against whom he had
conceived this malice ; who accordingly brought an action
49
against him for damages ; and, as Mucianus adds, he was
condemned to pay them on the hearing of the case. These
anthiæ, it is said, when they see one of their number taken
with a hook, cut the line with the serrated spines which they
have on the back, the one that is held fast stretching it out
as much as it can, to enable them to cut it. But among the
sargi, the fish itself, that is held fast, rubs the line asunder
against the rocks.

CHAP. 86. ( 60 . )— SEA-STARS.

In addition to what I have already stated, I find that authors,
distinguished for their wisdom, express surprise at finding a
star in the sea- for such, in fact, is the form of the animal,
which has but very little flesh within, and nothing but a
hard skin without. It is said that in this fish there is such
a fiery heat, that it scorches everything it meets with in
the sea, and instantaneously digests its food. By what expe-
riments all this came to be known, I cannot so easily say ;
but I am about to make mention of one fact which is more re-
markable still, and which we have the opportunity of testing
by every day's experience.

48 Oppian, Halieut. B. iii. c. 305, et seq., tells a similar story as to the

mode of taking the anthias, with some slight variation, however.
49 " Damni formulam editam."
50 Cuvier says, that the star-fish, the Asterias of Linnæus, is covered
with a callous shell without, and has within only the viscera and the ovaria,
apparently without any muscles. Aristotle reckons it among the fishes
which he calls boтpaкodipμara, or hard-shelled fish ; while, on the other
hand, Elian, Hist. Anim. B. xi. c. 22, reckons it among the μaλakóσтрака,
or soft-shelled fish.
51 Cuvier says, that Pliny has good reason to say that he does not know
upon what authority this power has been attributed to the star-fish ; as it
is altogether fabulous.
Chap. 88. ] THE ANTIPATHIES BETWEEN AQUATIC ANIMALS. 475

CHAP. 87. (61 . ) — THE MARVELLOUS PROPERTIES OF THE

DACTYLUS .
Belonging also to the class of shell-fish is the dactylus, 52 a
fish so called from its strong resemblance to the human nails.
It is the property of these fish to shine brightly in the dark,
when all other lights are removed, and the more moisture
they have, the brighter is the light they emit. In the mouth
even, while they are being eaten, they give forth their light, and
the same too when in the hands ; the very drops, in fact, that
fall from them on the ground, or on the clothes, are of the same
nature. Hence it is beyond a doubt, that it is a liquid that
possesses this peculiar property, which, even in a solid body,
would be a ground for considerable surprise.

CHAP. 88. ( 62 . )—THE ANTIPATHIES AND SYMPATHIES THAT

EXIST BETWEEN AQUATIC ANIMALS.
There are also marvellous instances to be found of antipathies
and sympathies existing between them. The mullet and the
wolf-fish 53 are animated with a mutual hatred ; and so too, the
conger and the murena gnaw each other's tails . The cray-
fish has so great a dread of the polypus, that if it sees it near,
it expires in an instant : the conger dreads the cray-fish ;
while, again, the conger tears the body of the polypus. Nigidius
informs us that the wolf-fish gnaws the tail of the mullet, and
yet that, during certain months, they are on terms of friend-
ship ; all those, however, which thus lose their tails, survive
their misfortune. On the other hand, in addition to those which
we have already mentioned as going in company together, an
55
instance of friendship is found in the balæna and the musculus,"
52 "Or finger." The same fish that have been mentioned as " ungues," or
"onyches," in c. 51 of the present Book. They are a multivalve shell-
fish, Cuvier says, which live in hardened mud or the interior of rocks, into
which they burrow cavities, from which they cannot retreat ; and they can
only be taken by breaking the stone. They have a flavour like pepper,
and give out a phosphorescent light. See the end of c. 51 .
53 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3. Elian, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 48.
54 Aristotle says, that the tail of the conger is bitten by the murena,
but not that of the murena by the conger. Hardouin suggests that Pliny
may have learned this fact fromthe works of Nigidius Figulus.
55 Cuvier remarks, that in another passage, B. xi. c. 62, Pliny states that
the " musculus qui balænam antecedit" has no teeth, but only bristles in
its mouth. Now, in B. xxxii. c. 53, he speaks of the musculus as among
476 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book IX,

for, as the eye-brows of the former are very heavy, they some-
times fall over its eyes, and quite close them by their ponder-
ousness, upon which the musculus swims before, and points out
the shallow places which are likely to prove inconvenient to
its vast bulk,56 thus serving it in the stead of eyes. We
shall now have to speak of the nature of the birds.
SUMMARY.-Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations,
650.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED. Turranius Gracilis,57 Trogus,558
61
Mæcenas,59 Alfius Flavus,60 Cornelius 64Nepos, Laberius the
Mimographer, 62 Fabianus, 63 Fenestella, Mucianus, Ælius
the largest of animals ; from which Cuvier concludes it to have been a
species of whale, probably the " rorqual" of the Mediterranean. In con-
firmation of this, he thinks that the word " antecedit," in B. xi. c. 62,
has not the meaning of " goes before," but " exceeds in size ;" though
here it is spoken of as leading the whale ; and Oppian, Ælian, Plutarch,
Claudian, speak of the conductor of the whale as a little fish. He is
of opinion, in fine, that either Pliny or some of the authors from
which he has borrowed, have made a mistake in the name, and pro-
bably given that of " musculus," which was really a large fish, to a small
one, which was commonly supposed to attend on the movements of the
whale.
56 It is evident from this passage, that Pliny is speaking of a little fish
here, and not one to which he would assign such bulk as is ascribed to the
musculus in B. xxxii. c. 53.
57 See end of B. iii. 58 See end of B. vii.
59 Caius Cilnius Mecenas, or rather Mæcenas, a descendant of the kings
of Etruria, and of equestrian rank. He was the favourite minister of
Augustus, and the friend and patron of Horace, Virgil, and most of the
more deserving among the learned of his day. He is supposed to
have written two tragedies, the Prometheus and Octavia ; an epic poem,
and a work on Natural History, to which Pliny frequently alludes, and
which seems to have related, principally, to fishes and gems. He is also
thought to have written some memoirs of the life of Augustus.
60 A rhetorician, who flourished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius.
His school was attended by the elder Seneca, who had then recently re-
moved to Rome from Corduba. He was regarded at Rome as a prodigy of
learning, and gave lectures before he had assumed the toga virilis. He is
supposed to have written poetry, and a history of the Carthaginian wars.
61 See end of B. ii.
62 Or " writer of Mimes." Laberius Decimus was of equestrian rank,
born about B.C. 107, and died B.C. 43. Half compelled, and half induced
by the offer of a reward by Cæsar, he appeared on the stage, in his old age,
as an actor of mimes. A few verses, and a prologue still in existence, are
attributed to him. 68 Fabianus Papirius. See end of B. ii.
64 See end of B. viii. 65 See end of B. ii.
Chap. 84.] SUMMARY. 477
68
Stilo, Statius Sebosus,67 Melissus,6 Seneca, 69 Cicero,70 Æmi-
73
lius Macer," Messala Corvinus, Trebius Niger, Nigidius."

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED. -Aristotle,75 King Archelaus,76

Callimachus," Democritus,78 Theophrastus,79 Thrasyllus,79
80 81
Hegesidemus, Cythnius, Alexander Polyhistor.82

66 L. Ælius Præconinus Stilo, a Roman of equestrian rank, one of the

earliest grammarians, and also one of the most celebrated . He instructed
Varro, and was one of Cæsar's instructors in rhetoric. He received the
name of Præconinus, from the circumstance of his father having been a
66 præco," and that of Stilo, on account of his writings. He wrote com-
mentaries on the songs of the Salii, and on the Twelve Tables, a work De
Proloquiis, &c.
67 See end of B. ii. 68 See end of B. vii.
69 L. Annæus Seneca. See end of B. vi.
70 See end of B. vii.
71 A poet of Verona, who died B.C. 16. He wrote a poem upon birds,
snakes, and medicinal plants, in imitation, probably, of the Theriaca of
Nicander. There is a work, still extant, under his name, " On the Virtues
of Herbs ;" which, no doubt, belongs to the middle ages. He also wrote
sixteen or more Books of Annals.
72 M. Valerius Messala Corvinus. He was born at Rome, B.C. 59. He
joined the party of Cassius against Antony and Augustus, which last he
defeated at the battle of Philippi. He afterwards served under Antony,
and then Augustus ; the centre of whose fleet he commanded at Actium.
About two years before his death, which happened in the middle of the
reign of Augustus, his memory failed him, and he was often unable to
recollect his own name. He wrote a history, or rather, commentaries on
the Civil wars after the death of Cæsar, and towards the close of his life
composed a genealogical work " On the Families of Rome." He also
wrote poems of a satirical, and sometimes licentious character ; and works
on grammar, the titles of only two of which have come down to us. He
was especially famous for his eloquence.
73 See end of B. viii. 74 See end of B. vi.
75 See end of B. ii. 76 See end of B. viii.
77 See end of B. iv. 78 See end of B. ii.
79 See end of B. iii. 80 See end of B. ii.
81 Nothing whatever is known of him.
82 See end of B. iii.
 478

BOOK X.
1
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS .

CHAP. 1. ( 1 . )—THE OSTRICH.

THE history of the birds ' follows next, the very largest of
which, and indeed almost approaching to the nature of quad-
rupeds, is the ostrich² of Africa or³ Æthiopia. This bird exceeds
in height a man sitting on horseback, and can surpass him in
swiftness, as wings have been given to aid it in running ; in
other respects ostriches cannot be considered as birds, and do
not raise themselves from the earth. They have cloven talons,
very similar to the hoof of the stag ; with these theyfight, and
they also employ them in seizing stones for the purpose of
1 Cuvier remarks, that the accounts given by the ancients of birds, are
enveloped in greater obscurity than their information on quadrupeds, or
fishes. The quadrupeds, he says, are not so numerous, and are known from
their characteristics. The fishes also, which the ancients so highly esteemed
as an article of food, were well known to them in general, and they have
repeated occasions to speak of them but as to the birds, the augurs were
their principal informants. Pliny, in fact, often quotes their testimony ;
and we find, from what he says, that these men had not come to any agree-
ment among themselves as to what were the names of divers species of
birds, the movements of which announced, according to them, the success or
misfortune of states equally with individuals. This portion, in fact, of the
works of Pliny, Cuvier remarks, is an excellent commentary on the remark
of Cicero, who, an augur himself, asked the question, how two augurs could
look each other in the face without laughing. There are also several pas-
sages from Aristotle, who has, however, given but very little attention to
the exterior characteristics of birds : it is only from the similarity of their
habits and present names that we are able, in many cases, to guess what
bird it is that is meant.
2 "Struthiocamelus :" from the Greek, signifying a "little sparrow,"
and a " camel." Cuvier remarks, that Pliny's description is correct, and
that he is only mistaken in a few slight particulars.
3 Pliny perhaps here uses the conjunction " vel " in the explanatory
sense of otherwise ;" intending to distinguish Æthiopian Africa from the
Roman province of that name.
4 Cuvier remarks, that there is some truth in this, so far as that the
ostrich has only two toes, like the stag and other ruminating animals ; but
then they are unequal in size, and not covered with hoofs.
Chap. 2. ] THE PHOENIX. 479

throwing at those who pursue them. They have the marvel-

lous property of being able to digest every substance without
7
distinction, but their stupidity is no less remarkable ; for al-
though the rest of their body is so large, they imagine, when
they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole
of the body is concealed . Their eggs are prized on account
of their large size, and are employed as vessels for certain pur-
poses, while the feathers of the wing and tail are used as orna-
ments for the crest and helmet of the warrior.

CHAP. 2. ( 2. )— THE PHŒNIX.

9
Æthiopia and India, more especially, produce birds of diver-
sified plumage, and such as quite surpass all description. In
the front rank of these is the phoenix, 10 that famous bird of

5 Father Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, says that when the ostrich
is running at great speed, it throws the stones behind with such violence,
that they would almost seem to be thrown at those in pursuit.
6 An ostrich, Cuvier says, will swallow anything, but it is by no means
able to digest everything. He says, that he has seen ostriches with the
stomach ruptured by nails which they have swallowed, or dreadfully torn
by pieces of glass.
It has been remarked by Diodorus Siculus, B. ii. , that so far from dis-
playing stupidity in acting thus, it adopts a wise precaution, its head being
its most weak and defenceless part.
8 Cuvier states that its egg is equal to twenty-four to twenty-eight
fowls ' eggs, and that he had frequently eaten of them, and found them very
delicate.
9 "Ferunt." With regard to this verb, Cuvier remarks, that it is equi-
vocal ; and that it is very possible that the writer intends to say, not that
India and Ethiopia produce these marvellous birds, but that the people of
those countries report or relate marvellous stories touching those birds. It
is clear that he does not believe in the existence of the phoenix.
10 Cuvier remarks, that all these relations are neither more nor less than
so many absurd fables or pure allegories, but that the description given is
exactly that of a bird which does exist, the golden pheasant, namely. The
description given is probably taken from the pretended phoenix that Pliny
mentions as having been brought to Rome in the reign of Claudius. It is
not improbable, he thinks, that this may have been a golden pheasant,
brought from the interior of Asia, when the pursuits of commerce had as
yet hardly extended so far, and to which those who showed it gave, most
probably, the name of the phoenix. Ajasson is of opinion, that under the
story of the phoenix an allegory was concealed, and thinks it may not im-
probably have been employed to pourtray the doctrine of the immortality
of the soul. Bailly, Hist. de l'Astronomie, thinks that it bore reference to
the great canicular year of the Egyptians.
480 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

Arabia ; though I am not quite sure that its existence is not

all a fable. It is said that there is only one in existence in the
whole world, and that that one has not been seen very often.
We are told that this bird is of the size of an eagle," and
has a brilliant golden plumage around the neck, while the rest
of the body is of a purple colour ; except the tail, which is
azure, with long feathers intermingled of a roseate hue ; the
throat is adorned with a crest, and the head with a tuft of
feathers. The first Roman who described this bird, and who
has done so with the greatest exactness, was the senator Ma-
nilius, so famous for his learning ; which he owed, too, to the
instructions of no teacher. He tells us that no person has
ever seen this bird eat, that in Arabia it is looked upon as
12
sacred to the sun, that it lives five hundred and forty years,'
that when it becomes old it builds a nest of cassia and sprigs
of incense, which it fills with perfumes, and then lays its body
down upon them to die ; that from its bones and marrow there
springs at first a sort of small worm, which in time changes
into a little bird : that the first thing that it does is to perform
the obsequies of its predecessor, and to carry the nest entire
to the city of the Sun near Panchaia, and there deposit it
upon the altar of that divinity.
The same Manilius states also, that the revolution of the
great year 14 is completed with the life of this bird, and that
11 Borrowed from Herodotus, B. ii. c. 73.
12 The MSS. vary considerably as to the number. Some make it 540
years, others 511 , others 40, and others 560.
13 Mentioned also, B. vii . c. 57.
14 532 years, according to Hardouin. Baillysays : "The first men who
studied the heavens remarked that the revolution of the sun brought back
the seasons in the same order. They thought that they observed that cer-
tain variations of the temperature depended upon the aspect of the moon,
and attached different prognostics to the rising and setting of the stars,
persuading themselves that the vicissitudes of things here below had regu-
lated periods, like the movements of the heavenly bodies . From this arose
the impression, that the same aspect, the same arrangement of all the stars,
that had prevailed at the commencement of the world, would also attend
its destruction ; and that the period of this long revolution was the predes-
tined duration of the life of nature. Another impression was the idea that
the world would only perish at this epoch to be born again, and for the
same order of things to recommence with the same series of celestial phe-
nomena. Some fixed this universal renovation at the conjunction of all the
planets, others at the return of the stars to the same point of the ecliptic ;
others, uniting these two kinds of revolutions, marked the term of the du-
Chap. 3.] EAGLES. 481

then a new cycle comes round again with the same characte-
ristics as the former one, in the seasons and the appearance of
the stars ; and he says that this begins about mid-day of the
day on which the sun enters the sign of Aries. He also tells
us that when he wrote to the above effect, in the consulship 15
of P. Licinius and Cneius Cornelius, it was the two hundred
and fifteenth year of the said revolution. Cornelius Valerianus
says that the phoenix took its flight from Arabia into Egypt
in the consulship 16 of Q. Plautius and Sextus Papinius. This
bird was brought to Rome in the censorship of the Emperor
Claudius, being the year from the building of the City, 800,
and it was exposed to public view in the Comitium.17 This
fact is attested by the public Annals, but there is no one that
doubts that it was a fictitious phoenix only.

CHAP. 3. (3. )- THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF EAGLES.

Of all the birds with which we are acquainted, the eagle is
looked upon as the most noble, and the most remarkable for
its strength . There are six ¹8 different kinds ; the one called
" melanaetos " ¹⁹ by the Greeks, and " valeria " in our language,
ration of all things at the moment at which the planets and the stars would
return to the same primitive situation with regard to the ecliptic, or in
other words, they conceived an immense period, which would include one
or more complete revolutions of each of the planets. All these periods
were called the ' great year,' or the ' great revolution.” ” Histoire de
l'Astronomie Ancienne.
15 A.U.C. 657. 16 A.U.C. 789.
17 A public place in the Forum, where the comitia curiata were held,
and certain offences tried and punished.
18 Cuvier remarks, that this passage is borrowed, with some changes,
from Aristotle's " History of Animals," B. ix. c. 32, but that the account given
by Pliny is not very easily explained, from the fact that the word eagle is
not used by him in a rigorous acceptation of the word. Indeed it is only
at the present day that any accurate knowledge has been obtained as to
the different species of eagles, and the changes of colour to which they
are subject with the advance of age ; circumstances which have caused the
species of them to be multiplied by naturalists. It is very doubtful,
he says, whether Aristotle has distinguished the various kinds any better
than Pliny ; although Buffon, who himself was not very successful in
distinguishing them, says that Aristotle understood more on the subject
than the moderns.
19 Mελavaɛròs, or the " black eagle." Cuvier says, that this description
is copied exactly from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 32. This eagle, he
says, cannot be, as is commonly supposed, the " common eagle." It can
only be, he thinks, the " small " eagle, the female of which, according to
VOL. II. II
482 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

the least in size of them all, but the most remarkable for its
strength, is of a blackish colour. It is the only one among
all the eagles that feeds its young ; for the others, as we shall
mention just now, drive them away ; it is the only one too
that has neither cry nor murmur ; it is an inhabitant of the
mountains. The second kind is the pygargus,20 an inhabitant
of the cities and plains, and distinguished by the whiteness
of its tail. The third is the morphnos, " which Homer also
99
calls the " percnos," while others, again, call it the " plangus
and the " anataria ;" it is the second in size and strength, and
dwells in the vicinity of lakes. Phemonoë, who was styled
the " daughter of Apollo, " has stated that this eagle has teeth,
but that it has neither voice nor tongue ; she says also that it
is the blackest of all the eagles, and has a longer tail than the
rest ; Bous is of the same opinion. This eagle has the instinct
to break the shell of the tortoise by letting it fall from aloft,
a circumstance which caused the death of the poet Eschylus .
An oracle, it is said, had predicted his death on that day by
the fall of a house, upon which he took the precaution of
trusting himself only under the canopy of the heavens.
The fourth kind of eagle is the " percnopterus,' 22 also called
the "" oripelargus ;" " it has much the appearance of the vulture,

Nauman and Savigny, when it is old is almost all black, and without spots ;
only the young being spotted.
20 From the Greek vyn άpyn, " white tail." Cuvier remarks, that
this is copied exactly from Aristotle, except that he says nothing about the
whiteness of the tail, which is an interpolation. The feathers as described
agree with those of the common eagle, the Falco fulvus, which is strong
enough to seize a fawn. As regards its habit, he says, of dwelling on
plains, that would agree better with the Jean le blanc of the French, the
Falco Gallicus ; while the name of pygargus is commonly applied, at the
present day, to the great sea-eagle, the Falco albicilla ; which frequents
lakes and the sea-shore, and therefore corresponds more nearly with the
haliætus of Pliny.
21 Cuvier says, that he is almost tempted to believe that it is the bal-
busard, the Falco haliætus, that is here meant, as it has a black back, and
lives in the vicinity of lakes. But then, he remarks, it lives on fish and
not aquatic birds ; while, on the other hand, the little eagle of Buffon, the
Falco nævio, often seizes ducks and other aquatic animals. He is inclined
then, notwithstanding the apparent confusion, to take this morphnos for
the modern small eagle. The words µoppvòg and πɛρкvò signify˜“ black.”
22 From the Greek, meaning " black wing."
23 "Mountain stork. " Buffon thinks that this is the great brown vul-
ture ; Cuvier, the great white-headed eagle.
Chap. 3.] EAGLES. 483

with remarkably small wings, while the rest of the body is

larger than the others ; but it is of a timid and degenerate
nature, so much so, that even a raven can beat it. It is always
famishing and ravenous, and has a plaintive murmuring cry.
It is the only one among the eagles that will carry off the
dead carcase ; the others settle on the spot where they have
killed their prey. The character of this species causes the
7924
fifth one to be known by the distinctive name of " gnesios, "
as being the genuine eagle, and the only one of untainted
lineage ; it is of moderate size, of rather reddish colour, and
rarely to be met with. The haliætus 25 is the last, and is re-
markable for its bright and piercing eye. It poises itself aloft,
and the moment it catches sight of a fish in the sea below,
pounces headlong upon it, and cleaving the water with its
breast, carries off its prey.
The eagle which we have mentioned as forming the third
species, pursues the aquatic birds in the vicinity of standing
waters in order to make their escape they plunge into the
water every now and then, until at length they are overtaken
by lassitude and sleep, upon which the eagle immediately seizes
them . The contest that takes place is really a sight worthy
to be seen . The bird makes for the shore to seek a refuge,
and especially if there should happen to be a bed of reeds
there ; while in the meantime the eagle endeavours to drive it
away with repeated blows of its wings, and tumbles into the
water in its attempts to seize it. While it is standing on the
shore its shadow is seen by the bird, which immediately dives
beneath, and then making its way in an opposite direction,
emerges at some point at which it thinks it is the least likely
to be looked for. This is the reason why these birds swim
in flocks, for when in large numbers they are in no danger
from the enemy ; as by dashing up the spray with their wings
they blind him.
Again, it often happens that the eagle is not able to carry
the bird aloft on account of its weight, and in consequence
they both of them sink together. The haliætus, and this
one only, beats its young ones while in an unfledged state,

