PART A

The chapters in Part A of this book take what we have generally called formal (or
structural) approach to English grammar, whereas Part B takes a functional approach.
Formal grammar focuses on the forms (or the structure) of language. In Part A, we will first
examine the primary medium for all language – sound. We will discuss the organs of
speech in human beings and provide a description of English sounds, that is, distinctive
features of types of vowel and consonant. We will then move on to study English sounds as
a system and also units larger than individual sounds, including sequences of phonemes,
word stress, rhythm, and intonation in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, we will examine the
structure of English words: types of morpheme, as well as explore various processes of
word formation in English. Both Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 focus on syntax. In Chapter 3, we
start with the classification of individual words (i.e., word classes) and move on to the
combination of individual words into different types of word groups and phrases. In
Chapter 4, we study the various combinations of phrases into simple sentence. We will also
discuss mood types of a sentence as well as the combination of clauses into compound,
complex, and compound–complex sentences. In Chapter 6, we explore the study of
meaning in the formal tradition (i.e., semantics) and also meaning in use (i.e., pragmatics).
In Chapters 6 and 7, we will examine the language variation and modern Englishes. Then
we will move on to the functional approach to study the language phenomenon in Part B.
Phonetics and Phonology
1
Introduction

Human language is primarily oral; that is, humans use combinations of sounds in order to
communicate. Each language uses its own set of sounds, and these sounds are combined
in different ways to give different meanings. In this chapter, we examine the production of
sounds in English; the differences between consonant and vowel sounds; the IPA symbols;
the various sounds in the language; the use of stress, rhythm, and intonation; and the
relationship between intonation and meaning.

Organs of speech
Generally speaking, phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Like every human language,
English uses a limited number of speech sounds out of the large number of different
sounds the human vocal organs can produce. Phonetics is concerned with the
description and classification of these sounds on the basis of how they are produced by
our vocal organs and how they are perceived by our hearing mechanism. The study of
how the vocal organs produce the sounds of language is called articulatory phonetics,
the study of the way listeners perceive the sounds is called auditory phonetics, and the
study of the physical properties of the sound themselves is called acoustic phonetics. In
this chapter, we focus on articulatory phonetics, and therefore begin with an examination
of the organs of speech.

The main organs of speech used in making English sounds are the lungs, the larynx, and
the different parts of the mouth. The lungs are connected to a tube, which goes up to the
vocal cords, called the trachea or windpipe. The lungs push out air, which moves up the
trachea to the larynx and the mouth to create sounds. The larynx contains vocal cords,
that can affect the quality of the sound produced. The space between the vocal cords is
called the glottis (see Figure 1.1 below). The glottis can be closed or open. If it is totally
closed, no air can pass through it; if partly open, the vocal folds vibrate, producing
‘voiced sounds’; and if wide open, the vibration of the vocal folds is reduced, producing
‘voiceless sounds’.

After crossing the larynx, the air goes through the oral or the nasal cavity, where most of
the articulation takes place. The uvula controls whether the air flows through the oral or
the nasal cavity. The mouth contains a number of parts that impact the sound produced.

Figure 1.1: Places of articulation

Key: (1) Lips; (2) Teeth (dental); (3) Alveolar ridge; (4) Hard Palate; (5) Velum (soft palate);
(6) Uvula; (7) Glottis (vocal folds); (8) Epiglottis; (9) Tongue root; (10) Back of tongue body;
(11) Front of tongue body; (12) Tongue blade; (13) Tongue tip; (14) Underside of tongue

Parts of the mouth that produce sound can be classified into ‘active articulators’ and
‘passive articulators’. Active articulators move to make sound during the articulation
process, while passive articulators remain static. The active articulators include lower lips,

Phonetics and Phonology 3

lower teeth, tongue, and uvula. In speech production, the active articulators typically
move toward the passive articulators to shape the air stream, and thus alter the sound
quality. The passive articulators include upper lips, upper teeth, alveolar ridge (a ridge on
the back of the teeth), hard palate (a hard flat surface further back from the alveolar
ridge), and soft palate (also called the velum, a soft surface further back from the hard
palate).

Tongue is one of the most active articulators in the mouth. It is a powerful muscle that can
take different shapes – flat, convex, or curled. Different parts of the tongue – ‘tip’, ‘blade’,
‘front’, and ‘back’ – move in different ways and touch or come close to different passive
articulators to direct the airflow as it passes and resonates through the oral cavity. Tongue
movements open or obstruct the passage of air through the mouth. During speech, the
tongue moves rapidly and changes shapes constantly to form partial or complete closure
of the vocal tract necessary to create words.

Description of English Sounds

Speech sounds can be divided into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.
Vowels are sounds that are made by changing the shape of the oral cavity, but without
obstructing air flow. Consonants, on the other hand, are speech sounds where the air
stream from the lung is completely blocked by the lips (stop), partially blocked by the
tongue (lateral). The air stream escapes with audible friction (fricative), or gets blocked in
the mouth escapes through the nose (nasals). In this section, we will examine ways in
which the vowel and consonants used in English can be described. Before doing that, we
need to explain two topics: first, the International Phonetic Alphabets (IPA) because the
IPA is a set of characters that are used to transcribe sounds, and second, the transcription
conventions used in this chapter.

Phoneticians use a special set of characters, called the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) to transcribe the sounds of human languages, including English. The IPA is essential

4 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

because the same letter or alphabet in English can represent different sounds; for
example, the letter ‘a’ has different sounds in the words ‘jargon’ and ‘jasmine’; the letter
‘e’ has different length in the words ‘preclude’ and ‘prefect’; the letter ‘k’ is pronounced
in the words ‘key’ but not in the word ‘knight’. Conversely, the same sound in a language
can be written using different letters; for example, the sound /ɪ/ can be represented by

the letter ‘o’ as in ‘women’, the letter ‘i’ as in ‘sit’, or the letter ‘y’ as in ‘knobbly’. Because
human languages use a large number of sounds, the full IPA is quite large. In this section,
we focus on the IPA characters that are used to represent sounds in English.

To transcribe a sound phonetically (either an individual sound or a group of sounds), we

place the transcription within ‘/…/’. But, to transcribe a sound phonologically (i.e., the
way it is actually pronounced by speakers), we put the transcription within square
brackets ‘[…]’. For example, when we transcribe the word ‘kit’ phonetically, we write it
down as /kɪt/; on the other hand, when we describe how a speaker of British English might

say it, we transcribe it phonologically as [kʰɪt].

Vowels

Vowels are produced by modifying the shape of the vocal tract but without appreciably
obstructing the air flowing through it. There are 12 primary vowels in English as listed below.
Examples are given for each vowel, with its occurrence in word-initial, word-medial and
word-final position:

Vowel Examples
/iː/ each heat beef he
/ɪ/ it hit believe *ability
/e/ ethic set head gourmet
/æ/ accident hat basil ---
/ɜː/ earth hermit bird ---
/ɘ/ ago has have vita
/ʌ/ up unsafe trust *coda

Phonetics and Phonology 5

/uː/ --- blue fool who
/ʊ/ urtext full scope ---
/ɔː/ ought haunt abort abhor
/ɑː/ arm hart car yah
/ɒ/ oxen cot goggle ---
Figure 1.2: Vowel sounds in English
*unstressed = /ə/

Describing English vowels

In human languages, most vowels are voiced, but there are some that use voiceless
vowels (e.g., in Japanese: dekita, ifuku). But in English, all vowels are voiced. Apart from
voiced and voiceless, vowels are usually described in terms of three properties: (1) the
position of the tongue in relation to the roof of the mouth, (2) the shape of the lips, and (3)
the duration of the sound.

Different parts of the tongue are involved in producing vowels. Depending on which part
of the tongue is raised to the highest position, we can classify vowels as front vowels, back
vowels, and central vowels as shown in Table 1.3.

Vowels Position of the tongue Examples

Front vowels the front part of the tongue is ‘sheep’ /ʃiːp/, ‘ship’ /ʃɪp/,
raised ‘bed’ /bed/, ‘bad’ /bæd/
Back vowels the back part of the tongue is ‘pot’ /cɒt/, ‘caught’ /cɒt/,
raised ‘boot’ /buːt/
Central vowels the centre of the tongue is ‘bird’ /bɜːd/
raised
Table 1.3: Vowels and position of the tongue

The tongue can be raised to various heights to shape the oral cavity. The three most
common positions are high, mid, and low as shown in Table 1.4.

Vowels Height of the tongue Examples

High (close) the tongue is near the roof of the mouth ‘sheep’ /ʃiːp/, ‘boot’
/buːt/,

6 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Mid (half the tongue is neither near the roof of the ‘bit’ /bɪt/, ‘bed’ /bed/,
close) mouth nor in a low position; it is ‘caught’ /cɒt/
Mid (half somewhere between the two ‘cut’ /kʌt/, ‘bird’ /b ɜːd/,
open) ‘saw’ /s ɔː/
Low (open) the tongue is in the lowest possible ‘calm’ /kɒm/, ‘bad’
position /bæd/
Table 1.4: Vowels and height of the tongue

Table 1.5 tabulates both the position and the height of the tongue during the production
of vowel sound in various words.

Tongue height Part of the tongue involved

front central back
High/ close sheep Boot
ship
half-close bit caught
bed
half-open cut bird saw
Low/ open Pot
bad calm
Table 1.5: Vowels and part and height of the tongue

A change in the shape of the lips can also affect the vowel quality. There are three main
lip positions that differentiates vowel sounds in English: rounded, spread, and neutral. The
spread and the neutral vowels are sometimes grouped together and called unrounded
vowels.

Vowels Shape of the lips Examples

Rounded vowels the lips are relatively round ‘bore’ /bɔːr/, ‘soot’ /sʊt/
Spread vowels the lips are in a relatively spread ‘keep’ /kiːp/, ‘beat’
position /biːt/
Neutral vowels the lips are neither rounded nor ‘but’ /bʌt/, ‘about’
spread /əbaʊt/
Table 1.6: Vowels and shape of the lips

Phonetics and Phonology 7

Finally, vowels can either be short or long. In English, the difference between short and
long vowels is a distinctive feature, meaning that whether a vowel is short or long impacts
the meaning of the words. For example, the difference in the words /bɪt/ (bit) and /bi:t/
(beat) is that of vowel length. In IPA, the diacritic ‘:’ is used to mark a long vowel.

The vowels that we have described so far are all pure vowels, also known as
monophthongs. There are 12 pure vowel sounds in Standard British English, also known as
Received Pronunciation (RP). Table 1.7 tabulates the 12 pure vowels in English.

Front Central Back

High/Close Long iː uː
Short ɪ ʊ
Mid Long ɜː ɔː
Short e ə
Low/Open Long ɑː
Short æ ʌ ɒ
Table 1.7: The IPA table for the English vowels.

Table 1.8 describes each of the 12 primary vowels and provides an example of word that
uses them.

Vowel Description Examples

/iː/ A front, high, long vowel seat /siːt/
/ɪ/ A front, high, short vowel sit /sɪt/
/e/ A front, mid, short vowel set /set/
/æ/ A front, low, short vowel sat /sæt/
/ɜː/ A central, mid, long vowel bird /bɜːd/
/ə/ A central, mid, short vowel ago /əɡəʊ/
/ʌ/ A central, low, short vowel cup /kʌp/
/uː/ A back, high, long vowel fool /fuːl/
/ʊ/ A back, high, short vowel full /fʊl/
/ɔː/ A back, mid, long vowel caught /kɔːt/
/ɑː/ A back, low, long vowel cart /kɑːt/
/ɒ/ A back, low, short vowel cot /kɒt/
Table 1.8: Description of English primary vowels

8 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Diphthongs

In English, as in many languages, there are vowels that could be moved from one vowel
position to another, known as diphthongs. For example, the vowel sound /aɪ/ in the word
‘buy’ is produced by a movement from the vowel sound /a/ as in the word ‘part’ toward
the vowel sound /ɪ/ as in the word ‘pit’. Other examples include the diphthong /eɪ/ in the
word ‘bay’, /ɔɪ/ in the word ‘boy’, /əʊ/ in the word ‘beau’ etc.

There are eight diphthongs in English. They are further classified into closing diphthongs
and centering diphthongs. Closing diphthongs represent those that involve a gliding
toward a closed vowel. There are five closing diphthongs in RP. Centering diphthongs, on
the other hand, represent those that involve a gliding toward a central vowel. There are
three centering diphthongs in RP. Table 1.9 shows the eight diphthongs in RP.

Diphthong Example
Closing diphthongs /eɪ/ bay /beɪ/
/aɪ/ buy /baɪ/
/ɔɪ/ boy /bɔɪ/
/əʊ/ beau /bəʊ/
/aʊ/ bough /baʊ/
Centering diphthongs /ɪə/ beer /bɪə/
/eə/ bear /beə/
/ʊə/ boor /bʊə/
Table 1.9: The eight diphthongs in English

Consonants

Consonants are produced by appreciably obstructing the flow of air through the vocal
tract. There are a total of 24 consonants in English, which are listed below. The examples

Phonetics and Phonology 9

below are given for each phoneme, with its occurrence in word-initial, word-medial, and
word-final position:

Consonant phonemic symbol Example____________________

/b/ ban cable cab
/p/ pan people zip
/m/ man memo seem
/w/ went beware ---
/d/ dance daddy dead
/t/ tan hasty hat
/f/ fan safer life
/v/ van saver live
/g/ gang bigger tag
/ŋ/ --- singer king
/k/ can hacker kick
/l/ land teller coal
/n/ name partner sign
/r/ ran horror core
/s/ sand lacy peace
/z/ zang lazy please
/h/ hand behead ---
/j/ yank lawyer ---
/θ/ thank ether breath
/ð / then either breathe
/ʃ/ shame threshold crush
/tʃ/ chant sketchy church
/ʒ/ --- treasure rouge
/dʒ/ jam edgy siege

Figure 1.10: Consonants in English

Describing consonants

Consonants are usually described based on their place of articulation, manner of

articulation, and voicing.

10 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The first distinctive feature to describe a consonant is whether it is voiced (i.e. when the
vocal cords vibrate) or voiceless (when the vocal cords do not vibrate). In English, a
change in voicing can change the meaning of the word (all other features being
constant). For example, the difference between the initial sound in the words ‘ban’
/bæn/ and ‘pan’ / pæn / is that of voicing, with all other features being identical. This
difference in voicing changes the meaning of the two words.

Consonant phonemes and examples

voiced /b/ back; /d/ day; /g/ gate; /v/ van; /z/ zero; /m/ map; /n/ night; /l/
light
voiceless /p/ pan; /t/ tea; /k/ key; /f/ fat; /s/ sip; /h/ hot
Table 1.11: Voiced and voiceless consonants in English

The second distinctive feature to describe a consonant is the place of articulation, that is,
the place in the oral cavity where a closure or narrowing takes place. Like voicing, a
change in the place of articulation can change the meaning of the word, and therefore
also create minimal pairs. For example, the difference between the initial sound in the
words ‘pin’ /pɪn/ and ‘kin’ /kɪn/ is that in the place of articulation, with all other sounds
being identical. This change in the place of articulation changes the meaning of the two
words. In English, there are eight places of articulation which can create words with
distinctive meanings.

Types Places of articulation Consonant

phonemes
Bilabial Closure or narrowing between the two lips /p, b, m, w/
Labio-dental narrowing between the lower lip and the peer teeth /f, v/
Dental Closure or narrowing between the tip of the tongue and /θ, ð /
the upper teeth
Alveolar /t, d, s, z, n,
Closure or narrowing between the tip or blade of the
tongue and the teeth ridge l/
Post-alveolar Narrowing between the blade of the tongue and the /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ,
area just behind alveolar ridge r/
Palatal Narrowing between the front of the tongue and the /j/
hard palate

Phonetics and Phonology 11

Velar Closure or narrowing between the back of the tongue /k, g, ŋ/
and the soft palate
Glottal The narrowing happens between the vocal cords /h/
Table 1.12: Consonant and place of articulation

In addition to the place of articulation, the manner in which the sound is made can also
be used to describe consonants. The kind of closure or narrowing and the manner in
which the air flows is affected by it creates different sound qualities. In English, the manner
of articulation is the third distinctive feature to differentiate between two words. For
example, the difference between the initial sounds in the words ‘teen’ /ti:n/ (/t/ is a
plosive or stop) and ‘seen’ /si:n/ (/s/ is a fricative) is in the manner of articulation, with all
other features being the same. This change in the manner of articulation changes the
meaning of the two words. In English, there are seven manners of articulation, which can
create words with distinctive meanings.

Types Manners of articulation Examples

Plosive (stop) /p, b, t, d, k,
There is a complete closure of the air passage. The
air is held up and then released with an explosion.
g/
Affricate There is complete closure of the air-passage and /tʃ, dʒ/
then the air is released slowly with friction.
Fricative There is a narrow passage for the air to pass through./f, v, s, z, θ,
This creates an audible friction. ð, ʃ, ʒ, h/
Nasal There is a complete closure of the air-passage in the /m, n, ŋ/
mouth. The soft palate is lowered to let the air come
out through the nose.
Frictionless This sound is made with a near closure of mouth, but /r/
continuants without any friction.
(approximant)
Lateral This sound is made when there is a closure in the /l/
middle, but the air is free to come out along the
sides.
Semivowels These are vowel-like consonants. They are made in /j, w/
(glides) the same way as vowels, but function as consonants.
Table 1.12: Consonant and manner of articulation

Based on these three features – voicing, the place of articulation, and the manner of
articulation – all the consonants in English can be tabulated in the following table.

12 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Manner of Place of articulation
articulation Bilabia Labio Denta Alveola Postalveol Palata Velar Glotta
l - l r ar l l
denta
l
v v v v v v v
vl vd vl vd vl vd vl vd vl
l d l d l d d
Plosive/stop p b t d k g
Affricate tʃ dʒ
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
Nasal m n ŋ
Approximant r
Lateral l
Semivowel/gli
w j
de
Table 1.13: The consonants used in RP. Note: ‘vl’ refers to voiceless and ‘vd’ refers to
voiced.

Activity 1.1

Identify the two words that begin with the sound as mentioned before colons.
Example: A palato-alveolar affricate: beach, cello, chef, gander, gypsy, shop, vain
Answers: gypsy, cello

1) A labio-dental fricative: backyard, chick, cab, loose, phrase, stop, vest

2) A dental fricative: feature, holocaust, late, themselves, thesis, Thailand, vivid
3) A velar plosive: chrysanthemum, city, Gerry, judge, knack, pickle, quadruple
4) An alveolar fricative: czar, desert, join, psychiatric, rumple, sure, thesaurus
5) A bilabial plosive: biography, king, multiple, panorama, philosophy, psalm, spirit
6) A palato-alveolar fricative: chauvinism, jubilant, pleasant, pressure, schwa, surly,
Zimbabwe
7) An alveolar plosive: blame, dwindle, palace, sobbing, theatre, tortoise, zealot
8) A semi-vowel: honesty, human, onion, union, whenever, whole, whose

Phonetics and Phonology 13

 9) A velar plosive: chime, choral, gelatinous, gearwheel, gnash, knavish, skulk
10) A glottal fricative: heiress, honor, hourly, humor, khaki, rhetoric, whose

Activity 1.2

Identify the two words that end with the sound specified.
Example: A dental fricative: best, breath, haste, pay, rise, teeth, though
Answers: breath, teeth

1) A velar consonant: case, face, manage, plaque, Prague, recollect, waste

2) A bilabial consonant: bombed, clock, right, scallop, scramble, span, tube,
3) A labio-dental fricative: adhesive, borough, eleventh, frustrate, string, triumph, wise
4) An alveolar plosive: ache, bouquet, mopped, Porsche, stipulated, Sussex, wardrobe
5) A palato-alveolar affricate: ache, aisle, cache, hostage, scratch, spanned, rim
6) An alveolar nasal: autumn, column, condemn, cortisone, deign, headlong, success
7) A palato-alveolar fricative: adze, badge, beige, beads, douche, badge, coach,
pledges
8) A voiced alveolar fricative: appease, cease, grasps, goose, heaths, mouths,
9) A voiceless dental fricative: beneath, bequeath, betroth, booth, hearth, smooth,
with
10) A voiced velar plosive: destroying, diaphragm, enact, pedagogue, prestige,
trough, vague

Activity 1.3

14 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Identify the two words that contain the sound specified.
Example: A glottal fricative: dislevel, father, heirdom, inhibition, Rhine, whosoever
Answers: inhibition, whosoever

1) A schwa: Dublin, gigantic, Malaysia, migration, nursing, recollection, uplift

2) A palatal semi-vowel: farther, hijack, inconsistent, rostrum, tuberculosis, verify, yawn
3) A diphthong: effort, foster, kinship, intensity, share, thrive, timber,
4) A voiced palato-alveolar fricative: differentiate, fossilization, inseparable, inshore
precision, pursue, treasure,
5) A voiced velar nasal: Bangkok, banquet, gander, grammatical, nasty, nicotine,
trauma
6) A central vowel: abrupt, carriage, nasty, reaping, pursue, soonest, stylish
7) A labio-velar semi-vowel: drowned, follow, lawn, oneness, only, sewed, squirrel
8) A palato-alveolar frictionless continuant: corpulent, dervish, formerly, iron, panther,
parish, progress
9) A diphthong: appeal, climbing, flood, village, plait, poster, southern
10) A lateral consonant: folk, helm, palm, salmon, solemn, Stockholm, talkative

Activity 1.4

Write the following paragraph in regular English spelling.“tʃaɪnə ɪz əmerɪkəz

bæŋkə” ɪz ə freɪz wʌn ɒfən hɪəz, əlɒŋ wɪð “tʃaɪnə hæz mæsɪv

fɔ:rən ekstʃeɪŋdʒ rɪzɜ:vz”. həʊld ɒn, ðəʊ. nəʊ ju:-es stɪmələs

pækɪdʒ wɪl ni:d ə sent frəm tʃaɪnə. ət ðə rɪsk əv grəʊslɪ

əʊvəsɪmplɪfaɪɪŋ, hɪə ɪz haʊ əmerɪkə faɪnænsəs ə stɪmələs pækɪdʒ

Phonetics and Phonology 15

 laɪk ðə wʌn ɪt ni:dz naʊ.

ju:zɪŋ əʊnlɪ entri:z ən ɪts bæləns shi:t, ðə fedərəl rɪzɜ:v sɪstəm

kri:eɪts kæʃ ənd ju:zɪz ɪt tə baɪ bɪlz frəm ðə treʒərɪ dɪpɑ:tmənt.

ðə treʒərɪ spendz ðə mʌnɪ, beɪst ɒn kəngreʃənəl əprəʊprɪeɪʃənz.

kɒŋgres ɔ:lsəʊ hæz tə reɪz ðə det si:lɪŋ. ðæts ɪt. ɪt hæz nʌθɪŋ

tə du: wɪð tʃaɪnə.

Phonemes and minimal pairs

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, concerning the description and classification of
these sounds on the basis of how they are produced by our vocal organs. Phonology, on
the other hand, is concerned with how a particular language organizes its sounds into
distinctive units (technically known as phonemes), how the phonemes are combined into
syllables, and how the prosodic features of length, stress, and pitch are organized into
patterns.

Let’s compare the words ‘pan’ and ‘ban’. They are different in terms of form and
meaning; they also differentiate from each other in terms of sound: the initial consonant of
the first word is [p] while the second word is [b]. The two consonants [p] and [b] are
distinctive sounds, which can therefore distinguish words in English. Such distinctive sounds
are called phonemes. As a matter of fact, these two consonant phonemes distinguish not
only the two words ‘pan’ (/pæn/) and ‘ban’ (/bæn/) but also other pair of words such as
‘park’ (/pɑːk/) and ‘bark’ (/bɑːk/), ‘pear’ (/peə/) and ‘bear’ (/beə/), ‘peak’ (/piːk/)and
‘beak’ (/biːk/), ‘peach’ (/piːtʃ/)and ‘beach’ (/biːtʃ/), ‘pill’ (/pɪl/) and ‘bill’ (/bɪl/).

16 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The criterion to determine the phonemes in English is to check if substituting one sound for
another will result in a distinctive word. If it does, the two distinctive sounds represent
different phonemes. When two distinctive words are identical in every way but one
phoneme occurs in the same place in the words, the two words are called a minimal pair.
In the above examples, ‘pan’ and ‘ban’ is a minimal pair, and also ‘park’ and ‘bark’,
‘pear’ and ‘bear’, ‘peak’ and ‘beak’, ‘peach’ and ‘beach’, and ‘pill’ and ‘bill’. So ‘pan’
(/pæn/) and ‘tan’ (/tæn/) is a minimal pair, but ‘pan’ (/pæn/) and ‘ant’ (/ænt/) is not
because [p] and [t] are not located in the same place in the two words. In English,
phonemes are not confined to consonants; vowels form phonemes as well. For example, if
we substitute the vowel [æ] in ‘pan’ with another vowel [e], we have another word ‘pen’
(/pen/). So ‘pan’ (/pæn/) and ‘pen’ (/pen/) also form a minimal pair.

Phonemic features
From Table 1.13, we can say that each consonant is in fact a bundle of feature values. For
example, /p/ embodies the features of voiceless, bilabial, and stop, whereas /b/
embodies the features of voiced, bilabial, and stop. We can present the feature values as
follows:

+ bilabial + bilabial
/p/ = + stop /b/ = + stop
– voice + voice

The following table describes all the consonant phonemes in English and provides
examples of words in which they are used.

Consonant Description Example

p + bilabial; + stop; – voice pan /pæn/ pill /pɪl/
b + bilabial; + stop; + voice ban /bæn/ bill /bɪl/
t + alveolar; + stop; – voice tan /tæn/ till /tɪl/
d + alveolar; + stop; + voice dam /dæm/ dill /dɪl/
k + velar; + stop; – voice can /kæn/ kill /kɪl/
g + velar; + stop; + voice gang /gæŋ/ gill /gɪl/

Phonetics and Phonology 17

 + post-alveolar; + affricate; – voice champ chill / tʃɪl/
tʃ
/tʃæmp/
dʒ + post-alveolar; + affricate; + voice jam /dʒæm/ jill /dʒɪl/
f + labio-dental; + fricative; – voice fan /fæn/ fill /fɪl/
v + labio-dental; + fricative; + voice van /væn/ villa /vɪlə/
θ + dental; + fricative; – voice thank /θæŋk/ thin /θɪn/
ð + dental; + fricative; + voice them / ðem/ then /ðen/
s + alveolar; + fricative; – voice sand /sænd/ silt /sɪlt/
z + alveolar; + fricative; + voice zap /zæp/ zillion /zɪlɪən/
ʃ + post-alveolar; + fricative; – voice sham /ʃæm/ shilling /ʃɪlɪŋ /
ʒ + post-alveolar; + fricative; + voice seizure /si:ʒə/ leisure /leʒə/
h + glottal; + fricative; – voice ham /hæm/ hill /hɪl/
m + bilabial; + nasal; + voice man /mæn/ mill /mɪl/
n + alveolar; + nasal; + voice nap /næp/ nil /nɪl/
ŋ + velar; + nasal; + voice angst /æŋst/ thing /θɪŋ/
r + post-alveolar; + approximant; + ram /ræm/ rip /rɪp/
voice
l + alveolar; + lateral; + voice land /lænd/ lilt /lɪlt/
w + bilabial; + glide; + voice wax /wæks/ will /wɪl/
j + palatal; + glide; + voice yank /yæŋk/ yield /ji:ldt/
Table 1.14: English consonants with descriptions and examples

When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another, it is known as phonemic feature
(or distinctive feature). Let’s take /p/ and /b/ as an example. Both phonemes are +
bilabial and + stop; the only difference between them is voicing: /p/ is – voice (voiceless)
but /b/ is + voice (voiced). It is this phonetic feature that distinguishes the words ‘pan’ and
‘ban’. This feature is distinctive in a sense it alone can account for the difference in
meaning of the two words.

Sequences of phonemes
As mentioned, English, like every language, uses its own set of sounds, and these sounds
are combined in different ways to give different meanings. However, these sounds are not
combined arbitrarily. There is a system of rules guiding the ways of combination. This
phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and

18 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

follow each other; for example, after a consonant such as /b/, /g/, /k/, or /p/, another
stop consonant is not permitted; when a consonant such as /l/ or /r/ occurs at the
beginning of a word, it must be followed by a vowel; and there are a maximum of three
sequential consonants can occur at the beginning of a word, and they are restricted to
/s/ + /p, t, k/ + /l, r, w, y/, e.g., ‘scramble’ /skræm.bl/.

Restrictions exist to constrain the sequence of phonemes not only in words, but also in
syllables. One or more phonemes form a syllable – a unit which is often longer than one
sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word ‘examination’ consists of
five syllables: ex-am-i-na-tion. The syllable is defined by the way in which vowels and
consonants combine to form various sequences. Vowel can form a syllable on their own,
such as /ɪ/ in the word ‘examination’ (/ɪg.ʒæm.ɪ.neɪ.ʃn/, or they can be the ‘centre’ of a
syllable, such as / / in ‘bed’ (/b d/). Consonants, on the other hand, do not usually form
syllables on their own and are at the beginning, e.g., /f/ in ‘five’ (/faɪv/), or the end of
syllables e.g., /t/ in ‘fit’ (/fɪt/). When transcribing words that have more than one syllable,
we put a ‘.’ between the syllables as shown in the above example.

A word with only one syllable is called a monosyllabic word (e.g., ‘cut’, ‘eye’, ‘flood’,
‘work’, and ‘pray’). A word with two syllables is called disyllabic word (e.g., ‘barter’,
‘lecture’, ‘tired’, and ‘bottle’). A word with three syllables is called trisyllabic word (e.g.,
‘fantastic’, ‘unhappy’, ‘cigarette’, and ‘engineer’). A word with more than three syllables
is called polysyllabic word (e.g., ‘impossibility’, ‘mobilization’, ‘historical’, ‘examination’).

Sequential constraints also occur across syllable boundaries. For instance, only consonants
that are articulated at the same place of articulation (i.e., labial, alveolar, palatal, or velar)
and non-nasal consonant may occur together in English (technically known as
homorganic consonants). Therefore, ‘ample’ is an English word but not ‘*amtle’ or
‘*amkle’. Similarly, ‘antler’ is a word but not ‘*anpler’ nor ‘*ankler’; ‘handle’ is a word but
not ‘*hanble’ nor ‘*hangle’.

Phonetics and Phonology 19

Word stress

In English, for words that have more than one syllable, only one syllable is stressed. Stressing
the right syllable is important or else we risk not being able to communicate efficiently.
Worst of all, a shift in word stress can actually change the meaning of a word in some
cases. In those words that consist of two or more syllables, one syllable stands out. This
syllable is called a stressed syllable (or an accented syllable). The prominence of a
stressed syllable can be caused by one of three factors (or a combination of these
factors): longer in duration, louder in volume, and higher pitch. Stress in a word is marked

by placing a high vertical line, ˡ, before the stressed syllable; for examples, /ˡdeɪ.tɘ/ in the

word ‘data’, /rɪˡbʌf/ in the word ‘rebuff’.

Primary and secondary stress

In English, two syllables might stand out in words that have three or more syllables. Of
these two stressed syllables, one is more prominent than the other. In such cases, the more
prominent stressed syllable is said to have primary or main stress and marked by a high

vertical line, ˡ , before the stressed syllable, whereas the other one receives secondary

stress and marked a low vertical line, ˌ ,before the stressed syllable; for example, /ˌæd.vən.

ˡteɪ.dʒəs/ the word ‘advantageous’ has four syllables; the first syllable has secondary stress

and the third syllable has primary stress.

Stress patterns and word class

In English, word stress is not fixed to a particular syllable; some words stress on the first
syllable, some on the second syllable, yet others on the third or the fourth:

(A) Disyllabic words stressed on the first syllable:

20 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 1) 'action 4) 'donkey 7) 'gradual
2) 'better 5) 'encore 8) 'hefty
3) 'copper 6) 'format 9) 'instant

(B) Disyllabic words stressed on the second syllable:

1) a'bove 4) de'gree 7) gre'nade

2) be'hind 5) e'vade 8) hu'mane
3) con'cise 6) for'bid 9) in'stall

(C) Trisyllabic words stressed on the first syllable:

1) 'afterwards 4) 'density 7) 'graduate

2) 'botany 5) 'educate 8) 'hesitate
3) 'calendar 6) 'fluctuate 9) 'imminent

(D) Trisyllabic words stressed on the second syllable:

1) ag'reement 4) de'tergent 7) gra'duation

2) bar'baric 5) e'lastic 8) his'toric
3) con'sistent 6) for'mation 9) in'active

(E) Trisyllabic words taking the primary stress on the third syllable:

1) ˌaddres'see 4) ˌdisre'gard 7) ˌgonor'rhoea

2) ˌbombar'dier 5) ˌexpe'tise 8) ˌHallo'ween
3) ˌchimpan'zee 6) ˌfricas'see 9) ˌimma'ture

(F) Words of more than three syllables — various stress patterns:

Phonetics and Phonology 21

 1) 'adequacy 4) ˌdissatis'faction 7) gym'nasium
2) ˌbene'diction 5) ex'penditure 8) ˌhistri'onic
3) conˌcessio'naire 6) ˌfasci'nation 9) im'penetrable

There are a number of words in English that can be used as both nouns and verbs or
adjectives and verbs. For disyllabic words, the stress is generally on the same syllable
regardless of whether the word is used as a noun, adjective, or verb. However, there are a
few disyllabic words which take the stress on the first syllable if the words are used as nouns
or adjectives and on the second syllable if they are used as verbs.

As pointed out above, a number of disyllabic words take the stress on the same syllable
whether used as nouns/adjectives or verbs, for example, ad'vance (noun and verb), a'lert
(adjective and verb), 'anger (noun and verb), a'ward (noun and verb), bal'lon (noun and
verb), com'plete (adjective and verb), damage (noun and verb), 'empty (adjective and
verb). However, there are other disyllabic words that take the stress on the first syllable if
used as nouns/adjectives and on the second syllable if used as verbs, for example, 'absent
as adjective but ab'sent as verb, 'contract as noun but con'tract as verb, 'convert as noun
but con'vert as verb, 'present as noun or adjective but pre'sent as verb, 'record as noun
but re'cord as verb. In these cases, the stress patterns can be used to differentiate
between nouns or adjectives and verbs. Note that there appears to be no particular rule
about this. Below, we will first list some disyllabic words that stress the same syllable
weather they are nouns/adjectives or verbs; and, then, we will list some words that
change the stress pattern based on whether they are nouns/adjectives or verbs.

The addition of some derivational suffixes affects the stress pattern but some do not.
Examples of suffixes that do not affect the stress pattern include:

-able (e.g., ad'vise  ad'visable) -age (e.g., 'cover  'coverage)

-ance (e.g., per'form  per'formance) -er (e.g., re'ceive  re'ceiver)
-ess (e.g., 'waiter  'waitress) -full (e.g., e'vent  e'ventful)

22 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 -fy (e.g., 'terror  'terrify) -ize (e.g., 'final  'finalize)
-ly (e.g., 'order  'orderly) -ment (e.g., enter'tain  enter'tainment)
-ness (e.g., 'bitter  'bitterness) -or (e.g., di'rect  di'rector)
-some (e.g., 'burden  'burdensome) -ure (e.g., ex'pose  ex'posure)
-y (e.g., 'winter 'wintry)

Examples of suffixes that affect the stress pattern include:

-eer (e.g., 'profit  ˌprofi'teer) -esque (e.g., 'picture  ˌpictu'resque)

-ial (e.g., 'essence  es'sential) -ian (e.g., 'music  mu'sician)
-ic, -ical (e.g., 'grammar  gram'matical) -ion (e.g., ap'ply  ˌappli'cation)
-itis (e.g., 'tonsil  ˌtonsi'litis) -ity ('equal  e'quality)

Note that in a large number of cases, an addition of a suffix does not change the stress
pattern. Examples of suffixes that do not impact stress pattern on the root word include: -
ed, -s, -ing, -able, -age, -ance, -en, -er, -ess, -ful, -fy, -hood, -ish, -ize, -ly, -ment, -ness, -or, -
some, -ship, -ure, and -y.

Activity 1.5

Mark the primary and (if necessary) secondary stresses on the underlined words in the
following sentences.
Example: John was absent from school yesterday.
Answer: absent

1) The Immigration Bureau refused to grant him a work permit to work in Hong Kong.
2) She has extracted a description of the murderer from the newspaper.
3) Manchester is one of the industrial cities in Britain.
4) He was a famous environmentalist before he took up the position of CEO in our
company.

Phonetics and Phonology 23

 5) The police conducted a thorough search for an escaped convict in the forest.
6) The author recapitulated the main points of the paper in the conclusion.
7) There are strict limits on immigration into the United States.
8) The perfume contains extracts from several flowers.
9) The proceeds of today’s concert will go to several schools for students with
learning disabilities.
10) This report reinforces the findings of the pilot study.

Rhythm in connected speech

When we speak, we stress some words but not others. This creates a rhythm (or a stress
pattern). There are three stress patterns amongst the world languages: syllable-timing,
mora-timing, and stress-timing. The stress pattern in syllable-timing is that every syllable
takes up approximately the same amount of time; syllable-timed languages include
Chinese, Spanish, Urdu, etc. The stress pattern in mora-timing is that syllable duration
depends on vowel length. In general, each syllable with a short vowel takes up the same
time, whereas each syllable with long vowel takes up approximately twice the length.
Examples of mora-timed languages include Gilbertese, Hawaiian, Japanese, etc. The
stress pattern in stress-timing is that the average amount of time between consecutive
stressed syllables is approximately the same, regardless of the number of unstressed
syllables in between; stressed-timed languages include German, Russian, etc.

English is a stress-timed language. Thus, in English, the time between two stressed syllables
is about the same. The number of unstressed syllables between the stressed syllables does
not influence this timing. There are three implications for unstressed syllables in connected
speech: vowel reduction, vowel elision, and syllable elision. These are defined and
exemplified in Table 1.15 below.

Meaning Example

24 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

vowel The vowel in the unstressed syllable is /e/ in the unstressed syllable
reduction shortened and centralized. Typically, the ‘very’ /verɪ/ is reduced to a
vowel used in unstressed syllables in schwa /vərɪ/
English is the central, mid, short vowel,
/ə/, (known as the ‘schwa’), or the front,
high, short vowel, /ɪ/
vowel The reduced vowel is elided (deleted) The unstressed syllable /ɘ/ of the
elision word ‘bottom’ is elided all
together: /bɒtɘm/  [bɒtṃ]
syllable A whole unstressed syllable is elided The second syllable of the word
elision ‘ˈsen.ten.ces’ is elided:
[sentənzɪz]  [sen:zɪz]
Table 1.15: Implications for unstressed syllables

Stress in connected speech

In connected speech, we generally stress the content words (i.e., words with content
meaning, including nouns, adjectives, main verbs, and adverbs) but not the grammatical
words (i.e., words with grammatical function, including articles, pronouns, prepositions,
auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions). This is because content words carry meaningful
information, whereas grammatical words help organize the content words in a sentence;
for example: I ˈlike ˈJane’s ˈworks. In words that have more than one syllable, only the
syllable with primary stress in that word is stressed. Let’s take the word ‘oˌrigiˈnality’ as an
example. In connected speech, only the primary but not the secondary stress is stressed:
His ˈworks ˈlacks of origiˈnality.

However, we can stress a particular word in connected speech to highlight the meaning
that we want to project. For example:

[1] ˈI love Susan.

[2] I ˈlove Susan.
[3] I love ˈSusan.

Phonetics and Phonology 25

In sentence [1], it is ‘I’ who love Susan as opposed to other; in [2], I ‘love’ Susan, as
opposed indifferent to her; and in [3], it is Susan that I love instead of other(s).

Intonation

Apart from using stress, we can change the meaning of our utterances by changing the
intonation patterns of our speech. Intonation is a variation of pitch, which refers to the
frequency of a sound. In connected speech, we vary the pitch to create specific
semantic effects. This is known as intonation.

In English, there are three primary tones: falling, rising, and monotone (level). These tones
can combine to form additional patterns: fall-rise and rise-fall. Each of these tones carries
a specific meaning in English. They are tabulated in Table 1.16.

Tone Meaning Context IPA symbol Example

falling Certainty making statements ̀ He is ̀right.
rising Uncertainty asking questions ́ ́Are you sure?
level utterance not listing things ̄ ̄ Peter, Paul, Mary…
finish
fall-rise Reservation showing ̌ ̌ Perhaps.
reservation
rise-fall Surprise suggesting surprise ̂ ̂ Wow!
Table 1.16: Tones and meaning in English

Tone group boundaries typically coincide with the boundaries of major grammatical units.
Intonation can therefore be helpful to interpret ambiguous sentences. Let’s take the
sentence below as an example:

Put the books by the window in my room.

This sentence can have at least two meanings:

(1) The books are to be put by the window in my room, or

26 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 (2) The books by the window are to be put in my room.

While ambiguous in written form, the sentence is disambiguated in speech with the tone
group.

[a] | Put the books | by the window in my room |

[b] | Put the books by the window | in my room |

In [a], the tone group boundary comes between ‘books’ and ‘by’, showing that it should
be interpreted as (1); whereas, in [b], the tone group boundary comes between ‘window’
and ‘in’, suggesting that (2) is the meaning.

Furthermore, intonation can also carry pragmatic functions. For example, we might
indicate that we want to end a conversation by using a falling tone. In contrast, we could
suggest that we want the conversation to continue by using a rising tone.

Finally, intonation can also be used to emphasize or to accentuate a particular meaning.

In English, the tonal syllable typically lies on the last syllable of a tone group – which is
where the tonal stress is usually placed in an unmarked case. However, we might shift the
tonal syllable from the last syllable of a tone group to a syllable (in a word) that we want
to accentuate, and hence presenting a difference in the meaning; for example:

[a] | Tom stole everything in my ̀room |

[b] | ̀ Tom stole everything in my room|
[c] | Tom ̀ stole everything in my room|
[d] | Tom stole everything ̀ in my room|

In utterance [a], the speaker uses the regular falling intonation pattern. In [b], the speaker
uses a contrastive intonation pattern and places the tonic stress on the subject ‘Tom’. By

Phonetics and Phonology 27

doing so, the speaker emphasizes that it is ‘Tom’, not anybody else, who stole everything
in the room. In [c], by placing the tonic stress on the verb ‘stole’, the speaker accentuates
that what Tom did is equivalent to stealing, not borrowing or anything else. Finally in [d], by
stressing the preposition ‘in’, the speaker emphasizes that Tom stole everything “in” the
speaker’s room, not outside it.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we learnt about the sound system of the English language. We started with
a description of how sounds in a language are made, and moved on to the smallest units
of sounds in a language, phonemes, and then described the various types of vowel and
consonants. We also considered how they combine to form words, phrases, and longer
texts. We also learnt about the word and sentence stress patterns of English and the
meanings that they carry. In short, this chapter introduced us to the sound system of the
English language, and how we study it.

28 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Morphology
2
Introduction

In the previous chapter, we examined the system of sounds in English, from individual
words to connected speech. In this chapter, we will explore the system of words in English
– their internal structure and their formation (i.e., morphology and word formation).