24 Tvýgios. " True-born," " genuine." Cuvier thinks that this may
be the royal or imperial eagle, Falco imperialis.
25 The great sea-eagle, according to Cuvier, the varieties of which (in
age) are called by Linnæus " Falco albicaudus," and " Falco ossifraga."
II 2
 484 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

with its wings, and forces 26 them from time to time to look
steadily upon the rays of the sun ; and if it sees either of
them wink, or even its eye water, it throws it headlong out
of the nest, as being spurious and degenerate, while, on the
other hand, it rears the one whose gaze remains fixed and
steady. The haliætus 27 is not a species of itself, but is an
eagle of mixed breed : hence their produce are of the species
known as the ossifrage, from which again is produced the
smaller vulture ; while this in its turn produces the large
vulture, which, however, is quite barren.
Some writers add to the above a seventh kind, which they
call the " bearded " 28 eagle ; the Tuscans, however, call it the
ossifrage. #
CHAP. 4. THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EAGLE.
The first three and the fifth class of eagles employ in the
construction of their aerie the stone aëtites,29 by some known
as " gangites ;" which is employed also for many remedial
purposes, and is proof against the action of fire. This stone
has the quality also, in a manner, of being pregnant, for when
shaken, another stone is heard to rattle within, just as though
it were enclosed in its womb ; it has no medical properties,
however, except immediately after it has been taken from the
nest.
Eagles build among rocks and trees ; they lay three eggs,
and generally hatch but two young ones, though occasionally
as many as three have been seen. Being weary of the trouble
of rearing both, they drive one of them from the nest : for
just at this time the providential foresight of Nature has denied
them a sufficiency of food, thereby using due precaution that
the young of all the other animals should not become their
prey. During this period, also, their talons become reversed,
and their feathers grow white from continued hunger, so that
it is not to be wondered at that they take a dislike to their
26 See Lucan, B. ix. 1. 902.
27 He contradicts himself, for he has already stated that it is the sixth
species.
28 " Barbata." Cuvier takes it to be the lammer-geyer, or Gypaëtus,
the only bird of prey that has a beard.
20 Or eagle-stone. See B. xxxvi. c. 39. He does not there mention
that it is combustible. It is not impossible that pieces of aëtites, or ferru-
ginous geodes, may have been found in an eagle's nest.
Chap. 5. ] EAGLES . 485

young. The ossifrage, however, a kindred species, takes charge

of the young ones thus rejected, and rears them with its own ;
but the parent bird still pursues them with hostility, even
when grown up, and drives them away, as being its rivals in
rapine. And indeed, under any circumstances, one pair of
eagles requires a very considerable space of ground to forage
over, in order to find sufficient sustenance ; for which reason
it is that they mark out by boundaries their respective allot-
ments, and seek their prey in succession to one another. They
do not immediately carry off their prey, but first deposit it on
the ground, and it is only after they have tested its weight
that they fly away with it.
They die, not of old age, nor yet of sickness, or of hunger ;
but the upper part of the beak grows to such an extent, and
becomes so curved, that they are unable to open it. They
take the wing, and begin upon the labours of the chase at
mid-day ; sitting in idleness during the hours of the morning,
until such time as the places 30 of public resort are filled with
people. The feathers of the eagle, if mixed with those of
other birds, will consume them.³¹ 31 It is said that this is the
only bird that has never been killed by lightning ; hence it is,
that usage has pronounced it to be the armour-bearer of Jove.

CHAP. 5. (4 . )- WHEN THE EAGLE WAS FIRST USED AS THE

STANDARD OF THE ROMAN LEGIONS.

Caius Marius, in his second consulship, assigned the eagle

exclusively to the Roman legions. Before that period it had
only held the first rank, there being four others as well, the
wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the wild boar, each of which
preceded a single division.32 Some few years before his time
it had begun to be the custom to carry the eagle only into
battle, the other standards being left behind in camp ; Marius,
however, abolished the rest of them entirely. Since then, it
has been remarked that hardly ever has a Roman legion
encamped for the winter, without a pair of eagles making
their appearance at the spot.
The first and second species of eagle, not only prey upon
30 Fora.
31 Albertus Magnus says that he knows this by actual experience : " credat
Judæus."
32 Ordinem.
486 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

the whole of the smaller quadrupeds, but will attack deer

even. Rolling in the dust, the cagle covers its body all over
with it, and then perching on the antlers of the animal, shakes
the dust into its eyes, while at the same time it beats it on the
head with its wings, until the creature at last precipitates itself
down the rocks . Nor, indeed, is this one enemy sufficient for
it ; it has still more terrible combats with the dragon, 33 and
the issue is much more doubtful, although the battle is fought
in the air. The dragon seeks the eggs of the eagle with a
mischievous avidity ; while the eagle, in return, carries it off
whenever it happens to see it ; upon these occasions, the dragon
coils itself about the wings of the bird in multiplied folds,
until at last they fall to the earth together.

CHAP. 6. ( 5 . ) — AN EAGLE WHICH PRECIPITATED ITSELF ON THE

FUNERAL PILE OF A GIRL.

There is a very famous story about an eagle at the city of

Sestos. Having been reared by a little girl, it used to testify
its gratitude for her kindness, first by bringing her birds, and
in due time various kinds of prcy : at last she died, upon which
the bird threw itself on the lighted pile, and was consumed
with her body. In memory of this event, the inhabitants
34
raised upon the spot what they called an heroic monument,³
in honour of Jupiter and the damsel, the eagle being a bird
consecrated to that divinity.

CHAP. 7. (6. )- THE VULTURE.

35
Of the vultures, the black ones are the strongest. No
person has yet found a vulture's nest : hence it is that there
are some who have thought, though erroneously, that these
36
birds come from the opposite hemisphere. The fact is, that
they build their nest upon the very highest rocks ; their young
ones, indeed, are often to be seen, being generally two innumber.
Umbricius, the most skilful among the aruspices of our time,
37
says that the vulture lays thirteen eggs, and that with one of
33 See Virgil, En. B. xi. l. 755, etseq. By the "dragon," he means
some large serpent. 34 Heroum."
35 The great European vulture.
36 Their nests are seldom seen, in consequence of being concealed in the
crags ofthe highest mountains, the Pyrenees, for instance.
37 Three" seems a better reading. Aristotle says " two."
Chap. 9.] HAWKS . 487
these eggs 38 it pu
rifies the others and its nest , and then throws
it away : he states also that they hover about for three 39 days ,
over the spot where carcases are about to be found .

CHAP. 8. ( 7. )- THE BIRDS CALLED SANGUALIS AND IMMUSULUS.

There has been considerable argument among the Roman
augurs about the birds known as the " sangualis "" and the
" immusulus." Some persons are of opinion that the immu-
sulus is the young of the vulture, and the sangualis that of
the ossifrage. Massurius says, that the sangualis is the same
as the ossifrage, and that the immusulus is the young of the
eagle, before the tail begins to turn white. Some persons
have asserted that these birds have not been seen at Rome
since the time of the augur Mucius ; for my part, I think it
much more likely, that, amid that general heedlessness as to
all knowledge, which has of late prevailed, no notice has been
taken of them.

CHAP. 9. ( 8 .) —HAWKS. THE BUTEO.

We find no less than sixteen 41 kinds of hawks mentioned ;
among these are the ægithus, which is lame 2 of one leg, and
is looked upon as the most favourable omen for the augurs on
the occasion of a marriage, or in matters connected with pro-
perty in the shape of cattle : the triorchis also, so called
from the number of its testicles,43 and to which Phemonoë has
assigned the first rank in augury. This last is by the Romans
known as the " buteo ;" indeed there is a family" that has
taken its surname from it, from the circumstance of this bird
having given a favourable omen by settling upon the ship of
one of them when he held a command. The Greeks call one

38 Ovid, in his " Art of Love," speaks of the use of eggs in purifications
made by lovesick damsels. See B. ii. 1. 330.
39 This story arises from the extreme acuteness of their power of smelling
a dead body. The Egyptians said that the vulture foreknows the field of
battle seven days.
40 Festus says, also, that it is the ossifrage, and was so called from the
god Sancus. 41 Aristotle says ten.
42 A mere fable. Cuvier says that the agithus of Aristotle was probably
a kind of sparrow.
43 Said to be three in number ; a mere fable. The buzzard probably is
meant.
The family of the Buteones belonged to the gens Fabia.
488 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

kind 5 "epileus ;" the only one, indeed, that is seen at all seasons
of the year, the others taking their departure in the winter.
The various kinds are distinguished by the avidity with
which they seize their prey ; for while some will only pounce
on a bird while on the ground, others will only seize it while
hovering round the trees, others, again, while it is perched aloft,
and others while it is flying in mid air. Hence it is that
pigeons, on seeing them, are aware of the nature of the danger
to which they are exposed, and either settle on the ground or
else fly upwards, instinctively protecting themselves by taking
due precautions against their natural propensities. The hawks
46
of the whole of Massæsylia, breed in Cerne, an island of
Africa, lying in the ocean ; and none of the kinds that are
accustomed to those parts will breed anywhere else.
CHAP. 10.- IN WHAT PLACES HAWKS AND MEN PURSUE THE
CHASE IN COMPANY WITH EACH OTHER.
In the part of Thrace which lies above Amphipolis, men “
and hawks go in pursuit of prey, in a sort of partnership as it
were ; for while the men drive the birds from out of the woods
and the reed-beds, the hawks bring them down as they fly ;
and after they have taken the game, the fowlers share it with
them . It has been said, that when sent aloft, they will
48
pick out the birds that are wanted, and that when the oppor-
tune moment for taking them has come, they invite the fowler
to seize the opportunity by their cries and their peculiar mode
of flying. The sea- wolves, too, in the Palus Mæotis, do some-
thing of a very similar nature ; but if they do not receive their
fair share from the fishermen, they will tear their nets as they
lie extended.49 Hawks will not50 eat the heart of a bird . The
night-hawk is called cybindis ;51 it is rarely found, even in the
45 Cuvier thinks that he means to identify this kind with the triorchis,
of which Aristotle says that it is to be seen at all seasons.
46 See B. vi. c. 36.
47 Cuvier remarks, that we here find the art of falconry in its rough
state. It was restored to Europe, no doubt, by the Crusaders. See Beck-
mann's Hist. Inventions, vol. i. p. 201. Bohn's Edition.
48 " Missas in sublime sibi excipere eos." The meaning is very doubtful.
49 The whole of this passage is, most probably, a gloss or interpolation.
50 This is denied by Albertus Magnus.
51 Cuvier remarks, that Pliny has erroneously joined the account given
by Aristotle of the cybindis, to that of the hybris, or ptynx. He takes the
cybindis to be the "Strix Uralensis" of Pallas.
Chap. 11. ] THE CUCKOO. 489

woods, and in the day-time its sight is not good ; it wages war
to the death with the eagle, and they are often to be found
clasped in each other's talons.

CHAP . 11. (9. ) THE ONLY BIRD THAT IS KILLED BY THOSE OF

ITS OWN KIND.-A BIRD THAT LAYS ONLY ONE EGG.
The cuckoo seems to be but another form of the hawk,52
which at a certain season of the year changes its shape ; it
being the fact that during this period no other hawks are to be
seen, except, perhaps, for a few days only ; the cuckoo, too,
itself is only seen for a short period in the summer, and does
not make its appearance after. It is the only one among the
hawks that has not hooked talons ; neither is it like the rest
of them in the head, or, indeed, in any other respect, except
the colour only, while in the beak it bears a stronger resem-
blance to the pigeon. In addition to this, it is devoured by the
hawk, if they chance at any time to meet ; this being the only
one among the whole race of birds that is preyed upon by those
of its own kind. It changes its voice also with its appearance,
comes out in the spring, and goes into retirement at the rising
of the Dog-star. It always lays its eggs in the nest of another
bird, andthat of the ring-dove53 more especially, -mostlyasingle
egg, a thing that is the case with no other bird ; sometimes how-
ever, but very rarely, it is known to lay two. It is supposed,
that the reason for its substituting its young ones, is the
54 thus
fact that it is aware how greatly it is hated by all the other
birds ; for even the very smallest of them will attack it.
Hence it is, that it thinks its own race will stand no chance
of being perpetuated unless it contrives to deceive them, and for
this reason builds no nest of its own : and besides this, it is
a very timid animal. In the meantime, the female bird, sitting
on her nest, is rearing a supposititious and spurious progeny ;
while the young cuckoo, which is naturally craving and greedy,
snatches away all the food from the other young ones, and by
so doing grows plump and sleek, and quite gains the affections
of his foster-mother ; who takes a great pleasure in his fine
52 Cuvier says, that this notion is still entertained by the French
peasantry.
53 This is not the case. It only lays in the nests of insectivorous birds.
51 Cuvier remarks, that this is not a very good reason ; but we have not
yet been able to find a better.
490 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

appearance, and is quite surprised that she has become the

mother of so handsome an offspring. In comparison with him,
she discards her own young as so many strangers, until at last,
when the young cuckoo is now able to take the wing, he
finishes by devouring55 her. For sweetness of the flesh, there
is not a bird in existence to be compared to the cuckoo at this
season.

CHAP. 12. ( 10. )— THE KITE.

The kite, which belongs to the same genus, is distinguished
from the rest of the hawks by its larger size. It has been re-
marked of this bird, extremely ravenous as it is, and always
craving, that it has never been known to seize any food either
from among funereal oblations or from the altar of Jupiter at
Olympia ; nor yet, in fact, does it ever seize any of the conse-
crated viands from the hands of those who are carrying them ;
except where some misfortune is presaged for the town that is
offering the sacrifice. These birds seem to have taught man
the art of steering, from the motion of the tail, Nature pointing
out by their movements in the air the method required for
navigating the deep. Kites also disappear during the winter
months, but do not take their departure before the swallow.
It is said, also, that after the summer solstice they are troubled
with the gout.

CHAP. 13. ( 11 . )- THE CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

The first distinctive characteristic among birds is that which
bears reference more especially to their feet : they have either
hooked talons, or else toes, or else, again, they belong to the
web-footed class, geese for instance, and most of the aquatic
birds. Those which have hooked talons feed, for the most
part, upon nothing but flesh .

CHAP. 14. ( 12 . ) - CROWS. BIRDS OF ILL OMEN. AT WHAT SEASONS

THEY ARE NOT INAUSPICIOUS.

Crows, again, have another kind of food. Nuts being too

hard for their beak to break, the crow flies to a great height,
55 Cuvier denies this story, but says, that when the foster-mother is a
very small bird, the young cuckoo will take the whole of her head in his
beak when receiving food.
Chap. 15.] THE RAVEN. 491

and then lets them fall again and again upon the stones or tiles
beneath, until at last the shell is cracked, after which the bird
is able to open them . This is a bird with a very ill 56 - omened
garrulity, though it has been highly praised by some. It is
observed, that from the rising of the constellation Arcturus
until the arrival of the swallow, it is but rarely to be seen
about the sacred groves and temples of Minerva ; in some
places, indeed, not at all, Athens for instance 57 In addition to
these facts, it is the only one that continues to feed its young
for some time after they have begun to fly. The crow is most
inauspicious at the time of incubation, or, in other words, just
after the summer solstice.

CHAP. 15.- THE RAVEN.

All the other birds of the same kind drive their young ones
from their nest, and compel them to fly ; the raven, for in-
stance, which not only feeds on flesh, but even drives its young,
when able to fly, to a still greater distance . Hence it is that
in small hamlets there are never more than two 58 pairs to
be found ; and in the neighbourhood of Crannon, in Thessaly,
never more than one, the parents always quitting the spot to
give place to their offspring. There have been some differences
observed between this and the bird last mentioned. Ravens
breed before the summer solstice, and continue in bad health for
sixty days -being afflicted with a continual thirst more particu-
larly-before the ripening of the fig in autumn ; while, on the
other hand, the crow is attacked by disease after that period .
The raven lays, at most, but five eggs. It is a vulgar belief,
that they couple, or else lay, by means of the beak ; and that,
consequently, if a pregnant woman happens to eat a raven's
egg, she will be delivered by the mouth . It is also be-
lieved, that if the eggs are even so much as brought beneath
the roof, a difficult labour will be the consequence. Aristotle
denies it, and assures us in all good faith that there is no more
truth in this than in the same story about the ibis in Egypt ;
56 " Curse on your ill-betiding croak." See " The Farmer's Wife and
the Raven," in Gay's Fables.
57 Aristotle says, that it was never to be seen in the Acropolis or Citadei
of Athens.
58 Only the case with the large raven, or Corvus corax of Linnæus, the
others living in flocks.
492 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X

he says that it is nothing else but that same sort of billing that
is so often seen in pigeons ."9 Ravens are the only birds that
seem to have any comprehension of the60 meaning of their
auspices ; for when the guests of Medus were assassinated,
they all took their departure from Peloponnesus and the region
of Attica . They are of the very worst omen when they swal-
low their voice, as if they were being choked .
CHAP. 16. - THE HORNED OWL.
The birds of the night also have crooked talons, such as the
owlet," the horned owl, and the screech-owl, for instance ; the
sight of all of which is defective in the day-time. The horned
owl is especially funereal, and is greatly abhorred in all auspices
of a public nature : it inhabits deserted places, and not only
desolate spots, but those of a frightful and inaccessible nature :
the monster of the night, its voice is heard, not with any tune-
ful note, but emitting a sort of shriek. Hence it is that it is
looked upon as a direful omen to see it in a city, or even so much
as in the day-time. I know, however, for a fact, that it is
not portentous of evil when it settles on the top of a private
house. It cannot fly whither it wishes in a straight line, but
is always carried along by a sidelong movement. A horned
owl entered the very sanctuary of the Capitol, in the consul-
ship of Sextus Palpelius Hister and L. Pedanius ; in conse-
quence of which, Rome was purified on the nones 62 of March
in that year.

CHAP. 17. ( 13 . ) —BIRDS, THE RACE OF WHICH IS EXTINCT, OR

OF WHICH ALL KNOWLEDGE HAS BEEN LOST.
An inauspicious bird also is that known as the "incendiary; "
59 Doé says, that this is incorrect ; the beak of the raven not being of
a similar form to that of the pigeon.
60 Or else, " The Median guests." It is not known to what he alludes.
Alexander ab Alexandro says, that both Alexander the Great and Cicero
were warned of their deaths by the raven.
61 " Noctua, bubo, ulula." It is very doubtful what birds are meant by
these names . Cuvier has been at some pains to identify them, and con-
cludes that the noctua, or glaux of Aristotle, is the Strix brachyotas of
Linnæus, the "short-eared screech-owl ;" the bubo, the Strix bubo of
Linnæus, and the ulula, the Strix aluco of Linnæus ; our madgehowlet,
grey or brown owl.
62 Seventh of March. The year of their consulship is not known.
63 Cuvier suggests, that it may be the coracias of Aristotle, our jack-
Chap. 18. ] BIRDS BORN WITH THE TAIL FIRST. 493

on account of which, we find in the Annals, the City has

had to be repeatedly purified ; as, for instance, in the consul-
ship of L. Cassius and C. Marius, in which year also it was
purified, in consequence of a horned owl being seen. What
kind of bird this incendiary bird was, we do not find stated,
nor is it known by tradition. Some persons explain the term
this way ; they say that the name " incendiary" was applied
to every bird that was seen carrying a burning coal from
the pyre, or altar ; while others, again, call such a bird a
" spinturnix ; 65 though I never yet found any person who
said that he knew what kind of bird this spinturnix was.
(14.) I find also that the people of our time are ignorant
what bird it was that was called by the ancients a " clivia.'
Some persons say that it was a clamatory, others, again, that it
was a prohibitory, bird. We also find a bird mentioned
by Nigidius as the " subis," which breaks the eggs of the
eagle.
(15.) In addition to the above, there are many other kinds
that are described in the Etruscan ritual, but which no one now
living has ever seen. It is surprising that these birds are no
longer in existence, since we find that even those kinds abound,
among which the gluttony of man commits such ravages.

CHAP. 18. ( 16. ) - BIRDS WHICH ARE BORN WITH THE TAIL FIRST.
Among foreigners, a person called Hylas is thought to have
written the best treatise on the subject of augury. He
informs us that the owlet, the horned owl, the woodpecker,
which makes holes in trees, the trygon, and the crow, are pro-
duced from the egg with the tail 66 first ; for the egg, being
turned upside down through the weight of the head of the
chick, presents the wrong end to be warmed by the mother
as she sits upon it.
daw probably, the Corvus graculus of Linnæus. It has been said, that in
its admiration of shining objects, it will take up a burning coal ; a trick
which has before now caused conflagrations. Servius speaks of it as fre-
quenting funeral piles.
64 A.U.C. 647.
65 " Spinturnix" and " clivia" were names given by the augurs probably
to some kinds of birds.
66 Cuvier ridicules the excessive ignorance of the augurs. It is with the
beak that the young bird breaks the shell.
494 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

CHAP. 19. ( 17. )— THE OWLET.

The owlet shows considerable shrewdness in its engage-
ments with other birds ; for when surrounded by too great a
number, it throws itself on its back, and so, resisting with its
feet, and rolling up its body into a mass, defends itself with
the beak and talons ; until the hawk, attracted by a certain
natural affinity, comes to its assistance, and takes its share in
the combat. Nigidius says, that the incubation of the owlet
lasts sixty days, during the winter, and that it has nine differ-
ent notes.

CHAP. 20. ( 18 . ) -THE WOOD- PECKER OF MARS.

There are some small birds also, which have hooked talons ;
the wood-pecker, for example, surnamed " of Mars," of con-
siderable importance in the auspices. To this kind belong
the birds which make holes in trees, and climb stealthily up
them, like cats ; mounting with the head upwards, they tap
against the bark, and learn by the sound whether or not their
food lies beneath ; they are the only birds that hatch their
young in the hollows of trees. It is a common belief, that if a
shepherd drives a wedge into their holes, they apply a certain
kind of herb,67 immediately upon which it falls out. Trebius
informs us that if a nail or wedge is driven with ever so much
force into a tree in which these birds have made their nest, it
will instantly fly out, the tree making a loud cracking noise
the moment that the bird has lighted upon the nail or wedge.
These birds have held the first rank in auguries, in Latium,
68
since the time of the king who has given them their name.
One of the presages that was given by them, I cannot pass
over in silence. A woodpecker came and lighted upon the
head of Ælius Tubero, the City prætor, when sitting on his
tribunal dispensing justice in the Forum, and showed such
tameness as to allow itself to be taken with the hand ; upon
which the augurs declared that if it was let go, the state
was menaced with danger, but if killed, disaster would befall
67 See B. XXV. c. 5.
68 Picus, the son of Saturn, king of Latium. He was skilled in augury,
and was said to have been changed into a woodpecker. See Ovid, Met.
B. xiv. 1. 314 .; Virgil, Æn. B. vii. c. 187. See also Ovid, Fasti, B. iii.
1. 37.
Chap. 22.] THE PEACOCK. 495

the prætor ; in an instant he tore the bird to pieces, and before

long the omen was fulfilled.69

CHAP. 21. ( 19 . )- BIRDS WHICH HAVE HOOKED TALONS.

Many birds of this kind feed also on acorns and fruit, but
only those which are not carnivorous, with the exception of
the kite ; though when it feeds on anything but flesh, it is a
bird of ill omen .
The birds which have hooked talons are never gregarious ;
each one seeks its prey by itself. They nearly all of them
soar to a great height, with the exception of the birds of the
night, and more especially those of larger size. They all have
large wings, and a small body ; they walk with difficulty, and
rarely settle upon stones, being prevented from doing so by
the curved shape of their talons.

CHAP. 22. (20 . )— THE PEACOCK.

We shall now speak of the second class of birds, which is
divided into two kinds ; those which give omens 70 by their note,
and those which afford presages by their flight. The varia-
tion of the note in the one, and the relative size in the other,
constitute the differences between them. These last, therefore,
shall be treated of first, and the peacock shall have precedence
of all the rest, as much for its singular beauty as its superior
instinct, and the vanity it displays.
When it hears itself praised, this bird spreads out its gor-
geous colours, and especially if the sun happens to be shining
at the time, because then they are seen in all their radiance,
and to better advantage. At the same time, spreading out its
tail in the form of a shell, it throws the reflection upon the
other feathers, which shine all the more brilliantly when a
shadow is cast upon them ; then at another moment it will
contract all the eyes "¹ depicted upon its feathers in a single
69 Valerius Maximus, B. v. c. 6, says, that seventeen members of this
family fell at the battle of Cannæ.
70 % Oscines" and " alites." This was a distinction made by the
augurs, but otherwise of little utility, as all the birds with a note fly as
well.
71 See the story of the eyes of Argus transferred to the peacock's tail.
Ovid, Met, B. i. Í. 616.
496 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

mass, manifesting great delight in having them admired by

the spectator. The peacock loses its tail every year at the fall
of the leaf, and a new one shoots forth in its place at the
flower season ; between these periods the bird is abashed and
moping, and seeks retired spots. The peacock lives twenty-
five years, and begins to show its colours in the third. By
some authors it is stated that this bird is not only a vain crea-
ture, but of a spiteful disposition also, just in the same way
that they attribute bashfulness to the goose." The character-
istics, however, which they have thus ascribed to these birds,
appear to me to be utterly unfounded.

CHAP. 23. - WHO WAS THE FIRST TO KILL THE PEACOCK FOR
FOOD. - WHO FIRST TAUGHT THE ART OF CRAMMING THEM.
The orator Hortensius was the first Roman who had the
peacock killed for table ; it was on the occasion of the banquet
given by him on his inauguration in the college of the priest-
hood. M. Aufidius Lurco" was the first who taught the art
of fattening them, about the time of the last war with the
Pirates. From this source of profit he acquired an income of
sixty thousand sesterces."

CHAP. 24. (21 . ) —THE DUNGHILL COCK.

Next after the peacock, the animal that acts as our watch-
man by night, and which Nature has produced for the purpose
of arousing mortals to their labours, and dispelling their slum-
bers , shows itself most actuated by feelings of vanity. The
cock knows how to distinguish the stars, and marks the
different periods of the day, every three hours, by his note.
These animals go to roost with the setting of the sun, and at
the fourth watch of the camp recall man to his cares and toils.
They do not allow the rising of the sun to creep upon us un-
awares, but by their note proclaim the coming day, and they
prelude their crowing by clapping their sides with their wings.
They exercise a rigorous sway over the other birds of their
72 It would be curious to know how the goose manifests its modesty,
or " verecundia." We are equally at a loss with Pliny to discover it.
73 Tribune of the people, B.C. 61. He was maternal grandfather of the
Empress Livia. " Lurco "" means a "glutton.
74 About 12,270 francs, Ajasson says.
Chap. 24.] THE DUNG-HILL COCK. 497

kind, and, in every place where they are kept, hold the supreme
command. This, however, is only obtained after repeated
battles among themselves, as they are well aware that they
have weapons on their legs, produced for that very purpose, as
it were, and the contest often ends in the death of both the
combatants at the same moment. If, on the other hand, one
of them obtains the mastery, he instantly by his note proclaims
himself the conqueror, and testifies by his crowing that he has
been victorious ; while his conquered opponent silently slinks
away, and, though with a very bad grace, submits to servitude.
And with equal pride does the throng of the poultry yard strut
along, with head uplifted and crest erect. These, too, are the
only ones among the winged race that repeatedly look up to
the heavens, with the tail, which in its drooping shape re-
sembles that of a sickle, raised aloft : and so it is that these
birds inspire terror even in the lion,75 the most courageous of
all animals.
Some of these birds, too, are reared for nothing but warfare
and perpetual combats, and have even shed a lustre thereby
on their native places, Rhodes and Tanagra. The next rank
is considered to belong to those of Melos76 and Chalcis. Hence,
it is not without very good reason that the consular purple of
Rome pays these birds such singular honours . It is from the
77
feeding of these creatures that the omens' by fowls are de-
rived ; it is these that regulate" day by day the movements of
our magistrates, and open or shut to them their own houses,
as the case may be ; it is these that give an impulse to the
fasces of the Roman magistracy, or withhold them ; it is these
that command battles or forbid them, and furnish auspices for
victories to be gained in every part of the world. It is these
that hold supreme rule over those who are themselves the rulers
of the earth, and whose entrails and fibres are as pleasing to
the gods as the first spoils of victory. Their note, when heard
at an unusual hour or in the evening, has also its peculiar pre-
sages ; for, on one occasion, by crowing the whole night through
for several nights, they presaged to the Boeotians that famous
75 See B. viii. c. 19.
76 Possibly Media ; Varro says, " Medicos."
77 " Tripudia solistima." An omen derived from the feeding of the
fowls, when they devoured their food with such avidity, that it fell from
their mouths and rebounded from the ground.
78 By the auspices which they afforded.
VOL. II. K K
498 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

victory " which they gained over the Lacedæmonians ; such,

in fact, being the interpretation that was put upon it by way
of prognostic, as this bird, when conquered, is never known to
crow.

CHAP. 25.- HOW COCKS ARE CASTRATED. A COCK THAT ONCE

SPOKE.
When castrated, cocks cease to crow. This operation is
performed two different ways. Either the loins of the animal
are seared with a red-hot iron, or else the lower part of the
legs ; after which, the wound is covered up with potter's clay :
this way they are fattened much more easily. At Pergamus,80
there is every year a public show of fights of game-cocks, just
as in other places we have those of gladiators.
We find it stated in the Roman Annals, that in the8¹ consul-
ship of M. Lepidus and Q. Catulus a dung-hill cock spoke, at
the farm-house of Galerius ; the only occasion, in fact, that I
know of.

CHAP. 26. (22. )—THE GOOSE.

The goose also keeps a vigilant guard ; a fact which is well
attested by the defence of the Capitol, at a moment when, by
the silence of the dogs, the commonwealth had been betrayed :82
for which reason it is that the Censors always, the first thing
of all, attend to the farming-out of the feeding of the sacred
geese. What is still more, too, there is a love-story about this
animal. At Ægium one is said to have conceived a passion for
a beautiful boy, a native of Olenos,83 and another for Glauce,
a damsel who was lute-player to King Ptolemy ; for whom at
the same time a ram is said also to have conceived a passion .
One might almost be tempted to think that these creatures
have an appreciation of wisdom : for it is said, that one of

79 Mentioned by Cicero, De Divin, B. i.

80 The same too at Athens, in one of the theatres, in remembrance,
Ælian says, of the victory gained by Themistocles over the Persians.
81 A.U.C. 676.
82 When the Capitol was besieged by the Gauls.
83 Near Patræ, in Achaia. Elian gives his name as Amphilochus.
84 A singular quality in a goose. Ælian says, that Lacydes was a peri-
patetic philosopher, and that he honoured the goose with splendid obsequies,
when it died.
Chap. 27.] THE GOOSE. 499

them was the constant companion of the philosopher, Lacydes,

and would never leave him, either in public or when at the bath,
by night or by day.
CHAP. 27.--WHO FIRST TAUGHT US TO USE THE LIVER OF THE
GOOSE FOR FOOD.

Our people, however, are more wise ; for they only esteem the
goose for the goodness of its liver.85 When they are crammed,
this grows to a very large size, and on being taken from the
animal, is made still larger by being soaked in honeyed milk."
And, indeed, it is not without good reason that it is matter of
debate who it was that first discovered so great a delicacy ;
whether, in fact, it was Scipio Metellus, a man of consular
dignity, or M. Seius, a contemporary of his, and a Roman of
equestrian rank. However, a thing about which there is no
dispute, it was Messalinus Cotta, the son of the orator Messala,
who first discovered the art of roasting the webbed feet of the
goose, and of cooking them in a ragout with cocks ' combs : for
I shall faithfully award each culinary palm to such as I shall
find deserving of it. It is a wonderful fact, in relation to
this bird, that it comes on foot all the way from the country
of the Morini to Rome ; those that are tired are placed in
the front rank, while the rest, taught by a natural instinct to
move in a compact body, drive them on.
A second income, too, is also to be derived from the feathers
of the white goose. In some places, this animal is plucked
twice a year, upon which the feathers quickly grow again.
Those are the softest which lie nearest to the body, and those
that come from Germany are the most esteemed : the geese
there are white, but of small size, and are called gantæ.88 The
price paid for their feathers is five denarii per pound . It is
from this fruitful source that we have repeated charges brought
against the commanders of our auxiliaries, who are in the habit
of detaching whole cohorts from the posts where they ought
to be on guard, in pursuit of these birds : indeed, we have
come to such a pitch of effeminacy, that now-a-days, not even
85 See B. viii. c. 87. Horace also mentions that they were fattened
with figs.
86 " Lacte mulso." Perhaps honey, wine, and milk.
87 In Gaul. See B. iv. c. 31.
88 " Gans" is still the German name. Hence our word "gander,"
500 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X,

the men can think of lying down without the aid of the goose's
feathers, by way of pillow.

CHAP. 28.- OF THE COMMAGENIAN MEDICAMENT.

The part of Syria which is called Commagene, has discovered

another invention also ; the fat of the goose⁹ is enclosed with
some cinnamon in a brazen vessel, and then covered with a
thick layer of snow. Under the influence of the excessive
cold, it becomes macerated, and fit for use as a medicament,
remarkable for its properties : from the country
9790 which produces
it, it is known to us as " Commagenum.'

CHAP. 29.- THE CHENALOPEX, THE CHENEROS, THE TETRAO, AND

THE OTIS.
To the goose genus belong also the chenalopex, " and the
cheneros," a little smaller than the common goose, and which
forms the most exquisite of all the dainties that Britannia pro-
vides for the table. The tetrao 93 is remarkable for the lustre
of its plumage, and its extreme darkness, while the eyelids are
94
of a scarlet colour. Another species of this last bird exceeds
the vulture in size, and is of a similar colour to it ; and, indeed,
there is no bird, with the exception of the ostrich, the body of
which is of a greater weight ; for to such a size does it grow,
that it becomes incapable of moving, and allows itself to be
taken on the ground . The Alps and the regions of the North
produce these birds ; but when kept in aviaries, they lose their
fine flavour, and by retaining their breath, will die of mere
vexation. Next to these in size are the birds which in
Spain they call the " tarda, " " and in Greece the " otis :" they
89 This medicament is further treated of in B. xxix. c. 13.
90 "The Commagenian mixture." For Commagene, see B. v. cc. 13
and 20.
91 The " goose-fox," so called, according to Elian, for its cunning and
mischievous qualities ; and worshipped by the Egyptians for its affection
for its young. It is supposed by Cuvier to be the Anas Ægyptiaca of
Buffon.
92 The Anas clypeata of Buffon, according to Cuvier.
93 The Tetrao tetrix of Linnæus, or heathcock.
94 The Tetrao urogallus of Linnæus, according to Cuvier.
95 The Otis tarda of Linnæus. Cuvier says, that it is not the case that
they are bad eating, and remarks that birds have no marrow in the larger
bones.
Chap. 30.] CRANES. 501

are looked upon however as very inferior food ; the marrow,

when disengaged from the bones, immediately emits a most
noisome smell.

CHAP. 30. (23.)— CRANES.

By the departure of the cranes, which, as we have already
97
stated, were in the habit of waging war with them, the nation
of the Pygmies now enjoys a respite. The tracts over which
they travel must be immense, if we only consider that they
come all the way from the Eastern Sea.98 These birds agree by
common consent at what moment they shall set out, fly aloft
to look out afar, select a leader for them to follow, and have
sentinels duly posted in the rear, which relieve each other by
turns, utter loud cries, and with their voice keep the whole
flight in proper array. During the night, also, they place sen-
tinels on guard, each of which holds a little stone in its claw: if
the bird should happen to fall asleep, the claw becomes relaxed,
and the stone falls to the ground, and so convicts it of neglect.
The rest sleep in the meanwhile, with the head beneath the
wing, standing first on one leg and then on the other : the
leader looks out, with neck erect, and gives warning when
required. These birds, when tamed, are very frolicsome, and
even when alone will describe a sort of circle, as they move
along, with their clumsy gait.
It is a well-known fact, that these birds, when about to fly
over the Euxine, first of all repair to the narrowest part of it,
that lies between the two 99 Promontories of Criumetopon and
Carambis, and then ballast themselves with coarse sand. When
they have arrived midway in the passage, they throw away the
stones from out of their claws, and, as soon as they reach the
mainland, discharge the sand by the throat.
Cornelius Nepos, who died in the reign of the late Emperor
Augustus, after stating that thrushes had been fattened for the
first time shortly before that period, has added that storks were
more esteemed as food than cranes : whereas at the present
day, this last bird is one of those that are held in the very
highest esteem, while no one will so much as touch the other.
96 Doé thinks that the spinal marrow is meant.
97 B. iv. c. 18, and B. vii. c. 2.
98 In B. vii. c. 2, Pliny speaks of the Pygmies as living to the far East
of India.
99 See B. iv. cc. 20 and 26 : and B. vi. c. 2.
502 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

CHAP. 31.- STORKS.

Up to the present time it has not been ascertained from

what place the storks come, or whither they go when they
leave us. There can be no doubt but that, like the cranes,
they come from a very great distance, the cranes being our
winter, the storks our summer, guests. When about to take
their departure, the storks assemble at a stated place, and are
particularly careful that all shall attend, so that not one of
their kind may be left behind, with the exception of such as
may be in captivity or tamed ; and then on a certain day they
set out, as though by some law they were directed to do so. No
one has ever yet seen a flight of cranes taking their departure,
although they have been often observed preparing to depart ;
and in the same way, too, we never see them arrive, but only
when they have arrived ; both their departure as well as their
arrival take place in the night. Although, too, we see them
flying about in all directions, it is still supposed that they
never arrive at any other time but in the night. Pythonos-
come¹ is the name given to some vast plains of Asia, where,
as they assemble together, they keep up a gabbling noise, and
tear to pieces the one that happens to arrive the last ; after
which they take their departure. It has been remarked that
after the ides of August,2 they are never by any accident to be
seen there.
There are some writers who assure us that the stork has no
tongue. So highly are they esteemed for their utility in de-
stroying serpents, that in Thessaly, it was a capital crime for
any one to kill a stork, and by the laws the same penalty was
inflicted for it as for homicide.
་
CHAP. 32.- SWANS.

Geese, and swans also, travel in a similar manner, but then

they are seen to take their flight. The flocks, forming a point,
move along with great impetus, much, indeed, after the manner
of our Liburnian beaked galleys ; and it is by doing so that
they are enabled to cleave the air more easily than if they
presented to it a broad front. The flight gradually enlarges
! The " village of the Python," or " serpent." Gueroult suggests that
this may be Serponouwtzi, beyond the river Oby, in Siberia.
2 Thirteenth of August.
 Chap. 33.] FOREIGN BIRDS. 503

in the rear, much in the form of a wedge, presenting a vast

surface to the breeze, as it impels them onward ; those that
follow place their necks on those that go before, while the
leading birds, as they become weary, fall to the rear. Storks
returntotheir former nests, and the young, in their turn, support
their parents when old. It is stated that at the moment of
the swan's death, it gives utterance to a mournful song ;³ but
this is an error, in my opinion, at least I have tested the truth
of the story on several occasions. These birds will eat the
flesh of one another.

CHAP. 33.- FOREIGN BIRDS WHICH VISIT US ; THE QUAIL, THE

GLOTTIS, THE CYCHRAMUS, AND THE OTUS.
Having spoken of the emigration of these birds over sea and
land, I cannot allow myself to defer mentioning some other
birds of smaller size, which have the same natural instinct :
although in the case of those which I have already mentioned,
their very size and strength would almost seem to invite them
to such habits. The quail, which always arrives among us
even before the crane, is a small bird, and when it has once
arrived, more generally keeps to the ground than flies aloft.
These birds fly also in a similar manner to those I have already
spoken of, and not without considerable danger to mariners,
when they come near the surface of the earth : for it often
happens that they settle on the sails of a ship, and that too
always in the night : the consequence of which is, that the
vessel often sinks. These birds pursue their course along a
tract of country with certain resting-places. When the south
wind is blowing, they will not fly, as that wind is always
humid, and apt to weigh them down. Still, however, it is an
object with them to get a breeze to assist them in their flight,
the body being so light, and their strength so very limited :
hence it is that we hear them make that murmuring noise as
they fly, it being extorted from them by fatigue. It is for
this reason also, that they take to flight more especially when
3 M. Mauduit has a learned discussion in Panckouke's Translation, vol.
viii., many pages in length ; in which he satisfactorily shows that this is
not entirely fabulous, but that the wild swan of the northern climates really
is possessed of a tuneful note or cadence. Of course, the statement that it
only sings just before its death, must be rejected as fabulous.
504 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X

the north wind is blowing, having the ortygometra¹ for their

leader. The first of them that approaches the earth is gene-
rally snapped up by the hawk. When they are about to re-
turn from these parts, they always invite other birds to join
their company, and the glottis, otus, and cychramus, yielding
to their persuasions, take their departure along with them.
5
The glottis protrudes a tongue of remarkable length, from
which circumstance it derives its name : at first it is quite
pleased with the journey, and sets out with the greatest ardour ;
very soon, however, when it begins to feel the fatigues of the
flight, it is overtaken by regret, while at the same time it is
equally as loth to return alone, as to accompany the others. Its
travels, however, never last more than a single day, for at the
very first resting-place they come to, it deserts : here too it
finds other birds, which have been left behind in a similar
manner in the preceding year. The same takes place with
6
other birds day after day. The cychramus, however, is much
more persevering, and is quite in a hurry to arrive at the land
which is its destination : hence it is that it arouses the quails
in the night, and reminds them that they ought to be on the
road.
The otus is a smaller bird than the horned owl, though
larger than the owlet ; it has feathers projecting like ears,
whence its name . Some persons call it in the Latin language
the " asio ;" in general it is a bird fond of mimicking, a great
parasite, and, in some measure, a dancer as well. Like the
owlet, it is taken without any difficulty ; for while one person
occupies its attention, another goes behind, and catches it.
If the wind, by its contrary blasts, should begin to prevent
the onward progress of the flight, the birds immediately take
up small stones, or else fill their throats with sand, and so
contrive to ballast themselves as they fly. The seeds of a
certain venomous plants are most highly esteemed by the
The " mother of the quails." Frederic II., in his work, De Arte
Venandi, calls the " rallus," or " rail," the " leader of the quails."
5 From yλwTrà, " a tongue." It is not known what bird is alluded to.
6 Bellon thinks that this is the proyer, or prayer, of the French ; Al-
drovandus considers it to be the ortolan.
7 Gesner suggests from " asinus," an "ass ;" its feathers sticking up
like the ears of that animal. Dalechamps thinks it is because its voice
resembles
66 ear." the braying of an ass ; the name " otus" is from the Greek for '
8 Either hemlock or hellebore.
Chap. 35 ] MIGRATORY BIRDS . 505

quails as food ; for which reason it is that they have been ban-
ished from our tables ; in addition to which, a great repugnance
is manifested to eating their flesh, on account of the epilepsy,
to which alone of all animals, with the exception of man, the
quail is subject.
CHAP. 34. (24 . )—swallows.
The swallow, the only bird that is carnivorous among those
which have not hooked talons, takes its departure also during
the wintermonths ; but it only goes to neighbouring countries,
seeking sunny retreats there on the mountain sides ; some-
times they have been found in such spots bare and quite un-
fledged . This bird, it is said, will not enter a house in Thebes,
because that city has been captured so frequently ; nor will it
approach the country of the Bizyæ, on account of the crimes.
committed there by Tereus.10 Cæcina " of Volaterræ, a member
of the equestrian order, and the owner of several chariots, used
to have swallows caught, and then carried them with him to
Rome. Upon gaining a victory, he would send the news
by them to his friends ; for after staining them the colour¹² of
the party that had gained the day, he would let them go,
immediately upon which they would make their way to the
nests they had previously occupied. Fabius Pictor also relates,
in his Annals, that when a Roman garrison was being besieged
by the Ligurians, a swallow which had been taken from its
young ones was brought to him, in order that he might give
them notice, by the number of knots on a string tied to its
leg, on what day succour would arrive, and a sortie might be
made with advantage.