The notion ‘morphology’ has two meanings: the study of the internal structure of words
and a morphemic system. In other words, a word is constituted of parts, these parts are
related to each other, and they form a system in which rules are observed. We can
therefore draw an analogy between sentence and word. In English, the parts of the
sentence are called clauses, the parts of a clause are phrases, and the parts of a phrase
are words as shown below:

Sentence: The dam gave way because it was not strong enough to hold the
flood waters.
Clause: Clause 1 Clause 2
Phrase: NP VP NP
Word: Art N V N

In the same way, like sentences, clauses, and phrases, words are also made up of smaller
elements. Let’s illustrate with the following sentence.

China's assertiveness has provided enormous incentives to embrace an Asian multilateral

system backed by America, rather than accept the exclusionary system that China seeks
to lead.

In the above sentence, some words consist of only one part (known as mono-morphemic),
including: has, enormous, to, embrace, an, Asian, system, by, American, rather, than,
accept, the, system, that, China, to, lead.

Some of them consist of two parts (known as double-morphemic). They include the
following:

China’s = China + ’s
provided = provide + [e]d
incentives = incentive + s
multilateral = multi + lateral
backed = back + ed
seeks = seek + s

Some words, however, can be divided into three parts (known as triple-morphemic). They
include:

assertiveness = assert + ive + ness

exclusionary = exclu[de] + sion + ary

Some English words consist of a large number of parts; for example:

ungentlemanliness = un + gentle + man + li + ness.

decontextualization = de + con + text + al + ize + ation
antidisestablishmentarianism = anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + an + ism

Morphology studies the internal structure of words, this branch of linguistics therefore also
deals with the study of word formation. In this chapter, we first describe various types of
morphemes and then outline a range of processes that English uses in forming new words.

30 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Morphemes

Let’s consider the word ‘unusual’. This word is a combination of ‘un’ and ‘usual’. Our
knowledge of English tell us that ‘un’ means the ‘opposite of’ or ‘not’ and that its addition
to the word ‘usual’ changes the meaning of the word to ‘not usual’. Our knowledge of
English tell us that the prefix ‘un’ cannot be further broken down into smaller meaningful
components, and that it can be added to a large number of words to reverse the
meaning of the base word; for examples:

 to noun: untruth, unrest

 to verb: unlock, unloose, unload, unman, unpack
 to adjective: unlucky, unhappy, unlike, unmade

Similarly, the base word ‘usual’ cannot be further broken down into smaller meaningful
components, but more words can be derived from it, such as ‘usually and the notion of
‘usuality’ in systemic functional grammar. In the above example, ‘un’ and ‘usual’ are the
smallest parts into which a word can be divided. They are also the smallest parts which
encode ‘meaning’, and joined together according to ‘rule’. In linguistics, they are known
as ‘morphemes’. In other words, a morpheme is the smallest meaningful element of a
language, the smallest unit which is grammatically relevant, and the smallest part into
which a word can be divided.

Morphemes can be classified according to their properties and function. The typology of
morphemes is shown in Figure 2.1 below. In the following sections, we will examine them in
detail.
Morphemes

Lexical Functional

Free Bound Free Bound

Inflectional Derivational

Syntax I 31
Figure 2.1: The typology of morpheme in English

Due to different combinations of morphemes, words can be categorized as shown in the

figure below:

Words

Simple Complex Compound

Figure 2.2: The classification of words in English

Words which are made up of a single free morpheme are known as simple words, a free
morpheme and one or more bound morphemes are known as complex words, two or
more free morphemes (with or without some bound morphemes) are known as
compound words, or in some rare cases, two bound morphemes. Here are some
examples of complex and compound words:

Simple words: time, brother, table, with

Complex words: disallow, impossible, unwise, desirable, kindness, shorten,
unacceptable, works
Compound words: bathroom, homework, red-hot, widespread

Lexical and functional morphemes

The distinction between lexical and functional morphemes is not well defined. In general,
lexical morphemes carry the ‘content’ of messages we convey, i.e. they have ‘meaning’.
They include the ordinary nouns (e.g., boy, school), adjectives (e.g., wonderful,
dangerous), adverbs (e.g., hastily, well) and verbs (e.g., run, follow). They are classified as
lexical morphemes.

Functional morphemes, on the other hand, consist largely of the functional words in the

32 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

language such as conjunction (e.g., and, but), prepositions (e.g., by, of), articles (e.g., a,
the) and pronouns (e.g., he, they). They do not carry the ‘content’ of messages we
convey; instead, they express some sort of relationship between lexical morphemes. They
are therefore also known as grammatical morphemes.

Bound and free morphemes

The complex word, ‘unusual’, as noted above comprises of two morphemes, ‘un’ and
‘usual’. While the morpheme ‘usual’ can exist independently, the morpheme ‘un’ cannot.
The morpheme ‘un’ must be attached to another morpheme such as ‘usual’ or
morphemes such as ‘usually’ which can exist independently. Morphemes that can exist
independently are known as ‘free’ morphemes, while morphemes that need to be
attached to another free morpheme or morphemes are called ‘bound’ morphemes. For
examples: ‘happiness’ comprises of two morphemes: ‘happy’, which is a free morpheme
and ‘ness’, which is a bound morpheme.

A morpheme which is attached to the front of a free morpheme is called a prefix. For
example, ‘im’ and ‘un’ are prefixes in the words ‘unusual’ and ‘unhappy’. A morpheme
which is attached at the end of a word is called a suffix. For example, ‘ness’ and ‘ly’ in the
words ‘happiness’ and ‘usually’ are suffixes. We use the word ‘affix’ to refer to both
‘prefixes’ and ‘suffixes’.

In addition to prefixes and suffixes, some morphemes can be inserted in the middle of
another word. They are known as ‘infixes’. Though uncommon, English does use a few
‘infixes’ such as ‘-o-’ in ‘Sino-US’. Let’s examine another word ‘abso-bloody-lutely’. The
word comprises of the base word ‘absolute’, the infix ‘bloody’, and the suffix ‘ly’. English
does not have many infixes and the use of these is highly marked as in the example
above.

Apart from ‘affixes’, there are two other important notions: ‘base’ and ‘root’. The notion
‘base’ refers to a word to which we add another morpheme. For example, ‘unfortunate’ is

Syntax I 33
a word that is comprised of a free morpheme ‘fortune’ and two bound morphemes ‘mis’
and ‘ate’. Being a bound morpheme attached to the word ‘fortunate’, ‘mis’ is called a
prefix because it is attached to the front of the word ‘fortunate’. On the other hand, the
word ‘fortunate’ is the ‘base’ to which the prefix ‘mis’ is attached. However, ‘unfortunate’
can be further divided into a free morpheme ‘fortune’ and a bound morpheme ‘ate’.
Being a bound morpheme attached to the word ‘fortune’, ‘ate’ is called a suffix because
it is attached to the back of the word ‘fortune’. In addition, ‘fortune’ is a free morpheme
which cannot be further divided into meaning carrying units. Therefore, ‘fortune’ is also
the ‘root’ word.

English, in addition to having bound affixes, also has some ‘bound roots’. ‘Bound roots’ are
root words that must be attached to an affix to exist. They cannot exist as free
morphemes, even though their meaning can be understood. For example, the word
‘inept’ can be analyzed as being formed by the addition of the prefix ‘in-’ to the
root/base ‘ept’. However, in English the word ‘ept’ does not exist as a free morpheme.
Similarly, the word ‘vengeance’ appears to be a combination of the root/base ‘venge’
and the suffix ‘ance’; however, the root ‘venge’ does not exist as a free morpheme: it
must either be attached to a suffix (like ‘-ance’ to form ‘vengeance’) or to a prefix (like
‘a’ or ‘re’ to form the words ‘avenge’ and ‘revenge’).

Inflectional and derivational morphemes

Bound morphemes can be further classified into derivational and inflectional morphemes,
depending on whether they change the content meaning or the word class of the base
or not. Morphemes that influence the meaning or the word class of the base are called
derivational morphemes. Morphemes that do not change the meaning of the base and
do not change the word class are called inflectional morphemes. Let us look at the
following examples:

34 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

  -s: boats
 -full: wonderful
 un-: unhealthy

In the first example above, the addition of the plural marker ‘-s’ does not alter the word
class or the content meaning of the base and is therefore an inflectional morpheme. The
latter two examples, on the other hand, change the word class and the meaning of the
base and are therefore derivational morphemes.

Derivational morphemes

Derivational morphemes change the word class and/or the meaning of the base word
that they are attached to. Derivational morphemes can be prefixes or suffixes.

In English, all prefixes are derivational morphemes; for examples: ‘un-’ in ‘unhealthy’,
‘arch-’ in ‘archbishop’, or ‘mis-’ in ‘misunderstanding’. They change the meaning of the
base that they attach to. Apart from some exceptions, prefixes do not typically alter the
word class of the base word. Those which convert the word class of the base are called
conversion prefixes. For examples:

be- + witch (noun) = bewitch (verb)

en- + danger (noun) = endanger (verb)
a- + float (verb) = afloat (adjective)

Some derivational prefixes carry a clear meaning that they add to the base that they are
attached to. We can use these meanings to group various prefixes in English. For example:

 negative prefixes such as ‘un-’ in ‘unfair’, ‘non-’ in ‘non-existent’, ‘in-’ in ‘invisible’,

‘a-’ in ‘amoral’ and ‘dis-’ in ‘disobey’;
 reversible prefixes such as ‘un-’ in ‘undress’, ‘de-’ in ‘defrost’ and ‘dis-’ in
‘discourage’;

Syntax I 35
  pejorative prefixes such as ‘mis-’ in ‘misdirect’, ‘mal-’ in ‘maltreatment’, ‘pseudo-’ in
‘pseudo-doctor’;
 degree and size prefixes such as ‘super-’ in ‘superman’, ‘out-’ in ‘outlive’, ‘sur-’ in
‘surcharge’, ‘over-’ in ‘overworked’, ‘under-’ in ‘underground’, ‘hyper-’ in
‘hypersensitive’, ‘ultra-’ in ‘ultra-modern’, ‘mini-’ in ‘mini-bus’, ‘macro-’ in ‘macro-
photography’, and ‘micro-’ in ‘microwave’;
 attitude prefixes such as ‘co-’ in ‘co-operate’, ‘counter-’ in ‘counter-attack’, ‘anti-’
in ‘anti-nuclear’, and ‘pro-’ in ‘prodemocracy’;
 locative prefixes such as ‘sub-’ in ‘subway’, ‘inter-’ in ‘international’, ‘trans-’ in
‘transport’;
 time and order prefixes such as ‘fore-’ in ‘forewarn’, ‘pre-’ in ‘prelude’, ‘post-’ in
‘postcolonial’, ‘ex-’ in ‘export’, and ‘re-’ in ‘relocate’; and
 number prefixes such as ‘mono-’ in ‘monologue’, ‘uni-’ in ‘unilateral’, ‘bi-’ in
‘bilingual’, ‘multi-’ in ‘multinational’, and ‘pluri-’ in ‘pluricentric’.

In contrast to derivational prefixes, derivational suffixes typically – but not always – change
the word class of the base that they are attached to. By doing so, they also change the
meaning of the word. For example:

 -hood: brotherhood
 -hood: likelihood

In the first example above, the words ‘brother’ and ‘brotherhood’ are both nouns
although the meaning of the derived word is quite distinct from the base; in the second
example, the addition of a suffix changes the word class and the meaning: likely
(adjective)  likelihood (noun).

Unlike prefixes, it is more difficult to determine the exact meaning of derivational suffixes.
Instead of using meaning, derivational suffixes are primarily categorized based on the
class of word they change. They are as follows:

36 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Noun suffixes include ‘-eer’ as in ‘engineer’, ‘-ster’ as in ‘gangster’, ‘-er’ as in ‘banker’, ‘-
let’ as in ‘booklet’, ‘-ette’ as in ‘cigarette’, ‘-ess’ as in ‘princess’, ‘-y’ as in ‘daddy’, ‘-hood’
as in ‘statehood’, ‘-ship’ as in ‘friendship’, ‘-dom’ as in ‘freedom’, ‘-ery’ as in ‘bravery’, ‘-
full’ as in ‘spoonful’, ‘-ant’ as in ‘occupant’, ‘-ation’ as in ‘operation’, ‘-al’ as in ‘approval’,
‘-ment’ as in ‘argument’, ‘-age’ as in ‘package’.

Verb suffixes include ‘-ify’ as in ‘certify’, ‘-ise’ as in ‘organise’, ‘-en’ as in ‘blacken’ and ‘-
ate’ as in ‘activate’.

Adjective suffixes include ‘-ese’ as in ‘Japanese’, ‘-ist’ as in ‘novelist’, ‘-ism’ as in

‘radicalism’, ‘-ful’ as in ‘faithful’, ‘-(i)al’ as in ‘national’, ‘-ic’ as in ‘acidic’, ‘-less’ as in
‘crimeless’, and ‘-ous’ as in ‘vacuous’.

Adverb suffixes include ‘-ly’ as in ‘happily’, ‘-wards’ as in ‘onwards’ and ‘-wise’ as in

‘clockwise’.

Although the above holds in general, there are, however, exceptions to it and classifying
a derived word can sometimes also be quite difficult. For example, the suffix ‘-ing’ can be
added to a verb to form a noun, ‘the dancing’, or an adjective, ‘the sleeping beauty’; in
addition, the suffix ‘-ing’ also works as an inflectional suffix, as will be noted in a later
section.

Some derivations are simple, i.e., have only one layer of derivation; for example, the
derived word ‘unhappy’ is a result of a simple derivation, where the prefix ‘un-’ is
attached to the adjective ‘happy’. Others can go through several layers of derivations
called complex derivations; for example, the word ‘unhappily’ goes through two layers of
affixation and is a result of complex derivation. In some complex derivatives, such as
‘unhappily’, the internal structure of the word is not transparent. It is not directly evident
whether the prefix ‘un-’ is attached to the base ‘happy’ before or after the suffix ‘-ly’. In
such cases, it is useful to compare the suffixes and to see what word class they attach to

Syntax I 37
in order to determine the order of derivation. For example, the prefix ‘un-’ only attaches to
adjectives. So, there are words such as ‘unkind’, ‘unloved’, (where ‘kind’ and ‘loved’ are
adjectives), there are no words such as ‘*unlove’ or ‘*untable’ (where ‘love’ is a verb and
‘table’ is a noun). We therefore conclude that the prefix ‘un-’ is first attached to the
adjective ‘happy’ to form the adjective ‘unhappy’ before the suffix ‘-ly’ is attached to
form the adverb ‘unhappily’. In contrast, though the word ‘unhealthy’ looks similar to
‘unhappily’, it is formed in the reverse order. The base word ‘health’ is a noun and the
prefix ‘un-’ cannot attach to it. We thus conclude that the suffix ‘-y’ is first attached to
form the adjective ‘healthy’ and the prefix ‘un-’ is added to form the adjective
‘unhealthy’.

Activity 2.1

Identify the derivational affixes you can find in the words of the sentences in the first
column.
Derivational
affixes
e.g. The farmer's cows returned home. –er, re–
(a) This is an historic occasion.
(b) And I am particularly pleased to see that Chairman Deng
Xiaoping is able to be present.
(c) The Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong,
(d) which we have just signed on behalf of our two Governments,
(e) is a landmark in the life of the territory;
(f) in the course of Anglo-Chinese relations
(g) and in the history of international diplomacy.
(h) The Agreement establishes a firm basis for confidence in Hong
Kong up to 1997 and beyond,
(i) and for its continued stability, prosperity and growth.
(Excerpted from the speech by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at the Signature

38 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Ceremony of the Joint Declaration on the Future of Hong Kong in 19 December 1984)

Inflectional morphemes

Inflectional morphemes are morphemes that serve a grammatical purpose but do not
change the content meaning of the words that they are attached to. As such, inflectional
morphemes do not to change the word class of the base words (also known as ‘stems’)
that they are attached to.

In contrast to derivational morphemes, English has only eight inflectional suffixes. They can
be subcategorized based on the class of words that they attach to as shown in Table 2.1
below.

Purpose/meaning Meaning
Nouns
-s to mark a plural dogs, cats, tables
-’s to identify possession Peter’s book, mum’s skirt
Verbs
-s to mark third person singular (non-past) John likes the idea.
-ing* to mark a verb in the progressive aspect They are playing soccer.
-ed to mark past tense Mary raised the question.
-en/-ed to create a past participle form of a verb Joseph has eaten the apple.
Adjectives
-er to form a comparative adjective the nicer one
-est to form a superlative adjective the nicest one
Table 2.1: Inflectional suffixes in English

In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes and always come at the end of a word.
This means that in complex words, which are composed of one or more derivational

Syntax I 39
morphemes, the inflectional morpheme is always added at the end of the word, e.g.
complications, staterooms, overstated, overstepping, undertaken.

Inflectional morphemes are applied more regularly across words in a word class and
therefore are more productive. They usually attach to all the words in a class. For
examples, all nouns can potentially have a plural form (e.g. tigers, chairs, forks, girls), and
all verbs can have a past tense (e.g. worked, walked, said, prayed). Inflectional
morphemes are regular also in a sense that when an inflectional suffix is added to a stem,
the result is predictable. For example, one can add the suffix ‘-ed’ to a verb and form the
past tense; and, similarly, add the suffix ‘-er’ to an adjective and form a comparative
adjective. However, in some cases, the past tense form is formed by making various
internal changes to the word, e.g., consider the following pairs of words: sink – sank, go –
went, eat – ate, drink – drank, etc. Similarly, the comparative form of adjective may be
formed by adding the word ‘more’ in front of the adjective.

Furthermore, inflectional morphemes tend to have allomorphs. Allomorphs are the same
morphemes that have different phonological realization. Inflectional allomorphs tend to
follow phonological rules. For example, the English plural morpheme ‘-s’ has three
allomorphs [-s], [-z] and [-əz]. The choice of the allomorph is based on the final segment of
the base. If the base ends with a non-strident voiceless consonant, the allomorph [-s] is
added; if it ends with vowel or a non-strident voiced consonant, [-z] is added; and, if it
ends in a strident consonant, [-əz] is added.

Activity 2.2

Identify the inflectional affixes you can find in the words of the sentences in the first
column.
Inflectional
affixes
e.g. The farmer's cows returned home. –'s, –s, –ed
(j) This is an historic occasion.

40 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 (k) And I am particularly pleased to see that Chairman Deng
Xiaoping is able to be present.
(l) The Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong,
(m) which we have just signed on behalf of our two Governments,
(n) is a landmark in the life of the territory;
(o) in the course of Anglo-Chinese relations
(p) and in the history of international diplomacy.
(q) The Agreement establishes a firm basis for confidence in Hong
Kong up to 1997 and beyond,
(r) and for its continued stability, prosperity and growth.
(Excerpted from the speech by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at the Signature
Ceremony of the Joint Declaration on the Future of Hong Kong in 19 December 1984)

In summarizing this section on derivational and inflectional morphemes, it is useful to

summarize the differences between derivational and inflectional suffixes. The differences
are tabulated in Table 2.2.

Derivational morphemes Inflectional morphemes

- carries lexical (content) meaning - carries grammatical (functional) meaning
- forms derivations - locates at the end of the base
- may change the word class - does not change word class
- may not be semantically transparent - is mostly semantically transparent
- is restricted and conditioned by context - is fully productive
- includes prefixes and suffixes - includes only suffixes
Table 2.2: Derivational and inflectional morphemes in English

Activity 2.3

Identify the derivational and inflectional affixes you can find in the words of the
sentences in the first column.
Derivational Inflectional
affixes affixes

Syntax I 41
 e.g. The farmer's cows returned home. –er, re– –'s, –s, –ed
(a) Those socks are inexpensive.
(b) The strongest rower won.
(c) The dramatization went well.
(d) The dispute was eventually resolved after
protracted negotiations.

Word formation in English

Derivational morphology can be used to create new words by altering or extending the
meaning of the words and/or changing their word class. These processes create new
words in English, and are known as affixation. However, in addition to affixation, there are
a number of other ways to form new words as shown in Figure 2.3. These processes are
discussed in more detail below.

word-formation
process

borrowing coinage shortening compounding conversion derivation

Figure 2.3: Word-formation process in English

Borrowing

Borrowing is a process of using words in one language in another. However, as Yule

(2010:54) points out, it is ‘the taking over of words from other languages’ because the
words being borrowed will not be given back. Words that are borrowed, typically known
as loan words, are used productively in the language into which they are borrowed.
English has and continues to borrow a large number of words from other languages.

42 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Some common borrowing in English from Chinese include: feng shui, chai, lychee, silk,
ketchup, wok, etc. As you would note, some of these words are used so commonly in
English that most people do not realize that they were originally borrowed from Chinese
(e.g. ketchup, silk). Typically words borrowed into English a long time ago have been
phonologically and orthographically adapted to suit the English phonological and
orthographic systems. Newer borrowings, on the other hand, may be phonologically
and/or orthographically marked. For example, the word ‘music’ borrowed from the
French word ‘musique’ has been phonologically and orthographically assimilated into
English; while the word ‘chauffeur’ has maintained its French spelling.

Coinage

Coinage is a process in which a totally new word is invented. Typically, the new words are
derived from proper names of individuals or places; for example, the word ‘sandwich’ is
named after the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so
that he could eat while he gambled. Other examples include ‘robot’, which is named
after the mechanical creatures in the Czech writer Karel Capek’s play R.U.R., the initials
standing for ‘Rossu’s Universal Robots’, ‘jumbo’ is name after an elephant brought to the
United States by P.T. Barnum. Other typical sources of coinage are trade names or
commercial products, including aspirin, vasline, zipper, kleener, xerox.

Shortening

Shortening here is used as a cover term referring to any process of word formation to
create words by shortening the original shorter in various ways. This word creation process
includes acronyms, abbreviations, blending and back-formation (see Figure 2.4 below).
Shortening is rule-governed process and what is deleted often depends on the English
convention of spelling or pronunciation.

Syntax I 43
 shortening

acronym clipping blending back-formation

Figure 2.4: Types of shortening in English

Acronyms
Generally speaking, acronyms are words formed by taking the first letters of (some or all)
the words in a title or a phrase to form a new word. Some acronyms are pronounced as a
single word (e.g., UNESTCO, NASA, AIDS, scuba, laser), while others are spelled out (e.g.,
ATM, UN, HIV, CEO). As they are written and pronounced as words, some words might be
omitted, e.g., the word ‘laser’ comes from ‘light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation’, and sometimes more than one letter might be taken from one word, e.g., the
word ‘radar’ comes from ‘radio detecting and ranging’.

Clipping
Clipping is a process of word formation in which a polysyllabic word is shortened. Often
the shortened word is monosyllabic, but there are exceptions. For example, the word
‘examination’ is often shortened to ‘exam’. Other examples of clipping are: facsimile 
fax; popular  pop; gasoline  gas; university  uni (in Australian English), or university 
varsity (in American English); pajamas  jammies; influenza  flu, physical education 
phys-ed; doctor  doc; zoological garden  zoo etc.

One common form of clipping is in forming diminutives; for examples, Susan  Sue;
Elizabeth  Liz; Robert  Rob.

For the sake of pronunciation and spelling, additional change may be made in the
process of clipping, e.g., microphone  mike; coca cola  coke; television  telly;

44 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

comfortable  comfly.

Blending
Blending is a process of word formation in which we join non-morphemic parts of
two words together to form a new word. A common example of a blend is
‘brunch’ which is formed by blending the ‘br’ of ‘breakfast’ and ‘unch’ of ‘lunch’.
Other examples of blends include: smog (smoke + fog), spork (spoon + fork),
motel (motor + hotel), broasted (broiled + roasted), breathalyzer (breath +
analyzer).

The manner of blending may vary. For examples, the word ‘camcorder’ is formed
by blending the first three letters ‘cam’ of ‘camera’ and the last five letters
‘corder’ of ‘recorder’, while ‘colaholic’ is formed by blending the last four letters
‘cola’ of ‘coca cola’ and the last five letters ‘holic’ of ‘alcoholic’. Other examples
include telephone + quiz  telequiz; lunar + astronaut  lunarnaut.

In the examples above, the blending process involves nouns. Though rare, words
of other classes can be involved; for examples, guess + estimate  guesstimate;
fantastic + fabulous  fantabulous.

Backformation
Backformation is a process of word formation where a real or supposed affix is removed
from a word to form a new word. This process is also sometimes referred to as reanalysis
because a word that appears to have an affix is reanalyzed as a base + affix which then
leads to the use of the base as a separate lexical item (where it did not exist earlier).
Examples of backformation include: edit from editor, swindle from swindler, resurrect from
resurrection, televise from television, hawk from hawker, stoke from stoker.

Activity 2.4
Syntax I 45
 The following words are products of shortening. Identify the type of shortening in the
processes involved, and put down the original words.
Acronyms Abbreviations Blendings Back-
formations
1. interpol International
+ police
2. to juggle
3. FBI
4. deli
5. telecom
6. biz
7. cardy
8. TOEFL
9. hi-tech
10. Oxbridge
11. to
escalate
12. BBC
13. heliport
14. UFO
15. limo

Compounding
Compounds are formed when two words (lexemes) join together to form a new lexical
item. There are a great number of types of combination because words that join together
to form a compound may or may not belong to the same word class. But compound
words are typically nouns, verbs, or adjectives as shown in Table 2.3.

46 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 -adjective -noun -verb
Adjective- yellowish green black panther highborn
Noun- country wide fire-engine manhunt
Verb- carryall breakwater sleepwalk
Table 2.3: Combination of compounding in English

Note that when the two words are in the word class, the compound will be in this
category. But, when the two words fall into different categories the class of the final word
will be the grammatical category of the compound (see Table 2.4 for examples).

Types of compound Compound

Noun compounds
girl (noun) friend (noun) girlfriend (noun)
black (adjective) panther (noun) black panther (noun)
pick (verb) pocket (noun) pickpocket (noun)
Verb compounds
break (verb) dance (verb) break dance (verb)
man (noun) hunt (verb) manhunt (verb)
black (adjective) list (verb) blacklist (verb)
Adjective compounds
icy (adjective) cold (adjective) icy-cold (adjective)
water (noun) tight (adjective) watertight (adjective)
Table 2.4: Types of compound in English

There are some exception to the rule described above: e.g., ‘down’ (adverb) + ‘hill’ (noun)
 ‘downhill’ (adverb); ‘down’ (adverb) + ‘pour’ (verb)  ‘downpour’ (noun); ‘down’
(adverb) + ‘cast’ (verb)  ‘downcast’ (adjective).

Apart from nouns, adjectives and verbs, we may also form preposition compounds (e.g.,
over + heated  overheated; in + to  into; out + of  out of). In general, compounds
formed with a preposition are in the category of the non-prepositional part of the
compound.

under (preposition) class (noun) underclass (noun)

under (preposition) sell (verb) under sell (verb)
over (preposition) heated (adjective) over heated (adjective)
hanger (noun) on (preposition) hanger-on (noun)

Syntax I 47
Table 9: Examples of prepositional compound in English

However, there are some exceptional cases, e.g., ‘after’ (proposition) + ‘glow’ (verb) 
afterglow (noun).

In English, a compound can consist of more than two lexemes; for examples: three-time
loser, four-dimensional space-time, sergeant-at-arms, mother-of-pearl, man about town,
master of ceremonies, daughter-in-law.

The English orthographic system is not very consistent in marking the various types of
compounds. Compounds are sometimes written with a space between the two words
(e.g., air raid, black market, fancy dress, ground staff, rock garden), sometimes with a
hyphen (e.g., air-conditioning, brother-in-law, double-cross, mother-tongue), and
sometimes as a single word (e.g., afternoon, airtight). With some compounds, there is a
considerable amount of variation and they may be written without space, with space,
and with a hyphen, e.g., birdcage, bird cage, or bird-cage.

When a compound is written with a space between the two words, one question arises:
How do we know whether or not it is a compound? While English orthography does not
mark compounds, the phonology generally does. In general, compounds, especially
adjective-noun compounds, are pronounced with a stress on the first component of the
compound, i.e. the stressed syllable of the first component is pronounced with greater
force than the other component(s) in the compound; while non-compound combinations
of the same words stress the second word. For example, when we use the word dark room
as a compound (a room where photographic plates are processed), we stress the first
part of the word; but when we use it as a non-compound (a room which is dark), we stress
the second word.

In addition to the phonology, compounds are also marked in grammar. For example, in
adding an inflectional morpheme on compounds, we typically add them to the second
component. For example, we break dance  break dancing (not breaking dance);

48 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

football  footballs (not foots ball). However, we should note that there are some
exceptions to this rule, e.g., passer by  passers by.

In the discussion above, compounds are classified according to their word class. We can
also categorize compounds according to their meaning, i.e. according to some semantic
criteria (see Figure 2.5 bolow).

types of
compound

endocentric compounds exocentric compound appositional copulative compounds

compounds

Figure 2.5: Types of compound in English

Endocentric compounds refer to those compounds in which one component is the centre
and the other is the modifier, e.g., armchair (a kind of chair), house party (a kind of party),
black panther (a kind of panther). The semantic criterion used here is: A classifies B.

Exocentric compounds, on the other hand, refer to those compounds in which there is no
focal component and therefore the whole compound refers to something else rather than
either one of the components denotes, e.g., walkman (a type of stereo but not a kind of
man); birdbrain (a type of behavior but not the brain of bird). The semantic criterion used
here is: A and B together classify a person/thing that is not explicitly stated in the
compound

Appositional compounds are those compounds in which the referents of them embody
the meanings of both components but one of them is the focal element, e.g., girlfriend (a
girl and also a friend), woman lawyer (a woman and a lawyer), chef-owner (a person is
both the chef and the owner of a restaurant). The semantic criterion used here is: Both A

Syntax I 49
and B contribute different descriptions to the person/thing they denote.

And, finally, copulative compounds are those compounds which show a coordinating
relationship and they are often difficult to decide which of the components is the focal
element, e.g., French-German, aural-oral. The semantic criterion used here is: The
meanings of A and B are combined.

Conversion
In conversion, an existing word, which belongs to one word class, is used as a word from a
different word class. Conversion is similar to derivation, because we change the word
class. However, it is different in that no affixes are added. This is the reason why conversion
is sometimes referred to as ‘zero derivation’. Conversion is a common process of word
formation in English. Examples of conversion include: butter (noun  verb, as in ‘butter the
toast’), report (verb  noun, as in ‘submit a report’), dirty (adjective  verb, as in ‘dirty the
room’), up (preposition  verb; as in ‘up the price’), poor (adjective  noun, as in ‘the
poor people’.

But what are the criteria for treating one of the two words related by the zero affix to be
the source or the base? Three criteria are generally used: meaning, form and history. The
criterion of meaning relies on our sense of the congruence between a word and its
referent. A word is typically identified as a noun if it denotes a person or an object; a verb
if it denotes action; and an adjective if it denotes a quality, and so on. In a pair of words
related by the zero affix we can generally tell which meaning is primary and which
derived. For examples, carpet, stone, table, etc., are primarily nouns as they denote
objects, hence we regard the verb to be derived. On the other hand, in pairs like attack
(verb) and attack (noun), help (verb) and help (noun), laugh (verb) and laugh (noun),
etc., we can tell that the base is the verb since the words primarily denote actions.

The criterion of form concerns our knowledge of affixes. Some suffixes occur typically with
nouns, others with verbs. For examples, the suffixes -tion, -ion, -ure are typically noun

50 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

endings. Hence when words containing such endings are used as verbs, we can tell that
the noun form is basic, the verb form derived. The prefix re-, on the other hand, is a typical
verb prefix. Hence in a pair containing a noun and a verb with the prefix re- the noun
word is considered to be derived from the verb word, e.g., recall (noun) and recall (verb);
re-run (noun) and re-run (verb).

The criterion of history involves our knowledge of etymology. Here, we can turn to the
history of the language and try to determine which use came first. For example, the noun
worship has existed in English for about 600 years, but the verb is even older. This criterion is,
however, not very reliable as historical records are not easily available for all words.

Activity 2.5

In each of the following expressions, write down in the first column the word which
undergoes conversion, and in the second column the type of that conversion (the
types are represented by numbers):
1: Verb derived from Noun
2: Noun derived from Verb
3: Verb derived from Adjective
4: Noun derived from Adjective
5: Verb derived from Preposition
The conversed word Type of
conversion
e.g. Mr. Lam’s fingering the piano. finger 1
(a) Listen to the exciting contest! contest 2
(b) He’s gonna open the door. open 3
(c) My mum’s buttoning my shirt. button(ing) 1
(d) The boutique has upped the price. up(ped) 5
(e) Jesus asked us to love the poor. poor 4

Syntax I 51
Derivation (affixation)

As mentioned in the previous section, unlike inflection, derivation can result in new words
by adding affixes to stems or bases. Hence, derivation is also known as affixation. As infixes
are rare and not productive in English, derivation as a process of word formation is mainly
divided into prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation changes the meaning of the base but
normally not the word class. For examples, the prefix ‘dis-’ is added to the root ‘obey’ to
form a new word of the same word class ‘disobey’. Other examples include treat 
maltreat; distribute  redistribute. Suffixation, on the other hand, changes the word class
as well as the meaning (usually grammatical meaning). For example, the suffix ‘-ment’ is
added to the root ‘treat’, which is a verb, to form a noun ‘treatment’. Other examples
include obey  obedient; distribute  distributor. However, there are some exceptional
prefixes which do change the word class, e.g., a-  alive; be-  befriend; en- (em-) 
endanger, embitter.

Activity 2.6

Analyze the word formation of the complex words in (a)-(f) by labeling bracketing.
(a) happiness [[un [happy]]ness]
(b) incomprehensible
(c) redisposal
(d) disestablishment
(e) impossibly

Activity 2.7

52 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The following words are products of certain morphological processes. Write down the
original words and processes involved.
Original words Morphological processes
(a) loveseat love, seat compounding
(b) comfy
(c) aerobathon
(d) automate
(e) autocide

Activity 2.8

Explain briefly the formation process responsible for the creation of each of the
following words.
e.g. bookshelf It is created by compounding by which two separate
words (i.e. ‘book’ and ‘shelf’) are combined to produce a
single form ‘bookshelf’.
1. hurdy gurdy
2. popfest
3. moneywise
4. to ape
5. hoover
6. eighty
7. to better
8. walkie-talkie
9. centimetre
10. WWW
11. footprint
12. to better

Syntax I 53
 13. limo
14. nitty-gritty
15. medicare

Conclusion

This chapter focused on word formation in English. We started off by defining morphemes,
which are the smallest meaningful units in a language. We then discussed different ways
of categorizing morphemes: bound and free; roots and affixes; prefixes, infixes, and
suffixes; and open and closed classes of morphemes. We then looked at derivational and
inflectional morphemes in some detail. Derivational morphemes include both prefixes and
suffixes in English and may change the meaning and/or the word class of the words that
they are attached to. In English, only suffixes can function as inflectional morphemes.
Inflectional morphemes serve grammatical function (number, tense, aspect, possessive,
etc.), but do not change the core semantic meaning of the base that they are attached
to. After examining morphemes in some detail, we spent the later half of the chapter
examining some of the processes of word formation in English. These included: use of
acronyms to form new words; backformation, blending, borrowing, clipping (shortening),
compounding, and conversion (zero derivation).

54 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Syntax I
3
Introduction

In the previous chapter, we explored the internal structure of words and a morphemic
system. In the present chapter, we will first examine the classification of English words –
word classes (also known as parts of speech), and then the combination of words into
phrases. In traditional grammar, there are eight main word classes: noun, adjective, verb,
adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and article. These eight classes can be
grouped into two types: open and closed word classes as shown in Table 3.1. Open
classes are those that permit the entry of new words to the class, while closed classes
normally do not. Table 3.2 contrasts the differences between the two word classes.

word classes
open word classes closed word classes
nouns pronouns
verbs prepositions
adjectives conjunctions
adverbs articles
Table 3.1 The traditional classification of word classes

Open word classes Closed word classes

have inflections to show a change in are uninflected
meaning or grammatical function
refer to objects, events, processes and make relations between components in a

Syntax I 55
 qualities text
have denotative (or content) definitions have grammatical functions
an infinitely large set with the possibility a small finite and unchanging set
of items being added or deleted
unpredictable frequency in a text high frequency in a text
Table 3.2 Contrasts between open and closed word classes

Some contemporary grammars, however, argue that under the traditional classification,
adjective becomes too large a class in which some subtypes do not situate themselves
squarely into the characteristics of open word classes. Another way of classification
therefore is proposed as shown in Table 3.3. In the new classification, there is a new word
class called determiner, which include not only the ‘articles’ but also the ‘limiting
adjectives’ in the traditional classification. In the following section, we will first examine the
open word classes and then the closed word classes.

word classes
open word classes closed word classes
nouns pronouns
verbs prepositions
adjectives conjunctions
adverbs determiner
Table 3.3 A new classification of word classes

Open Word Classes

Noun
Nouns generally refer to both physical and abstract objects, ideas and phenomena. The
general classification of noun is shown in Figure 3.1.

56 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Figure 3.1 Classification of noun

Nouns can be classified into proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns refer to the
name of individual entities — places, persons, months, seasons, religions, customs and
festivals. They are capitalized in written form and usually have no plural because of the
uniqueness of their referents. In general, they are not modified by adjective. Common
nouns, on the other hand, are distinguished from proper nouns by being able to have their
meaning limited by adjectives, e.g., the beautiful dog, a smart boy, hot weather and the
like. Common nouns have two distinct subtypes — countable and uncountable nouns.
Countable nouns refer to things and concepts that are regarded as separate units with
definite boundaries, whereas uncountable nouns refer to things and concepts that are
regarded as whole or impossible to divide such as coffee, milk, smoke, and taste. Words
that refer to a whole class of similar objects, such as cutlery, equipment, and furniture, are
also considered uncountable.

Both proper nouns and common nouns can be either concrete or abstract. Concrete
nouns represent objects that we can experience by way of the senses (touch, sight, hear,
feel and so on), such as table, picture, oxygen, and song. Abstract nouns, on the other

Syntax I 57
hand, refer to abstractions and concepts such as truth, forgetfulness, intuition.

There is one sub-category of countable common noun called collective noun. Collective
nouns refer to countable nouns of the kind herd, flock and school which can be followed
by the name of their members: a herd of buffalos, a flock of sheep, a school of fish and so
on. The point is that the members for a collective noun are all of the same kind — all
buffalos, all sheep, all fish.

Activity 3.1

Identify the nouns in the following sentences and give the subclassification for each.
State whether the nouns are (a) count, non-count/mass, or proper; (b) concrete or
abstract; and (c) collective or not.
Example: The chair stood out from the rest of the furniture.
Answers: chair: count, concrete; rest: non-count/mass, abstract; furniture: non-count,
concrete

1) She worked for a spell in China in a trading firm.

2) He told the group of boys to climb down the cliff with caution.
3) Nature is depicted as a force of strength and beauty in this poem.
4) In his novel he deals with poverty and violence on the streets of the town.
5) David is excited to have his dictionary on taxation published by Routledge.
6) Last evening her high-school best friend fell in love with her dancing instructor.
7) The story describes scenes of her childhood in London in the Second World War.
8) The management board is having a meeting to determine the level of the
workers’ remuneration.

Adjective

In traditional grammar, adjective is a large and controversial class as shown in Figure 3.2.

58 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

However, the subtypes of limited adjective do not situate themselves squarely into the
characteristics of open word classes, as they comprise a small finite unchanging set. In
contemporary grammar, the classification of adjective is streamlined as shown in Figure
3.3. The various subtypes of limiting adjective are reclassified as subtypes of determiner.
We will discuss them later. Here, we only discuss the differences between common
adjectives and proper adjectives.

Figure 3.2 Classification of adjective in traditional English grammar

Figure 3.3 Classification of adjective in contemporary grammar

Common adjectives may themselves be modified in degree by words like very, quite,
rather. Proper adjectives are those adjectives formed from proper nouns such as

Syntax I 59
Canadian, Christian, and Freudian. They may be gradable only for special emphasis:
more Canadian than me, very Christian, rather Freudian.

According to their position in a sentence, there are two uses of descriptive adjective –
attributive and predicative. Adjectives used attributively go immediately before the noun
they describe:

Rebecca is a smart girl.

Peter works in a large and prominent law firm.

Adjectives used predicatively are part of the complement of a sentence and go

immediately after the verb:

Rebecca is smart.
Peter’s law firm is large and prominent.

Verbs
There are two major subtypes of verbs: main verbs and auxiliary verbs. Main verbs are
those that realize reference to or relations within the real world. They express states,
processes, actions, and relations. Auxiliary verbs are those that express time relations, and
degrees of truth and possibility. Both main verbs and auxiliary verbs can be further
classified into sub-categories as shown in Figure 3.4.

60 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Figure 3.4 Classification of verb

Main Verbs
Semantically, intransitive verbs express a state such as We disagree, process such as The
ice melted, or action such as The thief fled that is completed in itself. They do not permit a
noun to follow it.

Transitive verbs, on the other hand, express some action of one noun or another.
‘Transitive’ means ‘going across’, and there is often an action which goes across from one
noun to the other. Transitive verbs are either monotransitive or ditransitive. Monotransitive
verbs permit only one noun to follow as in Bruce hates the cat. Ditransitive verbs, on the
other hand, permit two. Ditransitive verbs can be further classified into dative verbs and
factitive verbs.

In general, dative verbs convey the action of transfer of something, usually from one
person to another such as I gave her a book. The order of the two nouns can be reversed.
In such case, a preposition is used to mark the indirect object such as I gave a book to her.
There are not many dative verbs in English, e.g., send, give, tell, lend are some of them.
Factitive verbs also permit two nouns to follow. They express an attribute of the first noun.

Syntax I 61
The attribute can be realized either by a noun such as We found David a traitor; We
elected Peterson our representative, or by an adjective such as We thought Peter reliable;
We made Mary successful. Since the attribute is marked by the order, the two nouns
cannot be reversed: We elected our representative Peterson. Common factitive verbs
include choose, designate, appoint, make, elect, think, consider, find, believe, call, etc.

Among the intransitive and transitive verbs, there are two special sub-categories that are
not shown in the diagram. They are prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs. They are
named according to their composition. Prepositional verbs, as the name indicated, are
verbs made up of a verb + preposition. They are always transitive such as We thought
about the problem; We looked at the picture. Phrasal verbs are verbs like prepositional
verbs but whose second element is called a ‘particle’ and it can be moved away from
the verb:

to put up (we put up the tent : we put the tent up)

to put out (I put out the fire : I put the fire out)

Linking verbs are a small set of verbs, which have the logical relation of inclusion by or
sameness:

Charlie is a fool = Charlie is included in the set of ‘fools’

Charlie is the CEO = Charlie and the CEO are the same

There are two kinds of linking verb: copulative verbs (coupling verbs) and sense verbs. The
most common copulative verbs is ‘to be’, however, they also include to seem, to appear,
to become. Copulative verbs can be followed by an adjectival expression such as It is
very odd; It seems very odd; It became very odd.

Sense verbs are also classified as linking verbs. They function like copulative verbs but they
add a notion of one of the five senses to the copula:

62 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 It looks very odd. (It is very odd, by the way it looks.)
It sounds very odd. (It is very odd, by the way it sounds.)
It smells very odd. (It is very odd, by the way it smells.)
It feels very odd. (It is very odd, by the way it feels.)
It tastes very odd. (It is very odd, by the way it tastes.)

Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs form a small set of verbs. They are considered auxiliary because they carry
no referential (or content) meaning and have to accompany a principal (main) verb.
Their functions are mainly grammatical. They can be classified into four sub-categories:
aspectual auxiliary, modal auxiliary, passive auxiliary and auxiliary do.

Aspectual auxiliaries express the speaker’s viewpoint with respect to an action expressed
by the main verb — whether it is considered as complete (the perfect aspect) or as on-
going (the progressive or continuous aspect). The perfect aspect is expressed by the
auxiliary have, such as I have done my homework, and the progressive aspect by the
auxiliary be, such as I am doing my homework. The two auxiliaries may be used together.
When this happens, the perfect aspect coming first:

have + be + en + principal verb + ing

I have been working on my homework since this morning.

The modal auxiliaries include can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, and must.
They seem to have a present and past tense; however, the sense of the past tense need
not be past at all, but merely one of indirectness. Modal auxiliaries are used to express the
speaker’s assessment on the probability of a proposition, or the obligation and inclination
of a proposal:

Peter may come home this Christmas. (probability)

Peter has to come home this Christmas. (obligation)
Peter will come home this Christmas. (inclination)

Syntax I 63
The passive auxiliary to be is used to form the passive voice such as The assignment was
done by Jennifer. The active voice of the above statement is Jennifer did the assignment.

The auxiliary do is used to form negative, interrogative, and emphatic verb structures:

positive form negative form

he chased the thief down he did not chase the thief down
he landed the plane beautifully he did not land the plane beautifully

interrogative form
Did he chase the thief down?
Did he landed the plane beautifully?

emphatic form
he did chase the thief down
he did land the plane beautifully

Activity 3.2

Identify the verbs (including auxiliaries as separate verbs) in the following sentences
and give the subclassification for each. For the verbs, use: transitive, intransitive,
ditransitive (dative or factitive), linking (copulative or sense). For the auxiliaries, use the
following: auxiliary, aspect (perfect or continuous), modal auxiliary, passive auxiliary,
and do-auxiliary. Identify also the phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and phrasal-
prepositional verbs.
Example: The weather has been very cold.
Answer: has: auxiliary, perfect aspect; be(en): copulative
1) I have never felt so cold as when the wind starts blowing from the north.

64 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

2) They are impeaching the President but he does not seem to care.
3) Did they invite you to their wedding? That must have made you happy.
4) Were you given a ticket to come and attend the Leon Lai concert this week?
5) Hurry up! Go and tell your sister to get on with her homework.
6) Don’t stand around thinking about it! Come on and do it with enthusiasm!
7) He must be feeling very pleased with himself after he was promoted.
8) I heard that the Committee have just awarded Tom top marks for performing so
well.
9) George V was crowned king when his brother abdicated and left England.
10) She didn’t ask her teacher any more questions because she had been told off for
wasting time.

Activity 3.3

Analyze the verb type of the underlined verbs.

Example: He chased the thief down the street.

Answer: chased (monotransitive)

“That’s (1) not true,” the boy said (2). “I learned (3) the alchemist’s secrets in
my travels. I have (4) inside me the winds, the deserts, the oceans, the stars,
and everything created (5) in the universe. We were all made (6) by the
same hand, and we have the same soul. I want (7) to be like you, able to
reach (8) every corner of the world, cross the seas, blow away (9) the sands
that cover (10) my treasure, and carry the voice of the woman I love.”
(Extracted from Paulo Coelho, 1993. The Alchemist, London: HarperCollins
Publishers. P.154)

Adverbs

Syntax I 65
While adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and even the
whole sentences. Unlike nouns, verbs and adjectives, adverbs do not form a neat
typology. The various kinds of adverb are simple adverb, interrogative adverb, relative
adverb, adverb of degree, sentence adverb, and conjunctive adverb.

Simple adverbs are generally defined as those that modify a single word, group or phrase,
but not a clause or sentence. They are of the kind tomorrow, quickly, there whose
description includes their semantic function:

It is going to rain tomorrow (adverb of time)

She had her breakfast quickly (adverb of manner)
Put the chesterfield there (adverb of place).

The adverb of manner is often taken as the standard example of a simple adverb in that it
is made up of an adjective + ly such as quickly, usually. But it is noted that there are many
adverbs of manner that don’t have this characteristic. For instance, hard can be both
adjective and adverb as in It was a hard job and She worked hard. All adverbs of manner
can be modified for degree as follows:

quickly hard (positive degree)

more quickly harder (comparative degree)
most quickly hardest (superlative degree)

Apart from adverb of time, adverb of manner and adverb of place, indefinite adverbs are
simple adverbs, but have indefinite reference. They form a small set including somewhere,
anywhere, everywhere, sometime, somehow, anyhow etc. They have an indefinite
pronoun or determiner as their first element.

Interrogative adverbs also make up a small set: the common ones are when, where, why,
how. Their function is to indicate the particular kind of information being asked for. They
are thus grouped semantically: interrogative adverb of time (e.g., When will his plane

66 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

arrive?), interrogative adverbs of place (e.g., Where are you going to dine with her?),
interrogative adverb of reason (e.g., Why didn’t you answer my phone?), and also
interrogative adverb of manner (e.g., How did you work it out?).

Relative adverbs share the same form as interrogative adverbs — why, when, where, but
they occur after a noun to which they make a semantic qualification. Example: The
reason why Miles did it is quite obvious; The time when children studied Latin is long past; I
can’t remember the place where we are supposed to meet.

Adverbs of degree express the degree of quality expressed in the word they modify. They
can be used to modify adjectives, verbs and other adverbs as shown in the following
table. This sub-class is sometimes called an ‘intensifier’; however, some of its members do
not in fact intensify the degree, but reduce it.

adverb of degree + adjective

very pretty
quite good
rather stupid

adverb of degree + verb

almost died
completely destroyed
literally vanished

adverb of degree + adverb of manner

very happily
quite well
rather speciously
extremely fast

Syntax I 67
Clausal adverbs modify a whole sentence. They can be further classified into sentence
adverbs and conjunctive adverbs. A sentence adverb modifies a single clause. It can
occur at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence, e.g., Certainly, Jessica
is a suitable applicant; The diamond ring is evidently lost; David is cheating, obviously.
Conjunctive adverbs are often called ‘sentence connectors’ because they semantically
join one sentence with the previous one. Their function is to express the logical relationship
between two consecutive sentences. For instances:

Mary has a lot of money and therefore is generous with it. (a relation of logical)
Bob worked very hard; however, he failed the test. (a relation of contrast)
Peter speaks German; moreover, he is studying Japanese. (a relation of addition)

Activity 3.4

Identify the adverbs in the following sentences and give the subclassification for each.
The types are time, place, manner, indefinite, interrogative, relative, degree, sentence,
and conjunctive.
Example: Sometimes, she can run very quickly.
Answers: sometimes: indefinite; very: degree; quickly: manner

1) Why do you seldom reply nowadays when I write you such extremely long letters?
2) Anyway, I henceforth refuse to constantly correspond with a rather lazy person like
you.
3) I will probably stay late as I have nowhere to go. Where are you going?
4) We are definitely not going to that shop again after their extremely rude behavior
today.
5) Therefore, perhaps we’ll send the maid somewhere else if we still need anything

68 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 urgently.
6) When are we going back to that rather nice bar where they have that refreshingly
cold beer?

Activity 3.5

Identify the words belonging to the major word classes (treat auxiliary verbs as part of
the main verb here) in the following sentences.
Example: I heard the young boy sneaking quietly away to the beach.
Answers: I heard (V) the young (adj) boy (N) sneaking (V) quietly (adv) away (adv) to
the beach (N).

1) Strings of electric lights were now alight in the trees and along the alley.
2) A block of frozen ice was soon brought in and placed in a tin tub.
3) His host seemed pleased at that too, as though it were a special act of politeness.
4) It was like the China Resources building, glowing hotly in reflected sunlight that
dazzled the eyes.
5) Going indoors to remove his shoes he felt his feet bare on the cool marble.
6) Harriet is a self-employed vendor aimlessly roaming the neighborhood.
7) The movie portrays a depressed actor who has lost his job.
8) They take part in a dance contest to raise money for two friends.
9) The demands of friendship get more complex as these relationships move along.
10) He then decided to engage a butler to take better care of him for a while.

Closed Word Classes

Closed word classes make up a fixed inventory of words whose major function is
grammatical – joining, modifying, or relating major class words. While major class words

Syntax I 69
convey denotative or content meaning, and therefore have dictionary definitions, minor
class words have little denotative or content meaning and are difficult to define in words.
Their function is to organize the content expressed in major class words into grammatical
structures so that hearers or readers can interpret. In general, closed word classes can be
divided into two groups according to their functions (see Figure 3.5). Pronouns and
determiners have the general function of indicating things, whereas prepositions and
conjunctions have the function of joining:

I remember her face.

(‘I’ indicates the speaker and ‘her’ a female.)
Mary is the girl I mentioned in the phone.
(‘the’ indicates a girl that the speaker and the hearer have discussed.)
I will go shopping with Mary this afternoon.
(‘with’ joins the action ‘go’ with ‘Mary’ for a more complex picture.)
I was late for the meeting because I was trapped in the elevator.
(‘because’ joins the two clauses and tells us the logical relation between
them.)

Figure 3.5 Classification of closed word classes

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that stand in place of a noun. They indicate objects directly and

70 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

avoid the use of a noun. The classification of pronoun is presented in Figure 3.6 below:

Figure 3.6 Classification of pronoun

As can be seen in Figure 3.6 above, pronouns are categorized based on whether they
show a person distinction or not. Personal pronouns in English may be sub-categorized
based on whether they are first person, second person, or third person; whether they are
singular or plural (and, in the case of third person pronouns, if they have a known gender);
whether they are used in the subject position or the object position; and whether they are
possessive or reflexive/emphatic. The various pronouns used in Standard English are listed
in Table 3.4 below.

Number/ Subject Object Possessive Reflexive/

gender emphatic
Independent Attributive/
/absolute determinative
First Singular I Me Mine My Myself
person Plural We Us Our Our Ourselves
Second Singular & You You Yours Your Yourself
person plural
Third Singular / He Him His His Himself

Syntax I 71
 person masculine
Singular / She Her Hers Her Herself
feminine
Singular / It It Its It Itself
neutral
Plural They Them Theirs Their Themselves
Table 3.4: Pronouns in Standard English

The reflexive form of the pronouns can have two functions. The first function is reflexive
such as She hurt herself. A reflexive pronoun is used to indicate that the non-subject
pronoun has the same reference as the subject. The second function is emphatic. In
emphatic pronouns, the same form of reflexive pronoun is used to emphasize a noun or
pronoun by being placed directly after the noun/pronoun to be emphasized such as
Mary herself made the birthday cake. The emphatic pronoun may be moved away from
the subject to the end of the sentence, comparing Mary herself made the birthday cake
with Mary made the birthday cake herself. However, we should note that it is more
common to postpone emphatic pronouns to the end of a sentence, whether they relate
to the subject or not. The probable reason for this is that it is assumed that the end of a
sentence is the ‘focus’ of information in written language i.e., the element that the writer
invited the reader(s) to interpret as new information.

Demonstrative pronouns make no distinction between human and non-human. However,

they make distinguish between singular and plural, and proximity and distance in relation
to the speaker as shown in Table 3.5.

near to speaker remote from speaker

singular this that
plural these those

Table 3.5 Demonstrative pronouns

72 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Relative pronouns include who, whom, which, whose, that. The first three distinguish
between human (who and whom) and non-human (which), the fourth one – whose – is
the possessive pronoun, but the last one – that – may refer to humans and non-humans
alike. For instances:

The boy who was here yesterday is a student of mine.

The assignment that the teacher chose to reward was outstanding.

The man whose book you stole is a neighbor of mine. (Possessive relative pronoun)

Indefinite reference pronouns are sub-categorized as indefinite pronouns, reciprocal

pronouns, relative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns indicate non-
specific objects. In other words, an indefinite pronoun does not refer to a particular object
but a general class of possible things. They do not distinguish between persons; however,
they make a distinction between human and non-human: someone vs. something,
whoever vs. whatever. The commonest indefinite pronouns are:

Human Non-human
someone, somebody, something
anyone, anybody, anything
everyone, everybody, everything
no one, nobody, nothing

Other indefinite pronouns include either, neither, some, all etc.

The commonest indefinite relative pronouns are whoever, whatever, whichever, and
whomever (in formal style). While whoever and whomever refer to non-specific humans,
whatever and whichever refer to non-human referent.

Like the other indefinites, interrogative pronouns distinguish between human and non-

Syntax I 73
human, and they may be singular or plural. The commonest interrogative pronouns are
who, Whom, What, and which.

Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns that refer to an exchange or mutual interaction

between people or groups such as Peter and Mary smiled at each other. It should be
noted that the two reciprocal pronouns in English – each other and one another – are in
fact phrases.

Activity 3.6

Identify the pronouns in the following sentences and give the subclassification for
each. The types are pers(onal); poss(essive), reflex(ive); emphat(ic); demon(strative);
rel(ative); interrog(ative); indef(inite).
Example: The book that he lost is out of print.
Answers: that: rel; he: pers
1) Is there anyone here who knows which of these answers is the right one?
2) These are not the ones your mother bought for herself; hers are over there.
3) What did you yourself do all afternoon, you good-for-nothing?
4) Somebody owes me some money and I want what’s mine.
5) Don’t take that – it belongs to the man who hurt himself.
6) The technicians themselves admitted that their new ones were as faulty as
ours.

Prepositions
A preposition is a word that is placed before a noun or pronoun to connect the noun/
pronoun with another major class word such as Send it to the General Office; Buy one for
me. In effect, it is a kind of linking word that expresses a relation between two major class
words. In the example above, it and the General Office are linked by to which expresses a
direction towards Celia; One and me are linked by for which expresses the beneficiary. In
a sentence such as He stood by the door, the preposition by expresses a position taken by

74 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

he in relation to the door. The classification of prepositions shown in Figure 3.7 below:

Figure 3.7Classification of preposition

Simple prepositions consist of one word such as by, with, from, over, under. The common
structure of derived prepositions is that of a present participle verb + -ing such as during,
concerning, regarding, respecting. Complex prepositions can be further classified into
compound prepositions and phrasal prepositions. Compound prepositions are made up
of two simple prepositions, such as as for, on to, out of. They are sometimes written as one
such as into, upon, within. Phrasal prepositions are of the kind because of, due to, by
means of, etc. They have a formal association, whereas simple prepositions have a
general or informal association. The structure of phrasal prepositions is generally:

simple preposition + general abstract N + simple preposition

in relation to
in accordance with
in opposition to

However, there is quite a variety of possibilities:

Syntax I 75
 • as + verb past participle + simple preposition, e.g., as opposed to
• adverb + simple preposition, e.g., independently of
• adjective + simple preposition, e.g., opposite to

In English, there are about thirty pairs of word functioning as simple preposition and
adverb of place/time and each pair of word share the same form. In other words, these
words do not take the normal adverbial inflections, and must be identified by position. For
instances:

prepositions adverbs
He looked at the books around him. He passed the books around.
They lowered the cargo down the ship. They lowered the cargo down.
She wasn’t seen after class. She wasn’t seen after.
We leaned on the bridge and looked up the We looked up and saw the bridge.
river.

The few adverbs of time before, after, since, do not follow this pattern, but are identifiable
by their fronted position in sentences such as Before, he was very disorganized; After, she
was a different person; Since, we have lost touch with them.

There are about half a dozen words which function as verb particles in phrasal verbs such
as He thought over the plan and smiled to himself. The identifiable characteristic of an
adverbial particle in phrasal verbs is that it is separable from the verb itself such as He
thought the plan over and smiled to himself. Contrast this structure with a similar
prepositional verb structure e.g., He thought about the plan and smiled to himself, in
which the preposition about is not separable, i.e. * He thought the plan about and smiled
to himself. Naturally, if a verb is prepositional, it must take an object, and is, therefore,
always transitive. However, as we saw in the sub-categorization of the verb-class, phrasal
verbs may be transitive or intransitive.

76 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Activity 3.7

Identify the prepositions in the following sentences and give the subclassification for
each. The types are simple; complex: compound; complex: phrasal; derived.
Example: After dinner, they discussed the problems regarding the new policy.
Answers: after: simple; regarding: derived

1) In regard to your letter of yesterday concerning the exam results, we have put
your mark up to the next rank.
2) Because of the heavy traffic waiting to go into the tunnel, we had to hang about
for an hour underneath the flyover.
3) Concerning their offer and provided they are now sincere, we are committed to
accepting it.
4) I’ll opt for another round of negotiations in spite of their antipathy towards us.
5) As regards your latest venture, you seem to be jumping out of the frying pan into the
fire.

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins two structures of the same kind:

the East and the West (noun + noun)

pretty and smart (adjective + adjective)
quickly but carefully (adverb + adverb)
swear and scream (verb + verb)
I’ll go and meet the family (clause + clause)

There are two types of conjunction: coordinating and subordinating. Both of them can be
further classified as shown in the Figure 8. Examples of these conjunctions are given in
Table 3.5.

Syntax I 77
 Figure 3.8 Classification of conjunction

coordinating subordinating

simple correlative simple compound correlative

and both. . . and after in that if . . . then

but either . . . or where so that so . . . that

yet not only . . . but also as as if as … as

Figure 3.5 Examples of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are used to express several basic logical connections of

structures of the same kind: copulative, disjunctive and adversative. The three types of
coordinating conjunctions and their examples are given in Table 3.6 below.

Functions Conjunctions Examples

Copulative and, both . . . and Both you and your sister will be invited to the party.

Disjunctive either . . . or, or Either David or Mark will join the team.

Adversative but, yet He worked very hard this time but failed again.
Figure 3.6 Types of coordinating conjunctions

78 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Subordinating conjunctions have a greater range of semantic functions than that
expressed by coordinating conjunctions, though there is some overlap between the two.
Some of the more common types of subordinating conjunctions are given in Table 3.7
below.

Types Conjunctions Examples

Time when, until, since, The new law doesn’t take effect until the end of
before, after, while next month.

Place where, wherever I’ll accompany you wherever you go.

Manner as, as if, as though He shrugged as if he didn’t know.

Reason because, as, since She got the job because she was the best
candidate.

Result so that, so . . . that I was so tired that I fell asleep right away.

Purpose so that, in order that She changed her job so that she could have
more time with her kids.

Condition if, unless (= ‘if not’) If you promise not to tell anyone else, I’ll tell you
the truth.

Concession though, although, She is generous although she is poor..

even if, while

Comparison as . . . as, than He ran as fast as he can.

Nominal that, where, when, We all knew that he was the thief.
what, if, whether

Figure 3.7 Types of subordinating conjunctions

Activity 3.8

Syntax I 79
 Identify the conjunctions in the following sentences and give the
subclassification for each. The types are coord(inating): cop(ulative);
disjunct(ive); advers(ative); causal; result(ative); subord(inating): time;
place; manner; cause/reason; result; purpose; cond(ition); concess(ion);
comp(arison).
Example: Before we went to bed, we read and did our homework.
Answers: Before: subord, time; and: coord, cop
1) If you need a househelp or babysitter, please call me so that I can
arrange it as soon as possible.
2) Even though he tried, he floundered and failed; but he didn’t give up
as he was determined.
3) The animal perked up its ears as if it understood, while its tail stuck up
stiffly: yet it made no real response, so I put it back in its cage.
4) Though Joe realized the thieves were not armed, he hid in the
cupboard before they could see him, as he was both scared and
defenceless.
5) Once they had gone, he ran across to his neighbour’s so that he could
phone the police and wait until they came, rather than return to the
house.
6) As far as he could ascertain, seeing that there was such a mess, they
had been looking either for a file or for a disk, so everything had been
trashed.

Determiners

A determiner is ‘a word placed before a noun to specify its range of reference’ (Coffin,
Donohue and North 2009: 40). Determiners comprise a number of different items, including
articles, quantifiers, demonstratives, possessives, and numerals.

Articles indicate whether a noun is ‘definite’ (i.e., has deictic/anaphoric aspect) or

80 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

‘indefinite’ (i.e., has a general aspect.) In some traditional descriptions, articles are
classified as adjectives. There are three types of articles: definite, indefinite, and zero. The
three types of articles, their functions, and examples are given in Table 3.8 below.

Types Functions Examples

Definite used principally before a Once upon a time, there was a beautiful
article noun that has already princess. The princess, however, was born
been mentioned under a spell.
used deictically to specify There’s the boy I mentioned to you this
an object within the morning.
speech participants’ sight
or memory
used deictically to indicate
The Prime Minister; The Rockies; The City Hall
objects in general
knowledge
indicate a generic class The beaver is a large rodent.
indicate a collective class
the judiciary; the military; the Church; the
in terms of singular nouns
Press

Indefinite refer to a kind of object, I bought you a new computer.

article not a particular instance of
an object
express the sense of any A child would know how to do that.
express the sense of one A whole day passed without news.
Zero No need to classify and Education is getting more and more
article specify a noun expensive.
For places such as cities, I’ll stay in Chicago.
towns, villages and parks
Table 3.8 Types and functions of article

Syntax I 81
Demonstratives include this, that, these, those. Their function is ‘deictic’, i.e., to indicate or
point at a particular instance or some instances of the reference of the noun, in relation to
the speaker; this is near to the speaker, and that is far from the speaker.

Possessives include my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Their function is to indicate noun in
terms of personal possession. They are known as possessive pronoun or possessive
adjective in tradition grammar. We should note that while my, your, his/her, its, our, their
function as possessive determiners, mine, yours, his/hers, ours, theirs are possessive
pronouns functioning independently of nouns.

Quantitatives (or quantifiers) include what the traditional grammar called indefinite
adjectives such as some, all, every, each, many, much, etc. They specify how many or
how much of something is being referred to. They can be used with both countable and
uncountable nouns irrespective of number.

Numerals include what the traditional grammar called definite quantifier (or numerical
adjectives). They can be further classified into cardinal numerals such as one, two, three,
and so on, and ordinal numerals such as first, second, third. Cardinal numbers precede
countable nouns while ordinal numbers provide notions of time order or rank and normally
precede a singular countable noun. However, there are examples in which the ordinal
(with a cardinal number) precedes a countable noun in the plural such as The first three
runners will be selected to represent the school for an interschool competition.

Determiners are essential elements of many noun phrases (discussed later in this chapter)
and are placed before head noun. Determiners help to identify and explain the reference
of the nouns. In terms of their structure inside a noun phrase, determiners fall into three
main sub-categories as shown in Figure 3.9.

82 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Figure 3.9 A classification of determiners inside a NP

All determiner types precede the noun they modify and are always placed in the order:
predeterminer > central determiner > postdeterminer, if all are present.

Activity 3.9

Identify the determiner in the following sentences and give the

subclassification for each. The relevant terms are article; possessive;
demonstrative; relative, interrogative; indefinite; cardinal; and ordinal.
Example:
poss desc dem
His support was the nicest fringe benefits of pursuing this research.

1) These private agencies investigate any matter from cheating

spouses to pirated foreign goods.
2) Many people in the police and judiciary oppose their unorthodox
style, the use of which techniques contravene all normal standards.
3) With business so brisk, his firm turned away nine of the ten cheating
cases that were offered last month.

Syntax I 83
 4) What success I have had in this business is due to my dogged
determination to solve every case.

Word Phrases

Phrases are the essential building blocks for the construction of sentences. Grammarians
generally recognize five phrase types: noun (NP), adjective (AdjP), adverb (AdvP), verb
(VP) and prepositional (PP) that play these sentence roles. These five phrases and their
constituents are discussed in more detail below.

Noun Phrases

Noun phrases may consist of:

 a single noun: boy, David, school

 a pronoun: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, anyone, everyone, something, anything
 a gerund: swimming, smoking, cooking

 a group of words including a head noun: the school of fish, Peter’s car, a
handsome young man, my closed friend at school

A multi-word noun phrase normally consists of a ‘head’ (a noun, pronoun or gerund)

which may be premodified and/or postmodified (see Table 3.10 below):

Premodifier Head Postmodifier

beautiful puppies
a group of beautiful puppies
everyone in the group of puppies
my puppies
the puppies in the farm
some puppies of mine

84 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

his husband’s smoking
swimming in the sea
her growing desire to complete
these materials transported by rivers
two strings strings that hold the tubs together
Table 3.10 Constituents of the noun phrase

The premodifier of a noun phrase comprises any combinations of three main word classes:
determiners (e.g., ‘my’, ‘the’, ‘some’), attributive adjectives or adjective phrase (e.g.,
‘beautiful’), nouns functioning as an adjective (e.g., ‘school’ used to modify the head
noun ‘friends’ as in my school friends), and participle (e.g., ‘growing’).

The head of a noun phrase can be a noun (e.g., ‘friends’, ‘desire’, materials’, strings’), a
pronoun (e.g., ‘everyone’) or gerund (e.g., ‘smoking’, swimming’).

The postmodifier of a noun phrase is normally a prepositional phrase (e.g., ‘in the farm’);
however, it can be a clause: a non-finite clause (with infinitive) (e.g., ‘to complete), a non-
finite clause (with participle) (e.g., ‘transported by rivers’) or a relative clause (e.g., that
hold the tubes together’).

Noun phrases fulfill grammatical functions (or roles) of sentence in traditional grammar.
Apart from subject, a noun phrase may function as:

Subject complement (SC): Peter is a good boy.

Direct object (DO): Peter took a taxi to school this morning.
Indirect object (IO): Peter bought me a book.
Object complement (OC): I found Peter a liar.
Object of a preposition: Peter usually does his homework in the evening.
NP in apposition (app): My friend Peter is going to visit me this Saturday.

Activity 3.10
Syntax I 85
 Analyze the composition of the underlined noun phrase. Indicate the premodifier,
head and postmodifier. For both premodifier and postmodifier, name all the
constituents in them.

One may argue that, nearly 40 years after (1) Kissinger's secret visit to Beijing,
(2) the level of mutual misunderstanding has never been as high as it is today.
The problem is not (3) real conflict of interest but (4) the lack of trust. (5)
Neither side seems to have (6) a long-term strategic vision and things could
spin out of control in this condition.

After all, (7) Germany and Britain shared much (8) common global interest at
the time, but they eventually ended up on (9) opposing sides in a major war.
This is (10) a precarious moment for the Sino-US relationship and we should
cross our fingers and hope that history does not repeat itself.

Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases are closely related to noun phrases in that the role of a preposition is
to express the temporal or spatial relationship between entities – and ‘the entities’ in
question are expressed in noun phrases. So a prepositional phrase embodies a preposition
and a noun phrase (as shown in the examples in Table 3.11 below).

Preposition Noun Phrase

in the garage
under the tree
in that situation
because of the storm
on duty
Table 3.11 Constituents of the prepositional phrase

86 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Prepositional phrases have adverbial functions in sentences. More specifically, they
function as adverbials or adverb complements. The function of the adverbial (A) is to tell
us how (manner), when (time) and where (place) something was done. Adverbials
provide additional information to a sentence while an adverb complement completes
the sense of a sentence. So, while the adverbial is an optional element in that all sentence
types may (or may not) have one, adverb complements are obligatory and are required
by the verb to complete the sense of the message, e.g., John put the book on the shelf.

Examples of prepositional phrases functioning as adverbials and adverb complements

are:

He stood alone on the podium. (place)

He ran quickly toward the door. (movement)
He handled the bomb with great care. (manner)
I met him at around 7 o’clock last night. (time)
He failed the exam because of carelessness. (reason)
He ran for safety. (purpose)
He kept up with other people in spite of considerable hardship. (concession)
He wrote the letter with a red ballpoint pen. (instrument)
The whole plan was devised by him. (agent)
He went to the party with Diana. (accompaniment)

Apart from the above functions, a prepositional phrase can also serve the role of the
postmodifier of noun phrase as in The man on the empty platform looked lonely. Like
sentence adverb, a prepositional phrase may also modify a whole sentence. It presents
the speaker’s stance or viewpoint on the proposition expressed in the statement such as In
all honesty, I’m not sure if I have time to attend the meeting.

Adjective Phrases

Syntax I 87
Like noun phrases, an adjective phrase always contains an adjective which may be
premodified and/or postmodified. A few examples of this are provided in Table 3.12
below:

Premodifier Adjective Postmodifier

Worry.
very Worry.
He is worry about his job.
particularly worry about his job.
particularly worry that he may lose his job.
Table 3.12 Adjective phrases

In terms of structure, adjective phrases commonly take a predicative position in

sentences; that is, they follow the verb as in We are delighted about your promotion.
Attributive adjective phrases are usually compound adjectives that precede the noun
they modify such as ‘in-class essay’, ‘on-site visit’ or ‘in-house demonstration’. Some
attributive adjective phrases can be shortened (e.g., ‘class essay’ and ‘site visit’) but some
cannot (e.g., *‘house demonstration’).

An adjective phrase may function as a subject complement or an object complement,

for example:

Her apartment is very luxurious. (subject complement)

We have to make him conscious of his responsibilities. (object complement)

An adjective phrase may premodify a noun phrase such as He is an internationally famous

rocks star. Lastly, an adjective phrase may also postmodify both a noun phrase and an
indefinite pronoun (e.g., He is the best person available to us).

Adverb Phrases

88 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Like noun phrases and adjective phrases, an adverb phrase always contains an adverb
which may be premodified and/or postmodified. Table 3.13 provides a few examples of
these.

Premodifier Adverb Postmodifier

strangely
oddly lately
He is behaving
a little bizarrely
rather aggressively for him
Table 3.13 Constituents of the adverb phrase

The premodifying elements of an adverb phrase indicate the degree of intensification of

the adverb, ranging from the high level expressions such as ‘very’ ‘rather’ through ‘quite’
to the lower level expressions such as ‘a little’.

Verb Phrases
Verbs are classified as finite or non-finite. A finite verb is always marked for tense and
sometimes also for person and number such as He always produces excellent works. In this
example, produce is marked for present tense and shows grammatical agreement with its
subject ‘he’ in terms of person and number.

In a verb phrase, the first or only verb is the finite one, for example, ‘has’ in the example
below, where ‘produced’ is non-finite such as He has produced an excellent work. When
the subject changes, it is the first verb ‘has’ but not ‘produced’ has to be changed in
order to be grammatical as in They have produced an excellent work. Similarly, when a
verb phrase comprises a modal verb, the modal verb is finite, comparing He can always
produce excellent works with He could produce excellent works in the past.

There are three non-finite verb forms:

Syntax I 89
- the infinitive (with or without to): (to) produce
- the present participle base + ing: producing
- the past participle base + ed: produced

The infinitive normally follows the modal such as He must produce a better work and do
auxiliaries such as He does produce an excellent work. The infinitive may be active or
passive. In active voice, the infinitive may express both progressive and perfect aspects as
well as their combination in active voice. In passive voice, the infinitive expresses only the
perfect aspect.

- Active: to produce (simple), to be producing (progressive), to have produced

(perfect), to have been producing (perfect + progressive)
- Passive: to be produced (simple), to have been produced (perfect)

Present participles, on the other hand, retain both active and passive voices and both
progressive and perfective aspects as well as their combination as shown below.

- Active: producing (simple), producing (progressive), having produced (perfect),

having been producing (perfect + progressive)
- Passive: being produced (simple), being produced (progressive), having been
produced (perfect), having been being produced (perfect + progressive)

The past participle is also known as the passive participle, because it is the form of the
main verb in the passive voice as in The project report has already been submitted. Past
participles can take several forms:

- regular verbs –ed, e.g., talked, stopped, amended

- irregular weak verbs –(e)n, e.g., eaten, taken, shown
- irregular strong verbs, where several forms occur, e.g., (seek) sought, (sing) sung, etc.

Past participles do not have an active voice form and thus do not express all the
variations of the other non-finite forms:

90 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

- Passive: produced (simple), being produced (progressive), having been produced
(perfect), having been being produced (perfect + progressive)

Activity 3.11

Examine all the verbs and identify the examples of passive voice; progressive
(continuous) or perfect aspect; present or past tense OR modal auxiliary in the
following sentences. Verbs without these features in full may be imperative;
infinitive (note that after a modal auxiliary the infinitive may be without ‘to’);
present participle or past participle (don’t use participle if the tense of the verb is
complete).
Example: I might even have been attacked by the dog which was starting to
growl.
Answers: might: modal; have been attacked: present perfect, passive; was starting:
past progressive; to growl: infinitive

1) Lauren thinks she may know the editor who has just revised her book.
2) A note had been pinned to the door saying Victor called.
3) Since I didn’t own a car I would have to take a cab.
4) I couldn’t dance very well so I just watched her perform on her own.
5) Tina kept talking to me and I had no idea I was staring at her.
6) When the screaming started I would have liked to leave.
7) Don’t confuse me with that fellow I’ve always hated and avoided.
8) I might have tried to help her if I had been asked to.
9) Though weakened, my muscles were still valiantly saying to me Fight.
10) That girl who’s sitting opposite me now doesn’t seem to have been invited by
Lauren.

Activity 3.12

Syntax I 91
 Analyze the verb type of the underlined verbs. For finite verbs, identify the verb type,
namely intransitive, transitive (monotransitive, dative or factitive), and linking
(copulative or sense). For auxiliary verbs, identity if they are aspectual, modal, passive
and do. For non-finite verbs, identify if they are infinitive (bare infinitive or to-infinitive)
and participle (present or past). (15 marks)

These men just (a) watched as the fire (b) consumed the tinder-dry roof and (c)
began (d) to eat into the walls, then (e) to ignite a sore-room of soya beans
and wheat and (f) send a cloud of thick smoke (g) drifting across the village, (h)
making the livestock panic and (i) sending roosting birds (j) shooting up into the
sky in search of fresh air. Leung’s men (k) were alerted and (l) raced to the hut
(m) to put out the flames, (n) reaching it in time (o) to save the bulk of the
structure. (Excerpted from Helen Tse’s Sweet Mandarin, p. 59)

Conclusion
In this chapter, we first discussed word classes, which can be further classified as open
word classes and closed word classes. Open word classes include noun, verb, adjective,
and adverb, while closed word classes include preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and
determiner. Then we examined five word phrases, namely, noun phrase, adjective phrase,
adverb phrase, verb phrase, and prepositional phrase. Words are the essential building
blocks for the construction of phrases, whereas phrases are the building blocks for the
construction of sentences and the grammatical functions (roles) they play in a sentence,
i.e., subject, subject complement, verb, direct object, indirect object, object
complement, adverbial and adverb complement. In the next chapter, we will focus on
the clause and sentence structure.

92 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Syntax II 4
Introduction
the previous chapter, we discussed word classes, i.e. noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, pronoun, conjunction and determiner, and word phrases, i.e. noun phrase,
adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase. While words are
the essential building blocks for the construction of phrases, phrases are the building
blocks for the construction of sentences and the grammatical functions (roles) they play in
a sentence, i.e., subject, subject complement, verb, direct object, indirect object, object
complement, adverbial and adverb complement. Both components are below the
clausal level. In this chapter, we will first examine the structure of English at the clausal
level. We will discuss the functional structure of simple sentence, the mood types, clause
and sentence, and finally, compound and complex sentences.

The functional structure of simple sentences

The structure of a sentence can be analyzed according to its functional parts, namely
subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, objective
complement, adverbial complement, and adverbial. For the purpose of ‘functional
analysis’, traditional grammar uses the declarative and the active form as the basic form.

Each functional category has its own permitted word-class members. For example, the
subject of a sentence is typically a member of the noun class. However, because a
functional position may be filled by different structures, we have to create an analytical
level between word class/part of speech (known as class token) and the functional parts.
This additional level is called class type, realized by word phrase.

Class type: nominal verbal adjectival adverbial

Class token: noun verb adjective adverb.

Functionally, a simple sentence embodies two components: subject and predicate. While
the subject is usually realized by a nominal structure, the predicate is always realized by a
verbal structure together with other class types. The difference in combination creates
different basic sentence patterns in English.

(1) The simplest predicate consists of just an intransitive verb ‘Vi’: S + Vi

Subject Predicate
Vi
Peter arrived.
He is swimming.
She has disappeared.

(2) The predicate may be modified by adding an adverbial structure ‘A’: S + Vi + A

Subject Predicate
Vi A
Peter arrived yesterday.
He is swimming in the pool.
She has disappeared again.
I have been working in this school for more than ten years.

As adverbial is an optional component in the predicate, it is enclosed by brackets (A).

94 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(3) When the predicate comprises a mono-transitive verb ‘Vt’, it is follow by a direct
object ‘DO’: S + Vt + DO + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vt DO A

She wrote the email quickly.

He finished the report on Monday.

They visited Seattle last year.

(4) A predicate with a dative verb ‘Vd’ consists of not only a direct object ‘DO’ but also
an indirect object ‘IO’: S + Vd + IO + DO + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vd IO DO A
We shall buy Mary a birthday present today.

They sent us his condolences last night.

She told me the news incoherently.

(5) A predicate with a factitive verb ‘Vf’, on the other hand, carries a direct object ‘DO’
and an object complement ‘OC’: S + Vf + DO + OC + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vf DO OC A
You should find the apartment comfortable now.

Syntax II 95
 The class elected him a representative again.

The accident made him a hero overnight.

(6) A predicate with a linking verb ‘Vl’, either a copulative verb ‘Vc’ or a sense verb ‘Vs’,
is followed by a subject complement ‘SC’: S + Vl + SC + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vl SC A
The price is attractive now.

The podium became dark again.

The canary sounded hysterical yesterday.

James is a lawyer now.

(7) A predicate with a linking verb ‘Vl’ may be followed by an adverbial. But the
adverbial is an essential component in the sentence. This is known as adverbial
complement ‘AC’: S + Vc + AC + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vl AC A
People was everywhere yesterday.

The report is on its way to you.

The suspect got into a taxi quickly.

(8) For some predicates with a transitive verb, a adverbial is essential to make the

96 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

meaning complete: S + Vt + DO + AC + (A)

Subject Predicate
Vt DO AC A
John put the book on the shelf this morning.

The teacher sent the students home at once.

I hung the picture on the wall yesterday

We may represent the relationship between functional elements and word classes as
follows:

Function: S DO IO Complements Adverbials

Class (Type):Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Adverbial
Adjectival
Adverbial
Structure Noun Phrase Noun Phrase Noun Phrase Noun Phrase Adverb Phrase
Adjective P. Prepositional
P.
Adverb Phrase (Noun Phrase)
Word Class Noun Noun Noun Noun Adverb
(Class Token) Adjective Preposition
+Noun
Adverb (Noun)

Activity 4.1

Identify the verb type in the sentence with intransitive (Vi), transitive (Vt), dative (Vd),
factitive (Vf), copulative (Vc), sense (Vs).

Syntax II 97
 1. Peter murdered his wife.
2. Mary watched the soccer match.
3. The dog chased the thief.
4. David took a taxi to school.
5. Rebecca presented the trophy to the winner the trophy on the stage.
6. Peter like the fact that soft drinks are being served in the party.
7. A piercing cold wind blew toward the platform.
8. An officer died last night.
9. Marianne laughed wholeheartly.
10. Tom bought Susan a gift yesterday.
11. She saw the car accident.
12. Ronnie is the school prefect.
13. David climbed the mountain.
14. They like serving soft drinks in the party.
15. Rebecca looked at the doctor.
16. The salt dissolved in the soup.
17. She told me that it was raining heavily.
18. There seems to be a tiger under the bridge.
19. Mary likes the movie very much.
20. John is smart.
21. She asked me a question.
22. Both of the men shivered in the cold wind.
23. John is smart.
24. The boys like the soft drinks.
25. The one who killed Mary is John.
26. He has a million dollars in his pocket.
27. I forgot the answer.
28. I am looking at John.
29. Litter is everywhere after the festival.
30. There seems to be a tiger under the bridge.

98 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

31. On the tree is a cat.
32. Jenny played Ophelia in the drama.
33. The people vote him president.
34. They name the baby John.
35. Red stands for danger.
36. Judy sounds like a star.
37. Winnie is a good girl.
38. The sign indicates that Gate 40-62 are to the right.
39. The boys like the idea of holding a party on Friday
40. Max owns the property.
41. I saw Mary after school.
42. The cat smells the flower.

Activity 4.2

Analyze the verb type of the underlined verbs and the grammatical functions in the
sentences of the text.

[1] The people / were singing / on the bus. [2] To my surprise / the driver /
objected. [3] He / complained / that the bus was not a karaoke club. [4] On the
other hand / the passengers / argued / that they had paid for their tickets. [5] He
/ complained / that the people on the bus were interfering with his concentration.
[6] I / felt / a bit sorry / for him. [7] As the singing / was / truly / awful, / he stopped
/ the bus / at a small shop, / got out / and / bought / some tissues / to block / his
ears. [8] From his point of view / the passengers / were / noisy and inconsiderate.
[9] The passengers, / however, / were / more concerned about / the driver’s
attitude.

Activity 4.3

Syntax II 99
 Analyze the verb type of the underlined verbs and the grammatical functions in the
sentences of the text.
Example: You must add the butter after you have poured the milk over the potatoes.
Answer: You (S) / must add (V) / the butter (DO) / [after (X) you (S) / have poured (V)
the milk / (DO) over the potatoes (A)] (A).

Summer / is coming. It / is / time / for a few reminders / about the effects of heat
/ on your pets. Do not leave / your pets / shut up / in a car / without adequate
ventilation. The heat of the sun / can be / so intense / [that / a few inches of
open window / is / not enough. Give / your pets / enough fresh water / to drink.
[When / you / are / at a pool or on the beach], / do not let / your dog / drink
chemically treated or salt water. Always / keep / them / clean, groomed and
trimmed, / especially / [if / it / is / long-haired].

Mood types of a sentence

The classification of mood type in English is controversial. In general, all grammarians
argue on three different types of mood: declarative, interrogative and imperative. Some
grammarians, however, argue that there are one or two more types: exclamative and
subjunctive. Below, we will examine them separately.

Declarative sentences
Declarative sentences are sentences which assert and declare something. They can be
either positive or negative. When a sentence is used to make a positive statement, we
label it as affirmative.

Boredom is a state of mental tension.

They make him the editor every year.

When a sentence is used to make a negative statement, we call it negative sentence.

100 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

They have a negative element in them.

It is not my fault.
The sun does not move round the earth.

Both affirmative and negative sentences normally start with a capital letter and end with
a period (full stop).

Interrogative sentences
Sentences that are used to ask questions are also called interrogative sentences. There
are several types of interrogative sentences. The following questions are called yes-no
questions, because they may be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Is boredom dangerous?
Do they make him the editor every year?

The following questions are called wh-questions or information-seeking questions. They

cannot be answered by saying ‘yes’ or ‘no’. All questions start with a capital letter and
end with a question mark. Yes-no questions start with some verbal element such as is, am,
are, do, did, etc. Wh-questions start with a wh-word such as who, what, where, how, etc.

What is boredom?
Who has done it?

Like declarative statements, questions can also be positive or negative. But positive and
negative questions do not contrast in the same way as positive and negative statements
do.