CHAP. 35. - BIRDS WHICH TAKE THEIR DEPARTURE FROM US , AND

WHITHER THEY GO ; THE THRUSH, THE BLACKBIRD, AND THE
STARLING- BIRDS WHICH LOSE THEIR FEATHERS DURING THEIR

9 "Despui suetum." See B. xxviii. c. 7. As Hardouin says, in modern

times they are considered delicate eating ; but Schenkius, Obsers. Med.
B. i., states, that if the bird has eaten hellebore, epilepsy is the consequence
to the person who partakes of its flesh.
10 See B. iv. c. 18.
11 A friend of Augustus, sent by him with proposals to Antony, B.C. 41 .
12 The colour of the " factio," or " party " of charioteers. See p. 217.
506 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

RETIREMENT- THE TURTLE-DOVE AND THE RING-DOVE- THE

FLIGHT OF STARLINGS AND SWALLOWS.

In a similar manner also, the blackbird, the thrush, and the

starling take their departure to neighbouring countries ; but }
they do not lose their feathers, nor yet conceal themselves, as
they are often to be seen in places where they seek their food
during the winter : hence it is that in winter, more especially,
the thrush is so often to be seen in Germany. ' It is, however,
a well-ascertained fact, that the turtle-dove conceals itself, and
loses its feathers. The ring-dove, also, takes its departure :
and with these too, it is a matter of doubt whither they go.
It is a peculiarity of the starling to fly in troops, as it were,
and then to wheel round in a globular mass like a ball, the
central troop acting as a pivot for the rest. Swallows are the
only birds that have a sinuous flight of remarkable velocity ;
for which reason it is that they are not exposed to the attacks
of other birds of prey : these too, in fine, are the only birds that
take their food solely on the wing.

CHAP. 36. (25. ) - BIRDS WHICH REMAIN WITH US THROUGHOUT

THE YEAR ; BIRDS WHICH REMAIN WITH US ONLY SIX OR
THREE MONTHS ; WITWALLS AND HOOPOES.
The time during which birds show themselves differs very
considerably. Some remain with us all the year round, the
pigeon, for instance ; some for six months, such as the swallow ;
and some, again, for three months only, as the thrush, the turtle-
dove, and those which take their departure the moment they
have reared their young, the witwalls and the hoopoe, for
instance.

CHAP. 37. (26. )- THE MEMNONIDES.

There are some authors who say that every year certain
birds fly from Ethiopia to Ilium, and have a combat at the
tomb of Memnon there ; from which circumstance they have
received from them the name of Memnonides, or birds of
Memnon. Cremutius states it also as a fact, ascertained by
13 Galgulus.
14 Cuvier suggests, that these birds may have been the Tringa pugnax
of Linnæus and Buffon, the males of which engage in most bloody combats
with each other on the banks of rivers, in spring.
Chap. 41.] WHERE CERTAIN BIRDS ARE NEVER FOUND. 507

himself, that they do the same every fifth year in Æthiopia,

around the palace of Memnon.
CHAP. 38. - THE MELEAGRIDES.
In a similar manner also, the birds called meleagrides ¹ fight
in Boeotia. They are a species of African poultry, having a
hump on the back, which is covered with a mottled plumage.
These are the latest among the foreign birds that have been
received at our tables, on account of their disagreeable smell.
The tomb, however, of Meleager has rendered them famous.

CHAP. 39. (27. )-THE SELEUCIDES.

Those birds are called seleucides, which are sent by Jupiter
at the prayers offered up to him by the inhabitants of Mount
Casius, 16 when the locusts are ravaging their crops of corn.
17
Whence they come, or whither they go, has never yet been
ascertained, as, in fact, they are never to be seen but when the
people stand in need of their aid.

CHAP. 40. (28 .)- THE IBIS.

The Egyptians also invoke their ibis against the incursions
of serpents ; and the people of Elis, their god Myiagros, 18
when the vast multitudes of flies are bringing pestilence
among them ; the flies die immediately the propitiatory sacri-
fice has been made to this god.

CHAP. 41. ( 29 . )- PLACES IN WHICH CERTAIN BIRDS ARE NEVER

FOUND.
With reference to the departure of birds, the owlet, too, is
said to lie concealed for a few days. No birds of this last kind
are to be found in the island of Crete, and if any are imported
thither, they immediately die. Indeed, this is a remarkable
distinction made by Nature ; for she denies to certain places,
as it were, certain kinds of fruits and shrubs, and of animals as
15 No doubt, as Cuvier says, this was the Numida meleagris of Linnæus,
Guinea hen, or pintada. Cuvier remarks that they are very pugnacious
birds.
16 See B. v. c. 22.
17 Cuvier suggests, that these birds may have been of the starling
genus, perhaps the Turdus roseus of Linnæus.
18 The " hunter of flies."
508 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

well ; it is singular that when introduced into these localities

they will be no longer productive, but die immediately they
are thus transplanted . What can it be that is thus fatal to
the increase of one particular species, or whence this envy
manifested against them by Nature ? What, too, are the limits
that have been marked out for the birds on the face of the
earth ?
Rhodes¹ possesses no eagles. In Italy beyond the Padus,
there is, near the Alps, a lake known by the name of Larius,
beautifully situate amid a country covered with shrubs ; and
yet this lake is never visited by storks, nor, indeed, are they
ever known to come within eight miles of it ; while, on the
other hand, in the neighbouring territory of the Insubres 20
21
there are immense flocks of magpies and jackdaws, the only"
bird that is guilty of stealing gold and silver, a very singular
propensity.
It is said that in the territory of Tarentum, the woodpecker
of Mars is never found. It is only lately too , and that but
very rarely, that various kinds of pies have begun to be seen
in the districts that lie between the Apennines and the City ;
birds which are known by the name of " variæ," 22 and are re-
markable for the length of the tail. It is a peculiarity of
this bird, that it becomes bald every year at the time ofsowing
rape. The partridge does not fly beyond the frontiers of
Boeotia, into Attica ; nor does any bird, in the island23 in the
Euxine in which Achilles was buried, enter the temple there
consecrated to him. In the territory of Fidenæ, in the vicinity
of the City, the storks have no young nor do they build nests : but
vast numbers of ringdoves arrive from beyond sea every year
in the district of Volaterræ. At Rome, neither flies nor dogs
ever enter the temple of Hercules in the Cattle Market. There
are numerous other instances of a similar nature in reference
to all kinds of animals, which from time to time I feel my-
self prompted by prudent considerations to omit, lest I should
19 Suetonius says, that when Tiberius was staying at Rhodes, an eagle
perched on the roof of his house ; such a bird having never been seen
before on the island. 20 See B. iii. c. 21.
21 It is still noted for its thieving propensities ; witness the English story
of the Maid and the Magpie, and the Italian opera of " La Gazza Ladra."
Cicero says, "They would no more trust gold with you, than with a jack-
daw." See also Ovid's Met. B. vii. It is the Corvus pica of Linnæus.
22 Mottled pies." 23 See B. iv. c. 12.
Chap. 43. ] THE NIGHTINGALE. 509

only weary the reader. Theophrastus, for example, relates

that even pigeons, as well as peacocks and ravens, have been
introduced from other parts into Asia, 24 as also croaking frogs 25
into Cyrenaica.

CHAP. 42. - THE VARIOUS KINDS OF BIRDS WHICH AFFORD OMENS

BY THEIR NOTE - BIRDS WHICH CHANGE THEIR COLOUR AND
THEIR VOICE.
There is another remarkable fact too, relative to the birds
which give omens by their note ; they generally change their
colour and voice at a certain season of the year, and suddenly
become quite altered in appearance ; a thing that, among the
larger birds, happens with the crane only, which grows black
in its old age. From black, the blackbird changes to a red-
dish colour, sings in summer, chatters in winter, and about
the summer solstice loses its voice ; when a year old, the beak
also assumes the appearance of ivory ; this, however, is the case
only with the male. In the summer, the thrush is mottled
about the neck, but in the winter it becomes of one uniform
colour all over.

CHAP. 43.--THE NIGHTINGALE .

The song of the nightingale is to be heard, without inter-
mission, for fifteen days and nights, continuously,26 when the
foliage is thickening, as it bursts from the bud ; a bird which
deserves our admiration in no slight degree. First of all,
what a powerful voice in so small a body ! its note, how long,
and how well sustained ! And then, too , it is the only bird
the notes of which are modulated in accordance with the strict
rules of musical science.27 At one moment, as it sustains its

24 Asia Minor, most probably. The assertion, though supported by

Theophrastus, is open to doubt. 25 See B. viii . c. 83.
26 It was the nightingale that was said to be " Vox et præterea nihil ;"
"A voice, and nothing else."
27 As there may be different opinions on the meaning of the various
parts of this passage, it is as well to transcribe it for the benefit of the
reader, the more especially as, contrary to his usual practice, Pliny is
here in a particularly discursive mood. " Nunc continuo spiritu trahitur in
longum, nunc variatur inflexo, nunc distinguitur conciso, copulatur intorto,
promittitur revocato, infuscatur ex inopinato, interdum et secum ipse
murmurat, plenus, gravis, acutus, creber, extentus ; ubi visum est, vibrans,
summus, medius, imus."
510 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

breath, it will prolong its note, and then at another, will vary
it with different inflexions ; then, again, it will break into
distinct chirrups, or pour forth an endless series of roulades.
Then it will warble to itself, while taking breath, or else dis-
guise its voice in an instant ; while sometimes, again, it will
twitter to itself, now with a full note, now with a grave, now
again sharp, now with a broken note, and now with a prolonged
one. Sometimes, again, when it thinks fit, it will break
out into quavers, and will run through, in succession, alto,
tenor, and bass : in a word, in so tiny a throat is to be found
all the melody that the ingenuity of man has ever discovered
through the medium of the invention of the most exquisite
flute so much so, that there can be no doubt it was an in-
fallible presage of his future sweetness as a poet, when one of
these creatures perched and sang on the infant lips of the
poet Stesichorus.
That there may remain no doubt that there is a certain
degree of art in its performances, we may here remark that
every bird has a number of notes peculiar to itself; for they
do not, all of them, have the same, but each, certain melodies
of its own. They vie with one another, and the spirit
with which they contend is evident to all. The one that
is vanquished, often dies in the contest, and will rather yield
its life than its song. The younger birds are listening in the
meantime, and receive the lesson in song from which they
are to profit. The learner hearkens with the greatest attention,
and repeats what it has heard, and then they are silent by
turns ; this is understood to be the correction of an error on the
part of the scholar, and a sort of reproof, as it were, on the
part of the teacher. Hence it is that nightingales fetch as
high a price as slaves, and, indeed, sometimes more than used
formerly to be paid for a man in a suit of armour.
I know that on one occasion six thousand sesterces 28 were
paid for a nightingale, a white one it is true, a thing that is
hardly ever to be seen, to be made a present ofto Agrippina, the
wife of the Emperor Claudius. A nightingale has been often
seen that will sing at command, and take alternate parts with
the music that accompanies it ; men, too, have been found who
could imitate its note with such exactness, that it would be
impossible to tell the difference, by merely putting water in a
28 1227 francs, Ajasson says.
 THE ENANTHE, ETC. 511
Chap. 45. ]

reed held crosswise, and then blowing into it, a languette being
first inserted, for the purpose of breaking the sound and ren-
dering it more shrill." But these modulations, so clever and so
artistic, begin gradually to cease at the end of the fifteen days ;
not that you can say, however, that the bird is either fatigued
or tired of singing ; but, as the heat increases, its voice becomes
altogether changed, and possesses no longer either modula-
tion or variety of note. Its colour, too, becomes changed, and
at last, throughout the winter, it totally disappears . The tongue
of the nightingale is not pointed at the tip, as in other birds.
It lays at the beginning of the spring, six eggs at the most.

CHAP. 44. — THE MELANCORYPHUS, THE ERITHACUS, AND THE

PHOENICURUS.

The change is different that takes place in the ficedula,30

for this bird changes its shape as well as its colour. " Fice-
dula " is the name by which it is called in autumn, but not
after that period ; for then it is called " melancoryphus." In
the same manner, too, the erithacus32 of the winter is the
66 of the summer. The hoopoe also, according
phoenicurus
to the poet Eschylus, changes its form ; itis a bird that feeds
upon filth³ of all kinds, and is remarkable for its twisted top-
knot, which it can contract or elevate at pleasure along the top
of the head.

CHAP. 45. —THE ŒNANTHE, THE CHLORION, THE BLACKBIRD, AND

THE IBIS .
34
The oenanthe, too, is a bird that has stated days for its re-
29 Something very similar to this, we often see practised by the water-
warblers in our streets.
30 Cuvier supposes that this is one of the fly-catchers ; the "Muscicapa
atricapilla " of Linnæus, which changes in appearance entirely after the
breeding season.
31 The " black-head."
32 Cuvier thinks that this is the wall nightingale, the Motacilla phoni-
curus of Linnæus, which is not seen in winter. On the other hand, the
Motacilla rubecula of Linnæus, or red-throat, is only seen during the
winter, and being like the other bird, may have been taken for it, and
named " phoenicurus."
33 This is not the case. Aristotle only says that it builds its nest of
human ordure ; a story probably without any foundation, but still prevalent
among the French peasantry.
34 It has not been identified with precision. Pliny, B. xviii. c. 69 calls
512 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

treat. At the rising of Sirius it conceals itself, and at the

setting of that star comes forth from its retreat : and this it
does, a most singular thing, exactly upon both those days.
The chlorion, 35 also, the body of which is yellow all over, is
not seen in the winter, but comes out about the summer sol-
stice.
(30. ) The blackbird is found in the vicinity of Cyllene, in
Arcadia, with white plumage ; a thing that is the case no-
37
where else. The ibis, in the neighbourhood of Pelusium ³ only
is black, while in all other places it is white.

CHAP. 46. (31 . )— THE TIMES OF INCUBATION OF BIRDS.

The birds that have a note, with the exception of those pre-
viously mentioned,38 do not by any chance produce their young
before the vernal or after the autumnal equinox. As to the
broods produced before the summer solstice, it is very doubtful
if they will survive, but those hatched after it thrive well.

CHAP. 47. ( 32 . ) —THE HALCYONES : THE HALCYON DAYS THAT

ARE FAVOURABLE TO NAVIGATION.
It is for this that the halcyon is more especially remark-
able ; the seas, and all those who sail upon their surface, well
know the days of its incubation. This bird is a little larger
than a sparrow, and the greater part of its body is of an azure
blue colour, with only an intermixture of white and purple in
some of the larger feathers, while the neck is long and slen-
der. There is one kind that is remarkable for its larger size

it a small bird. Some make it the popinjay ; others, with more proba-
bility, the lapwing. Horace, B. iii. Ode 27, mentions it as the parra, a
bird of ill omen.
35 The Oriolus luteus, or witwall, according to Linnæus.
36 White blackbirds (if we may employ the paradox) are a distinct
variety, according to Cuvier, to be found in various countries, though but
rarely.
37 This is from Herodotus, but it is incorrect. The black, or rather
green ibis, Cuvier says, the Scolopax falcinellus of Linnæus, is found not
only near Pelusium, but all over the south of Europe.
38 He alludes to the nightingale, mentioned in c. 43.
39 The king-fisher, or Alcedo ispida of Linnæus. There is no truth
whatever in this favourite story of the ancients .
40 In copying from Aristotle, he has put " collum, " by mistake, for
" rostrum," the " beak."
Chap. 49.] THE SWALLOW. 513

and its note ; the smaller ones are heard singing in the reed-
beds. It is a thing of very rare occurrence to see a halcyon,
and then it is only about the time of the setting of the Vergiliæ,
and the summer and winter solstices ; when one is sometimes
to be seen to hover about a ship, and then immediately dis-
appear. They hatch their young at the time of the winter
solstice, from which circumstance those days are known as the
" halcyon days :" during this period the sea is calm and navi-
gable, the Sicilian sea in particular. They make their nest
during the seven days before the winter solstice, and sit the
same number of days after. Their nests ¹¹ are truly wonderful ;
they are of the shape of a ball slightly elongated, have a very
narrow mouth, and bear a strong resemblance to a large sponge.
It is impossible to cut them asunder with iron, and they are
only to be broken with a strong blow, upon which they sepa-
rate, just like foam of the sea when dried up . It has never
yet been discovered of what material they are made ; some
persons think that they are formed of sharp fish-bones, as it
is on fish that these birds live. They enter rivers also ; their
eggs are five in number.

CHAP. 48. - OTHER KINDS OF AQUATIC BIRDS.

The sea-mew also builds its nest in rocks, and the diver¹² in
trees as well. These birds produce three at the very most ; the
sea-mew in summer, the diver at the beginning of spring.

CHAP. 49. ( 33 . )-THE INSTINCTIVE CLEVERNESS DISPLAYED BY

BIRDS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THEIR NESTS. THE WONDER-
FUL WORKS OF THE SWALLOW. THE BANK-SWALLOW.

The form of the nest built by the halcyon reminds me also

of the instinctive cleverness displayed by other birds ; and, in-
deed, in no respect is the ingenuity of birds more deserving of
our admiration. The swallow builds its nest of mud, and
strengthens it with straws. If mud happens to fail, it soaks
itself with a quantity of water, which it then shakes from off
its feathers into the dust. It lines the inside of the nest with

41 This bird in reality builds no nest, but lays its eggs in holes on the
water side. The objects taken for its nest are a zoophyte called halcyonium
by Linnæus, as Cuvier informs us, and similar in shape to a nest.
42 Or didapper.
VOL. II. LL
514 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

soft feathers and wool, to keep the eggs warm, and in order
that the nest may not be hard and rough to its young when
hatched. It divides the food among its offspring with the
most rigid justice, giving it first to one and then to another.
With a remarkable notion of cleanliness, it throws out of the
nest the ordure of the young ones, and when they have grown
a little older, teaches them how to turn round, and let it fall
outside of the nest.
There is another43 kind of swallow, also, that frequents the
fields and the country ; its nest is of a different shape, though
of the same materials, but it rarely builds it against houses.
The nest has its mouth turned straight upwards, and theentrance
to it is long and narrow, while the body is very capacious. It
is quite wonderful what skill is displayed in the formation of
it, for the purpose of concealing the young ones, and of pre-
senting a soft surface for them to lie upon. At the Heracleotic
Mouth of the Nile in Egypt, the swallows present an insu-
perable obstacle to the inroads of that river, in the embank-
ment which is formed by their nests in one continuous line,
nearly a stadium in length ; a thing that could not possibly
have been effected by the agency of man. In Egypt, too,
near the city of Coptos, there is an island sacred to Isis. In
the early days of spring, the swallows strengthen the an-
gular corner of this island with chaff and straw, thus forti-
fying it in order that the river may not sweep it away. This
work they persevere in for three days and nights together, with
such unremitting labour, that it is a well-known fact that
many of them die with their exertions. This, too, is a toil
which recurs regularly for them every year.
There is, again, a third kind of swallow, which makes holes
in the banks of rivers, to serve for its nest. The young of
these birds, reduced to ashes, are a good specific against mortal
maladies of the throat, and tend to cure many other diseases of
the human body. These birds do not build nests, and they take
care to migrate a good many days before, if it so happens that
the rise of the river is about to reach their holes.

43 The first is the common chimney swallow. This latter one, Cuvier
says, is either the window swallow, the Hirundo urbica of Linnæus, or else
the martinet, the Hirundo apus of Linnæus.
44 The bank swallow, or Hirundo riparia of Linnæus.
Chap. 50.] THE ACANTHYLLIS . 515

CHAP. 50. - THE ACANTHYLLIS AND OTHER BIRDS.

Belonging to the genus of birds known as the " vitiparræ, "

there is one 45 whose nest is formed of dried moss,46 and is in
shape so exactly like a ball, that it is impossible to discover
the mouth of it. The bird, also, that is known as the acan-
thyllis, makes its nest of a similar shape, and interweaves it
with pieces of flax. The nest of one of the woodpeckers, very
much like a cup in shape, is suspended by a twig from the end
of the branch of a tree, so that no quadruped may be able to
reach it. It is strongly asserted, that the witwall 48 sleeps
suspended by its feet, because it fancies that by doing so it is
in greater safety. A thing, indeed, that is well-known of them
all, is the fact that, in a spirit of foresight, they select the pro-
jecting branches of trees that are sufficiently strong, for the
purpose of supporting their nests, and then arch them over to
protect them from the rain, or else shield them by means of the
thickness of the foliage.
In Arabia there is a bird known as the " cinnamolgus." ""
It builds its nest with sprigs of cinnamon ; and the natives
knock them down with arrows loaded with lead, in order to
sell them. In Scythia there is a bird, the size of the otis,
which produces two young ones always, in a hare's skin sus-
pended 50 from the top branches of a tree. Pies, when they
have observed a person steadily gazing at their nest, will im-
mediately remove their eggs to another place. This is said to
be accomplished in a truly wonderful manner, by such birds as
have not toes adapted for holding and removing their eggs.
They lay a twig upon two eggs, and then solder them to it by
means of a glutinous matter secreted from their body ; after
which, they pass their neck between the eggs, and so forming
an equipoise, convey them to another place.
45 Cuvier thinks that this is either the remiz, the Parus pendulinus of
Linnæus, or else the moustache, the Parus biarmicus of Linnæus.
46 Not moss, Cuvier says, but blades of grass, and the silken fibres of the
poplar and other aquatic trees.
47 Cuvier thinks that it is the same bird as the vitiparra of Pliny.
48 Galgulus.
49 This story, in all its extravagance, is related first by Herodotus, and
then by Aristotle, who has reduced it to its present dimensions, as given by
Pliny.
50 Cuvier suggests that, if at all based upon truth, this may have been
the case in one instance, and then ascribed to the whole species .
LL 2
516 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X,

CHAP. 51.- THE MEROPS - PARTRIDGES.

No less, too, is the shrewdness displayed by those birds which
make their nests upon the ground, because, from the extreme
weight of their body, they are unable to fly aloft. There is a
bird, known as the " merops, " 61 which feeds its parents in
their retreat the colour of the plumage on the inside is pale,
and azure without, while it is of a somewhat reddish hue at
the extremity of the wings : this bird builds its nest in a hole
which it digs to the depth of six feet.
Partridges52 fortify their retreat so well with thorns and
shrubs, that it is effectually protected against beasts of prey.
They make a soft bed for their eggs by burying them in the
dust, but do not hatch them where they are laid : that no sus-
picion may arise from the fact of their being seen repeatedly
about the same spot, they carry them away to some other place.
The females also conceal themselves from their mates, in order
that they may not be delayed in the process of incubation, as
the males, in consequence of the warmth of their passions, are
apt to break the eggs . The males, thus deprived of the females,
fall to fighting among themselves ; and it is said that the one
that is conquered, is treated as a female by the other. Trogus
Pompeius tells us that quails and dunghill cocks sometimes do
the same ; and adds, that wild partridges, when newly caught,
or when beaten by the others, are trodden promiscuously by
the tame ones. Through the very pugnacity thus inspired by
the strength of their passions, these birds are often taken, as
the leader of the whole covey frequently advances to fight with
the decoy-bird of the fowler ; as soon as he is taken, another and
then another will advance, all of which are caught in their
turn . The females, again, are caught about the pairing season ;
for then they will come forward to quarrel with the female
decoy-bird of the fowler, and so drive her away. Indeed, in
no other animal is there any such susceptibility in the sexual
feelings ; if the female only stands opposite to the male, while
the wind is blowing from that direction, she will become im-
pregnated ; and during this time she is in a state of the
51 The Merops apiaster of Linnæus, or bee-eater.
52 Cuvier says that the red partridge, the Tetrao rufus of Linnæus, is
meant.
53 The same wonderful story is told by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 5,
and by Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xvii. c. 15.
Chap. 52.] PIGEONS. 517

greatest excitement, the beak being wide open and the tongue
thrust out. The female will conceive also from the action of
the air, as the male flies above her, and very often from only
hearing his voice : indeed, to such a degree does passion get
the better of her affection for her offspring, that although at
the moment she is sitting furtively and in concealment, she
will, if she perceives the female decoy-bird of the fowler ap-
proaching her mate, call him back, and summon him away
from the other, and voluntarily submit to his advances.
Indeed, these birds are often carried away by such frantic
madness, that they will settle, being quite blinded by fear,"
upon the very head of the fowler. If he happens to move in
the direction of the nest, the female bird that is sitting will
run and throw herself before his feet, pretending to be over-
heavy, or else weak in the loins, and then, suddenly run-
ning or flying for a short distance before him, will fall down
as though she had a wing broken, or else her feet ; just as he
is about to catch her, she will then take another fly, and so
keep baffling him in his hopes, until she has led him to a con-
siderable distance from her nest. As soon as she is rid of her
fears, and free from all maternal disquietude, she will throw
herself on her back in some furrow, and seizing a clod of
earth with her claws, cover herself all over. It is supposed
that the life of the partridge extends to sixteen years.

CHAP. 52. ( 34 . )— PIGEONS.

Next to the partridge, it is in the pigeon that similar ten-
dencies are to be seen in the same respect : but then, chastity
is especially observed by it, and promiscuous intercourse is a
thing quite unknown. Although inhabiting a domicile in
common with others, they will none of them violate the laws
of conjugal fidelity : not one will desert its nest, unless it is
either widower or widow. Although, too, the males are very
imperious, and sometimes even extremely exacting, the females
put up with it : for in fact, the males sometimes suspect them of
infidelity, though by nature they are incapable of it. On
such occasions the throat of the male seems quite choked with
indignation, and he inflicts severe blows with the beak : and

" Metu." Aristotle says, by sexual passion. The reading is probably

corrupt here.
518 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

then afterwards, to make some atonement, he falls to bill-

ing, and by way of pressing his amorous solicitations, sidles
round and round the female with his feet. They both of them
manifest an equal degree of affection for their offspring ; in-
deed, it is not unfrequently that this is a ground for correction,
in consequence of the female being too slow in going to her
young. When the female is sitting, the male renders her every
attention that can in any way tend to her solace and comfort.
The first thing that they do is to eject from the throat some
saltish earth, which they have digested, into the mouths of
the young ones, in order to prepare them in due time to re-
ceive their nutriment. It is a peculiarity of the pigeon and
of the turtle-dove, not to throw back the neck when drinking,
but to take in the water at a long draught, just as beasts of
burden do.
(35. ) We read in some authors that the ring-dove lives so
long as thirty years, and sometimes as much as forty, without
any other inconvenience than the extreme length of the claws,
which with them, in fact, is the chief mark of old age ; they
can be cut, however, without any danger. The voice of all
these birds is similar, being composed of three notes, and then
a mournful noise at the end. In winter they are silent, and they
only recover their voice in the spring. Nigidius expresses it
as his opinion that the ring-dove will abandon the place, if she
hears her name mentioned under the roof where she is sitting
on her eggs : they hatch their young just after 55 the summer
solstice. Pigeons and turtle-doves live eight years.
(36. ) The sparrow, on the other hand, which has an equal
degree of salaciousness, is short- lived in the extreme. It is
said that the male does not live beyond a year ; and as a ground
for this belief, it is stated that at the beginning of spring, the
black marks are never to be seen upon the beak which began
to appear in the summer. The females, however, are said
to live somewhat longer.
Pigeons have even a certain appreciation of glory. There
is reason for believing that they are well aware of the colours
of their plumage, and the various shades which it presents, and
even in their very mode of flying they court our applause, as
they cleave the air in every direction. It is, indeed, through
55 See B. xviii. c. 68 ; where he says that the summer solstice is past at
the time of the incubation.
Chap. 53.] PIGEONS. 519

this spirit of ostentation that they are handed over, fast bound
as it were, to the hawk ; for from the noise that they make,
which, in fact, is only produced by the flapping of their wings,
their long feathers become twisted and disordered : otherwise,
when they can fly without any impediment, they are far swifter
in their movements than the hawk. The robber, lurking amid
the dense foliage, keeps on the look-out for them, and seizes
them at the very moment that they are indulging their vain-
glorious self-complaisance.
(37. ) It is for this reason that it is necessary to keep along
with the pigeons the bird that is known as the " tinnun-
culus ;"56 as it protects them, and by its natural superiority
scares away the hawk ; so much so, indeed, that the hawk will
vanish at the very sight of it, and the instant it hears its
voice. Hence it is that the pigeons have an especial regard
for this bird ; and, it is said, if one of these birds is buried
at each of the four corners of the pigeon-house in pots that
have been newly glazed, the pigeons will not change their
abode-a result which has been obtained by some by cutting a
joint of their wings with an instrument of gold ; for if any
other were used, the wounds would be not unattended with
danger. — The pigeon in general may be looked upon as a bird
fond of change ; they have the art, too, among themselves of
gaining one another over, and so seducing their companions :
hence it is that we frequently find them return attended by
others which they have enticed away.

CHAP. 53. - WONDERFUL THINGS DONE BY THEM ; PRICES AT

WHICH THEY HAVE BEEN SOLD.
In addition to this, pigeons have acted as messengers in
affairs of importance. During the siege of Mutina, Decimus
Brutus, who was in the town, sent despatches to the camp of
the consuls 57 fastened to pigeons' feet. Of what use to Antony
then were his intrenchments, and all the vigilance of the be-

56 Cuvier takes this to be the kestril, or Falco tinnunculus of Linnæus,

and considers it to be synonymous with the cenchris, mentioned in c. 73,
and in B. xxix. c. 6, though Pliny does not seem to be aware of the
identity.
57 Hirtius and Pansa. Frontinus, B. iii. c. 13, says that pigeons were
sent by Hirtius to Brutus. At the present day, letters are sent fastened
under their wings.
520 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

sieging army ? his nets, too, which he had spread in the river,
while the messenger of the besieged was cleaving the air ?
Many persons have quite a mania for pigeons- building towns
for them on the top of their roofs, and taking a pleasure in
relating the pedigree and noble origin of each. Of this there
is an ancient instance that is very remarkable ; L. Axius, a
Roman of the equestrian order, shortly before the Civil War of
Pompeius, sold a single pair for four hundred denarii, as we learn
from the writings of M. Varro.58 Countries even have gained
renown for their pigeons ; it is thought that those of Campania
attain the largest size.

CHAP. 54. (38 . ) —DIFFERENT MODES OF FLIGHT AND PROGRES-

SION IN BIRDS.
The flight of the pigeon also leads me to consider that of
other birds as well. All other animals have one determinate
mode of progression, which in every kind is always the same ;
it is birds alone that have two modes of moving - the one on
the ground, the other in the air. Some of them walk, such
as the crow, for instance ; some hop, as the sparrow and the
blackbird ; some, again, run, as the partridge and the woodhen ;
while others throw one foot before the other, the stork and the
crane, for instance . Then again, in their flight, some birds ex-
pand their wings, and, poising themselves in the air, only move
them from time to time ; others move them more frequently,
but then only at the extremities ; while others expand them
so as to expose the whole of the side. On the other hand,
some fly with the greater part of the wings kept close to
the side ; and some, after striking the air once, others twice,
make their way through it, as though pressing upon it enclosed
beneath their wings ; other birds dart aloft in a vertical di-
rection, others horizontally, and others come falling straight
downwards. You would almost think that some had been
hurled upwards with a violent effort, and that others, again, had
fallen straight down from aloft ; while others are seen to spring
forward in their flight . Ducks alone, and the other birds of
that kind, in an instant raise themselves aloft, taking a spring
from the spot where they stand straight upwards towards the
heavens ; and this they can do from out of the water even ;
hence it is that they are the only birds that can make their
58 B. iii. c. 7.
 Chap 56. ] FOOD OF BIRDS. 521

escape from the pitfalls which we employ for the capture of

wild beasts.
Thevulture and the heavier wild birds can only fly after taking
a run, or else by commencing their flight from an elevated spot.
They use the tail by way of rudder. There are some birds that
are able to see all around them ; others, again, have to turn the
neck to do so. Some of them eat what they have seized, holding
it in their feet. Many, as they fly, utter some cry ; while on
the other hand, many, in their flight, are silent. Some fly with
the breast half upright, others with it held downwards, others
fly obliquely, or else side-ways, and others following the di-
rection of the bill . Some, again, are borne along with the head
upwards ; indeed the fact is, that if we were to see several kinds
at the same moment, we should not suppose that they have to
make their way in the same element.

CHAP. 55. (39 . ) - THE BIRDS CALLED APODES , OR CYPSELI.

Those birds which are known as " apodes " 59 fly the most of
all, because they are deprived of the use of their feet. By
some persons they are called " cypseli." They are a species of
swallow which build their nests in the rocks, and are the same
birds that are to be seen everywhere at sea ; indeed, however
far a ship may go, however long its voyage, and however great
the distance from land, the apodes never cease to hover around
it. Other birds settle and come to a stand, whereas these know
no repose but in the nest ; they are always either on the wing
or else asleep .

CHAP. 56. (40 . ) - RESPECTING THE FOOD OF BIRDS— THE CAPRI-

MULGUS, THE PLATEA.
The instincts, also, of birds are no less varied, and more es-
pecially in relation to their food . 66' Caprimulgus 60 is the
name of a bird, which is to all appearance a large blackbird ;
it thieves by night, as it cannot see during the day. It enters
the folds of the shepherds, and makes straight for the udder
of the she-goat, to suck the milk. Through the injury thus
inflicted the udder shrivels away, and the goat that has been
thus deprived of its milk, is afflicted with incipient blindness.
59 " Without feet." This was supposed to be the case with the martinet,
the Hirundo apus of Linnæus.
60 Or " goat-sucker." The Caprimulgus Europeus of Linnæus.
522 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

"Platea" " " is the name of another, which pounces upon other
birds when they have dived in the sea, and, seizing the head
with its bill, makes them let go their prey. This bird also
swallows and fills itself with shell-fish, shells and all ; after
the natural heat of its crop has softened them, it brings them
up again, and then picking out the shells from the rest, selects
the parts that are fit for food.

CHAP. 57. (41 . ) - THE INSTINCTS OF BIRDS-THE CARDUELIS,

THE TAURUS, THE ANTHUS.
The farm-yard fowls have also a certain notion of religion ;
upon laying an egg they shudder all over, and then shake their
feathers ; after which they turn round and purify themselves,
or else hallow63 themselves and their eggs with some stalk or
64
other. (42.) The carduelis, which is the very smallest bird
of any, will do what it is bid, not only with the voice but with
the feet as well, and with the beak, which serves it instead of
hands. There is one bird, found in the territory of Arelate, that
imitates the lowing of oxen, from which circumstance it has
received the name of " taurus."65 In other respects it is of
small size. Another bird, called the " anthus,' 66 imitates the
neighing of the horse ; upon being driven from the pasture by
the approach of the horses, it will mimic their voices—and this
is the method it takes of revenging itself.

CHAP. 58. - BIRDS WHICH SPEAK- THE PARROT.

But above all , there are some birds that can imitate the hu-
man voice ; the parrot, for instance, which can even converse.
India sends us this bird, which it calls by the name of " sit-
taces ;" 67 the body is green all over, only it is marked with
61 Cuvier says that this is the spoon-bill, the Platalea leucorodea of Lin-
Deus. Some suppose it to be the bittern.
62 By nestling in the dust. Throwing dust over the body was one of
the ancient modes of purification.
63 " Lustrant," " perform a lustration." This was done by the Romans
with a branch of laurel or olive, and sometimes bean-stalks were used.
64 The linnet, probably.
65 The " bull." This cannot possibly be the bittern, as some have sug-
gested, for that is a large bird.
66 Supposed to be the Motacilla flava of Linnæus, the spring wagtail.
67 Hence the Latin name " psittacus." From this, Cuvier thinks that
the first known among these birds to the Greeks and Romans, was the
green perroquet with a ringed neck, the Psittacus Alexandri of Linnæus.
Chap. 59.] THE MAGPIE. 523

a ring of red around the neck. It will duly salute an em-

peror, and pronounce the words it has heard spoken ; it is
rendered especially frolicsome under the influence of wine.
Its head is as hard as its beak ; and this, when it is being
taught to talk, is beaten with a rod of iron, for otherwise it
is quite insensible to blows. When it lights on the ground it
falls upon
its beak, and by resting upon it makes itself all
the lighter for its feet, which are naturally weak.
CHAP. 59.- THE PIE WHICH FEEDS ON ACORNS.
The magpie is much less famous for its talking qualities than
the parrot, because it does not come from a distance, and yet
it can speak with much more distinctness. These birds love
to hear words spoken which they can utter ; and not only do
they learn them, but are pleased at the task ; and as they con
them over to themselves with the greatest care and attention,
make no secret of the interest they feel. It is a well-known
fact, that a magpie has died before now, when it has found itself
mastered by a difficult word that it could not pronounce.
Their memory, however, will fail them if they do not from
time to time hear the same word repeated ; and while they are
trying to recollect it, they will show the most extravagant joy,
if they happen to hear it. Their appearance, although there
is nothing remarkable in it, is by no means plain ; but they
have quite sufficient beauty in their singular ability to imitate
the human speech.
It is said, however, that it is only the kind of pie which
feeds upon acorns that can be taught to speak ; and that
among these, those which69 have five toes on each foot can be
taught with the greatest facility ; but in their case even, only
during the first two years of their life. The magpie has a
broader tongue than is usual with most other birds ; which
is the case also with all the other birds that can imitate the
human voice ; although some individuals of almost every kind
have the faculty of doing so.
Agrippina, the wife of Claudius Cæsar, had a thrush that
could imitate human speech, a thing that was never known
before. At the moment that I am writing this, the young
68 Cuvier says that this is the jay, the Corvus glandarius of Linnæus ;
but that they are not more apt at speaking than the other kinds.
69 Cuvier remarks, that these can only be monstrosities.
 524 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X,

Cæsars 70 have a starling and some nightingales that are being

taught to talk in Greek and Latin ; besides which, they are
studying their task the whole day, continually repeating the
new words that they have learnt, and giving utterance to
phrases even of considerable length. Birds are taught to
talk in a retired spot, and where no other voice can be heard,
so as to interfere with their lesson ; a person sits by them, and
continually repeats the words he wishes them to learn, while
at the same time he encourages them by giving them food.

CHAP. 60. ( 43 . )—A SEDITION THAT AROSE AMONG THE ROMAN

PEOPLE, IN CONSEQUENCE OF A RAVEN SPEAKING.
Let us do justice, also, to the raven, whose merits have been
attested not only by the sentiments of the Roman people, but
by the strong expression, also, of their indignation. In the
reign of Tiberius, one of a brood of ravens that had bred on
the top of the temple of Castor," happened to fly into a shoe-
maker's shop that stood opposite : upon which, from a feeling
of religious veneration, it was looked upon as doubly recom-
mended by the owner of the place. The bird, having been
taught to speak at an early age, used every morning to fly to
the Rostra, which look towards the Forum ; here, addressing
each by his name, it would salute Tiberius, and then the
Cæsars 72 Germanicus and Drusus, after which it would pro-
ceed to greet the Roman populace as they passed, and then re-
turn to the shop : for several years it was remarkable for the
constancy ofits attendance. The owner of another shoemaker's
shop in the neighbourhood, in a sudden fit of anger killed the
bird, enraged, as he would have had it appear, because with its
ordure it had soiled some shoes of his. Upon this, there was
such rage manifested by the multitude, that he was at once
driven from that part of the city, and soon after put to death.
The funeral, too, of the bird was celebrated with almost end-
less obsequies ; the body was placed upon a litter carried upon
the shoulders of two Ethiopians, preceded by a piper, and
borne to the pile with garlands of every size and description.
The pile was erected on the right-hand side of the Appian
Way, at the second milestone from the City, in the field gene-
70 Britannicus, the son of Claudius, and Nero, his stepson.
71 In the eighth region of the city.
72 The nephew and son of Tiberius.
Chap. 60.] CONSEQUENCES OF A RAVEN SPEAKING. 525

rally known as the " field of Rediculus." 73 Thus did the rare
talent of a bird appear a sufficient ground to the Roman people
for honouring it with funeral obsequies, as well as for inflicting
punishment on a Roman citizen ; and that, too, in a city in
which no such crowds had ever escorted the funeral of any one
out of the whole number of its distinguished men, and where
no one had been found to avenge the death of Scipio Æmili-
anus,74 the man who had destroyed Carthage and Numantia.
This event happened in the consulship of M. Servilius and
Caius Cestius, on the fifth day75 before the calends of April.
At the present day also, the moment that I am writing this,
there is in the city of Rome a crow which belongs to a Roman
of equestrian rank, and was brought from Bætica. In the first
place, it is remarkable for its colour, which is of the deepest
black, and at the same time it is able to pronounce several
connected words, while it is repeatedly learning fresh ones.
Recently, too, there has been a story told about Craterus, sur-
named Monoceros," in Erizena,78 a country of Asia, who was
in the habit of hunting with the assistance of ravens, and used
to carry them into the woods, perched on the tuft of his hel-
met and on his shoulders. The birds used to keep on the watch
for game, and raise it ; and by training he had brought this art
to such a pitch of perfection, that even the wild ravens would
attend him in a similar manner when he went out. Some
authors have thought the following circumstance deserving of
remembrance : -A crow that was thirsty was seen heaping
stones into the urn on a monument, in which there was some
rain-water which it could not reach : and so, being afraid to
go down to the water, by thus accumulating the stones, it
73 Festus says that the " fane of Rediculus was without the Porta Ca-
pena ; it was so called because Hannibal, when on the march from Capua,
turned back (redierit) at that spot, being alarmed at certain portentous
visions."
74 P. Cornelius Scipio Emilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of
L. Æmilius Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia. It is doubtful whether
he died a natural death, or was privately assassinated by the partisans of
the Gracchi. His wife, Cornelia, and his mother, Sempronia, were sus-
pected by some persons.
75 28th March.
76 One would hardly think that there was anything wonderful in a crow
being very black.
77 The " one-horned."
78 Most probably in Asia Minor, and not Eriza in India.
526 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

caused as much water to come within its reach as was necessary

to satisfy its thirst.