He came. (positive declarative)

He didn’t come. (negative declarative)
Did he come? (positive yes/no question)

Syntax II 101
 Didn’t he come? (negative yes/no question)
Why did he come? (positive wh- question)
Why didn’t he come? (negative wh- question)

Positive question is neutral with respect to the answer that could be given: it could be
‘yes’ or ‘no’. But negative question is a way of expressing surprise and the expected
answer is ‘no’.

Imperative sentences
Imperative sentences are sentences which are used to express commands, requests,
desires, etc. The subject of such sentences is invariably the hearer ‘you’ and is optional. In
the unmarked form, the word ‘you’ is generally deleted. Unlike other sentence types, we
can use only the finite base form of the verb in imperative sentences.

Shut the door.

Do not make a noise.

Exclamatory sentences
Sentences that express strong or sudden feelings are called exclamatory sentences. These
start with a capital letter and end with an exclamation mark.

How brave (he is)!

What utter nonsense (it is)!

Subjunctive sentences
Subjunctive sentences are not very productive in contemporary English. They may be seen
in certain set (fixed) expressions that use only the base form of the verb as in

God save the queen!

So be it then!

102 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 I won’t go into details, suffice it to say that it was a real mess.

Subjunctive sentences may be used for unreal, hypothetical, or doubtful statement:

If I were a king, I would stop the exploitation at once.

I wish I were a billionaire.

It is noted that in the above examples all such sentences use the form were.

The use of subjunctive forms is still sometimes found in that clause after certain verbs.

It is required that she be present.

I demand that he come at once.

Activity 4.4

Identify all the mood types of the following dialogue.

Dialogue Mood type
Jane: I’m awfully sorry!
John: It’s all right.
Don’t worry.
Jane: Is anything broken?
John: No, no.
Jane: No eggs in your shopping bag, I hope.
John: No. Just potatoes and junk food.
Jane: Oh good!
I mean, I’m glad nothing was broken.
I don’t mean that I’m glad you’re buying junk food!

Syntax II 103
Sentence and clause
A clause is a group of words which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

She (subject) is baking a cake in the kitchen now (predicate).

A simple sentence comprises of only one clause. The above example is therefore a clause
but it is also a simple sentence. Compound and complex sentences, on the other hand,
consist of more than one clause.

The dog (subj.1) / came up to me (predi.1) when I (subj.2) whistled (predi.2).

(subject) (predicate)

The above sentence contains two clauses: ‘the dog came up to me’ (clause 1) and
‘when I whistled’ (clause 2).

There are two types of clause: (1) independent clause (also known as ‘main clause’) and
(2) dependent clause (also known as ‘subordinate clause’). An independent clause is a
clause which does not depend on another clause to form a complete grammatical
construction, and thus can be used to make a complete statement as in I went home
after I’d talked with Mary. A dependent clause, on the other hand, is one that must be
used with another clause to form a complete grammatical construction. It depends on
the other clause and is subordinate to it. Semantically, it depends on the main clause for it
to be meaningful. In the above example, the second clause ‘after I’d talked with Mary’ is
incomplete except when it is read or heard as part of the longer sentence. Sometimes, a
sentence can consist of more than one independent clause. In this case, the
independent clauses are known as coordinate clauses as in I like ice-cream and Mary likes
chocolate.

Types of Sentence

104 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In terms of clause composition, there are four types of sentences: simple sentence,
complex sentence, compound sentence, and compound-complex sentence.

A simple sentence is one that contains only one subject and one predicate. In other
words, it consists of only one independent clause:

She likes tea.

She and her sister like tea.
She likes tea as well as coffee.
She and her sister like tea, coffee and milk.

A complex sentence is one that contains one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses:

Everybody knows that the earth is round.

He is the one whom I like most.
If we don’t meet tomorrow, we shall postpone our discussion till next week.

A compound sentence is one which contains two or more coordinate clauses:

You can go by train or you can take a bus.

I believe in democracy but I don’t believe in a total lack of control.
I like poetry, and I don’t dislike prose, but I can’t appreciate some modern
specimens of either.

A compound-complex sentence is a combination of compound and complex sentences:

I had nothing against him when I met him last, but I have found out that most of what
he says is untrue, and he says it so convincingly.

Syntax II 105
Compound sentences

Coordinate clauses within a compound sentence may be related to each other in one of
the four ways: agreement, contrast, alternation, and consequence.

Agreement
The relationship of agreement refers to two or more statements which agree with each
others in terms of their content meaning being put together to form a compound
sentence. There may not be a coordinator between the statements. The relationship of
agreement is further sub-categorized into the relation of addition, explanation,
exemplification, and massed detail.

Addition: The second statement provides additional information of the first statement.
Generally, a coordinator such as and is placed in front of the second statement to
indicate an addition relation:

Tidy up your room and switch off the light before you go.
I am going to write good stories and become a famous novelist.

Explanation: While the first statement is a general statement, the second statement
provides an explanation of the previous. Generally, no coordinator is used between them.
The punctuation mark used is either a colon (:) or a semicolon (;).

He did his job dutifully: he observed the deadline and finished the manuscript
carefully.
He has done the right thing: he reported the crime even he knew that his brother
was the suspect.
The house is not new; two tenants have stayed in it since it was built.

Exemplification: The second statement is an example to illustrate the first statement. Like
the case of explanation, no coordinator is used between them

106 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 It is vital to resist the temptation of power to be great; Mandela – the former
president of South Africa – is a good example.

Massed detail: Massed detail, to a certain extent, can be considered a general statement
following by a number of details for one effect.

She was stunning; she wore the right make-up; her dress was glamorous; the color
of her shoes matched her dress perfectly; her diamond necklace sparkled
under the chandeliers.
I can trust him; he has never lied; he always keeps his word; he care about
others more than himself.

Contrast
The relationship of contrast occurs when two or more statements which disagree with
each others in terms of content meaning being put together to form a compound
sentence. Generally, the second statement is against the expectation of the first
statement. The common coordinators include but, (and) yet … etc.

The play is good, but it is still not good enough.

They got divorced after only six months of marriage, (and) yet they are still sharing
the same apartment since then.

Alternation
The relationship of alternation refers to the choice among two or more statements being
put together to form a compound sentence. The common coordinators include or, nor,
either ... or, etc.

Either you leave now or I call the police!

We can neither change nor improve it.
You can pay now or when you come back to pick up your car.

Syntax II 107
Consequence
There is a cause-result relationship between the two statements in the compound
sentence. The common coordinators include (and) therefore, thus, hence, consequently,
etc.

We were unable to get enough funding and therefore had to abandon the
project.
He planned to reduce staff and thus to cut cost.

Activity 4.5

Name the relationship (agreement, contrast, choice, or consequence) that exists

between the independent (coordinating) clauses in each of the following sentences.
If the relation is “agreement”, please indicate the sub-class: (i) addition, (ii) general
statement and explanation, (iii) massed details.
Example: I have already written to him; therefore, I expect a reply soon.
Answer: consequence

1) You are not permitted to accompany us; besides, you haven’t finished your
homework yet.
2) They hoped to reach here by the morning express; on the contrary, they arrived
by the evening passenger.
3) He was true to his word; he lent me two hundred dollars.
4) He is lazy, yet he gets the highest marks in the group.
5) This piece of land is fertile; therefore we have paid such a high price for it.

Activity 4.6

108 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Identify the ellipted elements in the following compound sentences:
Subject, auxiliary, verb/predicate, subject complement, direct object, object
complement, adverbial.

Example: She picked up the flower and put it in the vase.

Answer: Subject

1) To my surprise, he did not answer my question and did not seem interested in my
question at all.
2) Joe was arrested, charged, and brought before a magistrate.
3) May should wash the windows and Ken scrub the floor.
4) Henry was, and his wife used to be, a doctor.
5) Jane won the championship this year and Joanne last year.

Complex Sentences

While a compound sentence represents a linking together of two or more independent (or
coordinate) clauses of equal rank, a complex sentence is one which has one
independent (or main) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses such
as He said that he came from Australia. In this sentence, He said is the independent (or
main) clause and that he came from Australia is the dependent (or subordinate) clause. It
is noted that a dependent clause can be subordinated to another dependent clause so
that there is a hierarchy of clauses in the sentence.

He said (1)/ that he came from Australia (2) / which was the largest country in the
southern hemisphere (3).

In the above example, (1) is the main clause and (2) is a dependant clause which is
subordinated to the main clause He said, while (3) is a dependent clause but it is
subordinated to (2).

Syntax II 109
Subordination is a linking device holding two units or elements by means of a
subordinating conjunction. In a complex sentence, the subordination relationship that
holds between two clauses (X and Y, where X being the main clause and Y being the
dependent clause) is that Y is like a constituent or part of X. In other words, the dependent
clause Y becomes a substitute for a noun or an adjective or an adverb, and performs the
function of that part of speech in X. Subordination may therefore be taken as the
downgrading of a clause to the status of a phrase.

He told me what he knew.

He told me the story.
He told me that.

In the first example above, what he knew is a clause with a subject he and a predicate
knew. In functional terms, it can be taken as the direct object of the verb told. It can be
replaced by the noun phrase the story as in the second example, or its equivalent
pronoun that in the third example.

Activity 4.7

For each sentence, say whether it is a simple, complex, compound or a compound–

complex sentence. If the sentence is a complex or a compound–complex
sentence, underline the main clause as shown in the example.
Example: I am glad that you are joining our company.
Answer: complex:

1. Send it to me by post or bring it around yourself.

2. Last year we spent our holiday in Span, the year before in Greece.
3. They refused to say what they would do if the strikers did not return to their jobs.
4. Government measures, social injustices, financial policy, industrial relations, classical

110 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 and modern literature, new trends in music, the causes of England’s defeats in
international sport – all these and a host of others are vigorously argued about.
5. They claimed that the streets are clean, the rubbish is regularly collected, and the
crime rate is low.

Classification and Syntactic Functions of Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses can be organized into four categories, depending upon their class
types: nominal, adverbial, relative, and comparative.

Nominal clauses (also known as noun clauses) can have the following functions: subject
(S), direct object (DO), indirect object (IO), appositive (App), subject complement (SC),
object complement (OC) and prepositional complement (PC). Nominal clauses usually
refer to abstractions like ideas or events.

That he was a spy surprised us all. (S)

He knew what he should tell the president. (DO)
He will give whoever needs that donation. (IO)
Peter, the boy sitting next to me in the class, failed the examination. (App)
The reality is that no one wants to work for him anymore. (SC)
I found this paper to be very inspiring. (OC)
I tried to pay attention to what the speaker was saying. (PC)

Adverbial clauses (also known as adverb clauses) function like adverbs or prepositional
phrase. They express meaning, such as time, place, manner, purpose, result etc.

Submit the assignment when you have finished it. (time)

He created enemies wherever he went. (place)
We did it just as we had been told. (manner)
He bought a car so that he could take his girl friend around the city. (purpose)
She ate so much food that she burst. (result)
Since he was a regular customers, we should give him a discount. (reason)

Syntax II 111
 If I go to Shatin, I shall visit my grandma. (open condition)
If I had gone to Shatin, I would have visited my grandma. (hypothetical condition 1)
If I had wings, I would have flown to England to see my mum. (hypothetical condition
2)
Although he hated us, we saved him. (concession)
He screamed as though he had seen a ghost. (comparison)
Rather than watch sports on the television, he read a book. (preference)
The more I studied, the more I learned. (proportion)

Activity 4.8

Adverbial clauses can be classified on the basis of the meaning relationships they
bear in a sentence: time, place, purpose and result, reason and circumstance,
condition, concession and contrast, manner and comparison, proportion, preference.
Study the italicized adverbial clauses in each of the following sentences.

Example: Buy the ticket as soon as you reach the station

Answer: time

1. The students finished the project as the teacher instructed.

2. He would certainly have won the mayoral election comfortably had he run.
3. The food is better than average, although prices are somewhat higher.
4. The study of rhetoric is complex as new conventions of performance for particular
purposes are being generated all the time.
5. Sooner than marry to that man, she made a living as a servant.
6. They stared at me as if I was crazy.
7. With two minutes left in the game, Michael Owen beat three defenders to place
a perfect ball in the Arsenal net.
8. She is happy as long as she can offer help to people.
9. He began to make more friends as he took more initiatives to chat with people.

112 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 10. While in Rome, do as the Romans do.

Like adjectives, relative clauses (also known as adjective clauses) modify noun phrases.

The map that I bought yesterday should be good enough.

Peter, who is my sister’s best friend, will be the best man.

Comparative clauses modify adverbs or adjectives.

I like watching movie more than I like watching TV.

He ran as fast as the rest of us could be.

Nominal clauses
Nominal clauses can be: that-clauses, wh- interrogative clauses, yes-no or alternative
interrogative clauses, and non-finite clauses.

That-clauses
That-clauses can function as subject (S), direct object (DO), subject complement (SC),
appositive (App) and adjectival complement (AdjC) in a sentence but not prepositional
complement (PrepC) or object complement (OC):

That she was given a conditional offer is known to the whole village. (S)
Her mum told the others that she was given a conditional offer. (DO)
The good news is that she was given a conditional offer. (SC)
The rumor, that she was given a conditional offer, is unfounded. (App)
We were sure that she was given a conditional offer. (Adj C)
*The interview board did not consult the President on that candidate they should
select. (PrepC)
*They made him that he had always wanted to be. (OC)

Syntax II 113
When the that-clause is the subject complement, delayed subject or the object of a
sentence, the conjunction that can be omitted in informal use.

The fact is (that) she was given a conditional offer. (SC)

It is true (that) she was given a conditional offer. (delayed subject)

Nominal Relative Clauses

Nominal relative clauses are signaled by one of the wh-words: who, what, which, where,
when, why, how. They have the same range of functions as that-clauses, and in addition,
they can function also as prepositional complement or object complement.

What she was given is a conditional offer. (S)

Her mum told the others what she was given. (DO)
A conditional offer is what she was given. (SC)
The secret, what she was given, is revealed. (App)
We were not sure what she was given. (Adj C)
The interview board can choose whichever candidate they find appropriate. (OC)
The board can vote for whoever they want. (PrepC)

Wh-interrogative Clauses
Like nominal relative clauses, wh- interrogative clauses are also signaled by one of the wh-
words, and they have the same range of functions. However, wh- interrogative clauses
resemble wh-questions in terms of both structure and meaning.

What was given to her is a mystery. (S)

Her mum told the others what made her do it. (DO)
A well-paid job is what made her give up her study. (SC)
Her secret, why giving up her job, was finally revealed. (App)
We were not sure whose house we were in. (Adj C)
The interview board can choose whichever candidate they find appropriate. (OC)
The board has not decided on who should be blame. (PrepC)

114 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Yes-no and Alternative Interrogative Clauses
A yes-no interrogative clause is signaled by if or whether.

Do you know if (whether) Henry is in the building?

An alternative clause is signaled by whether ... or or if ... or.

I don’t know if (whether) he has flu or just a cold.

Non-finite Nominal Clauses

Non-finite nominal clauses are nominal clauses that include a non-finite verb form. There
are three types of non-finite nominal clauses: to-infinitive, nominal –ing, and
bare infinitive clauses.

To-infinitive nominal clauses are exemplified below:

To become a great scientist is not an easy task. (S)

He wants his son to become a great scientist. (DO)
His plan is to become a great scientist. (SC)
His plan, to become a great scientist, finally came true. (App)
His parents are pleased to see him become a great scientist. (AdjC)

Nominal -ing clauses (Participle Clauses) are exemplified below:

Driving in the mist can be dangerous. (S)

He likes swimming at night. (DO)
My worry is forgetting toclose the door when I leave the apartment. (SC)
His duty, watching out for the enemy, kept him alert all the time. (App)
I am pleased at being appointed as the class representative. (PC)
He was slow learning how to swim. (adjectival complement)

Syntax II 115
When an infinitive clause is represented by the pro-verb do in a sentence, the word to can
be either omitted or retained when the clause is not at the beginning of the sentence.

What I did was (to) give him a hand.

All I did was (to) offer him an opportunity.

Activity 4.9

Study the italicized dependent clauses in each of the following sentences, and then
write down the function of each. A list of the functions is provided as follows:
Subject, delayed subject, appositive, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement, adverbial, postmodifier in noun phrase,
prepositional complement, adjectival complement.

Example: My brother was ready to help when I told him about my trouble.
Answer: adjectival complement

1) They are aware of what will happen if the market crashes.

2) Please give whoever applied an application form.
3) That she needs a holiday is obvious.
4) I believe that a hot, humid summer has benefited the movie business.
5) I listen to what the candidates had to say.
6) He gave his children what they wanted.
7) Roger was afraid to tell his parents.
8) The problem that we do not get enough time has not yet been considered.
9) You can tell whoever is interested that I am cancelling my subscription.
10) She made him what he is.
11) It is not surprising that myth should be a prominent element in the rhetoric of
persuasion.

116 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 12) The ancient discipline or rhetoric was intended to prepare the beginner for tasks
that involved speaking in public.
13) In myths and parables what we are asked to take literally is accompanied by one
or more possible levels of interpretation.
14) It does not matter to me who pays the bills.
15) The Chancellor of the Exchequer faces intense pressure to halt inflation.

Relative Clauses
Like an adjective, a relative clause modifies a noun or a pronoun, which is called its
antecedent. Relative clauses can be defining, non-defining, or sentential.

He has a house that is big enough to hold a very big party.

I met the man who robbed the bank yesterday.

The defining relative clauses (or restrictive relative clauses) not only give specific
information about their antecedents, but also define what their antecedents are. If the
clauses are omitted, the meanings of the antecedents may loss or no longer be identified.
A defining relative clause is introduced by that, who or which.

The sport that I like most is jogging in the country.

The candidate who won the first prize this year is my best friend.

In general, that can be used for both animate and inanimate antecedent; who for
animate; and which for inanimate. The use of the relative pronoun is optional when it is
not the subject of the relative clause.

The sport (that) I like most is jogging in the country.

*The candidate (who) won the first prize this year is my best friend.

The nondefining relative clauses (or non-restrictive relative clauses) can be omitted

Syntax II 117
without change or loss of meaning because they only provide additional information of
the antecedents. Thus, there is always a comma before a nondefining relative clause,
and also at the end of it if it comes in the middle of the sentence.

Sun Yat-sen, who was a doctor by profession, spent several years in Japan.
I have a brother, who teaches Physics at a college.

Sentential relative clause does not have a noun or pronoun as its antecedent; it refers
back to a whole clause or sentence, and sometimes to a whole series of events. A
sentential relative clause always comes at the end of the sentence or clause to which it
relates. In terms of meaning, it is a comment on what has preceded it, but structurally it is
relative because it is generally introduced by which.

After that things changed remarkably, which surprised everyone.

He likes me but not my friends, which saddens me.

Activity 4.10

Underline and name the noun clause, adverb clause, or relative clause in the
sentences below. For noun clause, state the function of it. For adverb clause, state its
subtype. For relative clause, state whether it is restrictive or non-restrictive. (10 marks)

Example: I think it’s unlikely the weather will improve any time soon.
Noun clause: extraposed noun clause subject
Let’s meet before we go to the airport.
Adverb clause: time
I have a brother, who teaches Mathematics.
Relative clause: non-restrictive

(1) Police opened fire on a car which failed to stop at a checkpoint last night.
(2) I would like to know what happened to Mary yesterday.

118 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(3) The final episode of that TV series was what I liked least.
(4) Jonathan’s hard work made him what he is today.
(5) He dislikes his neighbor who is the suspect of sexually abused a young girl.
(6) We were worried that she would commit suicide.
(7) The rumor that he would marry the princess proved to be wrong.
(8) Who is the least popular politician in the coming Chief Executive election is
not difficult to guess.
(9) Police were unable to collect enough evidence to prove that he was
responsible for the forgeries.
(10) The student who needs constant attention in the class is undergoing
counseling.

Activity 4.11

Identify all the clauses (Main (MC), Subordinate/Adverb (AC), Noun (NC), Relative
(RC)) in the following sentences and state the type of sentence (Simple, Compound,
Complex, Compound–Complex). You should underline the main clause and put a
bracket round each of the other clauses as in the example and write the clause type
above:
Note. If one clause is inside another it will require brackets within brackets, and
hyphens on the labels to show that it is one split clause and not two separate clauses.

MC- [NC- (RC) -NC] -MC = Complex

Example: The fact [that the car (you bought) is defective] makes me angry.

1) The claim that the Great Wall of China can be seen from the moon is not in fact
true.
2) It’s hard for very well-known sites to be selected because there’s skepticism as to
whether they really need help.
3) The upcoming 2008 Olympics have made cultural preservation a particularly hot

Syntax II 119
 issue in Beijing and China desperately wants to put on its best face for the
occasion.
4) Some sources state that the Great Wall was built 2000 years ago but, although
sections of the wall existed then, the pieces weren’t organized into a unified
system until the Ming Dynasty.
5) Nearly two decades ago Deng Xiaoping launched a national campaign that was
aimed at rebuilding the Great Wall but by that point two-thirds of the vast national
symbol had been reduced to rubble by centuries of war, weather, and farmers
mining its bricks.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we first discussed the structure of simple sentences; we then examined the
classification of mood types, namely declarative, interrogative, and imperative. After
distinguishing the notions of clause and sentence, we examined compound and complex
sentences. Clauses within a compound sentence have equal status and they may be
related to each other in one of the four ways: agreement, contrast, alternation, and
consequence. In contrast, clauses within a complex sentence have different status:
independent clause and dependent clause, i.e. one that is dependent on the other.
There are several types of dependent clause: nominal clause, relative clause and adverb
clause. In the next chapter, we will focus on semantics and pragmatics.

120 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 R
Semantics
Pragmatics
and
5
Introduction

This chapter introduces some fundamental concepts about semantics and pragmatics.
Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. Lexical semantics examines the meaning of
individual lexical items and of phrases. In addition to lexical semantics, linguists also look at
how meanings relate to context. This study of meaning in context is called pragmatics. We
will learn more about pragmatics in the later half of this chapter.

Semantics
In this part of the chapter, we will focus on semantics. In studying semantics, we will first
define and discuss some of the basic notions in semantics. These include a discussion of
the linguistic sign and also a discussion of componential analysis. We will then examine
some of the key semantic relationships between words. This will be followed by a
discussion of processes of language change. The section on semantics will then end with
a discussion of semantic relationship across sentences.

The linguistic sign

The linguistic sign is a basic unit of communication. It allows us to create and interpret
meaning by using symbols or signs. In this section of the chapter, we will learn about two
major approaches to the linguistic sign: the first developed by Ferdinand de Saussure and
the second by Charles Pierce.
Saussure’s work on the linguistic sign is extremely relevant to the study of meaning
(semantics) in language. In order to understand Saussure’s work, we need to start with
setting up some key concepts in semantics. Two core concepts that we need to
understand are ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. ‘Signifiers’ are sounds, signs and symbols that are
used to identify the ‘signified’, which can be understood as an object, a concept, or a
referent. The concepts of signifier and the signified were used by Saussure to study the
nature of the linguistic sign. For Saussure, the linguistic sign is the association of the signifier
to the signified. The linguistic sign is the whole: the signifier and the signified. One cannot
exist without the other. They both interact with each other to create meaning. This is
represented in Figure 5.1 below. The two arrows on the side of the diagram signify this
interrelatedness and the interaction between the two. The dotted line that separates the
signifier and the signified is meant to suggest that we can separate the two for analytical
purposes; however, in reality these cannot be separated. The two (signifier and the
signified) together form the linguistic sign. The two arrows in the figure below reflect the
interrelated nature of the signifier and the signified.

Figure 5.1: Saussure’s model of sign. Source: Chandler (2007: 14)

According to Saussure, the linguistic sign is immaterial, meaning that the linguistic sign
does not carry any intrinsic value. The value is in fact ascribed to the linguistic sign by the
community that uses the sign. In any language, words do not carry any value by
themselves. The language users assign value and meaning to them.

122 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

As stated earlier, the linguistic sign is a basic unit of communication, which allows us to
create and interpret meaning by using symbols or signs. The process of creating and
interpreting symbols and signs is called signification. In doing this, the signified (concept)
and the signifier (sound/letters) together signify. Let illustrate with a classic example of the
process of signification: the word ‘tree’ signifies the object tree in the real world. This is
shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Saussure’s concept of the signifier and the signified. Source: Chandler (2007: 15)

In the above figure, the signifier ‘tree’ represents the object in the physical world and that
together they constitute the linguistic sign. The relationship between a signifier and the
signified is an arbitrary one, meaning that the relationship between signifiers
(sound/letters) and the signified is not necessarily fixed. There is no real or natural
relationship between the word ‘tree’ and the object that it refers to. The relationship is an
arbitrary one. This arbitrary relationship is relative, i.e., some systems of language (e.g.,
vocabulary) are more arbitrary than others (e.g., syntax).

The notion of arbitrariness is extremely important in our understanding of how language

shapes reality. It is because of the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign that languages can
change and that languages differ from each other. If the relationship between the
signifier and the signified were fixed, there would be no language variation. But we all
know that this is not the case. We will further elaborate this point when we look at the
distinction between signification and value.

Semantics & Pragmatics 123

Saussure, in outlining his theory of the linguistic sign, pointed out that there is a difference
between signification (what we signify) and the value given to it. According to Saussure
(1983: 112):

The notion of value... shows us that it is a great mistake to consider a sign as

nothing more than the combination of a certain sound and a certain concept. To
think of a sign as nothing more would be to isolate it from the system to which it
belongs. It would be to suppose that a start could be made with individual signs,
and a system constructed by putting them together. On the contrary, the system
as a united whole is the starting point, from which it becomes possible, by a
process of analysis, to identify its constituent elements.

He further exemplifies this by comparing the meanings of the word ‘mouton’ in French
and ‘sheep’ in English:

The French word mouton may have the same meaning as the English word
sheep; but it does not have the same value. There are various reasons for this, but
in particular, the fact that the English word for the meat of this animal, as
prepared and served for a meal, is not sheep but mutton. The difference in value
between sheep and mouton hinges on the fact that in English there is also
another word mutton for the meat, whereas mouton in French covers both
(Saussure 1983: 114).

This example of the differences in the value of the linguistic sign has led linguists to identify
ways in which we can differentiate between the meanings of words. One approach used
to do this is called componential analysis. We will look at componential analysis in more
detail later. However, before we do that, let us briefly examine one other influential model
of semiotics.

124 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In addition to Saussure’s work, Charles Peirce has been very influential in our
understanding of semantics. Peirce, an American logician, identified three essential
elements of a sign: representamen, interpretant, and object. The representamen refers to
the form that a sign takes (comparable to the signifier in Saussure’s theory). The
representamen is also sometimes referred to as the ‘symbol’ or the ‘sign vehicle’. The
interpretant refers to the sense (not an interpreter). And the object is the referent. One
noticeable difference between Peirce and Saussure is that while for Saussure the signified
could be either a physical entity or an abstract thought, Peirce sees the interpretant as a
sign in itself. The representamen, according to Peirce, “creates in the mind of that person
an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. The sign which it creates I call the
interpretant of the first sign” (Peirce, 1931: 58, 2.228 as cited in Chandler 2007: 31). It is this
interpretant that connects to the object. This notion of an ‘interpretant’ allows us to
engage with the ‘subject’ that creates a ‘sign’ of the object in their mind. In addition, the
suggestion that a signified is in it self a sign allows us to see how meanings are made
through reference to other words. In fact, Peirce argues, “the meaning of a representation
can be nothing but a representation” (Peirce 1931: 58, .339 as cited in Chandler 2007: 31).
Peirce’s model permits us to go beyond the study of the sign itself and to examine the
process of ‘semiosis’, i.e., the process of interpreting signs. A detailed discussion of this is
beyond the scope of this chapter (for an accessible discussion of Peirce, see Chandler
2007). Peirce’s triad is illustrated below in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Peirce’s semiotic triangle. Source: Chandler (2007: 30)

Semantics & Pragmatics 125

Peirce’s semiotic triangle was adapted by other linguists and presented with some
terminological variation. For example, Figure 5.4 is from Ogden & Richards (1923).

Figure 5.4: Ogden and Richard’s semiotic triangle.

You will note that in Ogden and Richard’s representation of the semiotic triangle, the term
‘symbol’ is used instead of ‘representamen’, ‘thought or reference’ instead of
‘interpretant’, and ‘referent’ instead of ‘object’. The model, apart from the use of these
more common terms, is identical to Peirce (Chandler, 2007).

Componential analysis
Componential analysis is an approach that attempts to describe lexical items based on
their semantic features. The purpose of conducting a componential analysis, also known
as feature analysis or contrastive analysis, is to define the meaning of a lexical item in
terms of its semantic components. Using componential analysis allows us to identify the
semantic features that make lexical items different from each other. For example, let’s
look at Table 5.1:

HUMAN ADULT MALE

126 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

woman + + -
man + + +
girl + - -
boy + - +
cow - + -
Table 5.1: A componential analysis of ‘woman’, ‘man’, ‘girl’, and ‘boy’.

Table 5.1 presents a componential analysis of ‘woman’, ‘man’, ‘girl’, ‘boy’, and ‘cow’. As
can be observed in Table 5.1, the componential analysis is done by identifying a set of
features that can be used to define and differentiate the various items being investigated.
The features used in Table 5.1 are HUMAN, ADULT, and MALE. Each of these characteristics
is either present (+) or absent (-) in the words being analyzed. Based on a binary distinction
of these features, we are able to define and differentiate between the words being
analyzed. For example, Table 5.1 tells us that a ‘man’ is a human, an adult, and a male, as
opposed to a ‘woman’ who is a human, an adult, but not a male. Similarly, a ‘woman’
and a ‘girl’ share all the features except ‘adult’ and so do a ‘man’ and a ‘boy’. A
‘woman’ and a ‘cow’, on the other hand, share all features except ‘human’.
Componential analysis also allows us to categorize lexical items: words that share a
feature can be grouped as such. For example, all four words, ‘woman’, ‘man’, ‘girl’, and
‘boy’ are +Human; and ‘woman’ and ‘girl’ are +Female. Componential analysis also
allows us to differentiate the various features of a lexical item such as ‘bachelor’ as shown
in the following diagram.

bachelor

<noun>

<+human> <+animal>

<+male> [who has the first <+male>

or lowest
academic degree]
[young fur seal without
aSemantics & Pragmatics 127
mate during
breeding season]
[who has not [young knight serving
married] under the standard
(adopted from Katz and Fodor 1963: 186)

While componential analysis can be quite useful, it does have a few limitations. Here we
will look at three major limitations. One issue with conducting a componential analysis is in
determining which features or characteristics are relevant in a particular set of words. At
times there appear to be no features that can do the task. For example, it is difficult to
differentiate between ‘victory’ and ‘success’, ‘displease’ and ‘annoy’, ‘wicked’ and
‘cruel’ using componential analysis. There appear to be no unique semantic
characteristics that can be used to distinguish between these pairs of words. Another
problem with componential analysis is that it can sometimes be difficult to judge whether
a particular feature is present or absent. For example, shampoo and soap can be
+PERFUMED or –PERFUMED depending on the brand etc. Finally, the features that are used
in a componential analysis may themselves be difficult to define or may lack a clear
definition. For example, in Table 5.1, we used ADULT as a characteristic feature. While
adult can be defined in terms of a legal age, this age is not the same for all countries.
Also, if we choose to use +/- MATURE as a feature instead of ADULT, we would have to
worry about the fact that individuals mature at a different time and that maturity itself can
be seen as physical, intellectual or emotional. However, regardless of these limitations,
componential analysis does help us in getting a basic understand of a word based on its
semantic characteristics.

Componential analysis can also help us in differentiating between core and peripheral
meanings of a word. Core meanings of a word are meaning that are associated more
frequently with a word. Core meanings tend to be related to the semantic characteristics
of a word that are most salient. Peripheral meanings, on the other hand, are meanings

128 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

that are not associated as commonly or frequently with a word. The difference between a
core and a peripheral meaning can be quite useful for lexicographers, who examine the
various meanings of a word and then use this information to make dictionaries etc.

Activity 5.1

Conduct a componential analysis of the following words. Illustrate how each of the
words is distinct.
Example: Man
Formula: Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALE

Explanation: The referent of the word man has the semantic features of being
human [+HUMAN], being an adult [+ADULT], and being a male [+MALE].

(a) Higher Diploma (HD)

(b) Bachelor of Arts (BA)
(c) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Activity 5.2

Conduct a componential analysis of the following words. Illustrate how each of the
words is distinct.
Example: Man
Formula: Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALE

Explanation: The referent of the word man has the semantic features of being
human [+HUMAN], being an adult [+ADULT], and being a male [+MALE].

Semantics & Pragmatics 129

 (a) football
(b) snooker
(c) reading

Lexical relationships
In the previous section, we learnt how to carry out a componential analysis.
Componential analysis allows one to identify the core meanings of a word and can be
used to categorize them. In this section, we will look at a few ways in which words relate to
each other, this can be based on semantics (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy) or can be
based on their phonology/graphology (homophony, homonymy, polysemy). Below, we
will look at each one of these relationships in more detail.

Synonymy
Synonymy refers to the sameness or similarity of meaning. Words that exist in this
relationship are called synonyms. In other words, synonyms are different lexical items
which have similar meanings such as ‘finish’ and ‘complete’, ‘make’ and ‘create’, ‘ask’
and ‘inquire’ etc. Both ‘finish’ and ‘complete’ in performing a task suggest that the task is
fulfilled. Similarly, both ‘make’ and ‘create’ suggest that something is produced through
the action of ‘making’ or ‘creating’. Both pairs of words can in fact be used
interchangeably in certain circumstances:

Susana has yet finished her assignment.

Susana has yet completed her assignment.

Susana is making a new design.

Susana is creating a new design.

130 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

However, a pair of synonyms need not be synonymous in all their meanings or uses. For
example, while the words ‘finish’ and ‘complete’, and ‘make’ and ‘create’ are
synonymous in the examples above, they cannot be used interchangeably in other
contexts:

Susana finished her meal.

Susana completed her meal.

Susana is making a Christmas cake.

* Susana is creating a Christmas cake.

By contrasting the two sets of sentences, we note that only certain ‘senses’ of the words
‘finish’ and ‘complete’, and ‘make’ and ‘create’ are synonymous, others are not.

Synonymy allows language users to differentiate in nuances of meanings between

different lexical items and select appropriate words for particular uses or contexts. The
variations in the meanings of synonyms can be used to signal a number of social and
contextual variations, e.g., politeness, technicality, familiarity, and formality, etc. For
example, two doctors may choose to use technical terminology to discuss the case of a
patient but use everyday terms to explain the case to the patient. As a matter of fact, the
difference in the ‘technicality’ of the terms can be used for a range of purposes. For
example, by using technical terms, a person can identify themselves as professional and
knowledgeable in a particular field of expertise. This also serves the purpose of building
communities of practice and to identify who is or is not a member of a particular
community.

The words ‘mommy’ and ‘mother’, and ‘daddy’ and ‘father’, on the other hand, vary in
terms of their formality. While it is possible to say ‘My mommy/daddy is taking a shower
and is not available now’ and ‘My mother/father is taking a shower and is not available
now’, the first sentence suggests that we are familiar with the people with whom we are

Semantics & Pragmatics 131

speaking with, while the second one marks some distance. While we can use ‘mommy’
and ‘daddy’ in an informal context, we will use ‘mother’ and ‘father’ in a formal context.

In addition to the functions of synonyms described above, synonyms can also mark a
variation in intensity of meanings, e.g., ‘happy’ and ‘ecstatic’ (where ‘ecstatic’ is more
than just being happy). Synonyms also carry implicit connoation such as ‘thin’ vs. ‘slim’
(where ‘slim’ carries a positive connotation), and ‘squander’ vs. ‘spend’ (where
‘squander’ is seen as a waste of money).

Antonymy
Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning to each other. Let illustrate with ‘tall’
and ‘short’. The two words are in an inherently incompatible relationship where if someone
is ‘tall’, he or she cannot be ‘short’; and if someone is ‘short’, he or she cannot be ‘open’.
Other examples of antonym include ‘on’ and ‘off’, ‘human’ and ‘animal’, ‘open’ and
‘close’, ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’, ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ etc.

Antonyms can be gradable antonyms, non-gradable anonyms, or directional opposites.

Gradable antonyms refer to words that can be compared by degree. That means,
gradable antonyms lie at opposite ends of a scale or a continuum. For example, the
words ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ are gradable opposites because they can be placed on a scale
with a range of other words that describe ‘coldness’ as part of the continuum.

Hot Cold

scorching hot warm cool cold freezing

Other examples of gradable antonyms include ‘hot’ and ‘cold’, ‘tall’ and ‘short’, ‘good’
and ‘bad’ etc. Gradable antonyms have comparative and superlative forms, e.g., rich,
richer, and richest. In addition, the negative of one gradable antonym does not imply the

132 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

other. For example, if we say ‘It is not hot today’, it doesn’t imply that ‘It is cold today’,
because it is possible that today is warm, but not scorching or freezing.

Not all antonyms can be placed on a scale and have comparative or superlative forms.
For examples, if a light is ‘on’, it cannot be ‘off’. Similarly, if someone is not a ‘male’, then
she must be a ‘female’. A light cannot be in a stage between ‘on’ and ‘off’; or someone
a ‘male’ and ‘female’. ‘On’ and ‘off’, or ‘male’ and female’ are antonyms that are non-
gradable. Non-gradable antonyms are also called complementary pairs. ‘Dead’ and
‘alive’ is also a complementary pair. The two words are the opposite of each other and
there is no gradable scale or continuum between them. We cannot say that something is
‘aliver’ or ‘alivest’. Similarly, we cannot say that something is ‘more dead’ or ‘most dead’.
A thing is either alive or dead. It cannot be in between the two. When people say
something like ‘Susana is the most alive person I know’, the phrase ‘most alive’ is in fact
used metaphorically to imply that Susana is very active (and not that she is ‘more alive’
than any one else in a literal sense). Unlike gradable antonyms, the negative of non-
gradable antonym implies the other in the pair: for example, if a thing is not ‘on’, it is ‘off’.

There is a third type of antonym called directional opposites, which is further divided into
two sub-types: reversives and converses (also known as relational opposites). Reversives
are directional opposites that signal a reversal of relationship between words such as ‘zip’
and ‘unzip’, ‘expand’ and ‘contract’, ‘freeze’ and ‘defreeze’, etc. ‘Zip’ and ‘unzip’ are a
pair of reversive antonyms because unzipping is the reverse of zipping. Similarly, the
process of expanding is the reverse of contracting, and freezing the reverse of defreezing.
Converse antonyms, on the other hand, refer to words that describe the same relationship
from two different perspectives. For example, if I bought a book from you, you have sold it
to me. In this situation, ‘buy’ and ‘sell’ signal a converse relationship. Converse antonyms
are also known as relational opposites. Other common examples of relational opposites
are ‘give’ and ‘take’, ‘borrow’ and ‘lend’, ‘parent’ and ‘child’, ‘wife’ and ‘husband’ etc.

Activity 5.3

Semantics & Pragmatics 133

 Give at least one opposite to each of the underlined items in the following passage
and state the type of opposites.

The new Venetian Macao Resort Hotel is the biggest building in Asia, they tell
you. Yet, you are still unprepared for just how BIG. At 7pm on a Thursday,
there was no queue and I was checked in within four minutes. It took 15
minutes to find the lifts.
(Adapted from “Big is Beautiful”, The Standard, 5 October 2007)

Hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to a particular kind of relationship between a more general word and a
more specific word such as ‘building’ and ‘church’, ‘profession’ and ‘teacher’, ‘drink’ and
‘coffee’, ‘fruit’ and apple’, etc. The more general word such as ‘fruit’ (technically known
as superordinate) includes a number of more specific words (technically known as
hyponym) like ‘apples’, ‘oranges’, ‘bananas’, etc. The various fruits, e.g., ‘apples’,
‘oranges’, ‘bananas’, etc. are considered co-hyponyms. Similarly, ‘hammer’,
‘screwdriver’, ‘pliers’ are hyponyms for the superordinate word ‘tools’; ‘rose’, ‘lily’,
‘jasmine’ are hyponyms for the superordinate word ‘flowers’.

Activity 5.4

List four sets of co-hyponyms from the paragraph below and for each set (i) name the
superordinate, and (ii) state the relationships between the superordinates and co-
hyponyms in terms of hyponymy.

Like a sprawling sidewalk market, the streets are full of food. There is a Squid
Street and a Shrimp Street and a Tuna Fish Street. There is Avocado Street,
Onion Street, Corn Street, Rice Street and Bean Street. However surprisingly,
Mexico City has no Chicken Street, Bull Boulevard or Sheep Avenue, but

134 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 there is a somewhat hallucinatory Fountain of Mushrooms.
(Adapted from “Kingfisher”, Ming Pao, 17 August, 2000)

Homophony
Homophony occurs when two or more words (known as homophones) sound the same.
However, it is noted that homophones do not have to be written with the same spelling.
Examples of homophones include ‘beer’ and ‘bear’, ‘die’ and ‘dye’, ‘flower’ and ‘flour’,
‘hi’ and ‘high’, ‘new’ and ‘knew’, ‘tail’ and ‘tale’, etc. Each pair of words have the same
phonological realization, but are spelled differently.

Homonymy
Homonymy occurs when two or more words (known as homonyms) share the same
spelling, but have unrelated meanings. For example, the word ‘spring’ can have at least
four distinct meanings:

1. the season between winter and summer

2. a natural source of water, where water comes from under the ground
3. a metal or plastic piece shaped like a coil and that can expand if pulled, but
takes its original shape when the tension is removed
4. to jump quickly or suddenly

Other examples of homonyms include ‘air’, ‘mould’, ‘steer’, etc. It needs to note that
some words like as ‘row’. It can mean number of people or things arranged in a line. It
can also mean loud noice or uproar. However, ‘row’ with the first meaning and ‘row’ with
the second meaning have different pronunciations and represent two different words.
Therefore, they are not homonyms.

Polysemy

Semantics & Pragmatics 135

Polysemy occurs when one word having more than one meanings that are related by
extension. Polysemous words are similar to homonyms, but with one important difference –
the meanings of polysemous words are somehow related to each other (unlike
homonyms, where the meanings of the word are different). In other words, polysemous
words tend to share some core semantic features, whereas homonyms are semantically
distinct from each other. For example, ‘mouth’ of a river and ‘mouth’ of a person’ is
polysemous. Another example of a polysemous word is ‘crane’, which can refer to a type
of bird and to a machine used to move heavy objects because the bird crane and the
machine crane look similar to each other. Other examples of polysemous words include
fork (instrument for eating; in a road), head (of a person; of a team/department etc.).

Activity 5.5

Which of the words italicized in the following sentences are best described as cases of
polysemy or homonymy? Explain how you made your decision.
a) i) He has been appointed to the chair of sociology at Southampton
University.
ii) She is the chair of the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the
Military.
b) i) I took Michelle for a row on the lake.
ii) A man had been stabbed to death in a family row.

Activity 5.6

What are the lexical relationships between the following pairs of words? A list of lexical
relations is provided in the following:
Hyponym, Co-hyponym, Homophone, Homonym, Polysemy, Metonomy, Synonym and
Antonym. You need to specify the subtypes of Antonym (Gradable, non-gradable,
reversive, converse (relational opposite)).

136 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 1) liberty – freedom
2) male – female
3) enter – exit
4) pine – tree
5) race (contest of speed) – race (ethnic group)
6) foot (of a person) – foot (of a mountain)
7) king – crown
8) suite – sweet
9) fair – unfair
10) appear – disappear

Processes of semantic change

In the previous section, we look at ways in which words relate to each other on the base
of their semantics (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy) and on the base of their
phonology/graphology (homophony, homonymy, polysemy). We can also use semantics
to understand how people use words to refer to things or ideas that are not the core
meaning of those words. In this section, we will start by developing our understanding of
metaphors. We will then examine how people use words or phrases to either make
something that is not very positive look better (euphemism), and how they can use
language to make something look bad (dysphemism). We will then end the section with a
brief discussion of metonymy.

Metaphors
In semantics, literal language vs. figurative language is an important dichotomy, and
metapghor is certainly an important aspect of figurative language. A metaphor, to put it
in the simplest way, is a word or a phrase that is used to refer to another thing, which is
originally not part of its core meaning. As such, metaphors are a type of figure of speech,
and are therefore non-literal. They typically use characteristics from a tangible ‘source’ to

Semantics & Pragmatics 137

refer to an abstract ‘target’, i.e., a less tangible idea or notion (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980).
Let us illustrate the point with the following example:

Don’t worry. Things have started looking up!

In this example, the speaker supports his/her optimistic view with the observation that
things have already started ‘looking up’. Things are not animate that can be ‘looking up’.
The use of the phrase ‘looking up’ is thus figurative. It does not refer to an actual physical
‘look up’, but rather is symbolic or metaphorical.

Metaphor is an important meaning-creation source in English as it helps the language

users develop an understanding of concepts that are more abstract by using references
that are more concrete and familiar to them.

In English, fire is a concept that generates a number of fire-related metaphors such as

‘spark off’, ‘play with fire’, ‘spread like wild fire’, ‘burnt out’, ‘light up’ etc. So we can say
things like ‘Your article sparked off a number of research avenues’, ‘His act is simply
playing with fire’, ‘The rumor is spreading like wild fire’ etc. Apart from ‘fire’, ‘food’ is
another concept that generates a lot of metaphors because food-related terms are
common and widely understood in our lives. As a result of this, we can say ‘to devour a
book’, ‘the raw facts’, ‘try to digest (an idea)’, ‘to stew over (something)’, ‘to let
(something) simmer for a while’, ‘to put on the back-burner’, ‘to regurgitate
(ideas/thoughts)’, ‘to cook up explanations’, ‘half-baked ideas’ etc. Other examples of
concepts that are widely used for developing metaphors include: body parts (mouth,
foot, hand, etc.), building/construction (foundation, stand, framework, scaffolding, etc.),
directions (moving up, feeling down, aside, looking forward, looking backward, etc.), and
travel (journey, lose one’s way, move through, etc.) etc.

Traditionally, the study of metaphor focused on lexical metaphors as the above-

mentioned examples. However, linguists have also identified the existence of grammatical
metaphors in which one grammatical category is used to construe a meaning that is

138 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

typically captured by a different grammatical category. For example, we can use a noun
to construe the meaning of verb as shown in the following example:

He studies the movement of the current in the Indian Ocean.

The voltage of the secondary circuit is induced by the changing of magnetic field.

In the example above, the phrase ‘the movement of the current’ can be unpacked to
mean ‘the pattern of how the current moves’. The verb ‘moves’ is construed as the noun
‘movement’. Similarly, the phrase ‘the changing of magnetic field’ can be unpacked to
mean ‘the magnetic field changes and this induces…’ The verb ‘changes’ is construed as
the noun ‘changing’. ‘Movement’ and ‘changing’, in the example above, thus function
as a grammatical metaphor. Grammatical metaphors are an important aspect of
technical and academic writing because they allow us to make meanings in incongruent
ways resulting in more formal language. The appropriate use of grammatical metaphors
allows writers to realize technicality and abstraction, create logical reasoning within
clause, use authoritative language while giving opinions, and provide incongruent ways of
text structuring. For a more detailed discussion of grammatical metaphors, see
Schleppegrell (2004).

Euphemism and dysphemism

Euphemism refers to words or phrases that are used in place of other expressions that are
considered offensive or unpleasant in the particular contexts or cultures. Like metaphors,
euphemisms carry a non-literal meaning. However, unlike metaphors, euphemisms serve a
very specific purpose: to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas. Subjects that are
euphemized are generally cultural-specific. In western culture, they include excretion, sex,
war, death, religion, disability, etc. As words referring to excretion are considered taboo in
English, people use a number of euphemisms to say things that refer to excrement. For
example, ‘going to the toilet’ can become ‘pay a call’, ‘urinate’ can become ‘take a
leak’, and the ‘toilet’ itself can be referred to as ‘the powder room’, ‘the washroom’, ‘the
restroom’ etc.

Semantics & Pragmatics 139

We should note that euphemisms may change meaning over time. Let us illustrate with
the following example of disability:

lame  crippled  handicapped  disabled  physically challenged  differently abled

This example shows how, over time, words that refer to disability have changed. Today,
calling someone a cripple or even handicapped is evaluated negatively. Instead, people
prefer ‘differentially abled’, which is seen as a neutral term. Over time, these terms will
most likely change again. This serial shift of euphemisms over time is called the
‘euphemism treadmill’ (Pinker, 2003).

In contrast, dysphemisms are harsh or impolite words or phrases that are used in place of
neutral or polite ones. Some examples of dysphemisms that refer to death include ‘having
your ass handed to you’, ‘kick the bucket’, ‘left for the rats’, ‘toasted’, and ‘bent over the
barrel’.

It should be noted that dysphemism and euphemisms are not only culturally-specific, they
are sometimes an issue of perspective. That meant, even within the same culture, what for
some people might appear to be a polite way of referring to a socially tabooed topic,
might be offensive to the others.

Metonymy and Synecdoche

Metonymy refers to a referential strategy by which a person refers to an entity by naming
to something closely associated with that thing. For example, in the sentence below, ‘the
White House’ refers to the US President:

The White House sent their congratulations to the newly elected Prime Minister.

Similarly, ‘the stage’ in the following example refers to the ‘theatrical profession:

140 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 He is expected to retire from the stage by the end of this year.

In both the examples above, the metonyms – ‘the White House’ and ‘the stage’ – are
closely associated with the entities or concepts that are being referred to – the US
President and the theatrical profession respectively. We can call this a symbol-
representtive relationship. However, this relationship between the two entities is not a
direct one (e.g., there is nothing intrinsic that ties ‘the U.S. President’ to ‘the hill’, nor ‘the
theatrical profession’ to ‘the stage’). The relationship may sometimes be a container-
contents one such as ‘John has finished the whole glass’ (‘glass’ = wine, etc.). This
relationship is alsonot a direct one.

A synecdoche, on the other hand, is similar to, but different from a metonym because
synecdoche refers to a part-whole relationship between the two entities. For example, if
we refer to ‘a car’ as ‘wheels’, we are using a part of the car to refer to the whole object.
In contrast, we can use the whole to refer to a part as in ‘Spain has initiated a number of
monetary reforms since the European debt problem’. Spain refers not to the full country,
but to the government of Spain.

Semantic relationships across sentences

Just as words can be related to each other semantically, so can sentences. In this section,
we will look at how sentences are related to each other. There are at least four types of
relationships between sentences: paraphrasing, contradiction, entailment, and
presupposition.

Paraphrase
While words that carry similar meanings are called synonyms, sentences carry similar
meaning are called paraphrase. In other words, when we have two or more sentences
that have similar meaning, then we consider them as paraphrases of each other.
Logically, a sentence is paraphrased by sentence Y if X has the same meaning as Y. We

Semantics & Pragmatics 141

use paraphrasing to say or write what someone else has said or written, but using different
words. Let’s illustrate with the following set of sentences:

Jane to Jack: Davis is taller than Thomas.

Jack to Judy: Thomas is shorter than Davis.
Judy to Mary: Jack says that Thomas is not as tall as Davis.

In the examples above, Jack paraphrased Jane’s statement and Judy paraphrased what
Jack had told her. All three sentences carry similar meanings and are paraphrases of
each other. If Mary, after listening to Judy, tells someone that ‘Thomas is short’, then Mary
is misinterpreting Judy’s statement. It is not a paraphrase because even Thomas is not as
tall as Davis, it is not necessary that Thomas must be short.

Contradiction
Two or more sentences in a language can contradict each other. Logically, a sentence X
is contrary to sentence Y if X has the opposite meaning of Y. This can be done through
syntactic choices or through the choice of lexicon. To understand this better, let us look at
the following sentences.

Jane: The garage is empty.

Jack: The garage is not empty.
Judy: The garage is occupied.

Jane’s statement above is contradictory to Jack’s and Judy’s. Jack contradicts Jane’s
statement by using negation (not). On the other hand, Judy contradicts Jane’s statement
by using a different lexical item ‘occupied’.

Entailment
Entailment refers to a situation in which the truth of one sentence implies a number of
related truths. The entailment of an utterance is what follows logically from the information
communicated in the utterance. The entailment is the logical outcome or the conclusion
of what has been stated. To put it in another way, a sentence X may entail sentence Y if

142 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

when X is true, then Y is also true. For example, if I say, ‘Peter was late for school’, then the
utterance entails that: 1) someone was late for school, and 2) Peter was late for
something.

An interesting observation about entailment is that it is unidirectional, i.e., while one text
can entail a number of others, the reverse relationship may not hold. Let’s use the above
example as an illustration, the statement ‘Peter was late for something’ does NOT entail
that ‘Peter was late for school’. He could have been late for something else. Similarly, the
statement ‘someone was late for school’ does NOT entail that ‘Peter was late for school’.
It could be someone else was later for school.

Presupposition
Presupposition refers to a situation in which the truth of one sentence implies the truth of
the other. Logically, a sentence X presupposes sentence Y if X assumes that Y is true. For
example, if I say, ‘I apologize for my mistake’, then the utterance presupposes that I have
made a mistake. Similarly, if I say, ‘Peter drove his car to school’, then the utterance
presupposes that Peter had a car.

Like entailment, presupposition is also unidirectional. In the examples above, ‘I have made
a mistake’ does not presuppose that I have to apologize for it. Ssimilarly, ‘Peter had a car’
does not presuppose that he drove the car to school.

Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. By meaning in context, we mean that
pragmatics focuses on how meanings are created and understood in context. The
meanings of texts evolve and are understood in relation to factors such as shared
physical, linguistic, social, or conceptual experiences. These factors also allow us to read
between the lines – i.e., to interpret the text and understand meanings that are not
necessarily explicitly coded in the text. For example, it is our understanding of pragmatics

Semantics & Pragmatics 143

that allows us to realize that a friend at a dinner party at our house might be asking for
some water when they say something like, ‘wow, nice food, but a bit spicy’. In this
example, the utterance itself does not have a request, but by saying that the food is spicy,
the guest might be signaling that some water might be good to help with the spicy food.

To introduce you to the study of pragmatics, we will focus on speech act theory, the
cooperative principle, and politeness in this chapter. Other aspects of pragmatics, such as
reference and coherence, will be discussed in Part 2 of the book, when we focus on
discourse semantics and Systemic Functional Linguistics.

Speech Acts
Language is not only something that describes things, but it is also used to perform actions.
The speech act theory, developed by John Searle Austin (1962), is one approach to
understanding how language functions as ‘performative’. To understand this theory, we
need to explain a set of technical term that will allow us to differentiate between different
types of speech acts.

Locution, illocution, and perlocution

The speech act theory categorizes utterances as carrying out three types of acts:
locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act
of making an utterance without any ambiguous meaning or reference. An illocutionary
act refers to the [Ahmar, would the insertion of the word ‘intended’ here help students to
understand the notion better?] act performed by virtue of the communicative force
associated with that utterance. And, finally, the perlocutionanry act is the actual effect
that an utterance has on the listener(s). To understand these concepts better, let us
consider the following example. Imagine that a person inside a room says ‘The door is
open’ to another person who is outside the room. The locutionary act, ‘The door is open’,
is literally a statement or an observation describing the fact that the door is open.

144 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

However, this utterance may have a range of possible illocutionary acts. For example, it
could mean

a) request: please come in

b) request: please close the door

c) confirmation check: make sure that the door stays open

The exact meaning of the utterance will be interpreted by the hearer based on the
context (such as the relationship between the participants, the setting, etc.). Thus, in order
to fully appreciate the illocutionary force of an utterance, we need to have some
knowledge of the setting, the participants, and the context of the speech event. Dell
Hymes (1974) developed the acronym SPEAKING to help identify some of the essential
contextual factors that we need to understand in order to interpret an utterance. The
acronym SPEAKING refers to:

Setting and Scene (S): refer to the time and place of a speech event as well as the
psychological, social, and cultural setting of a speech event
Participants (P): refer to the people engaged in the speech event
Ends (E): refer to the goal, purpose, or intended outcome of a speech event
Act Sequence (A): refer to the form and order of a speech event
Key (K): refer to the “tone, manner, or spirit” (Hymes, 1974, p. 57) of a speech event
Instrumentalities (I): refer to style and form of a speech event (e.g., formal, casual, etc.)
Norms of interpretation (N): refer to the social and cultural norms that govern a speech
event
Genre (G): refer to the kind of speech event (e.g., narrative, recount, exemplum, etc.)

An understanding of illocutionary act may at times result in an action or a response. This

act, which is a response to the utterance, is called the perlocutionary act. So, in the case
of the utterance ‘The door is open’, if the hearer responds by closing the door, this closing
of the door is the perlocutionary effect of the utterance. The effect or the perlocutionary

Semantics & Pragmatics 145

force of an utterance can vary based on a number of factors, e.g., the hearers’ ability or
desire to act.

Types of illocutionary acts

Research on pragmatics has shown that speech acts typically perform a range of
functions. Searle (1979) has grouped these functions into five categories: declaratives,
representatives (also called assertives), expressives, directives, and commissives. These
speech acts may be committed by using what are known as ‘illocutionary force
indicating devices’ (IFIDs for short) (however, it needs to be noted that using IFIDs in not
essential and that speech acts can also be carried out indirectly). IFIDs may include verbs
that express the speech act being carried out as well as other linguistic markers such as
intonation, stress, punctuation, word order, and the mood of the verb. Verbs that indicate
the illocutionary force of an utterance are called performative verbs (because, by
uttering them, the speaker performs an act).

Speech acts can be carried out directly – when the form and function of an utterance
are congruent (e.g., a statement is made using a declarative sentence) or they may be
indirect – when the form and function of an utterance are incongruent (e.g., a question is
asked by using a declarative sentence instead of an interrogative sentence). Here, we will
focus on the types of illocutionary acts following Searle’s (1979) categorization above and
will exemplify these through performative verbs.

Declaritives are speech acts that by uttering bring about a change in the existing
situation. For example, if a judge sentences a person to ‘I find the accused guilty and
sentence them to three years imprisonment’ then by the making that utterance the judge
effectively changes the status of the accused to being a convict and ‘sentences’ them to
prison. Some performative verbs that indicate that an utterance is declarative include
name, baptize, pronounce, etc.

146 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Representatives, also known as assertives, are speech acts that describe states and
events. For example, if one says, ‘I believe that there are two spiders in that shoe’, the
speaker represents a state of being that they believe to be true. Some performative verbs
that indicate that an utterance is representative include affirm, conclude, posit, etc.

Expressives are speech acts that express a speaker’s feelings, attitudes, and emotional
reactions about something. For example, by saying ‘I congratulate you on the fantastic
performance’, the speaker is ‘congratulating’ the person. Some performative verbs that
indicate that an utterance is expressive include thank, apologize, empathize, etc.

Directives are speech acts that direct hearers to do something that the speaker wants. For
example, in the utterance ‘I request you to be come back tomorrow’, the speaker
‘requests’ the hearer by using the performative verb ‘request’. Some performative verbs
that indicate that an utterance is a directive include ask, command, order, etc.

Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to performing something in the
future, including promises, threats, and refusals. For example, by saying ‘I promise to give
you 25 dollars tomorrow’, the speaker is committing himself or herself to the act of giving
the hearer $25 in the near future. Commissives may be delivered either by an individual or
by a speaker on the behalf of a group. Some performative verbs that indicate that an
utterance is a commissive include pledge, vow, guarantee, etc.

Activity 5.7

Read the following dialogue and identify the speech act categories of the numbered
and underlined sentences.

‘(1) It’s a crime to conceal evidence,’ Tragg commented, his voice was crisp as a
cold lettuce leaf.

Semantics & Pragmatics 147

 ‘I realize that,’ Perry Mason said.
‘And that,’ Tragg said, ‘is why you’re calling me up now. You wanted to clean
your own shirts.’
‘I thought you should know.’
‘Well, (2) why don’t you call the Las Vegas police?’
‘Perhaps I should,’ Mason said, ‘but since they are in an entirely different
jurisdiction I felt that (3) I would first discharge my responsibility by notifying you.’
‘All right,’ Tragg said, ‘you’ve notified me. (4) Thanks a lot. (5) I’ll keep it in mind.
Thanks for calling, Mason. Goodbye.’
Adapted from E S Gardner 1985, The Case of the Daring Divorce)

Activity 5.8

Read the following dialogue taken from Agatha Christie’s Murder on the Orient Express
(1934) and identify the speech act categories of the numbered and underlined
sentences. Use Searle’s classification, namely assertive, directive, commissive,
expressive, and declaration. You must also give brief justification(s) for your
classification.

‘(1) There are few people travelling this time of year,’ he said, glancing up at the
windows of the sleeping-car above them.
‘(2) That is so,’ agreed M. Poirot.
‘(3) Let us hope you will not be snowed up in the Taurus!’
‘(4) That happens?”
‘It has occurred, yes. Not this year, as yet.’
‘Let us hope, then,’ said M. Poirot. ‘The weather reports from Europe, they are bad.’
‘(5) Very bad! In the Balkans there is much snow.’
‘In Germany too, I have heard.’

148 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Felicity conditions
Felicity conditions refer to a set of conditions that need to be fulfilled for a speech act to
succeed. If these conditions are not met, then the speech act will be inappropriate or
infelicitous. You can think of felicity conditions as the equivalent of the truth-value of a
statement – if we say something that we know is not true, then we are telling a lie. Similarly,
if the felicity conditions of a speech act are not fulfilled, then the speech act is infelicitous.
To understand this better, let us consider the utterance ‘I find the accused guilty and
sentence them to three years imprisonment’ discussed earlier. For this utterance to be
felicitous, it has to be made by a judge, in a court of law, at the end of a trial once all the
other procedures have been completed. If any of these conditions are not met, for
example, if instead of a judge, your sibling says this at home, the speech act would not be
felicitous. Similarly, if I have no intention of giving you $25 and I say, ‘I promise to give you
25 dollars tomorrow’ then the felicity conditions of a promise (commissive) will not be met.
This is because for a promise to be felicitous, the speaker must mean what they are saying
and have the ability and intention of doing what they promise.

As you can note from the two examples above, each speech act has its own set of felicity
conditions. Felicity conditions for some speech acts are given below. All these conditions
have to be satisfied for the speech act to be felicitous and for it to have the effect that is
intended or desired.

Felicity conditions for apology: the speaker must be the one responsible for the act
that is being apologized for; the speaker must be sincere about their apology; the
speaker does not intend to do the offending act again

Felicity conditions for warning: the speaker believes that an event will occur in the
future which will be detrimental to the hearer; the speaker believes that the hearer
does not know about the event

The cooperative principle

Semantics & Pragmatics 149

One of the central questions in language studies is about how, given the variation in
meanings and interpretations, people are able to communicate with each other.
Furthermore, linguists wonder how it is possible for a hearer to determine what a speaker
really means. In responding to this question, Grice (1975) developed the notions of
‘implicature’ and ‘cooperative principle’.

Grice posited that for communication to work, we must have some shared understanding,
a minimal common interest, and a willingness to cooperate. By having this shared interest
and a desire to communicate, a hearer can interpret the ‘implicature’ behind an
utterance. Implicature refers to invisible meanings generated intentionally by the speaker,
or, in other words, implicature refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though it is
not explicitly expressed. For example, if a manager says to his assistant ‘Do you think we
should call Sarah? She is never absent without notice’ then the manager is suggesting that
they are worried about Sarah and there might be something wrong since she is not usually
late. This interpretation of what the manager might mean shows that an utterance can
mean more than what its literal meaning suggests. To be able to interpret this suggested
meaning we have to understand the implicature generated by the speaker.

Grice further notes that for communication to be successful, we have to make a number
of assumptions. For example, let’s look at the following interaction:

Jane: Darling, which dress do you think I should wear tonight, black, or red?
Bill: I think the red one is lovely.

This short exchange involves a number of assumptions. For example, we have to believe
that Jane has two dresses, a red one and a black one. If this were not true, Jane’s
question would not be valid. We make assumptions like this one in most interactions that
we experience.

Grice’s cooperative principle is an attempt to illustrate what people do in order to

succeed in communication. Grice (1975:45) states: “Make your contribution such as it is

150 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged.” This cooperative principle is best understood in
terms of four ‘maxims of conversation’:

1. Maxim of quantity: Do not make your contribution more or less informative than
required
2. Maxim of quality: Do not make your contribution false, or for which you do not
have evidence
3. Maxim of relation: Be relevant

4. Maxim of manner: Do not make your contribution ambiguous; be brief and

orderly

Before we exemplify these maxims, we need to note that Grice’s maxims are not meant
as prescriptions of how we ought to communicate; rather, the purpose of identifying these
maxims is to help us understand what presumptions speakers and hearers share about the
communicative event and the norms of creating and interpreting them. They also help us
in understanding how hearers are able to figure out that a speaker’s intended meaning is
different from their locutionary act.

To see how these maxims work, let’s look at the following interaction:

Jane: What time is it?

John (looking at the watch): 6.45

While very short, the conversation follows all the maxims. John gives just the right amount
of information, is truthful, relevant, and clear.

While it would be ideal if people followed these maxims at all times, we know from
engaging in conversations that these maxims are not always followed in real life and that
people ‘flout’ or ‘violate’ them for various reasons – both intentionally and accidentally.
‘Flouting’ refers to breaking the maxims in a context where the speaker expects that the

Semantics & Pragmatics 151

hearer will be able to understand the ‘hidden’ message or the implicature of the
utterance. For example, if someone responds by saying ‘It’s raining’ to the question
‘Should we go out for a game of tennis?’, then by assuming that the speaker is trying to
be cooperative, we can interpret the speaker is ‘flouting’ the maxim of relevance. By
realizing that the speaker is flouting the maxim of relevance, we can further interpret the
implicature of their statement that ‘It’s raining, so it’s not a good day to play tennis’.
‘Violating’, on the other hand, refers to breaking the maxim in a context where the hearer
is NOT expected to know that one or more of the maxims are being broken.

In some cases, speakers may mark their utterances by hedging to signal that they are
aware that they may be breaking or flouting one of the maxims. For example, some
common hedges used to signal breaking the maxim of quantity are:

- I don’t want to bore you but,…

- Let me give you a bit of background…

- While there’s a lot more to it, but let me just say…

In the examples above, the hedges show that the speaker is breaking the maxim of
quantity.

Hedging can also help signal if the speaker is not sure about the truth value of their
utterance, for example:

- Perhaps, …
- I think that…
- It’s possible…
- I can’t be sure, but…

- …, I suppose.

152 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In the examples above, the speakers preface (or end) their utterance with a phrase that
marks the tentative nature of their utterance. These hedges thus function as disclaimers
and serve to distance the speaker from what is being said.

Speakers can also use hedges to signal that they are flouting the maxim of relevance. For
example, in the utterance ‘I will be working double shift on Thursday. This is a long
weekend, by the way’, the two sentences are unrelated. The speaker marks this by
adding a hedge ‘by the way’ to signal that they are aware that they are flouting the
maxim of relevance.

Hedges can also signal that a speaker is flouting the maxim or manner. For example,

Jane: John says that he will be going on a diet.

Mary: Now, this might sound paradoxical, but I recently read that dieting doesn’t help
people lose weight and can actually be harmful to healthy.

In the example above, Mary uses the hedge ‘this might sound paradoxical’ to signal that
she is aware that she is flouting the maxim of manner.

In this section, we focused on how speakers and hearers are able to use a set of
conventions and maxims to successfully communicate what they mean literally and what
they might be implying in their utterance. As we conclude this section and focus on the
notion of ‘politeness’ in language, we would like to note that Grice’s cooperative
principle and the conversational maxims are culture and language specific. So, while the
principle helps us to understand conversational implicature in English, it may or may not
work for other languages.

Activity 5.9

Explain the following exchange in terms of Grice’s Cooperative Principle (CP) and the
four maxims.

Semantics & Pragmatics 153

 A: What is your annual income?
B: Eh?
A: Your salary.
(1) B: Oh, that. It depends.

Politeness
Foley (1997; 270) defines politeness as “a battery of social skills whose goal is to ensure
everyone feels affirmed in a social interaction". There are a number of important
dimensions such as age, social status, social distance, power, etc. that we need to
consider when looking at politeness (or appropriate linguistic choice). People make
linguistic choices in accordance with their assessment of the social context and social
relationship. Politeness, thus, is about using language appropriately in various contexts of
our social interaction and involves:

- How people use ‘polite’ expressions in certain context to express deference

or to distance themselves from other social groups.

- How people use ‘impolite’ or ‘abrupt’ expressions in certain context to

maintain/enhance solidarity or to distance themselves from other social
groups.

Politeness in linguistics is also defined as an attempt to mitigate or minimize the impact of

face threatening acts (FTA). To understand this better, we need to understand the notion
of face, which is the focus of the following sub-section.

Face
The notion of face was first developed by Goffman (1955). Face refers to the self-image
that one likes to project. In developing Goffman’s work, Brown and Levinson (1987) broke
up the notion of face into two aspects: positive face and negative face. Positive face is
defined as “the want of every member that his [sic.] wants be desirable to at least some
others” (Brown and Levinson, 1987, p. 61). Negative face, on the other hand, is “the want

154 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

of every 'competent adult member' that his [sic.] actions be unimpeded by others” (Brown
and Levinson, 1987, p. 61).

In many communicative contexts, a person’s ‘face’ may be threatened by a verbal or

non-verbal act – such acts are called Face Threatening Acts (FTAs). In order to protect
their face, people do ‘face-work’ so that ‘loss of face’ can be avoided and face is
maintained (Goffman1955). Like face, FTAs can also be positive or negative. Positive FTAs
are ones in which a person’s positive face is threatened. This may happen when one does
not care about their interlocutor’s feelings or wants, etc. For example: hearer oriented
positive FTAs include: insults, accusations, disagreements, challenges, interrupting,
swearing, topics that are considered sensitive in the society; and speaker oriented positive
FTAs include: apology, confession, inability to control one’s physical or emotional self.
Negative FTAs are ones in which a person’s negative face is threatened. This may happen
when an individual does not avoid (or intend to avoid) the obstruction of their
interlocutor's freedom of action. For example: hearer oriented negative FTAs include:
orders, requests, expressions of envy or admiration, strong negative emotions (e.g., hatred,
lust), offers, promises; and speaker oriented negative FTAs include: thanking, or accepting
a thank/apology/offer. To see why these communicative acts are FTAs, let’s look at a few
of these examples in more detail:

Apology: threatens speaker’s positive face (speaker has done something wrong or
inappropriate)
Disagreement: hearer’s positive face threatened (as speaker thinks there is something
wrong with the opinion hearer’s holds)
Mentioning taboo: threaten hearer’s positive face (speaker does not care about
hearer’s values)
Offer: threatens speaker’s negative face (speaker pursuing hearer’s aims)
Request: hearer’s negative face threatened (as it is an attempt to get the hearer to
do what the speaker wants him/her to do)
Tripping or stumbling: threatens speaker’s positive face (reveals incompetence in
carrying out a basic action like walking)

Semantics & Pragmatics 155

Speakers may also use strategies to mitigate the effects of a potential FTA. For example,
strategies addressing the positive face needs (positive politeness strategies) include:

1. Attend to hearer’s interests, needs, wants

You look sad. Can I do anything?
2. Use solitary in-group identity markers
Hey, mate, can you lend me a dollar?
3. Be optimistic
I’ll just come along, if you don't mind.
4. Include both speaker and hearer in activity
If we help each other, I guess, we’ll both sink or swim in this course.
5. Offer or promise
If you wash the dishes, I’ll vacuum the floor.
6. Exaggerate interest in hearer and his interests
That’s nice haircut you got; where did you get it?
7. Avoid disagreement
Yes, it’s rather long; not short certainly.
8. Joke
(Brown and Levinson 1987: 101-29 in Foley 1997: 271-272)

Similarly, some strategies addressing the positive face needs (Negative politeness strategy)
include:

1. Be indirect
Would you know where Oxford Street is?
2. Use hedges or questions
Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.
3. Be pessimistic
You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you?
4. Minimize the imposition

156 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 It’s not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.
5. Use obviating structures, like nominalizations, passives or statements of general
rules
I hope offence will not be taken.
Spitting will not be tolerated.
6. Apologize
I’m sorry; it’s a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?
7 Use plural pronouns
We regret to inform you…
(Brown and Levinson, 87: 129-211 in Foley 1997: 272)

The following examples show different degrees of politeness. Explain the differences
between these examples in terms of such notions as power, social distance, and
imposition.
(2) Shut up!
(3) Please can you be quiet?
Activity 5.10
(4) Excuse me, but could you possibly stop chatting?

Conclusion

This chapter focused on semantics and pragmatics. In the first part of the chapter, we
started out with a discussion of the nature of the linguistic sign and learnt about how
Saussure and Pierce explained the linguistic sign. We then looked at ways in which we can
identify core meanings of words and identify differences between words by using
componential analysis. The chapter than focused on ways in which words relate to each
other. In doing so, we examined the notions of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,
homophony, homonymy, and polysemy. This was followed by a discussion of ways in

Semantics & Pragmatics 157

which the meanings of words can change. Here we looked at the notions of metaphors,
euphemism, dysphemism, and metonymy. Then we shifted our attention from lexical items
and focused on sentences. We examined how sentences may relate to each other and
learnt about paraphrasing, contradictions, and entailment.

Then, in the second part of this chapter, we looked at meaning in context, i.e. pragmatics.
In this section, we focused our attention on speech act theory and developed our
understanding of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. We then looked at
IFIDs and five types of illocutionary acts before turning our attention to how speech acts
need to follow a set of felicity conditions if they are to be felicitous. This section was
followed by a discussion of Gricean cooperative principle. The section on pragmatics then
concluded with a discussion of politeness and positive and negative face.

In this chapter, we focused on the study of formal semantics and pragmatics. In Part 2 of
the book, we will shift our focus to Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). SFL, as a semiotic
theory of language, draws on and contributes to study of semantics and pragmatics.
However, unlike the focus of formal semantics, which is mostly limited to lexical or clausal
level, SFL examines how meanings are constructed through a text.

158 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 R
Language Variation
6
Introduction

All languages change. Language change occurs over time and across geographical
regions. In this chapter, we will review some of the key issues related to language change
and variation.

Language change can be studied in two ways: we can either look at language variation
across time, or look at variation in language across communities at a particular time.
These two ways of studying language variation goes back to Saussure. Saussure referred
to studies of language at any one point in time as synchronic studies. Studies of language
that look at language across time are called diachronic studies. For example, if we were
to look at how English is spoken in Hong Kong today, we would be carrying out a
synchronic study. If, however, we were comparing how English is used today to how it was
used in 1925, then we would be carrying out a diachronic study.

In this chapter, we will consider both diachronic and synchronic language variations. The
chapter will begin with a discussion of historical linguistics. In this section, we will consider
diachronic language change, i.e. how language changes over time. The second and the
third sections of the chapter focus on synchronic language change. In the second
section, the focus will be on the study of dialects, i.e. language variation across regions.
Then, finally, in the third section, we will consider how social variables of age, social class,
gender, and ethnicity relate to language variation.
Historical Linguistics

Historical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies how language changes over
time, i.e. it is primarily concerned with diachronic study of language. As stated in the
introduction to this chapter, diachronic studies look at language across time, as opposed
to synchronic studies that focus on language at any given point in time. All languages,
including English, change over time. In this section, we will look at how English has
changed over time. Language change will also be the focus of Chapter 12, where we will
examine how English changed in the process of becoming a global language.

Historical linguistics is one of the oldest sub-fields in modern linguistics. Historical linguists are
interested in the origins of languages and how various languages are related to each
other. In investigating these relationships, historical linguists engage in comparative study
of languages as well as in the etymology of words. In comparative historical linguistics,
linguists compare data from various languages to find evidence of relationship between
them. Based on such analysis, they place languages that are related to each other into
language families. Number words are a good variable to study in historical linguistics
because numbering systems remain relatively stable over a long period of time, unlike
names of things that may change relatively quickly. For example, linguists have noted that
there are a number of cognates (similar words) in English, Russian, and Urdu. These
languages are not geographically close to each other, yet they have a number of words,
including some of the number words, that are very similar – such as two (English), dva
(Russian), and do (Urdu), and three (English), tri (Russian) and teen (Urdu). The patterns of
similarity between English, Russian, and Urdu suggest that these three languages belong to
the same language family, the Indo-European language family. In addition to
categorizing languages into family trees, historical linguists also search for patterns of
language change that can explain how the various languages within a language family
are related and how they became different.

160 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In studying etymology, on the other hand, linguists focus on the history of words.
Etymologists research how a word enters a language and how it changes meanings and
use after it has been introduced. In Chapter 3, we looked at various word formation
processes (e.g., borrowing, coinage, combining, etc.). Etymologists also look at these
processes of word formation and describe ways in which the meanings of words evolve
and change over time within and across languages. For example, etymologists suggest
that the word ‘smooch’ (kiss) is derived from the word ‘smouch’ and is onomatopoeic, i.e.,
the word represents the sound of a kiss. They also note that the word was first recorded in
the late 1500s and is related to the German word ‘schmutzen’. Students who are
interested in etymology will note that a number of dictionaries include this information
(e.g., the Oxford English Dictionary). There are also specialized etymological dictionaries
and reference books (e.g., the John Ayto’s Dictionary of Word Origins: Histories of More
Than 8,000 English-Language Words). Today, there are a number of online etymology
dictionaries (e.g., http://www.etymonline.com/) as well.

Language change over time

As stated above, all languages change. Languages don’t only change in their
vocabulary, but all strata of language change over time. Figure 11.1 provides an example
of this. It gives four renderings of the Lord’s Prayer in English from four periods of time. As
you look through these four versions, you will find that you are not really able to read or
understand the first version of this prayer. However, as you go through the versions, you will
be able to pick up a bit more with each rendering of the prayer. If you examine the four
versions of the Lord’s Prayer carefully, you will note that the spellings, the letters, the
vocabulary, the morphology, and the syntax – pretty much everything has changed. For
example (as stated in the note in Figure 11.1), the ‘þ’ in the old and middle English versions
of the prayer represent the symbols ‘th’. Thus, the words ‘þat’ and ‘þi’ in the middle English
version stands for the words ‘that’ and ‘thy’ in early modern English orthography.

Language Variation 161

 Figure 6.1: Language change in English (source: Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert, and Leap,
2000, 114)

Historical linguists, as discussed in the previous section, study how language changes over
time. In addition to looking at structural changes, historical linguists also look at the
change in meaning of words. Linguists have identified several processes that can take
place through which the meanings of words can change. For example, semantic
widening, semantic narrowing, semantic elevation, semantic degradation, etc. Semantic
widening is the process in which the meaning of a word is extended. For example, the
word ‘salary’ used to refer to money given to a soldier; however, today the word refers to
wages given to anyone. Semantic narrowing is the inverse of semantic widening. In
semantic narrowing, the meaning of a word becomes more focused. For example, the
word ‘meat’ used to refer to any kind of food; however, today it refers to a particular type
of food. Semantic elevation is the process in which words gain a positive meaning. For

162 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

example, in the past, the word ‘pretty’ referred to a sly or a crafty person; however, today,
the word refers to a beautiful thing and thus has developed a positive meaning. Semantic
degradation is the inverse of semantic elevation. In semantic degradation, the meaning
of a word takes on a negative meaning. For example, the word ‘silly’ meant ‘happy’ and
‘innocent’ in Middle English; however, today this word means something not very clever
and smart and thus has acquired a negative meaning.

Dialects and varieties

In the previous section, we learnt that all languages change over time. However, a
language does not change evenly. What we mean by this is that languages change in
different ways in different communities and at a different pace. Because of this, the same
language spoken by one community of speakers can change in one way, while that
spoken by another community of speakers can change in a different way. Over time, this
creates a range of dialects and sociolects. Dialects are understood as variation in a
language based on their geographical location; whereas, sociolects are understood as
variations in a language based on socio-cultural factors. Dialects and sociolects are
typically studied using a synchronic approach, i.e. linguists collect a cross-section of data
from a number of people and/or communities and groups at the same time to study how
language varies in a society at a given time.

In this section, we will focus on language dialects. The following section will examine
sociolects. In addition to regional dialects of a language, a language can have
international varieties as well. For example, there are American, Australian, British, and
Canadian varieties of English. There are also varieties of English spoken by people as an
additional language (for example, Hong Kong English, Pakistani English, Singaporean
English). These varieties of English are examined in Chapter 10.

Dialects and languages

Language Variation 163

A dialect is a label that is used to refer to a variety of a language that is shared by a
group of speakers and can be understood as variations in language based on a region.
Dialects of a language share a number of lexical and grammatical features. They are also
typically mutually intelligible, i.e., people who speak different dialects can understand
each other. For example, a speaker of Italian in Rome can communicate with a speaker
of Italian in Venice. Generally speaking, a dialect is different from a language because
languages tend to be mutually unintelligible, i.e., people who speak different languages
cannot understand each other. For example, a speaker of Chinese is unable to
understand users of Urdu and vice versa. This is because Chinese and Urdu are mutually
unintelligible and are different languages.

A definition of dialects and languages based on mutual intelligibility is, however, not
problem free. This is because the labels dialect and language are not only applied using
linguistic judgments. A range of political, historical, social and religious factors influence
whether or not two linguistic codes are considered dialects of the same language or
different languages. For example, Urdu and Hindi have the same origins and are mutually
intelligible, but are considered different languages by their speakers. Both Hindi and Urdu
have shared historical roots. However, over a period of time, Urdu became associated
with the Muslim population and Hindi with the Hindu population. The Muslim population
adopted a Persio-Arabic script to write their lect and the Hindu population adopted the
Devangri script. This made the two dialects look different and gave the impression that
Urdu and Hindi were different languages. This perception grew with the splitting of British
India into two independent countries: India and Pakistan. Today, Urdu and Hindi are seen
as two different languages by many of the speakers of these languages; however, the
two languages continue to be intelligible and people who affiliate with Urdu can easily
converse with people who affiliate with Hindi. This example shows us that mutual
intelligibility is not an essential criterion for separating dialects from languages. Hindi and
Urdu are mutually intelligible, but are not considered dialects of the same language
today. This labeling is a result of complex historical and political processes.

164 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The example of Urdu and Hindi is not an isolated one. Another example of the same
process is that of Serbian and Croatian. These languages used to be considered dialects
of Serbo-Croatian before the breakup of Yugoslavia. They have a number of grammatical
and lexical similarities, but like Hindi and Urdu, they use different scripts. Croatian uses the
Roman script, while the Serbians use the Cyrillic script. Again, this is due to different
religious and political loyalties; in this case, one group is Catholic while the other is
Orthodox. Conflict between the two groups has created a socio-political atmosphere
where they emphasize the differences between the two languages and do not
acknowledge their shared histories and mutual intelligibility. Because of this, Serbian and
Croatian are now considered two separate languages.

While the case of Hindi, Urdu, Serbian, and Croatian presents one challenge to our
understanding of the differences between dialects and languages; Chinese presents
another. Many of the dialects of Chinese are mutually unintelligible; however, they are
considered by the Chinese as dialects of the same language rather than different
languages. For example, Hakka and Cantonese share a script, but are mutually
unintelligible. However, people who speak Hakka and Cantonese do not see themselves
as speaking different languages, but rather dialects of the same language. In this case,
they use their shared cultural history to find commonalities.

The examples presented here show us that while the terms dialects and languages are
often used in linguistics, linguists are keenly aware of the limitations of these terms and
realize that there is more to the labels ‘dialect’ and ‘language’ than linguistic code and
mutual intelligibility.

Standard and non-standard dialects

Some dialects of a language are favored in a society and have social status and prestige
while other dialects may be socially disfavored. Dialects that are favored are considered
‘standard’ dialects. Standard dialects are codified in grammar books and used to
describe and teach the language. Dialects that are stigmatized are considered ‘non-

Language Variation 165

standard’. As with the labeling of dialects and languages, it is essential for us to realize
that the process of marking dialects as standard or non-standard is a socio-political
process and is not based on any core linguistic criteria. For linguists, all dialects (and
languages) are equal. The choice of marking a particular dialect as the standard dialect
is a political choice. In words ascribed to Uriel Weinreich, "a language is a dialect with an
army and a navy." What this means is that a ‘language’ (a standard dialect) is the dialect
of the group that has power. The dialect that is codified tends to be the language of the
elite in a society. For example, Standard British English or the Received Pronunciation is
based on the dialect of English spoken by the elite living in southern England around the
early 20th century. The choice of this dialect as the standard dialect has to do with the
social prestige that this group carried. There is nothing linguistically superior about this
dialect of English as opposed to any other. All dialects are able to create the meanings
that the speakers of these dialects wish to create and communicate. However, in
codifying the language, it is the language of the elites that tends to be modeled and
used for writing up grammar books and developing educational material. This choice of
one dialect over another has a number of consequences that will be discussed in the
following section.

Language and power

Power can be understood as the ability of one group to influence the behavior of another
group. In the context of language, power can be realized in a number of ways. The
relationship between language and power is a very complex subject and there have
been a number of books published on this topic (see, for example, Cummins 2000,
Mooney et. al. 2011, Fairclough, 2001). An extended discussion of this literature is beyond
the scope of this chapter. In this section, therefore, we will limit our discussion to briefly
considering how the notion of standard language relates to education. As discussed in
the previous section, a standard language is associated with the language of the elite.
This codification of the elite’s language contributes to and reflects their status and power
and has a number of consequences, e.g., in the context of education. Let us consider this
further.

166 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Imagine a scenario where a child learns dialect ‘X’ at home. When this child goes to
school, they can find that the language of their home serves as the foundation of the
language of schooling. If this is the case, they feel affirmed in their school environment –
although this does not guarantee success in school. However, if they find that their home
language is not recognized within the wider school curriculum, they have to learn another
language and then learn through it. This becomes a double handicap for these children
and signals to them that their home language is not valued in school contexts. This can
result in an unequal distribution of opportunities for children in school. When children are
put into these handicapped situations, without well-developed language and literacy
support frameworks, they tend to fall behind other students whose language matches that
of schooling. If this process carries on for a long time, people start pointing out that
students from certain ‘language’ (or ethnic or social) backgrounds don’t perform as well
as others. In these situations, people fail to question the choice of the linguistic code
adopted in schooling that produce such result. They tend to overlook how the socio-
economic resources that the parents can afford (and the parents’ own linguistic and
educational backgrounds) correlate with how children from certain backgrounds
succeed or fail.