CHAP. 61. (44. )-THE BIRDS OF DIOMEDES.

Nor yet must I pass by the birds" of Diomedes in silence.
Juba calls these birds " cataractæ," and says that they have
teeth and eyes of a fiery colour, while the rest of the body is
white that they always have two chiefs, the one to lead the
main body, the other to take charge of the rear ; that they ex-
cavate holes with their bills, and then cover them with hurdles,
which they cover again with the earth that has been thus
thrown up ; that it is in these places they hatch their young ;
that each of these holes has two outlets ; that one of them looks
towards the east, and that by it they go forth to feed, return-
ing by the one which looks towards the west ; and that when
about to ease themselves, they always take to the wing, and fly
against the wind. In one spot only throughout the whole
earth are these birds to be seen, in the island, namely, which
we have mentioned80 as famous for the tomb and shrine of
Diomedes, lying over against the coast of Apulia : they bear
a strong resemblance to the coot. When strangers who are
barbarians arrive on that island, they pursue them with loud
and clamorous cries, and only show courtesy to Greeks by
birth ; seeming thereby, with a wonderful discernment, to pay
respect to them as the fellow-countrymen of Diomedes.
Every day they fill their throats, and cover their feathers, with
water, and so wash and purify the temple there. From this
circumstance arises the fables that the companions of Diomedes
were metamorphosed into these birds.

CHAP. 62. (45 . ) — ANIMALS THAT CAN LEARN NOTHING.

We ought not to omit, while we are speaking of instincts,
that among birds the swallow82 is quite incapable of being
79 Cuvier is inclined to think that the Anas tadorna approaches most
nearly the description given here. From Ovid's description of their hard
and pointed bills and claws, it would appear that a petrel (Procellaria), or
else a white heron (Ardea garzetta), is intended ; but these birds, he remarks,
do not make holes in the earth. Linnæus has given the name of Dio-
medea exulans to the albatross, a bird of the Antarctic seas, which cannot
have been known to the ancients.
80 B. iii. c. 29. 81 See Ovid's Met. B. xiii.
82 Albertus Magnus says that swallows can be tamed.
Chap. 66.] THE PELICAN. 527

taught, and among land animals the mouse ; while on the other
hand, the elephant does what it is ordered, the lion submits to
the yoke, and the sea-calf and many kinds of fishes are ca-
pable of being tamed.
CHAP. 63. (46 . )— THE MODE OF DRINKING WITH BIRDS . THE
PORPHYRIO.
Birds drink by suction ; those which have a long neck taking
their drink in a succession of draughts, and throwing the head
back, as though they were pouring the water down the
83
throat. The porphyrio is the only bird that seems to bite at
the water as it drinks. The same bird has also other pecu-
liarities of its own ; for it will every now and then dip its food
in the water, and then lift it with its foot to its bill, using
it as a hand. Those that are the most esteemed are found in
Commagene. They have beaks and very long legs, of a red
colour.
CHAP. 64. ( 47 . )-—THE HEMATOPOus.
84
There are the same characteristics in the hæmatopous 4 also,
a bird of much smaller size, although standing as high on the
legs. It is a native of Egypt, and has three toes on each foot ;
flies 85 forming its principal food. If brought to Italy, it sur-
vives for a few days only.
CHAP. 65. - THE FOOD OF BIRDS.
All the heavy birds are frugivorous ; while those with a
higher flight feed upon flesh only. Among the aquatic birds,
86
the divers are in the habit of devouring what the other birds
have disgorged.
CHAP. 66. - THE PELICAN.
The pelican is similar in appearance to the swan, and it
would be thought that there was no difference between them
83 The Fulica porphyrio of Linnæus, the Poule sultane of Buffon.
8 Literally, "the blood-red foot." Cuvier says that this description may
apply to the sea-pie or oyster-eater, the Hæmatopus ostralegus of Linnæus .
or else the long-legged plover, the Charadrius himantopus of Linnæus,
but most probably the latter, more especially if the reading here is " hi-
mantopus," as some editions have it.
85 Muscæ," " flies," is a mistake of the copyists, Cuvier thinks, for
" musculi," " mussels."
80 More especially the Larus parasiticus, Cuvier says.
 528 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

whatever, were it not for the fact that under the throat there
is a sort of second crop, as it were. It is in this that the ever-
insatiate animal stows everything away, so much so, that the
capacity of this pouch is quite astonishing. After having
finished its search for prey, it discharges bit by bit what it has
thus stowed away, and reconveys it by a sort of ruminating
process into its real stomach. The part of Gallia that lies
nearest to the Northern Ocean produces this bird.

CHAP. 67. - FOREIGN BIRDS : THE PHALERIDES, THE PHEASANT,

AND THE NUMIDICE.
In the Hercynian Forest, in Germany, we hear of a singular
kind of bird, the feathers of which shine at night like fire ;
the other birds there have nothing remarkable beyond the ce-
lebrity which generally attaches to objects situate at a distance.
(48.) The phalerides, the most esteemed of all the aquatic
birds, are found at Seleucia, the city of the Parthians of that
name, and in Asia as well ; and again, in Colchis, there is the
89
pheasant, a bird with two tufts of feathers like ears, which
it drops and raises every now and then. The numidica⁹ come
from Numidia, a part of Africa : all these varieties are now to
be found in Italy.

CHAP. 68. THE PHŒNICOPTERUS, THE ATTAGEN, THE PHALACRO-

CORAX, THE PYRRHOCORAX, AND THE LAGOPUS.
Apicius, that very deepest whirlpool of all our epicures,
91 has
informed us that the tongue of the 92phoenicopterus 9¹ is of the
most exquisite flavour. The attagen, also, of Ionia is a famous
87 Dalechamps thinks that this story bears reference to the chatterer (the
Ampelis garrulus of Linnæus), the ends of certain feathers of the wings
being extended, and of a vermilion colour : but Cuvier looks upon Pliny's
account as almost nothing more than a poetical exaggeration.
8 A species of duck, Cuvier thinks. From Aristophanes we learn that
they were common in the markets of Athens. Cuvier suggests that it may
have been the Anas galericulata of Linnæus, the Chinese teal, which the
Parthians may have received from the countries lying to the east of them.
89 " Phasiana, " so called from the river Phasis.
90 A variety of the guinea fowl ; probably the Numida Meleagris of
Linnæus.
91 Literally, the " red-wing." The modern flamingo.
92 Buffon thinks that this is the grouse of the English, the Tetrao Scoti-
cus of the naturalists ; but Cuvier is of opinion that it is either the com-
mon wood-cock, the Tetrao bonasia of Linnæus, or else the wood-cock with
Chap. 69. ] THE NEW BIRDS. 529

bird ; but although it has a voice at other times, it is mute in

93
captivity. It was formerly reckoned among the rare birds,
but at the present day it is found in Gallia, Spain, and in the
94
Alps even ; which is also the case with the phalacrocorax, a
bird peculiar to the Balearic Isles, as the pyrrhocorax , 95 a black
bird with a yellow bill, is to the Alps, and the lagopus, " which
is esteemed for its excellent flavour. This last bird derives
its name from its feet, which are covered, as it were, with the
fur of a hare, the rest of the body being white, and the size of
a pigeon. It is not an easy matter to taste it out of its native
country, as it never becomes domesticated, and when dead it
quickly spoils.
There is another 97 bird also, which has the same name, and
only differs from the quail in size ; it is of a saffron colour,
and is most delicate eating. Egnatius Calvinus, who was pre-
fect there, pretends that he has seen 98 in the Alps the ibis also,
a bird that is peculiar to Egypt.

CHAP. 69. (49 . )— THE NEW BIRDS. THE VIPIO.

During the civil wars that took9999
place at Bebriacum, beyond
the river Padus, the "new birds were introduced into Italy
-for by that name they are still known. They resemble the
thrush in appearance, are a little smaller than the pigeon in
pointed tail, of the south of Europe, the Tetrao alchata of Linnæus, most
probably the latter, as the male has black and blue spots on the back ; a
fact which may explain the joke in the " Birds " of Aristophanes, where a
run-away slave who has been marked with stripes, is called an attagen. By
some it is called the " red-headed hazel-hen."
93 In allusion, perhaps, to the words of Horace, Epod . ii. 54.
Non attagen Ionicus
Jucundior, quam lecta de pinguissimis
Oliva ramis arborum.
94 Literally, the " bald crow." Pliny, B. xi. c. 47, says that it is an
aquatic bird and naturalists generally identify it with the cormorant, the
Pelecanus carbo of Linnæus.
95 Literally, the red crow, the chocard of the Alps, the Corvus pyrrho-
corax of Linnæus.
96 The " hare's foot. " Identical with the snow partridge, the Tetrao
lagopus of Linnæus ; it is white in winter.
97 The same bird, Cuvier says, as seen in summer, being then of a
saffron colour, with blackish spots.
98 Cuvier remarks, that the green courlis, the Scolopax falcinellus of
Linnæus, which is not improbably the real ibis of the ancients, is by no
means uncommon in Italy.
99 " Novæ aves." The grey partridge, Hardouin thinks.
VOL. II. M M
530 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

size, and of an agreeable flavour. The Balearic islands also

send us a porphyrio, ' that is superior to the one previously
mentioned. There the buteo, a kind of hawk, is held in high
esteem for the table, as also the vipio," the name given to a
small kind of crane.
CHAP. 70.-FABULOUS BIRDS.
I look upon the birds as fabulous which are called “ pegasi,'
and are said to have a horse's head ; as also the griffons, with
long ears and a hooked beak. The former are said to be na-
tives of Scythia," the latter of Ethiopia. The same is my
cpinion, also, as to the tragopan ; many writers, however,
assert that it is larger than the eagle, has curved horns on the
temples, and a plumage of iron colour, with the exception of
the head, which is purple. Nor yet do the sirens obtain any
greater credit with me, although Dinon, the father of Clearchus,
a celebrated writer, asserts that they exist in India, and that
they charm men by their song, and, having first lulled them to
sleep, tear them to pieces. The person, however, who may
think fit to believe in these tales, may probably not refuse to
believe also that dragons licked the ears of Melampodes, and
bestowed upon him the power of understanding the language
of birds ; as also what Democritus says, when he gives the
names of certain birds, by the mixture of whose blood a ser-
pent is produced, the person who eats of which will be able ·
to understand the language of birds ; as well as the statements
which the same writer makes relative to one bird in particular,
known as the " galerita," "—indeed, the science of augury is
already too much involved in embarrassing questions, without
these fanciful reveries.
997
There is a kind of bird spoken of by Homer as the " scops :'
but I cannot very easily comprehend the grotesque movements
which many persons have attributed to it, when the fowler is
1 Flamingo. 2 See B. xi . c. 44.
3 Scythia and Ethiopia ought to be transposed here, as the griffons
were said to be monsters that guarded the gold inthe mountains of Scythia,
the Uralian chain, probably.
Literally, the " goat Pan." Cuvier thinks that the bird here alluded
to actually existed, and identifies it with the napaul, or horned pheasant of
Buffon, the penelope satyra of Gmell, a bird of the north of India, and
which answers the description here given by Pliny.
5 See Ovid, Met. B. v. 1. 553. 6 Å kind of crested,lark.
The Strix scops, probably, of Linn. See the Odyssey, B. v. Í. 66.
Chap. 72.] WHO FIRST INVENTED AVIARIES. 531

laying snares for it ; nor, indeed, is it a bird that is any longer

known to exist. It will be better, therefore, to confine my re-
lation to those the existence of which is generally admitted .

CHAP. 71. (50 . ) —WHO FIRST INVENTED THE ART OF CRAMMING

POULTRY : WHY THE FIRST CENSORS FORBADE THIS PRACTICE.

The people of Delos were the first to cram poultry ; and it is

with them that originated that abominable mania for devouring
fattened birds, larded with the grease of their own bodies. I
find in the ancient sumptuary regulations as to banquets, that
this was forbidden for the first time by a law of the consul Caius
Fannius, eleven years before the Third Punic War ; by which it
was ordered that no bird should be served at table beyond a
single pullet, and that not fattened ; an article which has since
made its appearance in all the sumptuary 8 laws. A method,
however, has been devised of evading it, by feeding poultry upon
food that has been soaked in milk: prepared in this fashion, they
are considered even still more delicate. All pullets, however,
are not looked upon as equally good for the purposes of fatten-
ing, and only those are selected which have a fatty skin about
the neck. Then, too, come all the arts of the kitchen - that
the thighs may have a nice plump appearance, that the bird
may be properly divided down the back, and that poultry may
be brought to such a size that a single leg shall fill a whole
platter. The Parthians, too, have taught their fashions to our
cooks ; and yet after all, in spite of their refinements in luxury,
no article is found to please equally in every part, for in one
it is the thigh, and in another the breast only, that is es-
teemed.

CHAP. 72. - WHO FIRST INVENTED AVIARIES. THE DISH OF

ESOPUS.
The first person who invented aviaries for the reception of
all kinds of birds was M. Lænius Strabo, a member of the
equestrian order, who resided at Brundisium. It was in his
time that we thus began to imprison animals to which Nature
had assigned the heavens as their element.
(51.) But more remarkable than anything in this respect, is
8 Those called Orchia, Didia, Oppia, Cornelia, Antia, and Julia namely.
9 Repositoria. See B. xxxiii. c. 49. See also B. ix. c. 13.
M M 2
532 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

the story of the dish of Clodius Esopus,10 the tragic actor,

which was valued at one hundred thousand sesterces, and in
which were served up nothing but birds that had been remark-
able for their song, or their imitation of the human voice, and
purchased, each of them, at the price of six thousand sesterces ;
he being induced to this folly by no other pleasure than that
in these he might eat the closest imitators of man ; never for
a moment reflecting that his own immense fortune had been
acquired by the advantages of his voice ; a parent, indeed,
right worthy of the son of whom we have already made men-
tion," as swallowing pearls. It would not, to say the truth,
be very easy to come to a conclusion which of the two was
guilty of the greatest baseness ; unless, indeed, we are ready to
admit that it was less unseemly to banquet upon the most
costly of all the productions of Nature, than to devour 12 tongues
which had given utterance to the language of man.
CHAP. 73. ( 52. ) — THE GENERATION OF BIRDS : OTHER OVIPAROUS
ANIMALS.
The generation of birds would appear to be very simple,
while at the same time it has its own peculiar marvels. In-
deed, there are quadrupeds as well that produce eggs, the
chameleon, for instance, the lizard, and those of the serpent
13
tribe of which we have previously spoken. Of the feathered
race, those which have hooked talons are comparatively unpro-
lific ; the cenchris14 being the only one among them that lays
more than four eggs. Nature has so ordained it in the birds,
that the timid ones should be more prolific than those which
are courageous. The ostrich, the common fowl, and the par-
tridge, are the only birds that lay eggs in considerable num-
bers. Birds have two modes of coupling, the female crouching
on the ground, as in the barn-door fowl, or else standing, as is
the case with the crane.
CHAP. 74.- THE VARIOUS KINDS OF EGGS, AND THEIR NATURE.
Some eggs are white, as those of the pigeon and partridge,
10 Valerius Maximus, B. ix. c. 1 , tells this story of the profligate son of
Esopus. 11 B. ix. c. 59.
12 Hominum linguas," Pliny says ; a singularly inappropriate expres-
sion, it would appear.
13 See B. viii. c. 37.
14 The tinnunculus, probably, of c. 52.
Chap. 74. ] THE VARIOUS KINDS OF EGGS. 533

for instance ; others are of a pale colour, as in the aquatic

birds : others, again, are dotted all over with spots, as is the
case with those of the meleagris ; others are red, like those of
the pheasant and the cenchris. In the inside, the eggs of all
birds are of two colours ; those of the aquatic kind have more
of the yellow than the white, and the yellow is of a paler tint
than in those of other birds. Among fish, the eggs are of the
same colour throughout, there being, in fact, no white. The
eggs of birds are of a brittle nature, in consequence of the
natural heat of the animal, while those of serpents are supple,
in consequence of their coldness, and those of fish soft, from
their natural humidity. Again, the eggs of aquatic birds are
round, while those of most other kinds are elongated, and taper
to a point. Eggs are laid with the round end foremost, and
at the moment that they are laid the shell is soft, but it imme-
diately grows hard, as each portion becomes exposed to the air.
Horatius Flaccus 15 expresses it as his opinion that those eggs
which are of an oblong shape are of the most agreeable flavour.
The rounder eggs are those which produce 16 the female, the
others the male. The umbilical 17 cord is in the upper part
of the egg, like a drop floating on the surface in the shell.
(53.) There are some birds that couple at all seasons of the
year, barn-door fowls, for instance ; they lay, too, at all times,
with the exception of two months at mid-winter. Pullets lay
more eggs than the older hens, but then they are smaller. In
the same brood those chickens are the smallest that are
hatched the first and the last. These animals, indeed, are so
prolific, that some of them will lay as many as sixty eggs,
some daily, some twice a day, and some in such vast numbers
that they have been known to die from exhaustion. Those
known as the " Adrianæ, " 18 are the most esteemed . Pigeons
sit ten times a year, and some of them eleven, and in Egypt
during the month of the winter solstice even. Swallows,

15 B. ii. Sat. 4, 1. 12. " Longa quibus facies ovis erit, ille memento,
Ut succi melioris, et ut magis alba rotundis."
16 Aristotle says just the reverse : but Hardouin thinks that the passage
in Aristotle has been corrupted.
17 This, Cuvier says, in reality is not the umbilical cord, but the chalasis,
a little transparent and gelatinous ligament, by which the yolk is suspended
like a globe. The true umbilical cord of the bird only makes its appearance
after an incubation of some days.
18 Produced in the territory of Adria. See B. iii. c. 18.
534 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. Book X.

blackbirds, ring-doves, and turtle-doves sit twice a year, most

other birds only once. Thrushes make their nests of mud, in
the tops of trees, almost touching one another, and lay during
the time of their retirement. The egg comes to maturity in the
ovary ten days after treading ; but if the hen or pigeon is tor-
mented by pulling out the feathers, or by the infliction of any
injury of a similar nature, the maturing of the egg is retarded.
In the middle of the yolk of every egg there is what ap-
pears to be a little drop¹ of blood ; this is supposed to be
the heart of the chicken, it being the general belief that that
part is formed the first in every animal : at all events, while
in the egg this speck is seen to throb and palpitate . The body
of the animal itself is formed from the white fluid 20 in the
egg ; while the yellow part constitutes its food . The head in
every kind, while in the shell, is larger than the rest of the
body ; the eyes, too, are closed, and are larger than the other
parts of the head. As the chicken grows , the white gradually
passes to the middle of the egg, while the yellow is spread
around it. On the twentieth day, if the egg is shaken, the
voice of the now living animal can be heard in the shell. From
this time it gradually becomes clothed with feathers ; and its
position is such that it has the head above the right foot, and
the right wing above the head : the yolk in the meantime
gradually disappears . All birds are born with the feet first,
while with every other animal the contrary is the case. Some
hens lay all their eggs with two yolks, and sometimes hatch
twin chickens from the same egg, one being larger than the
other, according to Cornelius Celsus : other writers, however,
deny " the possibility of twin chickens being hatched. It is
a rule never to give a brood hen more than twenty- five 22 eggs
to sit upon at once. Hens begin to lay immediately after the
winter solstice. The best broods are those which are hatched
1
19 Cuvier says, that after an egg has been set upon for some days, the
heart of the chicken may be seen like a small red speck, that palpitates ;
but that no such thing is to be seen before incubation.
20 Cuvier remarks, that the chicken is not formed exclusively from the
white, and that the yellow is gradually displaced by it, as the chicken in-
creases in size.
21 Cuvier tells us, that in the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburgh,
there is a memoir by Wolf, entitled Ovum simplex gemelliferum, in which
these twin chickens are described with great exactness.
22 More generally eleven or thirteen in this country.
Chap. 76.] AN AUGURY DERIVED FROM EGGS. 535

before the vernal equinox : chickens that are hatched after the
summer solstice, never attain their full growth, and the more
so, the later they are produced.

CHAP. 75. (54. )- DEFECTS IN BROOD-HENS, AND THEIR REMEDIES.

Those eggs which have been laid within the last ten days, are
the best for putting under the hen ; old ones, or those which
have just been laid, will be unfruitful ; an uneven number23
also ought to be placed . On the fourth day after the hen has
begun to sit, if, upon taking an egg with one hand by the two
ends and holding it up to the light, it is found to be clear and
of one uniform colour, it is most likely to be barren, and an-
other should be substituted in its place. There is also a way
of testing them by means of water ; an empty egg will float
on the surface, while those that fall to the bottom, or, in other
words, are full, should be placed under the hen. Care must
be taken, however, not to make trial by shaking them, for if
the organs which are necessary for life become confused, they
will come to nothing.24 Incubation ought to begin just after
the new moon ; for, if commenced before, the eggs will be un-
productive. The chickens are hatched sooner if the weather
is warm : hence it is that in summer they break the shell on
the nineteenth day, but in winter on the twenty-fifth only.
If it happens to thunder during the time of incubation, the
eggs are addled, and if the cry of a hawk is heard they are
spoilt. The best remedy against the effects of thunder, is to
put an iron nail beneath the straw on which the eggs are laid,
or else some earth from off a ploughshare. Some eggs, how-
ever, are hatched by the spontaneous action of Nature, without
the process of incubation, as is the case in the dung-hills of
Egypt. There is a well-known story related about a man at
Syracuse, who was in the habit of covering eggs with earth,25
and then continuing his drinking bout till they were hatched.

CHAP. 76. (55. )- AN AUGURY DERIVED FROM EGGS BY AN EMPRESS.

And, what is even more singular still, eggs can be hatched
also by a human being. Julia Augusta, when pregnant in
23 To secure their being more equably covered.
24 Or rather, will produce chickens hideously deformed. This trick is
sometimes practised among the country people against those to whom they
owe a grudge, 25 Aristotle says with a straw mat.
536 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X

her early youth of Tiberius Cæsar, by Nero, was particularly

desirous that her offspring should be a son, and accordingly
employed the following mode of divination, which was then
much in use among young women : she carried an egg in her
bosom, taking care, whenever she was obliged to put it down,
to give it to her nurse to warm in her own, that there might
be no interruption in the heat : it is stated that the result pro-
mised by this mode of augury was not falsified .
It was perhaps from this circumstance, that the modern in-
vention took its rise, of placing eggs in a warm spot and cover-
ing them with chaff, the heat being maintained by a moderate
fire, while in the meantime a man is employed in turning them.
By the adoption of this plan, the young, all of them, break
the shell on a stated day. There is a story told of a breeder
of poultry, of such remarkable skill, that on seeing an egg he
could tell which hen had laid it. It is said also that when a
hen has happened to die while sitting, the males have been seen
to take her place in turns, and perform all the other duties of a
brood-hen, taking care in the meantime to abstain from crow-
ing. But the most remarkable thing of all, is the sight of a
hen, beneath which ducks' eggs have been put and hatched.- ---
At first, she is unable to quite recognize the brood as her own,
while in her anxiety she gives utterance to her clucking as
she doubtfully calls them ; then at last she will stand at the
margin of the pond, uttering her laments, while the duck-
lings, with Nature for their guide, are diving beneath the water.

CHAP. 77. (56 . )—THE BEST KINDS OF FOWLS.

The breed of a fowl is judged of by the erectness of the
crest, which is sometimes double, its black wings, reddish beak,
and toes of unequal number, there being sometimes a fifth placed
transversely above the other four. For the purposes of divi-
nation, those that have a yellow beak and feet are not considered
pure ; while for the secret rites of Bona Dea, black ones are
chosen. There is also a dwarf26 species of fowl, which is not
barren either ; a thing that is the case with no other kind of
bird. These dwarfs, however, rarely lay at any stated pe-
riods, and their incubation is productive of injury 27 to the eggs.
26 Similar, probably, to our bantam.
27 In consequence, probably, of their smallness, and want of sufficient
warmth.
Chap. 79. ] WHEN BIRDS LAY. 537

CHAP. 78. (57.) — THE DISEASES OF FOWLS, AND THEIR REMEDIES,

The most dangerous malady with every kind of fowl is that
known as the " pituita ;" 28 which is prevalent more par-
ticularly between the times of harvest and vintage. The
mode of treatment is to put them on a spare diet, and to ex-
pose them, while asleep, to the action of smoke, and more es-
pecially that of bay leaves or of the herb called savin. A
feather also is inserted, and passed across through the nostrils,
care being taken to move it every day ; while their food con-
sists of leeks mixed with speltmeal, or else is first soaked in
water in which an owlet has been dipped, or boiled together
with the seeds of the white vine. There are also some other
receipts besides.

CHAP. 79. (58. )— WHEN BIRDS LAY, AND HOW MANY EGGS . THE
VARIOUS KINDS OF HERONS.

Pigeons have the peculiarity of billing before they couple ;

they generally lay two eggs, Nature so willing it, that among
birds the produce should be more frequent with some, and more
numerous with others. The ring- dove and turtle-dove mostly
lay three eggs, and never more than twice, in the spring;
such being the case when the first brood has been lost. Although
they may happen to lay threeeggs, they never hatch more
than two ; the third egg, which is barren, is generally known
by the name of “ urinum.” 29 The female ring-dove sits on
the eggs from mid-day till morning, the male the rest of the
time. Pigeons always produce a male and a female ; the
male first, the female the day after. Both the male and
the female pigeon sit on the eggs ; the male in the day-time,
the female during the night. They hatch on the twentieth
day of incubation, and lay the fifth day after coupling. Some-
times, indeed, in summer, these birds will rear three couples
in two months ; for then they hatch on the eighteenth day of
incubation, and immediately conceive again ; hence it is that
eggs are often found among the young ones, some of which
last are just taking wing, while others are only bursting
the shell. The young ones, themselves, begin to produce at
the age of five months. The females, if there should happen
to be no male among them, will even tread each other, and lay
28 The pip. 29 Meaning the " urine-egg."
538 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X,

barren eggs, from which nothing is produced. By the Greeks,

these eggs are called " hypenemia.30
(59.) The pea-hen produces at three years old. In the
first year she will lay one or two eggs, in the next four or
five, and in the remaining years twelve, but never beyond
that number. She lays for two or three days at intervals, and
will produce three broods in the year, if care is taken to put
the eggs under a common hen. The males are apt to break
the eggs in getting at the females while sitting, and hence it
is that the pea-hen lays by night, and in secret places, or else
sits on her eggs in an elevated spot ; the eggs will break, too,
unless they are received upon some surface that is soft. One
male is sufficient for every five females ; when there are only
one or two females to a male, all chance of their being prolific
is spoilt through their extreme salaciousness. The young
breaks the shell in twenty-seven days, or, at the very latest,
on the thirtieth.
Geese pair in the water, and lay in spring ; or, if they
have paired in the winter, they lay about forty eggs, after the
summer solstice. The hatching takes place twice in the year,
if a hen hatches the first brood ; otherwise, their greatest num-
ber of eggs will be sixteen, their lowest seven. If their eggs
are taken away from them, they will keep on laying until they
burst ; they will not hatch the eggs of any other birds. The
best number of eggs for placing under the goose for hatching,
is nine, or else eleven. The females only sit, and that for
thirty days ; but if they are kept very warm, then only twenty-
five. The contact of the nettle is fatal to their young, and
their own greediness is no less so - sometimes, through over-
eating, and sometimes through over-exertion ; for seizing the
root of a plant with the bill, they will make repeated efforts
to tear it out of the ground, and so, at last, dislocate the
neck. A remedy against the noxious effects of the nettle, is to
place the root of that plant under the straw of their nest.
(60. ) There are three kinds of herons, called, respectively,
the leucon,³¹ the asterias," and the pellos. 33 These birds ex-
perience great pain in coupling ; uttering loud cries, the males

30 Or " wind " eggs. See cc. 75 and 80.

31 The white heron.
32 So called from its soaring towards the stars.
33 The tawny or black heron.
Chap. 80.] HOW EGGS ARE BEST KEPT . 239

bleed from the eyes, while the females lay their eggs with no
less difficulty .
The eagle sits for thirty days, as do most of the larger birds ;
the smaller ones, the kite and the hawk for instance, only
twenty. The eagle mostly lays but one egg, never more than
three. The bird which is known as the " ægolios," " lays four,
and the raven sometimes five ; they sit, too, the same number
of days as the kite and the hawk. The male crow provides
the female with food while she is sitting . The magpie lays
nine eggs, the malancoryphus more than twenty, but always
an uneven number, and no bird of this kind ever lays more ; so
much superior in fecundity are the smaller birds. The young
ones of the swallow are blind at first, as is the case also with
almost all the birds the progeny of which is numerous.

CHAP. 80.- WHAT EGGS ARE CALLED HYPENEMIA, AND WHAT

CYNOSURA. HOW EGGS ARE BEST KEPT.

The barren eggs, which we have mentioned as " hypenemia, "

are either conceived by the females when they are influenced
by libidinous fancies, and couple with one another, or else at
the moment when they are rolling themselves in the dust ;
they are produced not only by the pigeon, but by the common
hen as well, the partridge, the pea-hen, the goose, and the
chenalopex ; these eggs are barren , smaller than the others, of
a less agreeable flavour, and more humid . There are some
who think that they are generated by the wind, for which
The eggs
reason they give them the name of " zephyria."
known as " urina," and which by some are called " cy-
nosura, 35 are only laid in the spring, and at a time when the
hen has discontinued sitting. Eggs, if soaked in vinegar, are
rendered so soft thereby, that they may be twisted 36 round
the finger like a ring . The best method of preserving them is
to keep them packed in bean-meal, or chaff, during the
winter, and in bran during the summer. It is a general be-
lief, that if kept in salt, they will lose their contents.

34 Possibly the night-hawk. Sillig says, that in the corresponding pas-

sage of Aristotle it is ἀιτώλιος.
35 " Dog's-urine." See the last Chapter.
36 Hardouin asserts that this is the fact.
540 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

CHAP. 81. (61 . )-THE ONLY WINGED ANIMAL THAT IS VIVIPAROUS,

AND NURTURES ITS YOUNG WITH ITS MILK.

Among the winged animals, the only one that is viviparous

is the bat ; it is the only one, too, that has wings formed of a
membrane. This is, also, the only winged creature that feeds
its young with milk from the breast. The mother clasps her
two young ones as she flies, and so carries them along with
her. This animal, too, is said to have but one joint in the
haunch, and to be particularly fond of gnats.

CHAP. 82. (62.) --

- TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS THAT ARE OVIPAROUS.-
VARIOUS KINDS OF SERPENTS.
Again, among the terrestrial animals, there are the serpents
that are oviparous ; of which, as yet, we have not spoken. These
creatures couple by clasping each other, and entwine so closely
around one another, that they might be taken for only one
animal with two heads. The male viper thrusts 37 its head
into the mouth of the female, which gnaws it in the transports
of its passion. This, too, is the only one among the terrestrial
animals that lays eggs within its body-of one colour, and soft,
like those of fishes. On the third day it hatches its young in
the uterus, and then excludes them, one every day, and gene-
rally twenty in number ; the last ones become so impatient
of their confinement, that they force a passage through the
sides of their parent, and so kill her. Other serpents, again,
lay eggs attached to one another, and then bury them in the
earth ; the young being hatched inthe following year. Croco-
diles sit on their eggs in turns, first the male, and then the
female. But let us now turn to the generation of the rest of
the terrestrial animals.

CHAP. 83. ( 63 . ) — GENERATION OF ALL KINDS OF TERRESTRIAL

ANIMALS.

The only one among the bipeds that is viviparous is man.

Man is the only animal that repents of his first embraces ; sad
augury, indeed, of life, that its very origin should thus cause
repentance ! Other animals have stated times 38in the year for
their embraces ; but man, as we have already observed, em-
37 This is probably fabulous. 38 B. vii. c. 4.
Chap. 83.] GENERATION OF TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS. 541

ploys for this purpose all hours both of day and night ; other
animals become sated with venereal pleasures, man hardly
knows any satiety. Messalina, the wife of Claudius Cæsar,
thinking this a palm quite worthy of an empress, selected , for
the purpose of deciding the question, one of the most notorious
of the women who followed the profession of a hired prosti-
tute; and the empress outdid her, after continuous intercourse,
night and day, at the twenty-fifth embrace. In the human
race also, the men have devised various substitutes for the more
legitimate exercise of passion, all of which outrage Nature ;
while the females have recourse to abortion. How much more
guilty than the brute beasts are we in this respect ! Hesiod
has stated that men are more lustful in winter, women in
summer.
Coupling is performed back to back by the elephant, the
camel, the tiger, the lynx, the rhinoceros, the lion, the dasy-
pus, and the rabbit, the genital parts of all which animals lie
far back. Camels even seek desert places, or, at all events,
spots of a retired nature ; and to come upon them on such an
occasion is not unattended with danger. Coupling, with them,
lasts a whole day ; the only animal, indeed, of all those with
solid hoofs, with which such is the case. Among the quad-
rupeds, it is the smell that excites the passions of the male. In
this act, dogs also, seals, and wolves turn back to back, and
remain attached, though greatly against their will. In the
greater part of the animals above mentioned, the females
solicit the males ; in some, however, the males the females.
As to bears, they lie down, like the human race, as previous-
ly40 mentioned by us ; while hedgehogs embrace standing
upright. In cats, the male stands above, while the female
assumes a crouching posture ; foxes lie on the side, the female
embracing the male. In the case of the cow and the hind,
the female is unable to endure the violence of the male, con-
sequently she keeps in motion during the time of coupling.
The buck goes from one hind to another in turn, and then
comes back to the first. Lizards couple entwined around each
other, like the animals without feet.
All animals, the larger they are in bulk, are proportionably
less prolific : the elephant, the camel, and the horse produce
39 Justly called by Juvenal, " meretricem Augustam," Sat. vi. 1. 118 .
40 B. viii. c. 54.
542 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

but one, while the acanthis,¹¹ a very small bird, produces

twelve. Those animals, also, which are the most prolific, are
the shortest time in breeding. The larger an animal is, the
longer is the time required for its formation in the womb ;
those, also, which are the longest-lived, require the longest
gestation ; the growing age, too, is not suitable for the purposes
of generation. Those animals which have solid hoofs bear but
a single young one, while those which have cloven hoofs bear
two. Those, again, whose feet are divided into toes, have a
still more numerous offspring ; but, while the others bring
forth their young perfect, these last bear them in an unformed
state, such, for instance, as the lioness and the she-bear. The
fox also brings forth its young in an even more imperfect state
than these ; it is a very uncommon thing, however, to find it
whelping. After the birth, these animals warm their young
by licking them, and thereby give them their proper shape ;
they mostly produce four at a birth.
The dog, the wolf, the panther, and the jackal produce their
young blind. There are several kinds of dogs ; those of
Laconia, of both sexes, are ready for breeding in the eighth
month, and the females carry their young sixty or sixty-three
days at most ; other dogs are fit for breeding when only six
months old ; the female, in all cases, becomes pregnant at the
first congress. Those which have conceived before the proper
age, bear pups which are longer blind, though not all the
same number of days . It is thought that dogs, in general,
lift the leg when they water at six months old ; this, too, is
looked upon as a sign that they have attained their full growth
and strength ; when doing this, the female squats. The most
numerous litters known consist of twelve, but more generally
five or six is the number ; sometimes, indeed, only one is pro-
duced, but then it is looked upon as a prodigy, and the same
is the case, too, when all the pups are of one sex. In the dog, the
males come into the world first, but in other animals, the two
sexes are born alternately. The female admits the male again
six months after she has littered. Those of the Laconian breed
bear eight young ones. It is a peculiarity in this kind, that
after undergoing great labour, the males are remarkable for
their salacity. In the Laconian breed the male lives ten
41 Probably the goldfinch. 42 A kind of large hound.
 Chap. 83.] GENERATION OF TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS . 543

years, the female twelve ; while other kinds, again, live fifteen
years, and sometimes as much as twenty ; but they are not
fit for breeding to the end of their life, as they generally cease
at about the twelfth year. The cat and the ichneumon
are, in other respects, like the dog ; but they only live six
years.
44
The dasypus brings forth every month in the year, and is
subject to superfotation, like the hare. It conceives immedi-
ately after it has littered, even though it is still suckling its
young, which are blind at their birth. The elephant, as we
have already45 stated, produces but one, and that the size of a
-calf three months old. The gestation of the camel lasts twelve
months ; the female conceives when three years old, and
brings forth in the spring ; at the end of a year from that
time, she is ready to conceive again. It is thought advisable
to have the mare covered so soon as three days, and indeed,
sometimes, only one, after she has foaled ; and , however unwil-
ling she may be, means are taken to compel her. It is be-
lieved also, that it is by no means an uncommon thing for a
woman to conceive on the seventh day after her delivery. ' It
is recommended that the manes of mares should be cut, so as to
humble their pride, in order to make them submit to be covered
by the male ass ; for when the mane is long, they are liable to
be proud and vain. This is the only animal, the female of
which, after covering, runs, facing the north or the south, ac-
cording as she has conceived a male or a female. They change
their colour immediately after, and the hair becomes of a
redder hue, and deeper, whatever the colour may naturally be ;
it is this that indicates that they must no longer be covered,
and they, themselves, will even resist it. Gestation does not,
however, preclude some of them from being worked, and they
are often with foal long before it is known. We read that
the mare of Echecrates, the Thessalian, conquered at the
Olympic games, while with foal.
Those who are more careful enquirers into these matters, tell
us that in the horse, the dog, and the swine, the males are
most ardent for sexual intercourse in the morning, while the
female seeks the society of the male after mid-day. They say
43 The number that they bear. 44 See B. vii. c. 81.
45 B. viii. c. 10, and in the present Chapter.
544 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

also, that mares in harness desire the horse sixty days sooner
than those that live in herds ; that it is swine only that foam
at the mouth during the time of coupling ; and that a boar, if
it hears the voice of a sow in heat, will refuse to take its food,
-to such a degree, indeed, as to starve itself, if it is not al-
lowed to cover-while the female is reduced to such a state of
frantic madness, as to attack and tear a man, more especially if
wearing a white garment. This frenzy, however, is appeased
by sprinkling vinegar on the sexual parts. It is supposed also
that salacity is promoted by certain aliments ; the herb rocket,
for instance, in the case of man, and onions in that of cattle.
Wild animals that have been tamed, do not conceive, the goose,
for instance ; the wild boar and the stag will only produce late
in life, and even then they must have been taken and tamed
when very young ; a singular fact. The pregnant females,
among the quadrupeds, refuse the male, with the exception,
indeed, of the mare and the sow ; superfotation, however,
takes place in none but the dasypus and the hare.
CHAP. 84. (64 . ) — THE POSITION OF ANIMALS IN THE UTERUS.
All those animals that are viviparous produce their young
with the head first, the young animal about the time of yeaning
turning itself round in the womb, where at other times it lies
extended at full length . Quadrupeds during the time of ges-
tation have the legs extended, and lying close to the belly ;
while, on the other hand, man is gathered up into a ball, with
the nose between the knees. With reference to moles, of
46
which we have previously spoken, it is supposed that they
are produced when a female has conceived, not by a male, but
of herself only. Hence it is that there is no vitality in this
false conception, because it does not proceed from the con-
junction of the two sexes ; and it has only that sort of vegeta-
tive existence in itself which we see in plants and trees.
(65. ) Of all those which produce their young in a perfect
state, the swine is the only one that bears them in consider-
able numbers as well ; and, indeed, several times in the year-
a thing that is contrary to the usual nature of animals with a
solid or cloven hoof.
CHAP. 85.- ANIMALS WHOSE ORIGIN IS STILL UNKNOWN.
But it is mice that surpass all the other animals in fecundity ;
46 B. vii. c. 13.
Chap. 86. ] SALAMANDERS. 545

and it is not without some hesitation that I speak of them, al-

though I have Aristotle and some of the officers of Alexander
the Great for my authority. It is said that these animals ge-
nerate by licking one another, and not by copulation. They
have related cases where a single female has given birth to one
hundred and twenty young ones, and in Persia some were
47
found, even pregnant themselves, while yet in the womb
of the parent. It is believed also that these animals will be-
come pregnant on tasting salt. Hence we find that we have
no longer any reason to wonder how such vast multitudes of
field-mice devastate the standing corn ; though it is still a
mystery, with reference to them, in what way it is that such
multitudes die so suddenly ; for their dead bodies are never
to be found, and there is not a person in existence that has ever
dug up a mouse in a field during the winter. Multitudes of
these animals visit Troas, and before this they have driven
away the inhabitants in consequence of their vast numbers,
They multiply greatly during times of drought ; it is said.
also that when they are about to die, a little worm grows in
their head. The mice of Egypt have hard hairs, just like those
of the hedge-hog. They walk on their hind feet, as also do those
of the Alps. When two animals couple of different kinds, the
union is only prolific if the time of gestation is the same in
both. Among the oviparous quadrupeds, it is generally believed
that the lizard brings forth by the mouth, though Aristotle
denies the fact. These animals, too, do not sit upon their eggs,
as they forget in what place they have laid them, being utterly
destitute of memory ; hence it is that the young ones are
hatched spontaneously .

CHAP. 86. ( 66 . ) - SALAMANDERS.

We find it stated by many authors,48 that a serpent is pro-
duced from the spinal marrow of a man. Many creatures, in
fact, among the quadrupeds even, have a secret and mysterious
origin.
(67 ) Thus, for instance, the salamander, an animal like a
lizard in shape, and with a body starred all over, never comes
out except during heavy showers, and disappears the moment
47 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 37, does not quite say this. He says
that the young ones looked " as if" they were pregnant, olov KvOVTA.
48 Ovid, Met. B. xv. 1. 389, makes mention of this belief.
VOL. II. N N
546 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

it becomes fine. This animal is so intensely cold as to_extin-

guish fire by its contact, in the same way as ice does. It spits
forth a milky matter from its mouth ; and whatever part of
the human body is touched with this, all the hair falls off, and
the part assumes the appearance of leprosy.