In trying to understand the role of language in education, it will be useful to develop an

understanding of the notions of ‘language allocation’ and ‘language affiliation’. The
language that we learn in our families and learn to use in our every day environments
plays a critical role in shaping our sense of our selves and our surroundings. As we grow
older, we learn new ways of meaning and also learn about how and where to use which
forms of language. This language, that we learn at home, can be seen as our language
allocation – it is the language that is allocated to us based on who we are. As time goes
by, we note that different communities of practice (such as a community of scientists,
historians, or people in another region) use our language differently (or use a different
language). We can choose to (or be forced to) learn this language, which we can call
the language of affiliation – this is the language that we learn to use based on how and

Language Variation 167

with whom we want to be identified. This distinction between our allocated languages
and our languages of affiliation is quite important and can help us explain how
individuals’ repertoire of language(s) evolves and changes over their lifetime. However,
keeping our focus on language and power here, we will use the notions of allocation and
affiliation to understand how power is distributed through the society.

In the scenario presented earlier, we noted that children whose language is not
represented in the school system are at a disadvantage in relation to students whose
language is used as ‘standard’ language in schooling. This can be understood in terms of
language allocation and affiliation. If the language of power and prestige is associated
with a student’s language allocation, then they find their identity and their language
affirmed in the school system. However, if a student finds that their allocated language is
considerably different from the language that they need to affiliate with, they have to
struggle to learn the new code (the ‘standard’ dialect) and then learn through it. This
results in unequal access to education and knowledge across the society and contributes
to maintenance of power hierarchies – where children from empowered spectrum of the
society do well in education while children from the working classes struggle to meet the
challenges of schooling. Unless there is a well-planned and effective intervention, this
cycle can repeat itself over and over again. Over time, as pointed out earlier, this leads to
a perception that children who speak non-standard languages (i.e. children who come
from less powerful and influential social classes) do not do well in school. What is not
realized in this context is how language allocation relates to language affiliation. The
codification and use of a particular dialect can disenfranchise people who speak non-
standard dialects.

Social factors and language change

In the previous section, we learnt that dialects are defined in terms of regional variations.
We also introduced the notion of sociolects, i.e., language variation based on social
factors. Some of the factors that relate to language variation include age, gender, social
class, and race. Sociolects can help us understand historical processes of language

168 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

change – why and how languages change. However, unlike typical studies in historical
linguistics, studies of sociolects are synchronic.

Age
The notion of age relates closely to historical developments and changes in language
and can be studied in at least two ways: (1) age-specific use of language, i.e., the
changes in a person’s language over their lifespan and (2) generation-specific use of
language, i.e., the changes in language across different cohorts of people living in a
speech community. While people’s pronunciation, knowledge of vocabulary, command
of grammatical structures, and access to genres does change over their lifespan, we will
not focus on these factors here. Instead, our focus here will be on changes in language
across generations. This is an important area of studies in language variation because,
unlike historical linguistics, which is diachronic, studies that focus on age are synchronic.
They show us how a language varies at a particular point in time. Age based synchronic
language variations show us how the language is changing. Researchers working in this
area have suggested that age-based patterns serve as a window on what has happened
to a language in a community over the last few generations. It thus represents language
change in progress.

One example of such research is Bailey et al. (1991) in which they focused on 14 features
of Texas speech, including: /i/ before /l/; /e/ before /l/, and /j/ after alveolar stops. Using
an apparent-time research design (which take[s] a sample of people from different age
groups/generations, i.e. adopts a cross-sectional approach to data collection), they
found that there was a variation in how these sounds were realized based on the age of
the speakers. They noted that while the older generation maintained these sounds, the
younger generation did not. For example, while more people from the older generation
said /fild/ (field), /sel/ (sale), /tjuzdi/ (Tuesday), many more people from the younger
generation said /fɪld/ (field), /sεl/ (sale), /tuzdi/ (Tuesday). These findings suggest that
synchronic age-based studies of language variation can help us study language change
in progress.

Language Variation 169

The position that examples of language variation across generations is evidence for
language change in progress has, however, been challenged. More recent research in
this area suggests that the distinction between age and generation cannot always be
maintained. For example, Penelope Eckert (1997) writes, “age and ageing are
experienced both individually and as part of a cohort of people who share a life stage,
and /or an experience of history” (156). What this implies is that traditional definitions of
age are problematic and that using age to group people into different (and
comparable) cohorts is therefore not the best research approach. In saying this, she
problematizes the notion of age and differentiates between chronological, biological and
social age. Chronological age corresponds to the traditional notion of age measured in
the number of years since a person’s birth; biological age considers physical maturity; and
social age refers to events that a person witnesses or experiences in a community or in a
family. These three types of age do not necessarily correlate with each other. For
example, girls and boys mature physically at different chronological ages and there is
considerable variation within each group as well (e.g., not all girls mature physically at the
same chronological age).

In addition to the challenges to traditional definitions of age, replication studies of early

apparent-time (cross-sectional, synchronic) studies also did not result in the kind of finding
that were predicted. For example, Fowler (1986) replicated Labov’s 1963 study in which
Labov had noticed a variation in the use of rhotic accent in New York and had predicted
that this feature was in rise. Fowler found that while there was some increase in the use of
rhotic accent, it was not sweeping and that a large variation in the use of rhotic and non-
rhotic varieties was still evident.

As a result of the problematizing of ‘age’ as well as limited support of earlier studies,

linguists started reexamining the relationship of age and language variation. In some of
the newer research in the area, linguists have forwarded ‘age-grading’ as one possible
explanation for language variation in synchronic studies. According to Cheshire (2005),

170 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

“Age-grading refers to a change of behavior with age that repeats itself in each
generation.” By this we mean that each generation modifies its linguistic practices at
different stages in life. For example, children across time use similar language, which is not
observed in adult speech. An example of this would be the use of one-word utterances
made by young children, or the use of particular songs or chants as children play. These
utterances are common in children across generations, but not in adults. Another
example of age-grading is that of teen’s use of the word ‘wicked’ to mean ‘good’. This
use is dropped, as the teens grow older, but continues in other teen communities. Labov
(1994) has pointed out that age-grading is not necessarily associated with language
change; it reflects how individual’s use of language changes over time, but not change in
the language itself.

Class
As discussed in an earlier section, language varies across social classes. These differences
are strongly marked when we examine the language of the upper classes and the
working classes; but there are also variations between these and the middle classes. In a
classic study of language variation across social classes, Trudgill (1974) studied the
following four variables:
(ing) or in
(t) or glottal stop
(h) or nothing
Presence or absence of -s inflection on verbs he works/he work

In this study, Trudgill found a marked variation across the social classes. His results are
presented in Table 6.1.

Socio-economic ‘-in’ instead of ‘- Use of glottal ‘h’ dropping ‘-s’ inflection on

class ing’ stop verbs
Middle middle class 31 41 6 100
Lower middle class 42 62 14 98

Language Variation 171

Upper working class 87 89 40 30
Middle working class 95 92 59 13
Lower working class 100 94 61 3

Table 6.1: Distribution of four linguistic features across the social classes (based on Trudgill
1974)

Table 6.1 shows that the three non-standard features (use of ‘in’, use of glottal stops, and
‘h’ dropping) are found most extensively in the lower working class populations. In contrast
to this, the Standard English feature of marking third person singular ‘–s’ was present in the
lower/middle middle classes, but became less frequent in the lower classes. The findings of
Trudgill’s study corroborate other findings on this topic that show variation in language use
across the social classes – where standard language features are found in the higher
classes, and non-standard features in the lower classes. For example, in an earlier study,
Labov (1972) noted that the upper classes in New York used a rhotic variety of English,
while the lower classes used non-rhotic varieties.

Variation in language across social classes relates to language change in interesting

ways. To study this, Labov (1972) introduced the notion of ‘prestige’. He argued that
prestige could be either ‘overt’ or ‘covert’. Overt prestige is seen as a positive or negative
value assigned to a linguistic form or variant in mainstream society and is associated with
status. Covert prestige, on the other hand, is seen as the value assigned to a linguistic form
or variant based on its value in local community (as opposed to mainstream society), and
is typically associated with solidarity. The notions of overt and covert prestige operate in
different ways in the process of language change. We will exemplify this in the following
section.

Sex and Gender

We should start this section by pointing out that the terms sex and gender are not
considered synonyms in current social theories. Sex is understood as a physiological and a
biological factor, whereas gender is understood to be a social construct. This

172 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

differentiation is an important one to recognize as we examine research on language and
gender.

We can examine language variation and gender along at least two dimensions: (1) how
women and men influence language change over time and (2) how the language of
males and females differ. In addition to this, we can also study how sexism relates to
language practices and examine the deliberate efforts being made to remove this. In this
section, we will briefly consider each of these.

Deborah Cameron (2003) in her review of literature on gender and language change
quotes Otto Jesperson’s 1922 observation that “women do nothing more than keep to the
traditional language which they have learnt from their parents and hand on to their
children, while innovations are due to the initiative of men” (Jespersen, 1998: 230). This,
however, is almost the inverse of our current understandings of the relationship between
language change and gender. Current studies about language change and gender
indicate that women actually lead language change in a range of domains.

Recent research on language, gender, and social class has shown an interesting
relationship between gender and social class. Labov (1990), for example, suggests that
gender is one of the factors involved in language change alongside social class. He posits
that while gender is independent of social class at the beginning of a change, that
interaction develops as social awareness of the change increases. Cameron (2003: 190),
building on Dubois and Horvath (2000), has nicely summarized Labov’s (1990) discussion
and presented it in the form of the following principles:

Principle I: For stable sociolinguistic variables (i.e., those not involved in change), men
use a higher frequency of nonstandard forms than women.
Principle Ia: In change from above (i.e., where speakers are conscious of the
existence and social meaning of competing variants), women favor the incoming
prestige form more than men.
Principle II: In change from below (i.e., where speakers are not conscious that change

Language Variation 173

 is occurring), women are most often the innovators.

What is noticeable here is that the two principles suggest contrasting tendencies in the
way men and women relate to linguistic change. Labov calls this the gender paradox, by
which he means, “Women conform more closely than men to sociolinguistic norms that
are overtly prescribed, but conform less than men when they are not” (Labov 2001: 293).

A different approach to studying language variation and gender is to examine

differences between the language used by males and females. Many languages,
including English, mark male and female speech in their grammatical and discursive
structures (discourse practices). In English, for example, gender is marked in its pronominal
system: she and he; her and his; her and him. In addition to looking at how languages
mark gender grammatically, interesting observations have been made in how men and
women use language differently.

Holmes (1998: 462-475) presented a set of five sociolinguistic features that she used to
explain the variation in male and female language:

1. Women and men develop different patterns of language use.

2. Women tend to focus on the affective functions of an interaction more often
than men do.
3. Women tend to use linguistic devices that stress solidarity more often than men
do.
4. Women tend to interact in ways which will maintain and increase solidarity.
5. Women are stylistically more flexible than men.

174 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Mesthrie et al. (2000; 230) have also summarized the findings of research in this area and
have categorized the findings into five broad observations:

1. Amount of talk: male speakers have been found to talk more than females,
particularly in formal or public contexts.
2. Interruptions: male speakers interrupt female speakers more than vice versa.
3. Conversational support: female speakers more frequently use features that
provide support and encouragement for other speakers, for example ‘minimal
responses’ such as mmh and yeah.
4. Tentativeness: there are claims that female speakers use features that make
their speech appear tentative and uncertain, such as ‘hedges’ that weaken
the force of an utterance (‘I think maybe…’, ‘sort of’, ‘you know’) and certain
types of ‘tag questions’ (questions tagged on to statements, such as ‘It’s so
hot, isn’t it?’).
5. Compliments: a wider range of compliments may be addressed to women
than to men, and women also tend to pay more compliments.

While the summary above provides us with a broad understanding of linguistic variation
between males and females, the use of biological sex in reporting these findings has been
questioned. Research that is informed by theories of social constructivism (a theory in
sociology that explores how groups and communities collaborative create shared
artifacts and meanings) have pointed out that gender and sex need to be differentiated.
Gender should not be confused with sex: gender is a social construct whereas sex is a
biological one. In her influential work, Judith Butler’s (1990: 33) reconceptualised the
notion of gender. She argued that feminine and masculine identities are formed through
what we do, and are not qualities that we innately possess. She states, “Gender is the
repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts within a rigid regulatory frame
which congeal over time to produce the appearance of substance, of a ‘natural’ kind of
being.”

Language Variation 175

The variations reported above are not based on sex, but rather gender; and, the
meanings that evolve out of the use of these variations are contextually determined. For
example, research on gay men’s language shows that they use a number of features
identified with ‘female’ speech patterns. This is done consciously to create a feminine
gender. Leap (1996: xii) argues that it is not appropriate to simply label features of a
language as being either ‘male’ or ‘female’. What is important, he argues [,] is the
“connections to other forms of social practice.” Simone de Beauvoir in his book The
Second Sex captures the essential characteristic of gender: “One is not born, but rather
becomes, a woman.” Gender is a socially rather than a biologically constructed attribute.
What this means is that people are not born with a gender, but rather develop it by
engaging in interaction with others in their community. As such, the notions of gender are
not universal and vary from community to community. What are ascribed as masculine
characteristics in one community might be perceived as feminine ones in another. For
example, certain ways of talking, gesturing, and voice quality as well as certain ways of
dressing and hairstyles are considered more masculine or feminine based on the
community that one belongs to.

One other issue that we need to consider here is that of gender-exclusive language.
Gender-exclusive language refers to language that discriminates based on the gender.
For example, the morpheme ‘man’ in words such as ‘policeman’, ‘fireman’ etc. suggests
that the person being referred to is a male and thus excludes females. Similarly, the use of
‘he’ or ‘his’ as generic pronouns is gender-exclusive because it does not include women.
Over the last 40 years or so, there has been considerable work done to change the
language in order to make it more gender-neutral and gender-inclusive. For example,
instead of using terms like ‘policeman’ we find people saying ‘police officer’; and, instead
of using ‘he’ as the generic pronoun people use ‘they’ (even for singulars). People today
are quite aware of gender-exclusive language forms and are taught how to avoid sexist
language (language that uses the masculine pronouns/nouns as neutral forms). Pauwel
(1998) observes that this deliberate effort of influencing language change can be seen as
a type of language planning (any attempt to regulate the use, spread, or description of

176 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

language). Pauwel also notes that the impact of replacing individual words has been
rather limited. She argues that changing one form with another does little or nothing to
influence the meanings associated with the forms and the socio-cultural practices.
Cameron (2003), referring to work by Ehrich & Kling (1992) and Kitzinger and Thomas (1995:
196), highlights the importance of research that focuses on the discursive practices in a
community, rather than the use of individual words and phrases. She writes that
“substituted or newly coined terms may acquire meanings that were not intended by their
instigators. Examples in English include the reinterpretation of Ms. so that it functions not as
the intended parallel to Mr. but as a third term alongside Miss and Mrs., applied to
anomalous women such as lesbians and divorcées; and the use of –person suffixes with
female referents only, while –man continues to be used for male referents.”

Race and Ethnicity

Language variations based on ethnicity are called ethnolects and relate to socio-cultural
factors such ancestry, culture, and religion.

Labov (1972) was one of the first linguists to study this variation in detail. Labov observed
that Puerto Rican speakers of English in New York showed variations that were different
from both the Afro-American and the Anglo-American participants. For example, he
noted that the Puerto Ricans simplified the word final –rd consonant clusters by deleting
the consonant that comes after the /r/. Similarly, Labov also observed that while all the
white participants in the study always maintained an intervocalic ‘r’, it varied amongst the
black participants.

Language variations based on social class and ethnicity are especially important in terms
of their social implications. For example, as discussed in an earlier section, the language of
the upper classes and the dominant ethnicity are codified into educational texts. This
contributes to the belief that standard language is the ‘correct’ language and
marginalizes other speakers of the language. It also restricts access to education and

Language Variation 177

success by people who come from lower socio-economic groups or from marginalized
ethnic communities.

Conclusion

This chapter focused on language variation and language change. The first part of the
chapter examined how languages change over time, i.e., diachronic language change.
The second and the third part of the chapter focused on synchronic language change. In
the second section, we discussed how linguists define dialects and languages and
considered some of the problems associated with these terms. In this section, we also
looked at how language relates to power. Then, in the third part, we examined how
various social factors such as age, social class, gender, and ethnicity relate to language
variation and change.

178 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Modern Englishes
7
Introduction

In the previous chapter we examined some of the ways in which linguists study language
variation and change. We pointed out that language change is a natural process and
that language change can be a result of a range of factors including language contact.
Language contact refers to a situation where people speaking different languages come
into contact. English, as a global language, has come into contact with a range of
languages all over the world. In fact, today, there are more ‘non-native’ speakers of
English than there are ‘native’ speakers of the language. This has resulted in the English
language changing in different ways in different parts of the world. In this chapter, we will
focus on how English has changed as it has become a global language and how linguists
study the World Englishes that have emerged as a result of this phenomenon.

Linguists have been fascinated by the global rise of English and have been studying what
happens to a language when it is adopted by people around the world as a lingua
franca. They have noted that as English gained territory, it evolved in different ways. For
example, it has served as a lexifier language in the creation of new pidgin and creole
languages, which are quite distinct from English in other ways. English has also been
“adopted” as an official language in many countries, and by many multinational groups
(such as ASEAN) and corporations. When people from diverse social, cultural, ethnic, and
religious backgrounds use English for their local purposes, they adapt it to create
meanings that are relevant for them. This results in changes in the structural features of the
language as well. These ‘new’ and ‘emerging’ varieties of English are called ‘World
Englishes’. In this chapter we will explore ways in which we can study World Englishes.
Traditionally, the English language used by ‘native’ speakers was considered the
appropriate model for language description, language acquisition, and language
teaching. However, over the last 20 years, as linguists document how the English language
varies around the world, there has been a growing acceptance of language variation
and of World Englishes. There are two related bodies of research that have contributed to
this work. The first thread of research that looks at World Englishes examines the language
(and its politics and uses) in different parts of the world. This work on World Englishes
focuses on language divergence – i.e., how local/regional varieties of English differ from
other varieties of Englishes. The second thread of research looks at English as a Lingua
Franca (ELF) and focuses on language convergence – i.e., what happens when people
who use different varieties of Englishes interact with each other.

Typical research on World Englishes describes the linguistic features of particular varieties
of Englishes. Research on ELF, on the other hand, looks at: 1) features of language that are
shared by different varieties of Englishes, 2) features of language that can impede
communication between users of different varieties, and 3) strategies that people use to
accommodate for language variation. World Englishes and ELF research focus on
different aspects of the same global phenomenon: global spread of English. In doing so,
World Englishes examines how language changes as it spreads; whereas ELF researchers
look at how language variations are negotiated or accommodated in order to achieve a
communicative goal. In both of these approaches to looking at English language in a
global context, the focus is on the language as used by people in diverse contexts and
not on an abstract notion of a ‘standard’ language that is based on ‘native’ speaker
norms. There are several reasons for linguists to go beyond the ‘native’ model of English.
Here, let’s look at two of these.

Descriptions of ‘native’ Englishes tend to be based on English as spoken by middle class

White speakers of the language. Being the politically dominant group in BANA (Britain,
Australia, and North America) countries, their dialect is used to ‘codify’ and ‘standardize’

180 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

the language. Other speakers of English are marginalized. For example, the English spoken
by Afro-Americans or the Chicano speakers in the United States are not used for the
purposes of codification of Standard American English. One example of the difference
between Standard English and Afro-American English is in the use of double negatives.
Double negatives such as ‘I ain’t gonna do nothing’ are considered inappropriate in
Standard English; however, this linguistic feature is quite common in Afro-American English.
Scholars researching World Englishes are aware of this and note that using only ‘Standard
English’ models in diverse settings (e.g., education) can have negative implications for
people who speak divergent varieties of English (as highlighted in the previous chapter).
Their work is, thus, a tool to help give ‘legitimacy’ to the local uses of English and to
empower these varieties (and the speakers of these varieties).

Another thing that linguists have noted is that there is no single ‘standard’ English. Native
speakers of English show a lot of language variation. As a result of this, grammar books
that are based on the ‘native’ speakers are not always accurate in their description of
English. For example, while many (prescriptive or pedagogical) grammar books tell us that
we should not split infinitives, i.e., we should not insert an adverb in between a word group
such as ‘to conclude’, there is plenty of evidence that people [even native speakers] do
so. If we look at how language is actually used, we will note that this rule cannot be
supported by actual language data. We often come across constructions such as: ‘to
quickly conclude’, ‘to boldly conclude’, and ‘to finally conclude’. In all three of the
examples just cited, the to-infinitives are broken up by an insertion of an adverb. Grammar
books prohibit this; however, language samples collected from users of English do not
support this rule. This shows that native speakers show considerable variation and that
grammar books that are used to describe them do not always capture this variation. Thus,
linguists go beyond the ‘standard’ models and look at how language is actually used by
people.

This chapter is divided into three main sections. In the first section, we will share a broad
outline of the development of English over the centuries. The purpose of this section is to

Modern Englishes 181

help us develop an understanding of how the English language evolved over time and
how it gradually became a global language. The following section presents some of the
main models developed to explain the development of World Englishes. This section will
help us in understanding ways in which linguists describe and categorize global varieties of
Englishes. Finally, the third main section describes some of the linguistic features of the
World Englishes.

The Story of English

The English language developed as a contact language between speakers of a range of

Germanic languages who moved to what is now England in the 5th century. Over time,
this language grew and incorporated new words from other languages that it came into
contact with (for example, French). The English language might have remained a local or
a national language if the English did not conquer neighbouring lands and set out on a
colonial mission.

The first wave of expansion of English was within the British Isles. As the English conquered
Scotland, Wales and Ireland, they imposed their own language on these regions. This early
expansion of English resulted in the demise of a number of vernaculars. Even today, the
impact of this expansion is visible. For example, while Ireland has been actively engaged
in reviving the Irish language, English still dominates in the country. Similarly, English is the
main language in Wales and Scotland, with the Gaelic and Welsh having very limited
used. This first wave of the expansion of English played an important role in the later
development of the language as well.

The second wave of expansion of English can be linked to the larger colonial expansion of
England. This wave can be seen as a set of related, but qualitatively different, dimensions.
In one dimension of the colonial expansion of England, the English people moved to
“new” lands, where they removed the local populations. This was the case in the British
conquest of North America, and Australia. As part of this conquest, large number of

182 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

migrants from England moved to these “new” lands and established their colonies. In
moving to these lands, they brought the English language with them and used it as the
language of the new colonies. Over time, migrants from other parts of the world also
moved to these countries and contributed to the development and changes in the
English used in these countries. As a result of the influence of different languages as well as
a result of other natural time-based language changes, English in these parts of the world
evolved in different ways. Today, we identify these Englishes as Inner Circle Englishes, such
as those spoken in Australia, Canada, English, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United
States.

In a different dimension, the British captured countries which already had well established
systems of government and had organized military capability that resisted colonization. In
these contexts, the British captured the lands, but ruled them through the local
populations. This was the case in countries such as India, Nigeria, Pakistan, etc. In these
countries, English was used as an ‘official’ language alongside a range of local
languages. In these contexts, the English language was influenced by the local languages
and was ‘nativized’ to construe and represent local experiences. With the decline of the
British Empire, the various territories controlled by the British claimed independence. After
independence, these countries typically identified one or more of the local languages as
national language(s), but maintained English as an official language. The English that
developed in these contexts are considered to be Outer Circle Englishes.

The territorial gains of the British Empire resulted in a need for ‘workers’ in the new regions
to help the White settlers in farming the lands etc. There were not enough migrants from
the UK or Europe to fill the demand for human resources. To meet this need, people were
captured in Africa and sold as slaves in the colonies (such as in the United States and the
Caribbean). The slaves who were captured and moved to the colonies did not necessarily
speak the same language. Thus, in order to communicate with each other and with their
masters, they created new ‘pidgin’ languages that used English as a lexifier language.
These Englishes, spoken today in the Caribbean and other parts of the world emerged as

Modern Englishes 183

pidgins, but then creolized into national varieties of Englishes (e.g., Jamaican English,
Guyanese English, etc.).

With the ban on slave trade in early 19th century, there was a change in the politics of
human migration. Instead of capturing and selling slaves, the British recruited ‘indentured
labour’ to work in their colonies. A large number of these bonded labourers were recruited
in India and then shipped to different parts of the British Empire, such as the Caribbean,
Fiji, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritius, South Africa, etc. These populations brought their own
languages with them, but also spoke or learnt English. This movement of indentured
migrants impacted the development of the English language in the regions where they
were relocated.

The British control of their empire started weakening after the 2nd world war and the
formal colonies started gaining independence from the empire. While many of these
countries developed their local languages into national languages, they also maintained
English as an official language. As a consequence of this policy, English maintained its
global positioning and use as a lingua franca. At the same time as the English were losing
their global power, the United States of America was becoming a ‘super power’. With the
rapid growth of the US economy and power, and with the development of its highly
successful media industry (Hollywood), the Americans gave the English language a new
lease. Over time, with the dominance of the United States as a major international power,
the English language not only maintained its position, but also expanded its global
positioning. People in countries around the world learnt English as a foreign language.
These new Englishes are called the Expanding Circle Englishes.

Today, English is not only associated with the United States or England, but is also used as
the language of a number of international organizations and corporations. This use of
English in international organizations has further strengthened its position as the lingua
franca of the world. This use of English as a global language has also resulted in the
language changing and evolving in different ways over time. World Englishes studies these

184 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

variations in English as well as associated policies and practices. In order to do this, linguists
have developed (and are developing) a number of models to study the phenomenon.
We will examine some of these models in the following section, before focusing on the
linguistics of World Englishes.

Models of World Englishes

Over the last 30 years, linguists have developed a number of models to explain the
development of World Englishes. In this section we will look at four of these: Kachru’s three
concentric circles, McArthur’s circle of Englishes, proficiency based model, and ELF
(English as a lingua franca).

Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles

One of the most often cited models of World Englishes is Braj Kachru’s (1986) three
concentric circles model. This model is based on an understanding that English evolved in
England, moved with the speakers of this English to other parts of the world, and then was
adopted by people in different parts of the world as an ‘official’ or an ‘additional’
language. This process is ongoing as the number of people around the world learning and
using English increases. Within this model, Kachru positions England and countries where
English is used as a mother tongue by a large proportion of the population, e.g., Australia,
Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, as the
‘inner circle’ countries. And the varieties of English used there are called ‘Inner Circle
Englishes’. Next, we have varieties of English that were formed as a result of colonization
(as in Bangladesh, Hong Kong, India, Kenya, Pakistan, and Singapore). These varieties of
English are called ‘Outer Circle Englishes’. Finally, with the current political and economic
power of English speaking countries and the multi-national corporations that use English as
their official language, English is used in most other countries as a foreign language (e.g.,
Brazil, China, Japan, Spain, etc.). These varieties of English are called ‘Expanding Circle
Englishes’. This model is presented in Figure 7.1 below.

Modern Englishes 185

 Figure 7.1: Kachru’s three concentric circles

Kachru’s model and his terms ‘inner’, ‘outer’, and ‘expanding’ circles are used extensively
in works on World Englishes. However, critics have identified a few major problems with it.
One of the most problematic issues with this model is that it places countries that are
historically linked to English in the ‘inner’ circle, thereby giving them a position of privilege.
Critics argue that by placing these countries in the centre, they appear to be the core
countries or the countries that are seen as ‘norm’ setting. This was, of course, not the
purpose of Kachru’s work – his model was based on an understanding of the spread of
English over time: from inner circle countries, to outer circle countries, to expanding circle
countries. However, the centralizing of the ‘inner circle’ countries did lead many to see
these ‘native’ varieties of Englishes as being the only ‘correct’ Englishes and others as
being ‘incorrect’ or ‘wrong’. Over time, other linguists have presented different models of
World Englishes to avoid this problem. We will look at one of these next.

186 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

McArthur’s Circle of Englishes
In attempting to avoid the criticism levied against the concentric circles, McArthur (1998)
presented an alternative view of understanding World Englishes. McArthur’s ‘Circle of
World Englishes’ (see Figure 12.2) grouped the Englishes regionally. The circle puts the
abstract notion of ‘World Standard English’ in the centre of the circle and then groups
Englishes spoken in different regions of the world together. In doing so, McArthur’s circle is
an improvement on Kachru’s circles because it does not give a ‘core’ position to any
particular variety of English. Furthermore, McArthur’s model includes English-based creole
languages in the circle of Englishes (e.g., the ones listed for the Caribbean), which did not
find a comfortable place in Kachru’s model. As a result of McArthur’s work, we can see
that all Englishes are equal and that they serve the purposes of the people who use this
language in their local setting. It also shows that no one dialect of English is better or more
central than another.

Modern Englishes 187

 Figure 7.2: McArthur’s (1998) circle of World Englishes

McArthur’s circle helps to label and describe different dialects and varieties of Englishes.
However, it does not help us in understanding what ‘World Standard English’ is or what
happens in contexts where speakers of different dialects/varieties communicate with
each other. This gap in our understanding is currently being studied by linguists working in
the area of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca).

Proficiency-based model of World Englishes

Another model of World Englishes that we will consider here can be called a ‘proficiency-
based model’. This model posits that the notion of a second or an additional language
user of English is no longer relevant in today’s globalized world. It also questions the use of
nation-state labels to group speakers of English around the world. This model looks at the
world of English speakers based on their proficiency in the language, rather than their links
(e.g., mother tongue, ESL, EFL) to the language. This model is illustrated in Figure 7.3 below
(Graddol, 2006).

188 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Figure 7.3: Proficiency-based model of World Englishes. Source: Graddol, 2006, 110

The proficiency-based model is different from the earlier models of World Englishes in that
it does not consider who the users of the language are – whether they are ‘native’ or
‘non-native’. Instead, the model focuses on language proficiency. This ability of the model
to move away from the notions of ‘nativeness’ and the ‘country-of-origin’ is a strength of
this model. However, there are some problems with this model as well. The most significant
issue with this model is that it does not define the term ‘proficiency’. Proficiency is a
problematic term because it is typically measured in relation to ‘native’ models of the
language (such as in TOEFL and IELTS tests). Thus, this model, in some ways, ties us to the
‘native’ model instead of helping us understand how proficiency is negotiated between
users of English in the context in which it is used.

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

Research in the area of ELF attempts to explain what happens to English when people
from different backgrounds (dialects and varieties) interact with each other. In earlier
models of ELF, linguists working in this area posited the notion of a ‘core English’ – a set of
features that were shared by all speakers of English. Modiano (1999) presented one
visualization of this model (see Figure 12.4) in which he tried to capture the notion by
showing that ELF (or EIL: English as an International Language) was the common
‘language’ between different dialects or varieties of English. However, this particular
model of ‘core’ English (or World Standard English – as in McArthur’s model) has been
extensively criticized because there are no clearly identifiable ‘universals’ of English.
Canagarajah (2007), amongst others, have noted that ELF attempts to manufacture a
‘core’ English without any real linguistic evidence for it. He argues that any ‘manufactured
variety [ELF] will be another exonormative norm, imposed from outside, and not
developed locally within communities of usage’ (208). Linguists such as Canagarajah
point out that language evolves in local settings and that people negotiate their
differences in order to achieve their communicative goal. This importance of negotiation

Modern Englishes 189

has been taken up in more recent work on ELF, which has moved away from the notion of
a ‘core’ and is currently looking at work on ‘accommodation’ and ‘negotiation’ of
language in situated contexts (Jenkins, 2011). The notion of accommodation here is
derived from work on accommodation theory (Giles, 1979). According to this theory,
interlocutors converge their language to that of their interlocutors in order to achieve
communicative success. In the context of ELF, this means that people who speak different
Englishes adapt their language to their interlocutors. This process is largely subconscious
and requires interlocutors to adjust and negotiate their language to achieve their
communicative purpose. Sedlhofer (2001: 240) discusses this in the context of ELF and
points out that ELF users accommodate their language as they focus “on the purpose of
talk and on their interlocutors as people … absorbed in the ad hoc, situated negotiation
of meaning.”

Figure 7.4: Modiano’s (1999) model of English as an International Language (another term
for ELF).

The Linguistics of Modern Englishes

190 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The previous section introduced you to the theoretical considerations that led to the
development of the notion of World Englishes and some of the models that have been
developed to describe them. In this section, we will look at particular varieties of Englishes
from around the world and study their linguistic features.

Phonetics and phonology

Varieties of Englishes differ from each other greatly in their phonetic inventory and their
phonological features. These differences are the first noticed differences when speakers of
different dialects engage with each other in oral contexts. Many of the sound features of
the varieties of World Englishes appear to be influenced by local languages. However,
there are other phonological features of these varieties that are not influenced by the
local languages (such as spelling-based pronunciation). Some of these features are
shared across different varieties of Englishes, while others are more localized. Here we will
exemplify this by looking at some of the phonetic and phonological features of Chinese
English, including Hong Kong English.

Chinese English is not a single variety of English, but rather includes a number of sub-
varieties, or Chinese Englishes. Many of the differences in Chinese Englishes are based on
the ‘dialects’ of Chinese that people speak as a mother tongue. However, regardless of
these variations, there are also a number of similarities across Chinese Englishes. For
example, all varieties of Chinese Englishes are non-rhotic. This means that the /r/ at the
end of words such as ‘bar’ or ‘car’ is not pronounced. Chinese Englishes also tends to
reduce consonant clusters. For example, Chinese Englishes delete the word final stops
such as /k/ and /t/ in words like ‘husk’ or ‘first’. This is because Chinese has a CVC syllable
structure that does not permit consonant clusters. Chinese English therefore routinely
reduces consonant clusters. The reduction of consonant clusters can sometimes lead to a
breakdown in communication when, for example, the distinction between the present
and past tenses is neutralized in sentences such as ‘They asked me to come’, where [ɑskt]
is pronounced as [ɑs]. In order to avoid such communicative problems, more experienced

Modern Englishes 191

speakers of Chinese English insert a vowel between the two final consonants to break up
the consonant cluster into two syllables. Thus, in such cases, the word [ɑskt] becomes [ɑsk
ɘt]. While this variation appears different from other varieties of English, it works better for
speakers of Chinese English than syllable reduction because it avoids potential
miscommunication. McArthur (2002: 360) notes that in addition to possible
miscommunication, the spoken forms of Chinese English sometimes affect written forms as
well. McArthur exemplifies this by sharing a text that was observed on a set of
bookshelves: ‘Arrange by author’. This is another example of consonant cluster reduction,
where the [d] in ‘arranged’ has been omitted. In this case, the phonological reduction of
the consonant cluster has carried over from the oral mode to the written mode.

In addition to these features of Chinese Englishes, there are a number of phonetic and
phonological features that are local. For example, Hong Kong English does not have the
voiced alveolar fricative /v/. The /v/ sound is replaced by either /f/ or /w/, as in the word
‘develop’, where the ‘v’ is sometimes realized as /f/ and at other times /w/. Another
feature of Hong Kong English is that mutlisyllable words are sometimes shortened by
deleting an unstressed syllable. For example, the second syllable ‘-fer-’ in the word
‘differences’ is deleted in Hong Kong English. McArthur (2002) also notes that in Hong
Kong English “word –final glottal stops are common, notably with p, t, and k, as in cap,
hat, and week, sometimes producing a staccato effect, as in “Let me get you big bit of
cake” (360)

Lexis and morphology

A large number of vocabulary items in World Englishes are borrowed from local
languages. These items usually describe or refer to things that are culturally relevant and
may not have a comparable word in English. While some of the borrowings into World
Englishes are new, others have been attested for a long time. Here we will look at
examples from Chinese and South Asian Englishes.

192 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In his work on Chinese English, Bolton (2002: 185-6) refers to Morrison (1834) who had
complied a ‘Glossary of words and phrases peculiar to the jargon spoken at Canton’.
Some of the words include:

Can do? Will it do? Also used through, mistake, for ‘how d’ye do?’

Chop from Malay chapa, a seal or stamp, any thing sealed or stamped;

hence government edicts, licenses & c., also stamped or printed

documents. Again, a thing licensed, as a chop-boat; also, a place
able to give licenses, as a chop-house, ie/e/ a custom-house

Chop is also used as synonymous with ‘quality’, as first chop or No1 cop, for

‘best quality’.

Fan-kwei foreign devil, a contemptuous designation applied to foreigners

Makee is often considered a necessary prefix to a verb, as ‘you makee see this

side’, for ‘look here’.

Two muchy very much, very many, very, extremely

Interestingly, some of these lexical innovations in early Canton English are still used in the
region (including Hong Kong). In addition, many new words have either been borrowed,
changed, or been coined over time. For example, McArthur (2002: 361) gives the following
examples:

Exco Executive council

IIs (pronounced eye-eyes) illegal immigrants also called illegals

Snakehead a smuggler of illegal immigrants

Modern Englishes 193

 Traid a criminal society or a member of a criminal society

In addition to lexical innovations, World Englishes sometimes borrow affixes from local
languages and/or use existing English morphemes in unique ways. For example, in South
Asian Englishes, people use the morphemes ‘–walla/i’ (masculine/feminine) which,
depending on the context, may mean a person with/owner of/seller of etc.

This donkey belonging to a Gadhagari-wala [person who owns a donkey cart] was
borrowed, cart and all, by a cop… living in the neighbourhood.

As soon as the churiwali [a woman who sells bangles] entered a home all young girls
surround her, delving in her basket. (Baumgardner 1993)

This Urdu/Hindi morpheme may also be attached to words of English origin.

But Hamza stood up to talk against the “Sugarwali” [person who owns sugar/sugar
mill] - hinting at the Sakrand Sugar Mills alleged to be owned by Benazir Bhutto’s in-
laws. (Baumgardner 1993)

In addition to Urdu-based affixes, a number of English affixes are also used productively in
Pakistani English. These suffixes may be attached to either English or Urdu words (or of
words from other local languages). Examples of such affixation are given below.

194 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 De-: List of telephone numbers F-1 to be converted into other numbers due to de-
loading of F-1 exchange. (Baumgardner 1990)

-lifter: A motorcycle-lifter was arrested by CIA following recovery of six stolen

motorcycles at his pointation on Sunday. (Kennedy 1993)

-ism: … a policy of ad-hocism and stop-gapism has been followed with respect to
Azad Kashmir… (Baumgardner 1990)

Syntax
World Englishes differ from each other based on their syntactic features. While some of
these features can be traced back to influence from local languages, there are a number
of features that are unique. There are also a number of features shared between outer
and expanding circle Englishes that are different from inner circle Englishes.

Many varieties of World Englishes do not inverse the subject and the auxiliary verbs in Wh-
questions. For example, people from many parts of the world say: ‘Why so many people
are being stopped?’ and not ‘Why are so many people being stopped?’. A number of
World Englishes also use the perfective aspect instead of the simple past marker in
sentences that contain adverbials referring to the past, e.g., ‘I have seen him yesterday’
for ‘I saw him yesterday’. Another common feature observed in a range of varieties of
World Englishes is ‘pro-dropping’, i.e., either the subject or the object pronouns are
dropped. This typically (but not always) happens in conversations. For example, in
response to the question ‘What do you like to do on your weekends?’, people can say
‘Play games and enjoy a lot.’ In this example, the subject pronoun ‘I’ is dropped from ‘I
play…’ as well as the object pronoun ‘it’ from ‘I enjoy it…’.

While there are some syntactic features (as shared above) that have been attested in a
large number of varieties of World Englishes, there are also features that are quite
localized. For example, Zhichang (2010) notes that, among other features, Chinese English

Modern Englishes 195

syntax is characterized by the use of adjacent default tense, and subject pronoun
copying. Let us look at these features in some detail below.

Adjacent default tense is a feature of Chinese English, but is not found in inner circle
Englishes. Zhichang (2010) describes the adjacent default tense as a property of a
language in which if the overall tense of an utterance is marked in the context of the
utterance, then the ‘adjacent’ finite verbs in the utterance can (but may not necessarily)
be set in their ‘default’ forms. For example:

When I was a 7 years old, I first came here and lived with my relatives. So, may be at
that time, I think Beijing is a good city as a child (Zhichang 2010, p. 289).

In this example, we note that the first sentence uses past tense (was, came, lived);
however, the verbs in the second adjacent sentence are unmarked (think, is) because
they are related to the first sentence (marked by at that time).

Subject pronoun copying refers to the copying of the subject in the utterance. Zhichang
states that this is a feature of Chinese spoken (not written) English. Subject pronoun
copying is also used in other varieties of Englishes, but in most varieties, it is used for stylistic
purposes. In Chinese English, however, Zhichang notes that this is the unmarked form. For
example,

I’m the youngest one in my family, so I think my parents, they have no interest in…
on… in… me. (Zhichang 2010, p. 290)

In this example, the pronoun ‘they’ refers to the speaker’s parents and is a repetition of
the subject pronoun.

196 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Discourse and pragmatics

The semantics and pragmatics of World Englishes are among the less studied features in
the field. However, the available research does show significant impact of local cultural
practices on the pragmatics (meaning in context) of local varieties of Englishes. For
example, in Zhichang’s (2010) study, they note that Chinese English includes a number of
local discourse and pragmatic features. Zhichang’s research indicates that Chinese
English discourse makes references to local practices and draws on localized
understandings of the issues and context. Zhichang lists six features of Chinese English
discourse that were identified in their data. For example, Zhichang states that Chinese
English draws on the “discourse of ‘political status’ and ‘political life’, implying that
Communist Party membership and the Youth League Party membership are key indicators
of political status” (294).

In a different thread of work, Hartford & Mahboob (2004) compared letters of editors
published in Pakistani English newspapers to those published in American English
newspapers. They found that the Pakistani English texts included moves (introductions and
appeals to the editor) that were not included in American English newspapers. They
further noted that these moves were found in Urdu language newspapers as well as in
model letters in Pakistani English (used for teaching purposes).

In addition to the difference in the move structure, the actual forms of the requests were
particularly interesting. Hartford and Mahboob argued that these forms represent
localized ways in which users of Pakistani English mitigated the force of their complaints
and served as politeness markers. These constructions used a variety of complex English
constructions that are not found in inner circle varieties of English. The most frequent
politeness strategies were: use of the interrogative form, use of passives and impersonal
constructions, and use of speech act verbs (illocutionary force indicating device or IFIDs)
or Affect Indicating Phrases (AIPS). IFIDs are those introductory clauses which actually
name the speech act which is about to be performed. Table 12.5 gives a list of such IFIDs.
IFIDs occur both in the active and passive forms, e.g., “It is requested”. In addition, there

Modern Englishes 197

were introductory clauses which indicated the writer’s attitude towards the request being
made. Hartford and Mahboob called these Affect Indicating Phrases, examples of these
are also listed in Table 7.5 below.

True IFIDs AIPs:

I suggest I want

I urge I wish

I/we (would) request it is high time

it is hoped

it is not understandable

it is not understood

may we hope

the least that could have been done

the need of the hour is

Table 7.5: Lexical/phrasal devices in English and Urdu models

Conclusion

This chapter introduced us to the concept of World Englishes. It challenged us to rethink

the notion of ‘standard’ language and suggested that English, as a lingua franca, is used
in different ways in different parts of the world. The chapter presented a broad-brush

198 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

history of the English language, which showed how the English language evolved from
being a small contact language to a global language. This understanding of the
development of English helped us in understanding some of the dominant models that
have been developed to explain Modern Englishes. The chapter then looked at the
linguistic features of World Englishes. It looked at the phonetic, phonological, lexical,
morphological, syntactic, discourse and pragmatic features of a few varieties of World
Englishes.

Modern Englishes 199

PART B
The description in Part A of this book took what we have generally called formal (or
structural) approach to English grammar. Formal grammar focuses on the forms (or the
structure) of language. There is, however, another approach to the study of language –
the functional approach. Apart from the forms, the functional approach puts emphasis on
the meaning (in terms of function) and context on language, and hence, on the uses of
language. We explore three modes of meaning, namely representational mode of
meaning, interpersonal mode of meaning, and textual mode of meaning in Chapters 8, 9
and 10 respectively. The representational mode of meaning concerns how we use English
to construing our experience in the world around us and inside us; the interpersonal mode
of meaning concerns how we use English to interact with other people; and the textual
mode of meaning concerns how we turn the representational and interpersonal modes of
meaning into message and discourse. We then discuss textual continuity in Chapter 11,
the relation between language and context in Chapter 12, and finally, language and
translation in Chapter 13.

The move from formal to functional approach in this book represents not only a study of
the other side of the same coin, providing a comprehensive and complementary
description of English grammar, but also a study that captures the current development in
this discipline. The functional approach pushes the description of grammar from the level
of sentence into the level of discourse, and thus enhancing our understanding and ability
to not only create grammatically correct sentences but also group sentences
appropriately to achieve specified social functions. Such a move thus shortens the gap
between learning grammar as the content knowledge of a subject and as a means to
apply the knowledge to create coherent and appropriate discourse and text in context.
In other words, functional grammar, which is the focus of Part B of this book, can be
considered a bridge between form and usage. Here, we will explore a particular type of
functional grammar known as Systemic Functional Grammar. This tradition of grammar is
widely known and adopted in different branches of linguistics such as discourse analysis,
critical discourse analysis, text analysis, sociolinguistics, multimodal analysis and also in
other disciplines such as education and translation. We will explore some applications at
the end of each chapter and also discuss translation from this perspective.

Modern Englishes 201

Construing Experience
8
Introduction

From the formal perspective, grammar is perceived as a set of rules – rules that the
language users observe consciously or unconsciously, for instances, the subject and verb
agreement, the transformation from active voice to passive. This approach also pays
particular attention to the order of constituents in sentences – identifying constituents in
sentences that are movable with or without making the sentence grammatically
unacceptable and also with or without bringing a change in meaning. Let us illustrate this
with the following example:

[1] Mary loves Harry.

[2] Harry loves Mary.
[3] *Harry Mary loves.

While both examples [1] and [2] are grammatically acceptable, their meanings are
different. Example [3] is considered grammatically unacceptable unless used for some
stylistic purposes.

From the functional perspective, grammar is perceived as a resource for making meaning.
For instance, when someone says ‘Peter was the thief’, the speaker has no doubt of the
proposition that Peter was the one who stole something. In English, however, there is a
grammatical resource called ‘modality’ upon which the speaker can modify the degree
of his certainty. The speaker can say ‘Peter must be the thief’ if he is certain of his belief; or
‘Peter would be the thief’ if he thinks it is probable; or ‘Peter may be the thief’ if he thinks
that there is such a possibility. As this example illustrates, functional grammar is not only
engaged with the wordings of texts, but also the meanings that are construed through
them. Functional grammars take language use as a starting point and try to answer
questions about what meanings are being created, in what contexts, and how. They posit
a relationship between the use/function of language and the structures that are chosen
to achieve those functions. Functional grammars give meaning a privileged position in
their study of language. They consider meanings as a feature of the whole text (rather
than a sentence or a word) and therefore take full texts (which may be a single utterance
or a whole novel, and which may be oral or written) as their unit of analysis.

Functional linguists have identified three modes of meanings that languages create
simultaneously: ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning. In this
chapter, we will focus on ideational meaning. Interpersonal meaning will be the focus of
Chapter 7 and textual meaning will be discussed in Chapter 8. In this chapter, we begin
with a brief introduction of functional linguistics. Then we examine the ideational meaning
in details. In the final section, we will look at a study that uses this knowledge and applies it
to a real world issue.

Functional Linguistics

The history of functional linguistics dates back to the beginning of the 20th century.
Functions of language are more or less equals to uses or ways of using language.
Important functional scholars are not confined to pure linguist (e.g., Jakobson) but also
anthropologist (e.g., Malinowsky), educationalist (e.g., James Britten) and zoologist (e.g.,
Desmond Morris). Given their diverse interests, these scholars have contributed to the
development of functional grammar in different and enriching ways. For instances,
Malinowsky was interested in the languages on early cultures before settlement. In his
classification, the primarily distinction of language functions is between ‘pragmatic’ and
‘magical’ uses in language. ‘Magical’ use in language refers to the magical practices
associated with the gardening among the tribes he was studying. ‘Pragmatic’ use in

Construing Experience 203

language, on the other hand, is further differentiated into ‘narrative’, ‘active,’ and ‘phatic
communion’. ‘Narrative’ refers to the use of language to tell our experience; ‘active’ the
use of language to plan something and to carry out the plan; and ‘phatic communion’
the use of language to maintain and/or strengthen the social relationship between the
interactants such as talking about the weather in the western culture. Morris, on the other
hand, was a zoologist. He studied the uses of language among apes, and identified three
major categories of communicative contexts – information talking, grooming talking, and
exploratory talking. In terms of modern theories of functional grammar, these early
functional categorizations are referred to extrinsic functionality.

In 1930s, the Prague School raised our attention to the issue that categories of language
function may actually reflect the internal structure of language, i.e. intrinsic function of
language. Let’s illustrate the notion of intrinsic function with Text 6.1, which is a
conversation between two Australian teenagers. Their American friend planned to visit
them in Sydney and they were discussing where to take him.

Text 8.1

Question A: So what time does he arrive at Sydney?

Statements B: 6 am. He plans to stay in a hotel near Hyde Park and he’s going to
take a bus at 10 on Sunday to Melbourne.
Exclamation A: That we only have one day to show him the whole Sydney!
Questions What are we going to so? Where are we going to take him?
Statements B: I think we should definitely take him to see the Opera House. That’s a
definite must. And also Darling Harbour.
Statements A: Oh. I like the Darling Harbour idea. That way he can get some
souvenir in Sydney and take back with him.
Offer/promise I think I can drive him to Manly Beach.
Directive B: Don’t. Can’t you remember …
Exclamation A: Oh! Come on.

204 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In the dialogue, language functions are closely related to the clause types: statements to
declarative clauses, questions to interrogative clauses, directives to imperative clauses,
exclamation to exclamative clauses and offers or promises to declarative clauses (with
first person pronouns and in future tense). This mapping of language functions on to clause
types suggests that structural features of a language contribute to the meaning of a text.
This is an important observation to make and one that helps us understand the need to
invest in developing and understanding functional models of grammar. In functional
linguistics, grammar is seen as a resource for meaning-making. This focus on meaning
makes functional grammars ‘appliable’ in a range of contexts (as we will see in Part 3 of
the book).

The mode of meaning expressed by the categories of language functions listed above
(declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative) contribute to the creation of
what is called ‘interpersonal meaning’, i.e. how we get things done through the
language, how we interact and keep the conversation going, and how we negotiate our
opinion and express our feeling with each other. Interpersonal meaning will be the focus
of Chapter 7.

Among the functional approaches, we shall highlight the systemic functional linguistics
(SFL) because it is the perspective that this book has adopted. This perspective can be
traced to the works of a prominent linguist, M.A.K. Halliday. The foundational work on
systemic functional grammar goes back to the 1960s. The masterly work is Halliday’s An
Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985; 1994; and then revised by M.A.K. Halliday and
C.M.I.M. Matthiessen, 2004). Other important works include Martin’s (1992) English Text:
System and Structure and Matthiessen’s (1995) Lexicogrammatical Cartography: English
Systems.

Systemic functional linguistics is built on, inspired by, and contrasted with studies by noted
anthropologists, psychologists, linguists and philosophers. The most relevant ones include
de Saussure’s distinction between the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes; Malinowski’s

Construing Experience 205

notion of ‘context of situation’; Firth’s work on prosody and the concept of ‘system’;
Hjelmslev’s notion of language as process; the Prague School’s notion of Theme and
Rheme; Bűhler’s three ‘functions’ of language; Boas’s concept of ‘language as a social
system’; and Whorf’s emphasis on the role of language in culture. These concepts provide
the theoretical context of SFL. This functional approach views language as a social
semiotic system, i.e. a resource that the language users use to construe their experience in
the world (Chapter 8), to accomplish their purposes (Chapter 9) and to create and
organize their messages as text and/or discourse (Chapter 10). The messages in a text are
connected and form a unity (Chapter 11) and every text is created in context (Chapter
12). This view of language implies that language is a system of choices and that aspects of
a given context (e.g., the topics, the users, the channels) help users in making the
appropriate choices and construing the meanings that are relevant.

In SFL theory, language as a social semiotic system is realized on four different levels of
abstraction, which have been termed strata: phonology-graphology, lexicogrammar,
discourse-semantics and context. The most basic resources for meaning-making are
phonological or graphological units. At the stratum of lexicogrammar, the units of
phonology and graphology are realized as words and structures and as higher-level
abstractions. At the discourse semantic level, meanings are created across text as a
whole, rather than just within clauses. Context stands at the highest level of abstraction,
which can be divided into context of situation (register) and context of culture (genre)
(these will be examined below). The first three strata are linguistic in nature, and are tied to
the structure of a language while the last stratum – context – is extra-linguistic and relates
the social features in which the language is used.

The relationship between any two adjacent strata is not one of constituency, i.e. the
higher stratum embodies the lower stratum, but of realization, i.e. the higher stratum is
encoded in the lower stratum; meaning at the discourse semantic level is realized as
wording at the lexicogrammatical level which, in turn, is realized as sounding/writing at the
level of phonology-graphology. These strata of a language are represented by different

206 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

linguistic systems: the semantic system, the lexicogrammatical system, and the
phonological or orthographic system respectively. In this way language is perceived as a
multiple coding system: Language production is taken as a process of encoding a
message that starts from meaning and goes through the process of wording and ends up
with sounding or writing; whereas language comprehension is a process of decoding the
message, from sounding/writing to meaning via wording. This is depicted in Figure 8.1.

Language production: coding process

meaning the semantic system

the lexicogrammatical system:

wording
grammar & vocabulary

the phonological/orthographic
sounding/writing system

Language comprehension: decoding process

Figure 8.1: Language production and comprehension and language stratification.

(Adapted from Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p. 5)

From the systemic functional perspective, there are three different modes of meaning
(known as metafunctions): ideational, interpersonal, and textual. The ideational
metafunction is further classified into representational and logical metafunctions. The
representational metafunction concerns how we use language to construe our
experience in the world around us and inside us, while the logical metafunction concerns
how we interpret the logical relationship between events of our experience; the
interpersonal metafunction concerns how we use English to interact with other people;
and the textual metafunction concerns how we turn the ideational and interpersonal
modes of meaning into message and discourse. These three metafunctions – ideational,
interpersonal, and textual – are embedded in every major clause of a language

Construing Experience 207

simultaneously.

Furthermore, language is produced and comprehended in a particular social context,

which in turn affects how language is used and meaning is interpreted. Context in SFL
stands at the highest level of abstraction or strata, which, as pointed out earlier, can be
divided into context of situation (register) and context of culture (genre). Context of
situation refers to the things going on in the world in which the text is created. They are
social factors beyond the domain of language, affecting the use of language in the text
and thus creating the extralinguistic features of it. These social factors are grouped into
three dimensions, namely field, tenor, and mode. They are patterned into situation type
(known as register). Field is concerned with the nature of social action; tenor refers to the
relationship among participants, their roles and status; whereas, mode refers to the role of
language to realize meanings (Martin & Rose, 2008). Field is thus closely related to
ideational metafunction, tenor to interpersonal metafucntion, and mode to textual
metafunction.

Within the context of culture, another notion – genre – is set up to account for relations
among social processes in more holistic terms, with a special focus on the stages through
which most texts unfold. Genres are defined as ‘staged social processes’ with particular
social roles and functions in society that are goal-oriented, institutionalized forms of
discourse (Martin & Rose, 2003, 2005). The strata and metafunctions are mapped on to
each other in SFL. This mapping is presented in Figure 8.2.

208 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Figure 8.2: Stratification and metafunction in SFL

In the following sections, we will examine the ideational metafunction in more detail.

Ideational metafunction

Ideational metafunction orients towards the physical world that we are living in. It
concerns with how we construe the events that we experience and how we interpret the
logical relationship between these events. The ideational metafunction is thus classified
into two subcategories: representational and logical metafunctions. The representational
metafunction concerns how we use language to construe our experience in the world
around us and inside us, while the logical metafunction concerns how we interpret the

Construing Experience 209

logical relationship between events of our experience. We will examine these two
metafunctions in detail.

Representational metafunction

Representational metafunction (also known as referential metafunction and experiential

metafunction) expresses our experience of the world around us and inside us – experience
that we obtain through observation or participation in the events occurring in the world
and experience that we imagine, think, or feel inside our mind. But we have new
experiences every day, every hour or even every minute. How can we possibly
conceptualize our new experiences and thoughts and put them into new wording? It is
only possible because we do it through generalization – a way of categorizing every
event in our experience into three components and grouping the infinite events into
several types of process. The three components of this conceptualization of experience
are in very general terms:

1. participant: i.e. who/what is taking part

2. process: i.e. what is going on
3. circumstance: i.e. when, where, why and how the event is taking place

Our experience is conceptualized into these three components; among them, the nucleus
is the process, plus a participant directly involved in it. So the simplest structure of an
English clause is a participant involved in a process such as He is swimming. In a directive,
there can be only a process without any participant such as Go. It should be noted that
the process in a directive, in fact, also requires a participant – the hearer – to carry out the
command. So we can always insert the word ‘you’ in any imperative clause.

In English, there may be one and at most two additional participants but many
circumstances, depending on the nature of the event. For example:

210 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Mary hits the ball beautifully.
Participant 1 Process Participant 2 Circumstance

In the example above, there are two participants ‘Mary’ and ‘the ball’ and one
circumstance of manner ‘beautiful’ in the event encoded in the clause.

Mary bought her kids a little puppy yesterday.

Participant 1 Process Participant 2 Participant 3 Circumstance

In the example above, there are three participants ‘Mary’, ‘her kids’ and ‘a little puppy’
and one circumstance of time ‘yesterday’ in the event encoded in the clause. Below we
will look at each of the concepts in more detail.

Participant roles

In general, participant refers to who or what is taking part in the process of an event. A
participant can be an animate or a thing. Let’s examine the following examples.

[1.1] The suspect was released.

[1.2] The printing machine was out of order.
[1.3] The only cow was sought for his tuition fee.
[1.4] The image of his mother grew vaguer and vague as the time passed.
[1.5] The organization finally collapsed in 1984.
[1.6] The mass demonstration brought the traffic to a standstill.
[1.7] The rocketing food prices finally brought down the governing party.
[1.8] She is clever.

The participant in [1.1], ‘the suspect’, is an animate, whereas the one in [1.2], ‘the printing
machine’ is a thing, i.e. inanimate. An animate can be a human being such as the

Construing Experience 211

participant in [1.1] or an animal such as ‘the only cow’ in [1.3]. A thing can be a physical
entity such as the participant in [1.2] or an abstraction such as ‘the image of his mother’ in
[1.4]. A thing can also be a semiotic one like an institution such as ‘the organization’ in
[1.5]. It can also be a macro thing, i.e. an act such as ‘the mass demonstration’ in [1.6] or
a fact such as ‘the rocketing food prices’ in [1.7]. It should be noted that in English the
participant in a clause can be the quality of something such as ‘clever’ in [1.8].

A participant can take up different roles in a clause. Below is a list of participant roles in
English:

1. An ‘Actor’ refers to a participant who/which does something; for instance: The

Chinese military had just tested a stealth fighter jet.
2. A ‘Goal’ refers to a participant upon which the process has created an impact; for
instance: The President's visit will soothe recent tensions between the two countries.
3. Unlike a Goal, a ‘Range’ specifies the scope of the happening expressed in the
process, instead of being impacted by it; for instance: He successfully climbed the
mountain in 24 hours.
4. A ‘Senser’ (or an ‘Experiencer’) refers to the participant who senses something; for
instance: China and the United States of America have never enjoyed such broad
common interests.
5. A ‘Phenomenon’, on the other hand, is the ‘something’ that is sensed by the Senser;
for instance: Kissinger recalled his secret visit to China in 1971.
6. A ‘Carrier’ is the participant upon which a quality is assigned; for instance, The
international financial crisis was very severe in 2008.
7. An ‘Attribute’ is the quality that is assigned to the Carrier; for instance, Societies are
more harmonious, nations are more successful, and the world is more just.
8. Unlike a Carrier, an ‘Identified’ (also known as ‘Token’) refers to the participant which
is identified as another participant – the ‘Identifier’ (also known as ‘Value’); for
instance: China's decision-making on North Korea (Identified) was always a black box
(Identifier).

212 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

9. A ‘Possessor’ is the participant who owns something, while the ‘something’ is referred
to as the ‘Possession’; for instance, The President (Possessor) will have a regal
entourage of aides, bodyguards, and limousines (Possession).
10. A ‘Sayer’ is the participant who addresses another participant – the ‘Receiver’ – a
message, i.e. the content of saying; for instance, He (Sayer) asked a senior U.S. official
(Receiver) if this is true.
11. The message, in English, is analyzed as a participant known as the ‘Verbiage’; for
instance, He told the manager that coordination is not his strong suit.
12. A ‘Behaver’ is an animate whose behaviour is described in the clause; for instance,
The kid was shaking with fear when he was found.
13. An ‘Existent’ is a participant who is introduced into the scene; for instance, There was
little progress on the Obama administration's goal.

What role a participant plays in a clause depends on the process in which the participant
is involved. We describe this in detail in the following section.

Process types

There are innumerable events occurring around us all the time, and each event is likely to
be different from each other. To handle the situation, we group all our experience into a
small number of process types. ‘Process’ as stated earlier refers to what is going on in the
event. Each process type has its own language features. Let us examine Text 6.2, another
short excerpt from Murder on the Orient Express.

Text 8.2

Construing Experience 213

 [2.1] Lieutenant Dubose was saying his parting speech. [2.2] He had thought it out
beforehand and had kept it till the last minute. [2.3] It was a very beautiful, polished
speech. [2.4] Not to be outdone, M. Poirot replied in kind. [2.5] ‘En voiture, Monsieur’,
said the Wagon Lit conductor. [2.6] With an air of infinite reluctant M. Poirot climbed
aboard the train. [2.7] The conductor climbed after him.

In this short excerpt, there are several types of process. There are processes involving
doing and happening such as ‘had kept’ in [2.2], ‘climbed’ in [2.6] and [2.7]; saying such
as ‘was saying’ in [2.1], ‘replied’ in [2.4], ‘said’ in [2.5]; thinking such as ‘had thought’ in
[2.2]; and relation such as ‘was’ in [2.3].

According to Halliday (1994), there are three major process types: processes of doing
(known as material processes), processes of sensing (known as mental processes) and
processes of being (known as relational processes). Material processes express our
experiences in the world of material reality, e.g., We ate lunch together several times;
mental processes express our conceptions in the world of consciousness, e.g., Ted hated
coming home to the empty house, and relational processes express our understanding of
the world of abstract relations, e.g., If A equals to B and B equals to C, then A must be
equal to C. Let’s examine a short excerpt in the Murder on the Orient Express to
understand these better. All the processes in this text are underlined.

Text 8.3

[3.1] M. Hercule Poirot, having nothing better to do, amused himself by studying her
without appearing to do so. [3.2] She was, he judged, the kind of young woman who
could take care of herself with perfect case wherever she went. [3.3] She had poise
and efficiency. [3.4] He rather liked the severe regularity of her features and the
delicate pallor of her skin. [3.5] He liked the burnished black head with its neat waves
of hair, and her eyes, cool, impersonal and grey. [3.6] But she was, he decided, just a

214 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 little too efficient to what he called ‘jolie femme.’

We can classify the processes in the excerpt as in the following table.

Process types Examples in the excerpt

Material amused in [3.1]; went in [3.2]; take care of in [3.2]

Relational having in [3.1]; was in [3.2] & [3.7];

Mental studying in [3.1]; judged in[3.2]; liked in [3.4] & [3.5]; decided in
[3.6]
Table 8.2: Major processes in Text 8.3

In addition to the three major process types, there are three minor processes: minor
processes: verbal process (between relational and mental), behavioral process (between
mental and material), existential process (between material and relational). These
processes seem to lie between the major processes. The major and the minor process
types in English are described in more detail below.

Major processes

As pointed out earlier, there are three major process types: material processes, mental
processes and relational processes. Each major process types can further differentiate into
a number of sub-categories. We will describe them in detail in the following sections
before we move on to describe the minor process types.

Material processes
Material processes typically construe our experience towards the physical world. There are
two subcategories of material process – action (i.e. doing) and event (i.e. happening). For
example:

Construing Experience 215

 Ben parked his car across the street. (material process of action)
Mary climbed the Alps last month. (material process of event)

We can further classify the material process of action into two types: transitive and
intransitive. In a simple transitive action, a participant (the Actor) does something that
creates an impact on another participant (the Goal). In the above example, ‘Ben’ is the
Actor and ‘his car’ is the Goal.

Some transitive material processes may involve an additional participant (the Beneficiary).
These di-transitive processes typically construe a process of giving, i.e., the Actor buys or
gives something (the Goal) to someone (the Beneficiary). For example:

Actor Di-transitive process Beneficiary Goal Circumstance

Tom bought Susan a gift yesterday
Rebecca presented the winner the trophy on the stage.

There is an alternative way to represent the phenomenon, in which the Goal precedes the
Beneficiary in the clause. It is noted that in this case, a preposition ‘for’ or ‘to’ has to be
placed before the Beneficiary.

Actor Di-transitive process Goal Beneficiary Circumstance

Tom bought a gift for Susan yesterday
Rebecca presented the trophy to the winner on the stage.

In English, both transitive material clauses and di-transitive material clauses can be
presented in active voice or in passive voice. For example:

Ben parked his car across the street. (active)

Ben’s car was parked across the street. (passive)
Rebecca presented the winner the trophy. (active)

216 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 The winner was presented the trophy by Rebecca. (passive)
The trophy was presented to the winner by Rebecca. (passive)

Up to this point, all the examples present the Actors as participants who do something that
creates an impact the Goal, who/which are participants pre-existing before the processes
and are changed by the processes. However, there is another type of transitive material
process in which the Goal is created through the process as shown in the following
examples.

David built a house for his family.

She wrote a letter to her mother last week.

In a material process of event, there is only one participant (the Actor). For example:

Actor Intransitive material process Circumstance

Susanna swam across the channel.
The salt dissolved in the soup.
Sometimes, there can be a second participant in a material process of event. This
additional participant – the Range – specifies the scope of the happening expressed in
the process, instead of being impacted by it. For example:

Actor Intransitive material process Range

Susanna climbed the Lion Rock.
He crossed the harbor by ferry.

Though material processes typically construe our experience towards the material world
and the processes can be perceived physically. In English, such concrete processes can
be employed to construe our experience of change in abstract phenomena as shown in
the following examples.

Construing Experience 217

 The stock market melted down last month.
Prices rocketed after the war.
The scandal destroyed his credibility.
The good news strengthened our morale.

Mental processes
Unlike the material processes, which typically construe our experience towards the
physical world, mental processes construe our experience towards the world of
consciousness. In a typical mental process, a participant (the Senser or sometimes referred
to as Experiencer) senses something (the Phenomenon). For example:

Senser Mental process Phenomenon

I felt someone touching my back.
He sensed danger.
The world economy experienced a severe recession last year.

Here, the notion ‘sense’ is used in a very broad way, including seeing, feeling and thinking.
Therefore, mental processes can be further classified in three sub-categories: perception,
affection, and cognition. For example:

She saw the car accident. (perception)

The witness heard three gunshots. (perception)
I taste something strange in this soup. (perception)
The camels smelt the water a mile off. (perception)
The doctor felt his head. (perception)
The boys like the soft drinks. (affection)
I am interested in your proposal. (affection)
He despised himself for his own cowardice. (affection)
I forgot the answer. (cognition)
He knew too much. (cognitive)

218 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The Senser in a typical mental process is an animate; however, this is not an essential
requirement. Let’s illustrate with the following two examples. In both cases, ‘My car’ and
‘My knees’ are thing but not animate. However, they take up the Sensor role in a mental
clause as if they are able to ‘like’ or ‘hate’ the Phenomenon.

My car doesn’t like rainy day.

My knees hate wet weather.

In addition, Phenomenon may precede the Senser in a mental clause. For example:

Phenomenon Mental process Senser

Her proposal interested the public.
His performance pleased his boss.
The current situation puzzles me.

The Phenomenon being sensed can be any kind of entity (both concrete and abstract),
act and fact. For example:

Senser Mental process Phenomenon

The boys like the idea of holding a party on Friday. (abstract)
The boys like the soft drinks in the party. (concrete)
The boys like serving soft drinks in the party. (act)
The boys like the fact that soft drinks are being served in the party. (fact)

Furthermore, the Phenomenon in a mental clause can be expressed by a separated

clause as shown in the following examples.

Senser Mental process Phenomenon

I believe he is wrong.

Construing Experience 219

People think the economy is recovery.
The villagers want the hikers to leave immediately.
The guests prefer champagne to red wine.

Relational processes
Unlike material processes, which construe our experience towards the physical world, or
mental processes, which construe our experience towards the world of consciousness,
relational processes construe our experience towards the world of various modes of being.
There are two major modes of relational clause – attribution and identification. Each has
its own set of participant roles. In an attributive process, the speaker assigns a quality (the
Attribute) to a participant (the Carrier). The quality can be expressed by an adjective
phrase or a noun phrase. For example:

Carrier Attributive process Attribute

John is good.
John is a good boy.

In an identifying process, on the other hand, the speaker identified a participant (the
Identified/Token) as another participant (the Identifier/Value). One important structural
difference between attributive clause and identifying clause is that the two participants in
an identifying clause can swop their position but those in an attributive clause cannot.

Identified/Token Identifying process Identifier/Value

John is the class representative.

Identifier/Value Identifying process Identified/Token

The class representative is John.

Both attribution and identification are typically expressed in copulative verbs (as known as
coupling verbs in the terminology of traditional grammar). However, sense verbs (in the

220 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

terminology of traditional grammar), which add an additional meaning feature of the five
senses to the copula can also express the attributive processes. They include look, sound,
smell, feel, and taste. For example:

She looks good. (cf. She is good, by her appearance.)

The voice sounds good. (cf. The voice is good, by its sound.)
The cigar smells good. (cf. The cigar is good, by its smell.)
The textual feels good. (cf. The textual is good, by the way it feels.)
The dish tastes good. (cf. The dish is good, by the way it tastes.)

In addition, there are numerous verbs which also express the identifying processes with an
additional meaning feature such as express, mean, represent, signify, betoken, stand for,
reflect, spell, translate as, mean, name, christen, call (with the meaning of naming),
function as, serve as, act as, vote, elect (with the meaning of voting), play (with the
meaning of acting as), act as and so on. However, unlike an identifying clause, in which
Identified and Identifier can swop their positions in the clause, the participants in these
relational clauses with an additional meaning feature cannot swop their positions.

Zn stands for zinc.

* Zinc stands for Zn.
She was christened Mary.
*Mary was christened her.
Among his other duties, he acts as the Chairperson of the English Panel.
*Among his other duties, the Chairperson of the English Panel acts as him.

Apart from the attributive and identifying processes, there are other relational processes,
including possessive process and circumstantial process. They can be interpreted as a
relational clause with additional meaning feature. A possessive process expresses a
participant (the Possessor) who owns something (the Possession). The possessive process is
expressed in a small group of verbs such as have, own, possess and so on.

Construing Experience 221

Possessor possessive process Possession Circumstance
He has a million dollars in his pocket.
He owns an apartment In London.
He possesses a fortune of billions of dollars.

A circumstantial process, on the other hand, expresses the circumstance in which a

participant (the Carrier) is in. It is noted that the Circumstance in a circumstantial process
is an essential element in the clause. It is known as adverbial complement in traditional
grammar. Circumstantial processes are typically expressed in copulative verbs. But they
can also be expressed by other verbs such as surround. For example:

Carrier Circumstantial process Circumstance

Litter is everywhere.
The police surrounded the suspect’s house.

Minor processes

In the last section, we discussed three major process types: material process, mental
process and relational process. As Halliday (1985: 138) points out, these three types of
process are considered major processes because ‘they are the cornerstones of the
grammar in its guise as a theory of experience’. There are, in addition, three minor process
types, which locate semantically between the major types of process, and share
characteristics of them. These minor types of process include verbal process, behavioral
process and existential process. We examine them in this section.

Verbal processes
Verbal processes share the characteristics of mental processes and relational processes.
The typical verbal process is the process of ‘saying’, e.g., She said something. Verbal

222 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

processes, however, include different modes of saying such as saying, telling, informing,
stating, commanding, asking, and so on. For example:

He said something.
He told us a story.
He informed the police of the burglary.
He stated that he was innocent.
He commanded that roads be built to link the isolated villages.

In a typical verbal process, a participant (the Sayer) addresses another participant (the
Receiver) a message, i.e. the content of saying. In English, the content of saying is an
essential component in a verbal clause, whereas the Receiver is optional. The content of
the saying can be construed as a participant (the Verbiage), or it can be presented as a
separate clause (a locution) as quoting or reporting as shown in the following examples.

Sayer Verbal process Receiver Verbiage

She told me a story (verbiage)
She told me, ‘it is raining heavily.’ (verbatim)
She told me that it was raining heavily. (reporting)

Verbal processes also include semiotic processes such as showing, indicating, hinting etc.
For example:

The data shows that there is no significant relation between the two variables.
The findings indicate that he is the real murderer.
The Principle hinted he might make some changes in the school.

Comparing a verbal clause as in ‘she told me a story’ and a circumstantial clause as in

‘the police surrounded the suspect’s house’, the Verbiage ‘a story’ in the verbal clause is
very similar to the Circumstance ‘the suspect’s house’ in the circumstantial clause. Verbal
processes are thus in between relational processes and mental processes.

Construing Experience 223

Behavioral processes
Behavioral processes share the characteristics of material processes and mental/verbal
processes. According to Martin, Matthiessen, and Painter (1997: 109), behavioral
processes ‘construe (human) behavior, including mental and verbal behaviors, as an
active version of verbal and mental processes.’ In other words, the processes of saying
and sensing are construed as activities as shown in the following examples.

Behavioral process Mental / verbal process

He was looking at Mary. He saw Mary.
He was listening to music. He heard some music.
He was thinking of you. He thought that you should come.
He was shaking with fear. He feared that he might die.

In a typical behavioral process, the participant (the Behaver) is an animate. For example:

Behaver Behavioral process Circumstance

Marianne was laughing whole heartedly.
Both of the men were shivering in the cold wind.

Sometimes, the Behaver may not be the sole participant in the clause. Unlike the Goal in
the material process of doing, the second participant here does not affect by the process
and has the semantic characteristics of the Circumstance of Range or the Phenomenon
in mental processes. For example:

Behaver Behavioral process Range/Phenomenon

Mary was watching the soccer match.
Rebecca was looking at the doctor

224 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Behavioral processes express (animate) behavior, including mental and verbal behavior.
These processes express sensing and saying as activity; they are thus in between material
processes and mental processes. Unlike mental processes, but like material processes, the
topical representation of present time of a behavioral process is the progressive aspect
such as watching, listening, tasting, chatting etc. Furthermore, behavioral processes
cannot report, i.e. occurring as a locution.

Existential processes
Existential processes share the characteristics of relational processes and material
processes. An existential process is a minor process between relational and material
process. In an existential process, the speaker introduces a participant (the Existent) into
the scene. For example:

Existential process Existent

There is a tiger

In the above example, ‘there’ signals the process type as existential; however, it does not
function as a circumstance or as a participant. There may be a circumstance in an
existential clause; for example,

Existential process Existent Circumstance

There is a tiger under the bridge.

If a circumstance of location occurs in the clause, there is an alternative expression:

Circumstance Existential process Existent

Under the bridge is a tiger.

Like relational processes, existential processes express a participant involving in a process

of being. However, unlike relational processes, but like material processes of event, there is

Construing Experience 225

only one participant in the clause. They are thus in between material processes and
relational ones.

At this point, we can tabulate the participant roles in the various process types in the
following table.

Process types Essential Participant roles Examples

Material
action- Actor + Goal She murdered someone.
transitive
action- Actor + Beneficiary + Goal She bought a present to her kid.
ditransitive Actor + Goal + Beneficiary She bought her kid a present.
intransitive Actor The sugar dissolved in the coffee.
Actor + Range She climbed the mountain.
Behavioral Behaver She was laughing wholeheartedly.
Mental
perception Senser/Experiencer + She saw a car.
affection Phenomenon She liked his music.
cognition She forgot his name.
quoted She thought, ‘It’s a beautiful day.’
reported She thought that it was a beautiful day.
Verbal Sayer + Receiver + She told her kid a story.
quoted Verbiage She told her, ‘It’s a beautiful day.’
reported She told her kid that it was a beautiful
day.
Relational
attributive Carrier + Attribute She was pretty smart.
identifying Identified/Token + She was the class representative.
Identifier/Value
Identifier/Value + The class representative was her.

226 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Identified/Token
possessive Possessor + Possession She had a dog.
circumstantial Carrier + Circumstance She was at the roof last night.
Existential Existent There was a girl on the roof.
Table 8.3: Essential participant roles in various process types

Activity 8.1

Identify the process types of underlined verbs of the clauses in the following text.

[a] Walking aimlessly on a beach last week, I [b] was caught in a sudden
thunderstorm. I [c] took shelter under a tree while I [d] looked in my backpack for
my umbrella desperately. It [e] was missing. [f] Standing in the rain I [g] felt
miserable. Gradually the rain [h] slackened. I quickly [i] decided to [j] leave my
tree and [k] run to the bus shelter. When I [l] reached the shelter some people [m]
were waiting there. They [n] told me politely that it [o] was dangerous to [p]
shelter under trees during thunderstorms.

Activity 8.2

Identify the process types of underlined verbs of the clauses in the following text.

Local media (1) had carried headline stories about Sunshine Max, part politician,
part movie star. On evening TV news, he (2) was there, a grin, eyes sparkling.
Young people (3) screamed with arms in the air, crowds gaped open-mouthed
as he (4) walked past.

He (5) had helped firemen (6) evacuate elderly men (7) trapped in cage like
tenements from (8) being burnt to cinders. A hero.

Construing Experience 227

 Who (9) is this Sunshine boy? She (10) wondered.

A man in his twenties with well-proportioned features and a strong jaw, certainly
photogenic, like a pop star, Canto-pop. He (11) reminded her of someone she
(12) knew but (13) could not place.

What intrigued Eve (14) was the sentence (15) quoting Max as (16) saying, 'I (17)
have space in my hostel Memory House (18) to help provide temporary
accommodation for the homeless. But you (19) need a concerted community
effort and I (20) appeal to the community for support. One man's effort is not
enough.'

Circumstance Types

An action or an event must occur in some particular circumstances in the material world;
however, to construe an event in a clause from the perspective of the representational
metafunction, the circumstances are optional as shown in the following examples.

Actor Transitive process Goal Circumstance

Peter murdered his wife.
David took a taxis to school.
The dog chased the thief down the road.

The circumstances (i.e. ‘to school’ and ‘down the road’) in which the events took place
are mentioned in the second and the third examples but not in the first one. Although
there is no Circumstance in this clause, we know that virtually the Actor ‘Peter’ must
murder the Goal ‘his wife’ at a particular location in a particular time. However, in English,
the circumstances are optional in a clause when they are understood or not relevant in
the text.

228 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

There can be a number of types of circumstances in an English clause. Let’s illustrate this
with the following examples:

Participant Process Participant Circumstance

Peter murdered his wife.
Peter murdered his wife last month.
Peter murdered his wife in their apartment last month.
Peter murdered his wife in their apartment in Paris last month.
Peter murdered his wife In a brutal way in their apartment in Paris last
month.
Peter murdered his wife In a brutal way in their apartment in Paris last
month because of you.

In the first example, no circumstance is given in the clause. In the second example, there
is a temporal circumstance, providing the time that the murder took place. In the third
example, apart from the temporal circumstance, there is a spatial circumstance,
providing the information of where the murder occurred. In the fourth example, there are
one temporal and two spatial circumstances. In the fifth example, apart from temporal
and spatial circumstance, there is a circumstance of manner, telling the readers the way
that Peter murdered his wife. In the last example, an additional circumstance of reason is
added, providing the information of why the murder took place. As a matter of fact, we
can continue to add more circumstances to the clause. We should note that although all
the circumstances are added at the end of the clause in the above examples,
circumstances can in fact occur in the other places of a clause. For example, it is possible
to thematize the temporal circumstance such as ‘Last night Peter murdered his wife’. It is
also possible for the circumstance to be placed in the middle of the clause such as ‘Peter
finally murdered his wife’.

In general, circumstances provide information on when, where, why and how the event is
taking place. In English, there are numerous types of circumstance as shown in Table 8.4.

Construing Experience 229

Circumst Typical probe Example realisation Subcategory Subcategory
ance probe
Type
Extent how ___ ? for three hours temporal for how long?
at what every three hours
intervals? ever second step spatial how far?
for six miles
Location at what in September temporal when?
point? before tea
in the yard spatial where?
from Paris
Manner how? with a hammer means by what means?
by trickery
quickly quality how?
like a top comparison what like?
Cause why? because of you reason Why?
thanks to him
for better result purpose For what purpose
in the hope of a good deal
on behalf of us behalf On whose behalf?
Contin- in what in the event of rain condition Under what
gency circumstance without more help conditions?
? in spite of the rain concession Despite what?
in the absence of proof default Lacking what?
Accomp- together with(out) his friends comitative Who/what with?
animent with? as well as them additive And who/what
instead of them else?
Role as a concerned parent guise What as?
(smashed) into pieces product What into?
Matter what about? about this
with reference to that
Angle says who? according to the Shorter Oxford

Table 8.4: Types of circumstance (excerpted from Martin, Matthiessen & Painter 1997:104)

230 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In the previous sections, we examined how we construe our experience towards the
physical world, the world of consciousness, and the world of various modes of being. We
also examined how we theorized an event into three components: participant, process,
and circumstance in a clause. Our experience, on the other hand, also includes our
interpretation of the relationship between events. This is known as the logical
metafunction. We will examine this metafunction in the following section.

Logical metafunction

In traditional grammar, when two or more clauses are joined together, they form a
compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound–complex sentence. In SFL, it is
known as clause complex. Clauses within a complex are related grammatically in terms of
two language resources: taxis and logico-semantic types. Taxis refers to the
interdependency between the clauses in a complex; whereas, logico-semantic types
refer to logical relationship in terms of meaning between clauses.

Taxis
There are two basic types of interdependency between the clauses in a complex:
hypotaxis and parataxis. Hypotaxis refers to the modifying relation between a dominant
clause and a dependent one, whereas, parataxis refers to the developing relation
between an initiating clause and a continuing one, in which neither of them is
grammatically dependent on the other. For example:

When you eat a cooked fish, you should not turn it over to get at the fresh on the other
side of it. (Hypotaxis)
She waved goodbye and climbed onto the train. (Parataxis)

In the first example, the first clause ‘When you eat a cooked fish’ is said to be dependent
upon the second one ‘you should not turn it over to get at the fresh on the other side of it’.

Construing Experience 231

As a matter of fact, the first clause (known as dependent clause) functions as a
circumstance, giving us the information of the situation upon which the proposal
expressed in the second clause (known as dominant clause) is held. So the two clauses
have different status: grammatically, we say that a dominant clause can stand by itself
while a dependent clause cannot; and semantically, a dominant clause construes an
event while a dependent clause provides additional information of it (the circumstance in
this case). In technical terms, we can say that a dominant clause can stand as ‘an
independent functioning whole’ (Martin, Matthiessen & Painter 1997:168).

In the second example, the two clauses are linked in a paratactic relation. Both of them
have the same status: grammatically, each clause can stand by itself; and semantically,
each clause can construe an event. In other words, each clause can stand as an
independent functioning whole and thus have equal status. More examples are provided
in the following table.

Parataxis Hypotaxis
My apartment was a mess after the storm; It was a mess in my apartment, which was
the windows were broken, the sofa was badly savaged by the storm.
soaked with water, my books were all over
the floor.
The windows were broken, and the sofa After the windows of my apartment were
was soaked with water. broken by strong wind, the sofa was
soaked with water.
The storm was strong so the windows of my My apartment was a mess because of the
apartment were broken. storm.
Peter said, ‘my apartment was a mess Peter said that his apartment was a mess
after the storm.’ after the storm.
‘It is really a mess’, Peter thought. Peter thought that his apartment was really
a mess.
Table 8.5: Examples of parataxic and hypotaxic clause complex

232 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Logico-semantic type
The clauses in a clause complex are linked to each other not only in terms of taxis but also
in terms of logico-semantic relation. There are two general types: expansion and
projection. Expansion includes the meanings realized by conjunctions, whereas projection
includes direct and indirect speech and thought.

The relations of expansion can be further differentiated into three types: elaboration,
extension, and enhancement. In an elaborating relationship, one clause expands another
clause by elaborating on it; in an extension relationship, by extending beyond it; and in an
enhancing relationship, by embellishing around it. Let’s examine the following examples.

She is talking about the little girl || who wondered aimlessly along the beach this
morning. (Hypotaxis: elaboration)
The girl looked terrible; || her dress was wet, dirty, and torn. (Parataxis: elaboration)

The first example is a hypotactic elaborating complex. The dependent clause ‘who
wondered aimlessly along the beach this morning’ is realized by a relative clause. The
relationship is considered elaboration because the dependent clause provides an
elaborating description or comment of the little girl. The second example is a paratactic
elaborating complex. The two clauses have equal status. The second clause specifies the
first clause so that the readers can visualize how terrible the girl looked.

Now I can walk to work || instead of going by car. (Hypotaxis: extension)

The students cleaned the white board; || and put their chairs back to their original
places. (Parataxis: extension)

The first example is a hypotactic extending complex. The dependent clause ‘instead of
going by car’ provides the readers additional (though adversative) information of how the
narrator goes to work. The second example is a paratactic extending complex. The two

Construing Experience 233

clauses have equal status. The second clause also provides the readers additional
information of what the students did.