CHAP. 87. ( 68 . )- ANIMALS WHICH ARE BORN OF BEINGS THAT

HAVE NOT BEEN BORN THEMSELVES ANIMALS WHICH ARE BORN
THEMSELVES BUT ARE NOT REPRODUCTIVE― ANIMALS WHICH
ARE OF NEITHER SEX.
Some animals, again, are engendered of beings that are not
engendered themselves, and have no such origin as those above
mentioned, which are produced in the spring, or at some stated
period of the year. Some of these are non-productive, the sa-
lamander, for instance, which is of no sex, either male or fe-
male ; a distinction also, which does not exist in the eel and´
the other kinds that are neither viviparous nor oviparous. The
oyster also, as well as the other shell-fish that adhere to the
bottom of the sea or to rocks, are of neither sex.. Again, as to
those animals which are able to engender of themselves, if they
are looked upon as divided into male and female, they do en-
gender something, it is true, by coupling, but the produce is im-
perfect, quite dissimilar to the animal itself, and one from which
nothing else is reproduced ; this we find to be the case with
flies, when they give birth to maggots. This fact is better illus-
trated by the nature of those animals which are known as in-
sects ; a subject, indeed, very difficult of explanation, and one
which requires to be treated of in a Book49 by itself. We will,
therefore, proceed for the present with our remarks upon the
instincts of the animals that have been previously mentioned.

CHAP. 88. ( 69 . )-THE SENSES OF ANIMALS-THAT ALL HAVE THE

SENSES OF TOUCH AND TASTE- THOSE WHICH ARE MORE REMARK-
ABLE FOR THEIR SIGHT, SMELL, OR HEARING- MOLES- WHETHER
OYSTERS HAVE THE SENSE OF HEARING.
Man excels more especially in his sense of touch, and next,
in that of taste. In other respects, he is surpassed by many
of the animals. Eagles can see more clearly than any other
animals, while vultures have the better smell ; moles hear more
49 See the following Book.
Chap. 90. ] FISH THAT HAVE THE FINEST SENSE OF SMELL . 547

distinctly than others, although buried in the earth, so dense

and sluggish an element as it is ; and what is even more,
although every sound has a tendency upwards, they can hear
the words that are spoken ; and, it is said, they can even
understand it if you talk about them, and will take to flight
immediately. Among men, a person who has not enjoyed the
sense of hearing in his infancy, is deprived of the powers of
speech as well ; and there are none deaf from their birth who
are not dumb also. Among the marine animals , it is not
probable that oysters enjoy the sense of hearing, but it is said
that immediately a noise is made the solen 50 will sink to the
bottom ; it is for this reason, too, that silence is observed by
persons while fishing at sea.

CHAP. 89. ( 70. ) — WHICH FISHES HAVE THE BEST HEARING.

Fishes have neither organs of hearing, nor yet the exterior
orifice. And yet, it is quite certain that they do hear ; for it
is a well-known fact, that in some fish-ponds they are in the
habit of being assembled to be fed by the clapping of the
hands. In the fish-ponds, too, that belong to the Emperor, the
51
fish are in the habit of coming, each kind as it bears its name."
So too, it is said, the mullet, the wolf-fish, the salpa, and the
chromis, have a very exquisite sense of hearing, and that it is
for this reason that they frequent shallow water.

CHAP. 90. - WHICH FISHES HAVE THE FINEST SENSE OF SMELL.

It is quite manifest that fishes have the sense of smell also ;
for they are not all to be taken with the same bait, and are seen
to smell at it before they seize it. Some, too, that are con-
cealed in the bottom of holes, are driven out by the fisherman,
by the aid of the smell of salted fish ; with this he rubs the
entrance of their retreat in the rock, immediately upon which
they take to flight from the spot, just as though they had recog-
nized the dead carcases of those of their kind. Then, again,
they will rise to the surface at the smell of certain odours,
such, for instance as roasted sæpia and polypus ; and hence it
is that these baits are placed in the osier kipes used for taking
fish. They immediately take to flight upon smelling the bilge
50 Known by us as the razor-sheath.
51 Martial alludes to these fish-preserves, and the fish coming upon
hearing their name, B. iv. Ep. 30, and B. x. Ep. 30.
548 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY . [Book X.

water in a ship's hold, and more especially upon scenting the

blood of fish .
The polypus cannot possibly be torn away from the rock to
which it clings ; but upon the herb cunila 51 being applied, the
instant it smells it the fish quits its hold . Purples also are
taken by means of fetid substances . And then, too, as to the
other kinds of animals, who is there that can feel any doubt ?
Serpents are driven away by the smell of harts' horns, and
more particularly by that of storax. Ants, too, are killed by
the odours of origanum, lime, or sulphur. Gnats are attracted
by acids, but not by anything sweet.
(71. ) All animals have the sense of touch, those even which
have no other sense ; for even in the oyster, and, among land
animals, in the worm, this sense is found.
CHAP. 91. - DIVERSITIES IN THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS.
I am strongly inclined to believe, too, that the sense of taste
exists in all animals ; for why else should one seek one kind
of food, and another another ? And it is in this more especially
that is to be seen the wondrous power of Nature, the framer of
all things. Some animals seize their prey with their teeth,
others, again, with their claws ; some tear it to pieces with their
hooked beak ; others, that have a broad bill, wabble in their
food ; others, with a sharp nib, work holes into it ; others suck
at their food ; others, again, lick it, others sup it in, others chew
it, and others bolt it whole. And no less a diversity is there
in the uses they make of their feet, for the purpose of carrying,
tearing asunder, holding, squeezing, suspending52 their bodies,
or incessantly scratching the ground.
CHAP. 92. ( 72 . ) - ANIMALS WHICH LIVE ON POISONS.
Roe-bucks and quails 53 grow fat on poisons, as we have al-
ready mentioned, being themselves the most harmless of ani-
mals. Serpents will feed on eggs, and the address displayed
by the dragon is quite remarkable. - For it will either swallow
the egg whole, if its jaws will allow of it, and roll over and
over so as to break it within, and then by coughing eject the
shells or else, if it is too young to be able to do so, it will
51 A species of origanum .
52 As in the case of the galgulus, mentioned in c. 50.
53 See c. 33 of the present Book, as to quails.
Chap. 93.] ANIMALS WHICH LIVE UPON EARTH . 549

gradually encircle the egg with its coils, and hold it so tight as
to break it at the end, just, in fact, as though a piece had been
cut out with a knife ; then holding the remaining part in its
folds, it will suck the contents. In the same manner, too,
when it has swallowed a bird whole, it will make a violent effort,
and vomit the feathers.
CHAP. 93.- ANIMALS WHICH LIVE ON EARTH- ANIMALS WHICH
WILL NOT DIE OF HUNGER OR THIRST.
Scorpions live on earth . Serpents, when an opportunity
presents itself, show an especial liking for wine, although in
other respects they need but very little drink. These animals,
also, when kept shut up, require but little aliment, hardly any
at all, in fact. The same is the case also with spiders, which at
other times live by suction. Hence it is, that no venomous
animal will die of hunger or thirst ; it being the fact that they
have neither heat, blood , nor sweat ; all which humours,
from their natural saltness, increase the animal's voracity. In
this class of animals all those are the most deadly, which
have eaten some of their own kind just before they inflict the
wound. The sphingium and the satyr stow away food in the
pouches of their cheeks, after which they will take it out piece
by piece with their hands and eat it ; and thus they do for a
day or an hour what the ant usually does55 for the whole year.
(73.) The only animal with toes upon the feet that feeds
upon grass is the hare, which will eat corn as well ; while
the solid-hoofed animals, and the swine among the cloven-
footed ones , will eat all kinds of food, as well as roots. To
roll over and over is a peculiarity of the animals with a solid
hoof. All those which have serrated teeth are carnivorous.
Bears live also upon corn, leaves, grapes, fruit, bees, crabs even,
54
and ants ; wolves, as we have already 5 stated, will eat earth
even when they are famishing. Cattle grow fat by drinking ;
hence it is that salt agrees with them so well ; the same is also
the case with beasts of burden, although they live on corn as
well as grass ; but they eat just in proportion to what they
drink. In addition to those already spoken of, among the
wild animals, stags ruminate, when reared in a domesticated
state. All animals ruminate lying in preference to standing,

54 As to these monkies, see B. xviii. c. 30, and c. 80.

55 I. e. lay by a store. 54 B. viii. c. 34.
550 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

and more in winter than in summer, mostly for seven months

in the year. The Pontic mouse56 also ruminates in a similar
manner .

CHAP. 94. - DIVERSITIES IN THE DRINKING OF ANIMALS.

In drinking, those animals which have serrated ” teeth, lap ;
and common mice do the same, although they belong to another
class. Those which have the teeth continuous, horses and
oxen, for instance, sup ; bears do neither the one nor the other,
but seem to bite at the water, and so devour it. In Africa,
the greater part of the wild beasts do not drink in summer,
through the want of rain ; for which reason it is that the mice
of Libya, when caught, will die if they drink. The ever-
58
thirsting plains of Africa produce the oryx, an animal which,
in consequence of the nature of its native locality, never
drinks, and which, in a remarkable manner, affords a remedy
against drought : for the Gætulian bandits by its aid fortify
themselves against thirst, by finding in its body certain
vesicles filled with a most wholesome liquid. In this same
Africa, also, the pards conceal themselves in the thick foliage
of the trees, and then spring down from the branches on any
creature that may happen to be passing by, thus occupying
what are ordinarily the haunts of the birds. Cats too, with
what silent stealthiness, with what light steps do they creep
towards a bird ! How slily they will sit and watch, and then
dart out upon a mouse ! These animals scratch up the earth
and bury their ordure, being well aware that the smell of it
would betray their presence.

CHAP. 95. (74.) -

- ANTIPATHIES OF ANIMALS. PROOFS THAT THEY
ARE SENSIBLE OF FRIENDSHIP AND OTHER AFFECTIONS.
Hence there will be no difficulty in perceiving that animals
are possessed of other instincts besides those previously men-
tioned . In fact, there are certain antipathies and sympathies
among them, which give rise to various affections besides those
which we have mentioned in relation to each species in its
appropriate place. The swan and the eagle are always at
56 Probably the ermine. See B. viii. c. 55.
57 Pliny alludes to dogs, cats, and similar mammifera, as having serrated
teeth ; the term, however, is quite inappropriate.
58 See B. viii. c. 79.
Chap. 95.] ANTIPATHIES OF ANIMALS . 551

variance, and the raven and the chloreus59 seek each other's
eggs by night. In a similar manner, also, the raven and the
kite are perpetually at war with one another, the one carry-
ing off the other's food. So, too, there are antipathies between
the crow and the owl, the eagle and the trochilus ; 6º_between
the last two, if we are to believe the story, because the latter
has received the title of the " king of the birds :" the same,
again, with the owlet and all the smaller birds.
Again, in relation to the terrestrial animals, the weasel is at
enmity with the crow, the turtle-dove with the pyrallis, ¹ the
ichneumon with the wasp, and the phalangium with other
spiders. Among aquatic animals, there is enmity between the
duck and the sea-mew, the falcon known as the " harpe," and
the hawk called the " triorchis. " In a similar manner, too, the
shrew-mouse and the heron are ever on the watch for each
other's young ; and the agithus,62 so small a bird as it is, has
an antipathy to the ass ; for the latter, when scratching itself,
rubs its body against the brambles, and so crushes the bird's
nest ; a thing of which it stands in such dread, that if it only
hears the voice of the ass when it brays, it will throw its eggs
out of the nest, and the young ones themselves will sometimes
fall to the ground in their fright ; hence it is that it will fly at
the ass, and peck at its sores with its beak. The fox, too, is at
war with the nisus,63 and serpents with weasels and swine.
Æsalon64 is the name given to a small bird that breaks the eggs
of the raven, and the young of which are anxiously sought by
the fox ; while in its turn it will peck at the young of the fox,
and even the parent itself. As soon as the ravens espy this,
they come to its assistance, as though against a common enemy.
The acanthis, too, lives among the brambles ; hence it is that
it also has an antipathy to the ass, because it devours the
bramble blossoms . The ægithus and the anthus,65 too, are at
such mortal enmity with each other, that it is the common
belief that their blood will not mingle ; and it is for this reason
that they have the bad repute of being employed in many magi-
59 Probably the chlorion of c. 45.
60 Supposed to be the golden-crested wren.
61 An insect. See B. xi. c. 42, if, indeed, this is the same that is there
mentioned, which is somewhat doubtful.
62 It is not known what bird is meant : perhaps the titmouse.
63 A kind of hawk or falcon. 64 Species unknown.
65 Probably the spring wag-tail.
552 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

cal incantations. The thos and the lion are at war with each
other ; and, indeed, the smallest objects and the greatest just
as much. Caterpillars will avoid a tree that is infested with
ants. The spider, poised in its web, will throw itself on the
head of a serpent as it lies stretched beneath the shade of the
tree where it has built, and with its bite pierce its brain ; such
is the shock, that the creature will hiss from time to time, and
then, seized with vertigo, coil round and round, while it
finds itself unable to take to flight, or so much as to break the
web of the spider, as it hangs suspended above ; this scene
only ends with its death.

CHAP. 96. - INSTANCES OF AFFECTION SHOWN BY SERPENTS.

On the other hand, there is a strict friendship existing be-
tween the peacock and the pigeon, the turtle-dove and the
parrot, the blackbird and the turtle, the crow and the heron,
all of which join in a common enmity against the fox. The
harpe also, and the kite, unite against the triorchis.
And then, besides, have we not seen instances of affection in
the serpent even, that most ferocious of all animals ? We
have already related the story that is told of a man in Arca-
dia, who was saved by a dragon which had belonged to him,
and of his voice being recognized by the animal. We must
also make mention here of another marvellous story that is
related by Phylarchus about the asp. He tells us, that in
Egypt one of these animals, after having received its daily
nourishment at the table of a certain person, brought forth, and
that it so happened that the son of its entertainer was killed
by one of its young ones ; upon which, returning to its food
as usual, and becoming sensible of the crime, it immediately
killed the young one, and returned to the house no more.
CHAP. 97. (75. )— THE SLEEP OF ANIMALS.
The question as to their sleep, is one that is by no means
difficult to solve. In the land animals, it is quite evident that
all that have eyelids sleep . With reference to aquatic animals,
it is admitted that they also sleep, though only for short
periods, even by those writers who entertain doubts as to the
other animals ; and they come to this conclusion, not from any
appearance ofthe eyes, for they have no eyelids, indeed, to close,
66 In B. viii. c. 22.
Chap. 98.] ANIMALS SUBJECT TO DREAMS . 553

but because they are to be seen buried in deep repose, and to all
appearance fast asleep, betraying no motion in any part of
the body except the tail, and by starting when they happen
to hear a noise. With regard to the thunny, it is stated with
still greater confidence that it sleeps ; indeed, it is often found
in that state near the shore, or among the rocks. Flat fish are
also found fast asleep in shallow water, and are often taken in
that state with the hand : and, as to the dolphin and the
balana, they are even heard to snore.
It is quite evident, also, that insects sleep, from the silent
stillness which they preserve ; and even if a light is put close
to them, they will not be awoke thereby.

CHAP. 98.-D
-WHAT ANIMALS ARE SUBJECT TO DREAMS.
Man, just after his birth, is hard pressed by sleep for several
months, after which he becomes more and more wakeful, day
by day. The infant dreams67 from the very first, for it will
suddenly awake with every symptom of alarm, and while
asleep will imitate the action of sucking. There are some
persons, however, who never dream ; indeed, we find instances
stated where it has been a fatal sign for a person to dream, who
has never done so before. Here we find ourselves invited by
a grand field of investigation, and one that is full of alleged
proofs on both sides of the question, whether, when the mind
is at rest in sleep, it has any foreknowledge of the future, and
if so, by what process this is brought about, or whether this is
not altogether a matter quite fortuitous, as most other things
are ? If we were to attempt to decide the question by in-
stances quoted, we should find as many on the one side as on
the other.
It is pretty generally agreed, that dreams, immediately after
we have taken wine and food, or when we have just fallen
asleep again after waking, have no signification whatever. In-
deed, sleep is nothing else than the retiring68 of the mind
into itself. It is quite evident that, besides man, horses, dogs,
oxen, sheep, and goats have dreams ; consequently, the same
is supposed to be the case with all animals that are viviparous.
As to those which are oviparous, it is a matter of uncertainty,
67 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iv. c. 10, maintains the contrary. But in
B. vii. he asserts that infants do dream.
6 See Lucretius, B. iv. 1. 914, et seq.
 554 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book X.

though it is equally certain that they do sleep . But we must

now pass on to a description of the insects.

SUMMARY. - Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations,

seven hundred and ninety-three.
69
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED. -Manilius, Cornelius Valerianus,"
the Acta Triumphorum," Umbricius Melior, 72 Massurius Sabi-
73
nus, Antistius Labeo," Trogus,75 Cremutius,76 M. Varro,"
80
Macer Æmilius,78 Melissus,79 Mucianus, Nepos, Fabius
84 85 86
Pictor,82 T. Lucretius,83 Cornelius Celsus, Horace, Deculo,
87 88 89
Hyginus, the Sasernæ, Nigidius, Mamilius Sura.90
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED . - - Homer, Phemonoë,⁹¹ Phile-
69 M. Manilius, mentioned in c. 2. Nothing certain is known of him,
but by some he is supposed to have been the senator and jurisconsult of
that name, contemporary with theyounger Scipio. The astronomical poem
which goes under his name was probably written at a much later period.
70 See end of B. iii. 71 See end of B. v.
72 A famous soothsayer, who predicted to Galba, as we learn from
Tacitus, the dangers to which he was about to be exposed. He wrote on
the science of Divination, as practised by the Etruscans.
73 See end of B. vii.
74 A Roman legislator, proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis, and long a
favourite of Augustus. According to Aulus Gellius, his works were very
numerous. He also wrote a treatise on the Etruscan divination.
75 Trogus Pompeius. See end of B. vii.
76 See end of B. vii. 77 See end of B, ii.
78 See end of B. ix. 79 See end of B. vii.
80 See end of B. ii. 81 See end of B. ii.
82 He was the most ancient writer of Roman history in prose. His history,
which was written in Greek, is supposed to have commenced with the arrival
of Eneas in Italy, and to have come down to his own time. He was sent
by the Romans to consult the oracle at Delphi, after the battle of Cannæ.
83 The famous poet and writer on the Epicurean philosophy. He was
born B.C. 98, and slew himself B.C. 54. 84 See end of B. vii.
85 Q. Horatius Flaccus, one of the greatest Roman poets.
86 Nothing is known of this writer ; indeed, the correct reading is a
matter of doubt. 87 See end of B. iii.
68 Father and son, who wrote treatises on agriculture, as we learn from
Columella. 89 See end of B. vi.
90 A writer on agriculture, mentioned by Columella.
91 A priestess of Delphi, said to have been the inventor of hexameter
verse. Servius identifies her with the Cumaan Sibyl. Pliny quotes from
her in c. 8, probably from some work on augury attributed to her. A
work in MS. entitled " Orneosophium," or " Wisdom of Birds," is attri-
buted to Phemonoë. She is said to have been the first to pronounce the
celebrated Γνῶθι σεαυτὸν, commonly attributed to Thales.
Chap. 98.] SUMMARY. 555

mon,92 Bous 93 who wrote the Ornithogonia, Hylas 94 who wrote

95 96
an 98
augury, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Callimachus," Eschy-
1
lus, King Hiero," King Philometor, Archytas of Tarentum,
Amphilochus of Athens, Anaxipolis of Thasos, Apollodorus
6
of Lemnos, Aristophanes of Miletus, Antigonus of Cymæ,
Agathocles of Chios, Apollonius of Pergamus, Aristander 10
of Athens, Bacchius " of Miletus, Bion 12 of Soli, Chæreas ¹³
of Athens, Diodorus 14 of Priene, Dion 15 of Colophon, Demo-
critus,16 Diophanes 17 of Nicæa, Epigenes 18 of Rhodes, Euagon 19
of Thasos, Euphronius 20 of Athens, Juba,21 Androtion 22 who
wrote on Agriculture, Æschrion 23 who wrote on Agriculture,
Lysimachus who wrote on Agriculture, Dionysius 25 who
translated Mago, Diophanes 26 who made an Epitome of Dio-
nysius, Nicander,27 Onesicritus,28 Phylarchus,29 Hesiod.30
92 An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy, born either at Soli in
Cilicia, or at Syracuse. Plautus has imitated several of his plays.
93 Nothing is known of this writer, who wrote a poem on ornithology,
as here stated. Athenæus is doubtful whether the writer was a poet,
Bous, or a poetess, Boo.
94 Nothing is known of this writer. 95 See end of B. ii.
96 See end of B. iii. 97 See end of B. iv.
98 The Greek tragic poet of Athens, several of whose plays still exist.
99 See end of B. viii. 1 King Attalus III. See end of B. viii.
2 See end of B. viii. 3 See end of B. viii.
4 See end of B. viii. 5 See end of B. viii.
6 See end of B. viii. 7 See end of B. viii.
8 See end of B. viii. 9 See end of B. viii.
10 See end of B. viii. 11 See end of B. viii.
12 See end of B. vi. 13 See end of B. viii.
14 See end of B. viii. 15 See end of B. viii.
16 See end of B. ii. 17 See end of B. viii.
18 See end of B. ii.
19 Of this writer nothing whatever seems to be known.
20 See end of B. viii. 21 See end of B. v.
22 See end of B. viii. 23 See end of B. viii.
24 See end of B. viii.
25 Cassius Dionysius of Utica, flourished B.c. 40. He condensed the
twenty-eight books of Mago into twenty, and dedicated them to the
Roman prætor Sextilius. 26 See end of B. viii.
27 See end of B. viii. 28 See end of B. ii.
29 See end of B. vii. 30 See end of B. vii.

END OF VOL. II.

 ERRATA IN VOL. I.

Page vii. line 31, for Coisicius, read Cossicius.

99 xvii. "" 15, for pepole, read people.
99 xviii. 99 30, for Fabulosetas, read Fabulositas.
99 378, "" 20, for Goat-Pens, read Goat-Pans.
32101 064225715