I won’t follow the instructions || because I don’t think they work. (Hypotaxis:
enhancement)
I spent half of my salary on the tuition fee || so I have to go for those bargains in the
sale. (Parataxis: enhancement)

The first example is a hypotactic enhancement complex. The dependent clause ‘because
I don’t think they work’ is realized by an adverbial clause. The relationship is considered
enhancement because the dependent clause provides a reason for the narrator’s
decision of not to follow the instructions. The second example is a paratactic
enhancement complex. The two clauses have equal status. The second clause provides
the readers information about the consequence of the narrator spending half of his/her
salary on the tuition fee.

Projection refers to the relations between a mental or verbal clause and the content,
which the clause quotes such as ‘Your mum said (that) you must finish your lunch before
you could go to the playground’ or reports such as ‘Your mum said, “Peter must finish his
lunch before he can go to the playground”’. In a clause complex, while the mental and
verbal clause in a projection is known as projecting clause, the content is realized in a
projected clause. For example:

Projecting clause Projected clause

Paratactic projection Your mum said “Peter must finish his lunch before he can go to the
(quoting) playground”
Your mum thought “Peter must finish his lunch before he can go to the
playground”
Hypotactic projection Your mum said (that) you must finish your lunch before you could
(reporting) go to the playground
Your mum thought (that) you must finish your lunch before you could

234 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 go to the playground

Table 8.6: Examples of parataxic and hypotaxic projections

In the examples above, ‘Your mum said…’is a verbal clause while ‘Your mum thought…’ is
a mental one because the former concerns a locution while the latter an idea. In SFL,
quoting is considered a paratactic projection and reporting a hypotactic one. In the
projecting clause, we find the components of ‘Sayer’ or ‘Sensor’, and the verbal process
or the mental process. In the projected clause, we find the content, i.e. a locution in a
verbal clause or an idea in a mental clause. The following figure summarizes the options
of clause complex relations.

parataxis
TAXIS
hypotaxis

elaboration
clause complex expansion extension
LOGICO- enhancement
SEMANTIC
TYPE quoting
projection
reporting
Table 8.7: Summary of clause complex options

Application

Systemic Functional Linguistics is considered an ‘appliable’ theory. In the previous sections,

we examined the ideational metafunction. In this section, we will discuss the findings of a
research paper to illustrate how the knowledge of ideational metafunction is applied in
the analysis of news English.

Construing Experience 235

The paper that we examine here is written by Li and Chan (2011), entitled ‘Sino-US ties
through sociolinguistic lens’. The paper explored how the Sino-US relations were reflected
in the reports and commentaries in the newspapers from different societies. Adopting the
perspective of systemic functional linguistics, Li and Chan examined the news coverage of
Hu’s U.S. visit in 2011 in six newspapers: the China Daily (Mainland China), the South China
Morning Post (Hong Kong), the Tai Pei Times (Taiwan), the Washington Post (the United
States), The Guardian (the United Kingdom), and the Sydney Morning Herald (Australia). Li
and Chan categorized all the new items according to their contents and analyses the
language used in the headlines in order to investigate the concerns over the issue from the
perspective of different societies reflected in the newspapers and to describe the images
of the two important news actors – President Hu and President Obama – portrayed in
them.

The paper analyzed the language used in news items in terms of the three metafunctions.
As we have not explored the interpersonal and textual metafunctions, we only describe
their finding on the portrayal of President Hu and President Obama here because their
images arise mainly from the language used in the transitivity, i.e. the representational
metafunction.

In Section C of the paper, Li and Chan described how the images of Hu and Obama
were portrayed in the headlines of all news items, focusing on the three core issues of the
Sino-US ties: first, the context of Sino-US relations (including the political relation and military
relation); second, the Sino-US economic relations (including the Yuen exchange rate); and
third, human rights (including the issue of Tibet and the democracy in China), in the six
newspapers in general, and in the China Daily and the Washington Post in particular.

The China Daily, as expected, portrayed a very positive image of Present Hu’s contribution
to the improvement of the Sino-US relations. This image was built up through the choices of
process type used in the headlines. Before Hu visited America, the visit was foreseen as not
only providing a ‘good opportunity’ but actually helping to ‘chart course for future’

236 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

relationship with the United States. During the visit, President Hu was construed positively as
an active participant who had initiated various actions for the development of the Sino-US
ties during and after the visit. This active and constructive image was construed in the
various participant roles in which Hu took part: first, the role of ‘Actor’ who ‘sets vision for
strong ties’, ‘makes’ and ‘initiates proposal to advance Sino-US ties’, ‘maps road ahead
for ties’ and takes action to lubricate the development of the relations; second, the role of
‘Senser’ who ‘sees broader basis for Sino-US co-op’; and third, the role of ‘Sayer’ who
‘urges US Congress’ to further facilitate ties’ and announces the progress. And after the
visit, Hu’s efforts were evaluated as contributing in the respect of ‘sketching blueprint for
China-US ties’.

In contrast, the Washington Post exhibited a more neutral, if not negative, picture of Hu,
who was construed to play an overtly ‘passive’ role in the building of the Sino-US
relationships. The image was again formed through the choices of process type in the
headlines. Before the visit, Hu was construed as a passive ‘Sayer’ who ‘answers questions
with Washington Post’, and a ‘Senser’ who ‘looks for “common ground” with U.S.’. During
the visit, Hu was also construed as a passive ‘Actor’ who ‘meets with lawmakers’ and
‘Senser’ who ‘hears concerns on human right’.

The US President Obama, on the other hand, was rarely thematized alone in the headlines
of the news items in the China Daily. Before the visit, Washington and the United States
were described as ‘set[ting] to welcome Hu in grand style’ and ‘hope to see a stronger
relationship’. In such course, President Obama was projected as the collaborator in the
course of developing the relations. For instances, Chinese, U.S. presidents start talks at
White House; Hu, Obama vow to deepen China–U.S. ties. In the Washington Post,
President Obama was also rarely thematized alone in the headline of a news item during
the visit. Only after Hu’s visit was Obama portrayed with an active role to host Hu Jintao on
state visit and to press China on human rights. So in short, Obama was portrayed as
achieving very little in this visit.

Construing Experience 237

Apart from the participant roles, the China Daily construed a positive image of Hu’s visit to
the future Sino-US relationship through other language resources:

(1) the qualification of the major participant in the headlines such as ‘stable Sino-US ties’,
‘landmark trip’, ‘new chapter’, ‘historic masterstroke’, ‘common interests’, ‘mutual
benefit’, and ‘growing role’;
(2) the qualification of other participants in the headlines such as ‘big chance for
progress’, ‘a platform for stronger bond’, ‘new era of cooperation’; and
(3) the positive connotation of words themselves such as ‘milestones’, ‘progress’,
‘masterstroke’, ‘bond’, ‘benefit’ and ‘cooperation’.

In the Washington Post, there was only one news item published on the last day of Hu’s
visit with a headline entitled ‘Summit yields gains for both China and U.S.’, which seemed
to carry a positive connotation; however, the positive denotation of ‘gains’ was subtly
implicated as a sort of compromise through the choice of the process ‘yields’. Other
headlines before and after Hu’s visit were, in general, negative. For instance: In China, a
sometimes-opaque divide between power of party and state and Mistrust stalls U.S.-China
space cooperation.

The above description is only a small part of the findings through the analysis of
representational metafunction. However, it shows how images are portrayed through the
selection of process types in the headlines. It also shows that the two newspapers – the
China Daily and the Washington Post – though supposed to be neutral and objective, are
in fact ideologically bound.

Conclusion

Starting from this chapter, the description of grammar moves its focus from form into
function. This description of grammar from the functional perspective can be considered

238 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

the other side of the coin, complementing and in fact strengthening the description of the
former. This functional approach focuses on the meaning (in terms of function) and the
context of language. From a systemic functional perspective, there are three modes of
meaning (technically known as metafunction), namely ideational, interpersonal and
textual. In this chapter, we examined the representational metafunction, which concerns
how we construe our experience in the world. These include how we construe our
experience towards the physical world through material processes, our experience
towards the world of consciousness through mental processes, and our experience
towards the world of various modes of being through relational processes. Lying between
these three major processes, there are three minor processes, which share the
characteristics of these major ones. These minor processes include behavioral processes,
verbal processes and existential processes. Involving in every process are participants,
which play different roles in different processes. Process and participant(s) form the core
of an event, which occurs in certain circumstances. In English, process and participant(s)
are essential components in a major clause, whereas circumstances are optional. We also
examined the logical metafunction, which concerns how we interpret the logical relation
between events of our experience. Lastly, we examined an academic paper that made
use of the knowledge of representational metafunction to analyze how newspapers
construed the images of President Hu and President Obama in Hu’s US visit in 2011.

Construing Experience 239

Enacting Relationship
9
Introduction

Starting from the previous chapter, we described the grammar of English from the
systemic functional perspective, which emphases the function and the context of
language. There are three types of metafunction – ideational, interpersonal, and textual.
We examined the ideational metafunction, which concerns how we construe our
experience in the world, including the physical world, the world of consciousness and the
world of various modes of being. In this chapter, we will examine another metafunction –
the interpersonal metafunction. This metafunction concerns how we use language to
enact relationship with others, including how we use language (1) to interact and keep
the conversation going, (2) to get things done, and (3) to express our attitude towards the
events encoded in the language. In this chapter, we will examine how we use language
to perform the above three functions. Then, in the final section, we will look at a study that
uses this knowledge and applies it to a real world issue.

Keeping the conversation going

Interpersonal metafunction is a mode of interaction; the continuity of a conversation is
collaborative in nature, i.e. the interactants of a conversation take turn to be the speaker
to keep the conversation going. Let’s illustrate with a short excerpt from The Catcher in the
Rye.
 Text 9.1

[1.1] “Have a seat there, boy," old Spencer said. [1.2] He meant the bed.

[1.3] I sat down on it. [1.4] "How's your grippe, sir?”

[1.5] "M'boy, if I felt any better I'd have to send for the doctor," old Spencer said. [1.6]
That knocked him out. [1.7] He started chuckling like a madman. [1.8] Then he finally
straightened himself out and said, "Why aren't you down at the game? [1.9] I thought
this was the day of the big game.”

[1.10] "It is. [1.11] I was. [1.12] Only, I just got back from New York with the fencing
team," I said. [1.13] Boy, his bed was like a rock.

[1.14] He started getting serious as hell. [1.15] I knew he would. [1.16] "So you're leaving
us, eh?" he said.

[1.17] "Yes, sir. I guess I am.”

In the excerpt, the two characters – old Spencer and the narrator of the story ‘I’ – took
turn to be the speaker in the conversation. We can identify two types of move – initiating
and responding. For example, old Spencer initiated a command in [1.1], the narrator
complied and sat down. Then the narrator initiated a question in [1.4], old Spencer
responded with the answer in [1.5]. And old Spencer initiated a question in [1.8] and [1.9],
the narrator responded on [1.10] to [1.12] and so on. We can also observe that the
speaker who takes up the floor to contribute in the process of conversation adopt a
particular speech role ‘I’ and assigns the other interactant a complementary role ‘you’ in
each turn. For example, when old Spencer spoke, he used ‘you’ to refer to the narrator in
[1.8] and ‘I’ to himself as the speaker in [1.9]. When the narrator took the turn in [1.10], he
also used ‘I’ to refer to himself. This is what Halliday and Matthiessen (1999:525) point out:

Enacting Relationship 241

the interpersonal metafunction is ‘language in its “first and second person” guise, the
interaction of a “me” and a “you”’.

Getting things done

Interpersonal metafunction is also a mode of action: the interactants use language to get
things done. In SFL, speech function is the notion that generalizes the things that the
interactants of a conversation can do through the use of language.

Speech functions
Being the speaker, old Spencer and the narrator intended to do a number of things
through language in the examples above:

(1) Old Spencer:

 gave a directive to command Holden to have a seat in [1.1];
 gave information as a response to Holden’s question in [1.5];
 asked Holden for information in [1.6];
 gave information of what he thought in [1.9]; and
 asked Holden for further information in [1.16]

(2) Holden (‘I’):

 asked old Spencer for information about his grippe in [1.4];
 gave information as a response to old Spencer’s question from [1.10] to [1.12];
and
 gave further information as a response to old Spencer’s further question in [1.17].

In this interactive event, the speakers are either giving out or demanding something from
the hearers. In technical terms, there are two basic orientations of the speaker: that of
giving and that of demanding. The former includes [1.1], [1.5], [1.9] to [1.12] and [1.17],
and the latter [1.4], [1.6] and [1.16].

242 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The ‘something’ (or commodity) that is given or demanded may be linguistic in nature
(e.g., information or opinion) or non-linguistic (e.g., command to act). The former includes
[1.4], [1.5], [1.6], [1.9] to [1.12], [1.16] and [1.17], and the latter [1.1] only.

The interplay of these two dimensions gives four basic speech functions: statement,
question, offer, and command. They are tabulated in Table 9.1.

commodity [information] [goods-&-services]

orientation
[giving] statement offer
[demanding] question command
Table 9.1: Speech functions in an interactive event

The choices of orientation and commodity can be expressed in the system of SPEECH
FUNCTION:

giving
ORIENTATION
demanding
SPEECH FUNCTION
information
COMMODITY
goods-&-services

Figure 9.1: The system of SPEECH FUNCTION

Activity 9.1

Identify the speech functions in the following dialogue.

Jane: (1) I’m awfully sorry!

John: (2) It’s all right.
(3) Don’t worry.

Enacting Relationship 243

 Jane: (4) Is anything broken?
John: (5) No, no.
Jane: (6) No eggs in your shopping bag, I hope.
John: (7) No. Just potatoes and junk food.
Jane: (8) Oh good!
(9) I mean, I’m glad nothing was broken.
(10) I don’t mean that I’m glad you’re buying junk food!

Mood Type
In the interpersonal mode of meaning, the speech functions are encoded in various
mood types. In English, there are two major distinctive mood types: indicative and
imperative. The basic message of an indicative clause is ‘I give you this information’ or ‘I
demand you this information’, while the message of an imperative clause is ‘I demand
you to do something’ or ‘I want us (you and me) to do something’. The indicative mood
can further divide into declarative mood and interrogative mood. Let’s examine a short
excerpt from Paulo Coelho’s The Alchemist.

Text 9.2

[2.1] The Englishman shook the boy: “Come on, ask her!”

[2.2] The boy stepped closer to the girl, and when she smile, he did the same.

[2.3] “What’s your name?” he asked.

[2.4] “Fatima,” the girl said, averting her eyes.

[2.5] “That’s what some women in my country are called.”

In the above conversation, we can find some examples of them as shown in Table 9.2.

244 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Mood Type Examples
declarative (My name is) Fatima.
That’s what some women in my country are called.
interrogative What’s your name?
imperative Come on, ask her!
Table 9.2: Examples of mood types

Apart from the declarative, interrogative, and imperative moods, some grammarians
distinguish exclamative as a separate mood type. For example, How lazy (you are)! What
a mess (that is)! Wonderful! Exclamative mood, however, can be considered as a subtype
of declarative because similar to a declarative clause, an exclamative clause also
provides information, though the information concerns the subjective emotion of the
speaker. Next we will look at the components that we need to be able to identify to carry
out a Mood analysis.

In the previous chapter, we learnt that the functional components for ideational
metafunction are Participant, Process, and Circumstance. The functional components for
the interpersonal metafunction are Subject, Finite, Predicator, Complement, and Adjunct.

The Subject is the element upon which the validity of the proposition is based. To be more
specific, the Subject of a clause ‘supplies the rest of what it takes to form a proposition:
namely, something by reference to which the proposition can be confirmed or denied’ as
in example [3.1], or it ‘specifies the one who is responsible for the success of the proposal’
as in [3.2] (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004:117). In [3.1], ‘Mary’ is the Subject of the clause
upon which the proposition expressed in the clause is upheld by speaker A, and denied
by speaker B. In [3.2], the Subject – speaker B, the one assigned with the speech role ‘you’
– is specified by speaker A to be responsible to ‘get the file’.

Enacting Relationship 245

 [3.1] A: Mary got the Outstanding Award last year.
B: It wasn’t Mary. It’s Marian who got the award.

[3.2] A: Could you please get the file for me?

B: Sorry, I’m terribly busy. Ask Peter to do it.

The Finite in English is the element which makes a clause negotiable in two ways: (1) by
coding the clause as positive or negative as in [4.1], and (2) by grounding the clause in
terms of time or in terms of modality as in [4.2]. We will further discuss the issue of polarity
and modality in the following section.

[4.1] A: I’m going to a movie this evening. (positive)

B: Aren’t you taking your English examination tomorrow? (negative)

[4.2] A: I usually have a cup of black coffee after dinner. (present)

B: They may not serve black coffee here. (modality)

The Predicator specifies the process that is predicated on the Subject such as ‘A dragon
guarded the treasure’. The verb of a clause is always in concordance with the Subject as
shown in the following examples.

[5.1] I’m sorry. I was only joking.

[5.2] They meant no harm. They were only joking.

The Complement is an element that has the potential of being the Subject in the clause.
Let’s illustrate with the following example: In [6.1], both ‘Susan’ and ‘two cones of ice
cream’ are Compliments as they are potential Subjects. In [6.2], ‘Susan’ is fronted and
takes the functional role of Subject in the second clause, while in [6.3], ‘two cones of ice
cream’ becomes the Subject of the second noun clause.

246 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 [6.1] A: I bought Susan two cones of ice cream.
[6.2] B: Are you kidding? Susan ate two cones of ice cream.
[6.3] A: No, what I said is two cones of ice cream were brought and given to Susan.

Finally, the Adjunct is an element that depicts the circumstance and modal assessment of
the proposition or proposal expressed in the clause. Let’s illustrate our points with the
following examples: In [7.1], ‘from boxing’ is encoded as an Adjunct, which expresses the
circumstance upon which the narrator has a feeling of pleasure. In [7.2], ‘certainly’ is
analyzed as an Adjunct, which expresses the speaker’s modal assessment in terms of
probability on the proposition expressed in the clause.

[7.1] I get a big kick from boxing. (circumstance)

[7.2] She certainly will not find boxing exciting. (modal assessment)

Each mood type in English has its distinctive structure, which distinguishes them from the
others, as seen in our analysis of Text 7.2 above. Mood types are closely associated with
the four speech functions that we examined in the previous section. Statements are
congruently expressed in declarative clauses, questions in interrogative clauses, and
command in imperative clause, whereas offers have no congruent realization as shown in
Table 9.3.

Speech functions Mood types Examples

statement declarative [1.5]; [1.9]; [1.10]; [1.11]; [1.12]; [1.17]
question interrogative [1.4]; [1.8]; [1.16]
command imperative [1.1]
offer no congruent realization no incidence found
Table 9.3: Speech functions and mood types

In English, mood type is intrinsically realized grammatically – i.e., it is created and identified
by the presence and the order of the functional components of mood. A clause in English

Enacting Relationship 247

can be divided into two parts: Mood and Residue. The Mood contains the Mood
elements, which differentiates the mood types while the rest of the clause is called the
Residue. Mood elements are Subject and Finite. The structures of declarative,
interrogative, and imperative moods are manifested in the presence and the order of
Subject and Finite in the clause. For example, in the sentence ‘In fact he may know the
truth of the matter’ the Mood elements are the Subject ‘In fact he’ and the Finite ‘may’
and the Residue is the remaining part of the sentence ‘know the truth of the matter’. An
analysis of the sentence is provided below.

In fact he may know the truth of the matter

Mood Residue

The declarative mood expresses a statement, through which the speaker is giving out
information. The typical order of mood elements in the declarative mood is Subject ^
Finite. The declarative mood is the most common one among the three mood types.
There may be more than one Adjunct and Complement in the clause. An example of a
declarative sentence is given below. In this example, you will note that the Subject of the
clause is ‘Napoleon’. It is the element upon which the validity of the proposition is based.
In the example, the Subject is followed by the word ‘butted’, which embodies two
components: the Predicator and the Finite. These two components are separated in
emphatic form ‘did butt’. So the order of mood elements in this declarative sentence is
Subject ^ Finite.

Napoleon butted the door open with his shoulders.

Mood Residue
Subject Finite (past Predicator Complement Adjunct Adjunct
marker ‘ed’) (but)

The interrogative mood expresses a question, through which a speaker can demand
information from the hearer. In English, there are two major types of interrogatives: polar

248 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

type (expressing a yes-no question) and wh- type (expressing an open-ended question). In
both cases, the typical order of mood elements is Finite ^ Subject. An example of a polar
question is given below. In this example, you will note that the Finite ‘Will’ is fronted to
precede the Subject ‘there’. So the order of mood elements in this polar question is Finite
^ Subject.

Will there still be sugar after the Rebellion?

Mood Residue
Finite Subject Adjunct Predicator Complement Adjunct

An example of a wh- question is given below. In this example, you will note that the Finite
‘do’ is also fronted to precede the Subject ‘we’. So the order of mood elements in this wh-
question is also Finite ^ Subject.

Why then do we continue In this miserable condition?

Re- Mood -sidue
Complement Adjunct Finite Subject Predicator Adjunct

The imperative mood realizes a command, through which the speaker is demanding
goods-&-services from the hearer. The typical feature of imperative clause is the absence
of the Subject as shown in the following example. In this example, ‘Boxer’ is not the
Subject of the imperative clause but a Vocative, which identifies the addressee in the
conversation. The Subject is omitted though its referent is recoverable in the context.

Boxer! Get out!

Get out quickly!
Residue
Vocative Predicator Adjunct

Enacting Relationship 249

As can be seen in the descriptions above, the structures of the declarative, interrogative,
and imperative mood types are determined by the presence or absence of Subject and
the ordering of Subject and Finite. These relationships have been summarized in Table 9.4
below.

Mood types +/- Subject Order

declarative + Subject Subject ^ Finite ^ Predictor
interrogative + Subject Finite ^ Subject ^ Predicator
imperative - Subject Predicator ^
Table 9.4: The realization of mood types

The relation between speech functions and mood types in English is depicted in Figure 9.2.
The arrows with broken line represent the realization between various speech functions
and mood types.

information
COMMODITY
goods-&-services
SPEECH
FUNCTION
giving offer statement
ORIENTATION
demanding command question

declarative
indicative
MOOD TYPE interrogative

imperative

Figure 9.2: Realizational relation between SPEECH FUNCTION and MOOD TYPE

Expressing our attitude

250 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The interpersonal mode of meaning concerns how we use language to enact relationship
with others, including how we use language to interact and keep the conversation going,
to get things done, and to express our attitude towards the events encoding in the
language. In the previous sections, we examined the first two functions. In this section, we
explore how we use language to express our attitude in English. We focus only on two
language resources: polarity and modality. Polarity refers to ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ (i.e. ‘is’
or ‘is not’) of a proposition, and ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (i.e. ‘do’ or ‘do not’) of a proposal expressed
in a clause. Modality, on the other hand, is the grey area between the two poles.
Speakers of English use language resources to indicate their modal assessment of the
proposition or proposal expressed in the clause.

Polarity
All the mood types can be either positive (e.g., Rebecca is the thief) or negative (e.g.,
Rebecca is not the thief). The following examples are exerted from Animal Farm.

Mood Types Polarity Examples

declarative positive Man is the only creature that consumes without producing.
negative He does not give milk, he does not lay eggs …
Interrogative positive No, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours?
– wh- negative Can you not understand that liberty is worth more than ribbon?
Interrogative positive But is this simply part of the order of nature?
– yes/no negative Is it not crystal clear, then, comrades, that all the evils of this life
of ours spring from the tyranny of human being?
imperative positive Remove Man from the scene.
negative Even when you have conquered him, do not adopt his vices.
Table 9.5: Mood types and polarity

In English, positive polarity is the default case, i.e. the unmarked form. This can be gauged
by the fact that texts with positive polarity do not need any marker. Negation, on the

Enacting Relationship 251

other hand, is expressed either with a negative marker ‘not’ or with an interpersonal
Theme ‘No’. We will examine the notion of Theme in the Chapter 8. Here, we focus on the
negative marker ‘not’. The negative marker ‘not’ in English is located within the Mood
element of the clause. It is always placed between the Finite and the Predicator in a
clause. In the analysis, we may classify it as mood Adjunct. Let us look at a few examples
to understand this better.

He does not give Milk,

he does not lay eggs …
Mood Residue
Subject Finite Adjunct Predicator Complement

In these two declarative clauses, the negative polarity is expressed with a negative marker
‘not’, which is placed between the Finite ‘does’ and the Predicators ‘give’ and ‘lay’.

Can you not understand that liberty is worth more than ribbon?
Mood Residue
Finite Subject Adjunct Predicator Complement

Is it not crystal clear that all the evils of this life of ours spring
from the tyranny of human being?
Mood Residue
Finite Subject Adjunct Predicator Complement

In these two yes/no interrogative clauses, though the Finite is fronted to indicate that
information is sought, the negative marker ‘not’ is also placed between the Finite ‘Can’
and the Predicator ‘understand’ in the first example and between the Finite ‘is’ and the
Predicator ‘clear’ in the second.

252 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Why do n’t you go to school.
Residue … Mood … Residue
Wh/Adjunct Finite Adjunct Subject Predicator Adjunct

Similarly, in the above wh- interrogative clauses, though the wh- element is fronted to
indicate what information is sought, the negative marker ‘not’ is also placed between the
Finite ‘do’ and the Predicator ‘go’.

Modality
In the interpersonal metafunction, modality is the language resources that the interactants
use to signal their modal commitment: the degree to which they commit themselves to
the validity of their propositions or to the responsibility of their proposals. Modality can be
further sub-categorized into modalization and modulation. Modalization refers to the
speakers’ assessment on how probable or how usual it is for something to happen in their
belief. Modulation, on the other hand, refers to the speakers’ signal on how inclined they
are to do something or to what degree they believe it is their responsibility to do
something. This can be presented in a system as shown below:

probability
modalization
usuality
MODALITY
obligation
modulation
inclination

Figure 9.7: The system of MODALITY

The primary contrast in the system of modality is ‘modalization’ and ‘modulation’. For the
choice of ‘modalization’, the speakers can express their assessment on ‘probability’, i.e.

Enacting Relationship 253

how likely the proposition expressed in the statement is true, or ‘usuality’, i.e. how often
would the expressed action or event occur. For the choice of ‘modulation’, the speakers
can express their assessment on ‘obligation’, i.e. how certain the speaker believed to be
the obligation of the subject to act, or ‘inclination’, i.e. how inclined is the speaker to act.

The four sub-types – probability, usuality, inclination and obligation – can be graded
high/medium/low degree of force. Table 9.6 provides examples of these.

Subtype Degree of force Examples

probability high Peter certainly stole the jewellery.
modalization

medium Peter probably stole the jewellery.

low Peter possibly stole the jewellery.
usuality high Peter is always in time.
medium Peter is usually in time.
low Peter is rarely in time.
inclination high Peter is determined to finish the job.
modulation

medium Peter is keen to finish the job.

low Peter is willing to finish the job.
obligation high Peter is required to help out.
medium Peter is supposed to help out.
low Peter is allowed to help out.
Table 9.6: Types of modality and degree of force

In English, the assessment of modality can be expressed in modal auxiliaries, in modal

adverbs, and sometimes in both. The following table, adopted from Martin, Matthiessen,
and Painter (1997: 64), outlines the types of modality and their realizations.

Types of modality Finite: modal (modal auxiliary) Mood Adjunct (modal adverb)
(modalization) may, might, can, could; perhaps, maybe;
probability will, would; possibly;

254 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 should must certainly, probably
usuality may, might, can, could; never, ever, seldom, rarely;
will, would; sometimes;
should, must usually, always
(modulation) may, might, can, could; possibly;
obligation should must definitely, absolutely
Inclination may, might, can, could; willingly, easily;
will, would; gladly, readily;
must, shall; certainly
(ability) can, could
Table 9.7: Types of modality and realization

When we are making an assertion, we may have a little reservation of the proposition
expressed in a statement. Similarly, when we are making a command, we may want to
assess whether it is the obligation of the hearer to perform the act. In other words, in
between the yes or no, there is an area in which the speaker may want to assert his
assessment. Let’s examine the short excerpt from Animal Farm:

Text 9.8

[8.1] ‘No more delays, comrades!’ said Napoleon when the footprints had been
examined. [8.2] ‘There is work to be done. [8.3] This very morning we begin rebuilding
the windmill, and we will build all through the winter, rain or shine. [8.4] We will teach
this miserable traitor that he cannot undo our work so easily. [8.5] Remember,
comrades, there must be no alteration in our plans: they shall be carried out to the
day. [8.6] Forward, comrades! [8.7] Long live the windmill! [8.8] Long live Animal Farm!’

In this excerpt, we find how the speaker Napoleon inserted his own assessment through
the use of modal auxiliaries: it would be reasonable to predict (the use of ‘will’) that they

Enacting Relationship 255

would work the whole winter to rebuild the windmill in [8.3] so that there was a probability
(the use of ‘will’) that they taught the traitor that he was unable to (the use of ‘cannot’)
undo their work in [8.4]. Napoleon further reminded them that there was a high likelihood
(the use of ‘must’) that there was no alternative and with an authoritative tone, they had
the obligation to carry it out and he guaranteed that they carry it out (the use of ‘shall’) in
[8.5].

Activity 9.2

Classify the underlined modal auxiliaries in the following text into the four sub-
categories of modality.

That note being destroyed so carefully can only mean one thing. There (1) must
be on the train someone so intimately connected with the Armstrong family that
the finding of that note (2) would immediately direct suspicion upon that person.

To begin with, you (3) must realize that the threatening letters were in the nature
of a blind. They (4) might have been lifted bodily out of an indifferently written
American crime novel. They are not real. They are, in fact, simply intended for
the police.

'Exactly, and she (5) always speaks broken English, and she has a very foreign
appearance which she exaggerates. But it (6) should not be difficult to guess
who she is. Now what (7) would we do to her? Or what (8) should we do to her?

Princess Dragomiroff loved Linda Arden as great ladies do love great artists. She
was godmother to one of her daughters. (9) Would she forget so quickly the
married name of the other daughter? It is not likely. No, I think we (10) can safely
say that Princess Dragomiroff was lying.
(Extracted from A. Christie 1934. Murder on the Orient Express, Berkley: Berkley

256 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Press. P. 245)

Activity 9.3

Identify the four sub-types of modality in the following text.

If you are a student and have a job as well, you may feel that there are usually not
enough hours in the day to accomplish all that you would like to do. A probable
solution to the problem of limited time is to organize carefully the time you have for
practice. It is always better to study a little than to concentrate all your effort into one
huge session. Everyone, no matter how busy they may be, has empty time intervals in
their days that can possibly be put to good use. These intervals may be small - for
example, time spent travelling on the bus or time spent waiting for a minibus can be
put to productive use if you are suitably organized.

Application

In the previous sections, we examined the interpersonal metafunction in English. In this

section, we will examine an academic paper to illustrate how the knowledge of
modality – an important language resource of interpersonal metafunction – is applied in
the analysis of an English literary work in order to explore the effect of using both modal
verb and modal adjunct in the same clause.

The paper that we examine here is written by Li and Tam (2009), entitled ‘The Interaction
of Modal Verbs and Modal Adjuncts in the system of MODALITY in an English Literary Work’.
We mentioned that modality in English is realized by modal verbs and/or modal adjuncts.
We also learnt that English speakers/writers can express their own assessment on modality
by the use of modal verbs such as would, could or by modal adjuncts such as possibly,

Enacting Relationship 257

sometimes. In addition, we pointed out that both modal verbs and modal adjuncts can
occur in the same clause such as Mary should probably come home by now.

In the past, while the co-occurrence of modal verb and modal adjunct in the same
clause was widely observed, few studies had investigated the patterns and the effects of
their coexistence. Based on the phenomenon of modality in an English novel Falling
Leaves written by Adeline Mah, Li and Tam’s paper addresses the issue of co-occurrence
of modal verbs and modal adjuncts to investigate the patterns of this co-occurrence and
its effects on the clause.

Li and Tam (2009) pointed out that the co-occurrence of modal verb and modal adjunct
was by no means random. Their findings indicated that in the novel co-occurrences most
likely occurred in declarative mood, and in case of co-occurrence, the modal adjunct
was most likely to be thematized, i.e. being fronted to the beginning of a clause and
becoming the theme of the clause (a concept we will introduce in Chapter 8).
Furthermore, the sense of modality seemed first to be sought from the modal verb while
the insertion of mood Adjuncts could change its intensity of the modality, i.e. increasing or
diminishing its degree of force.

While we have learnt different types of modality in this chapter, a more comprehensive
and delicate description of MODALITY also includes other language resources such as
‘orientation’ and ‘manifestation’. The former concerns whether the speaker/writer takes a
subjective or objective stance in his/her own assessment, whereas the latter concerns
whether the assessment is explicitly or implicitly stated. Both ‘orientation’ and
‘manifestation’ occur simultaneously in a clause; therefore, there are four possibilities: (1)
subjective: explicit (e.g., I think you’re wasting your time.); (2) subjective: implicit (e.g.,
James will do the right thing.); (3) objective: implicit (e.g., I never went out with H.H.
again.); and (4) objective: explicit (e.g., It’s more likely that the economic miracle of Hong
Kong will take over China after 1997.). Li and Tam (2009) pointed out that while co-
occurrences occurred in all the four combination of ‘orientation’ and ‘manifestation’, the

258 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

combination of subjective and implicit type was the most frequent one in the novel,
followed by the combination of subjective and explicit, of objective and implicit, and of
objective and explicit. However, further research is needed to conclude if these favorite
patterns of combination are genre-specific or idiosyncratic.

Li and Tam (2009) further investigated an issue of modality that we have not discussed in
this chapter. According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 82-84), there are two types of
mood adjunct. Type I is closely related to the realization of modality, including the
subtypes of probability, usuality, typicality and obviousness, while Type II is loosely related,
including the subtypes of opinion, admission, persuasion, entirely, presumption, desirability,
reservation, validity, evaluation, prediction, and others. Based on the data, Li and Tam
pointed out that in general Halliday and Matthiessen were right to classify Type I and Type
II mood adjuncts in terms of their relationship to the realization of modality, even though
the ‘opinion’ subtype of Type II had a relatively high frequency in the clauses with
modality.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we examined the interpersonal metafunction. This metafunction concerns

how we use language to enact relationship with others, including how we use language
to get things done, to interact and keep the conversation going, and to express our
attitude towards the events encoded in a language. We discussed the four speech
functions in English, i.e. statement, question, command, and offer, and their realization, i.e.
mood types – declarative, interrogative, and imperative. We also discussed the notion of
polarity, i.e. positive vs. negative, and the grey area between the two poles, i.e. the notion
of modality – probability, usuality, inclination and obligation. Lastly, we examined an
academic paper that used of the knowledge of interpersonal metafunction to investigate
the issue of co-occurrence of modal verb and modal adjuncts in English. Both ideational
metafunction and interpersonal metafunction concern phenomena that are non-linguistic

Enacting Relationship 259

in nature, the textual metafunction is intrinsic to language. We will explore this
metafunction in Chapter 8.

260 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Enabling Discourse
10
Introduction

In the previous two chapters, we examined the ideational metafunction, which concerns
our experience of the world around us and inside us, and the interpersonal metafunction,
which concerns the interaction between speaker and listener(s) or between writer and
reader(s). While both ideational and interpersonal metafunctions concern phenomena
that are non-linguistic in nature, the textual metafunction is intrinsic to language. In this
chapter, we will explore this third metafunction – how speakers of English arrange the
ideational and interpersonal meanings and construct these meanings into messages. After
a brief introduction of textual metafunction, we will discuss the information and thematic
structures of a message, and the selection of theme type. We will then examine how the
selection of theme affects the flow of information of a text – the thematic progression.
Then, in the final section, we will look at a study that uses this knowledge and applies it to
a real world issue.

Textual metafunction

The textual metafunction focuses on how we create and organize our messages as text in
order to guide our readers/hearers to interpret what we intend to mean. In other words, it
concerns the creation of text/discourse and the flow of information in it through the
assignment of the thematic role and information focus in a clause. In technical terms, this
metafunction orients towards ‘the creation of meaning in the realm semiosis, a second-
order, symbolic reality which is brought into existence by the language itself’ (Li 2007: 159).
In terms of textual meaning, a message can be divided into two parts – Theme and
Rheme – and it embodies two kinds of information – Given and New. That means, each
message simultaneously comprises two structures: thematic structure and information
structure. In English, the Theme of a clause can be identified as the element(s) which
come(s) first in the clause. The rest of the clause is called the Rheme. For example, in the
clause Lieutenant Dubosc performed his part manfully, ‘Lieutenant Dubosc’ is the Theme
while ‘performed his part manfully’ is the Rheme. The Theme of a clause is the departure
point from which the speaker begins a message, and it is the topic upon which the
speaker wants to comment. Each message, on the other hand, embodies known
information (known as ‘Given’) and new information (known as ‘New’). Given refers to the
information which is (presented as) known or information which is obvious in the given
situation, whereas New refers to the information which is (presented as) unknown or the
information which is not obvious in the given situation. In written text, Given often
coincides with Theme and New with Rheme. Furthermore, the information focus of a
message is often placed at the end of a clause.

In the following sections, we will first discuss the thematic structure and then the
information structure of a message.

Thematic structure of a message

A message can be divided into two parts – Theme and Rheme. In English, Theme is
identified by position, i.e. at the beginning of a clause. In fact, not only linguists but many
non-linguist writers of English notice that the arrangement of words in a clause concerns
more than the grammatical correctness of a sentence, and the beginning of a clause is a
very special position in a message. For example, Jean Wyrick (1984: 73) notes that:

[t]he arrangement of words in a sentence can determine which ideas receive

the most emphasis. To stress a word or phrase, place it at the end of the
sentence. The second most emphatic position is the beginning of the

262 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 sentence. Accordingly, a word or phrase receives least emphasis when buried
in the middle of the sentence.

While Wyrick is aware of how the information structure in English is organized, there are a
number of things that haven’t been elaborated upon. For example, Wyrick does not
explicate what the notion ‘emphasis’ really means. From the systemic functional
perspective, the arrangement of words in a sentence is closely associated with the textual
mode of meaning. Now that we have explored the ideational and interpersonal
metafunctions, we can start to bring our understanding of the metafunctions together as
we begin to understand the textual metafunction better. Let’s apply our knowledge and
compare the following two sentences:

(1) Peter murdered his wife yesterday.

(2) Yesterday, Peter murdered his wife.

In terms of the ideational metafunction, both sentences construe the same phenomenon
because both sentences express the same Actor – Peter, who had carried out a material
process – murdered, and this process affected the same Goal – his wife, under the same
Circumstance – yesterday. This shows that the fronting of the adverb yesterday does not
change the ideational meaning in the sentence. In terms of the interpersonal
metafunction, the speech function of both sentences is the same – statement, i.e. giving
of information. Both sentences are also identical in terms of polarity and modality. So what
meaning does the speaker intends to highlight by choosing one or the other of the two
sentences? The answer concerns the textual metafunction. In example (2), the
Circumstance ‘yesterday’ is thematized by being placed at the beginning of the clause.
This means that the speaker wants to emphasize the circumstance (time) at which this
event occurred. In the thematic structure of a message, we say that ‘yesterday’ is the
Theme of the clause while the rest is the Rheme. The thematic position is a very special
position. Let’s examine the following excerpt from George Orwell’s Animal Farm. It shows
how Major – the pig – in the farm persuaded the other animals to rebel against human
being.

Enabling Discourse 263

 Text 10.1

[1.1] ‘Man is the only creature that consumes without producing. [1.2] He does not
give milk, [1.3] he does not lay eggs, [1.4] he is too weak to pull the plough, [1.5] he
cannot run fast enough to catch rabbits. [1.6] Yet he is lord of all animals. [1.7] He sets
them to work, [1.8] he gives back to them the bare minimum that will prevent them
from starving, [1.9] and the rest he keeps for himself. [1.10] Our labour tills the soil, [1.11]
our dung fertilizes it, [1.12] and yet there is no one of us that owns more than his bare
skin. [1.13] You cows that I see before me, how many thousands of gallons of milk have
you given during this last year? [1.14] And what had happened to that milk which
should have been breeding up sturdy calves? [1.15] Every drop of it has gone down
the throats of our enemies. [1.16] And you hens, how many eggs have you laid this
year, and ….

In the excerpt, the starting point of every clause is underlined. Focusing on the underlined
elements alone, we know that the text is about ‘man’, who is the only creature that
consumes without producing [1.1]. Though the word ‘man’ is replaced with the pronoun
‘he’, it remains to be the Theme that is being talked about in [1.2], [1.3] and [1.4]. In [1.6],
apart from ‘he’, the clause begins with the word ‘yet’, indicating something in contrast
with the weaknesses and inability of ‘man’ – it is ‘lore of all animals’, and ‘he’ remains to
be the Theme in [1.7], [1.8] and [1.9]. In [1.9], apart from the meaning of ‘in addition’, the
word ‘and’ in the Theme indicates the end of the list. From [1.10] onward, the Theme turns
from ‘man’ to ‘us’ – ‘our labour’ in [1.10] and ‘our dung’ in [1.11]. Then in [1.12], the word
‘yet’ indicates that despite their contribution, none of them got what they deserved. So
the part of departure turns to the ‘cows’ from [1.13] to [1.15] and to the ‘hens’ from [1.15]
and so on.

In this section, we discussed the thematic structure of a message. In the following section,
we will examine the information structure – Given and New – of a message.

264 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Information Structure of a message
Information conveyed in a message can be differentiated into ‘Given’ and ‘New’. Given
information is ‘the old stuff: what is presented as being already known to the listener’,
whereas new information is ‘what the listener is being invited to attend to as new, or
unexpected, or important’ (Halliday 1994: 59). In general, a message begins with given
information, which is followed by new information. The unmarked information structure of
a message is thus a given – new structure. The thematic and information structures of a
message can be depicted in the following figure.

Given New
He has brought money to give to your tribe.
Theme Rheme
Figure 10.1: Thematic structure and information structure of a clause

The above figure shows a very natural structure for a message in English because the
Theme is the departure point from which the speaker begins a message, and it is the topic
upon which the speaker wants to comment. It is natural for the speaker to comment on a
topic that is common knowledge to both the speaker and the listener, or else the speaker
has to introduce the topic first. Once the topic is introduced, it becomes given
information. This is what we expect at the beginning of a fairly tale such as Once upon a
time, there was a beautiful princess in the forest. The princess … To continue the story, the
speaker has to provide some new information – information upon which the listener is
invited to attend to. As a matter of fact, this is also the typical beginning of a narrative.
Let’s examine a short excerpt from Agatha Christie’s Murder on the Orient Express.

Text 10.2

Enabling Discourse 265

 [2.1] It was five o'clock on a winter's morning in Syria. [2.2] Alongside the platform at
Aleppo stood the train grandly designated in railway guides as the Taurus Express. [2.3]
It consisted of a kitchen and dining-car, a sleeping-car and two local coaches.

[2.4] By the step leading up into the sleeping-car stood a young French lieutenant,
resplendent in uniform, conversing with a small lean man, muffled up to the cars, of
whom nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two points of an upward
curled moustache.

[2.5] It was freezingly cold, and this job of seeing off a distinguished stranger was not
one to be envied, but Lieutenant Dubosc performed his part manfully. [2.6] Graceful
phrases fell from his lips in polished French…

The above text is excerpted from the first three paragraphs of Agatha Christie’s Murder on
the Orient Express. It sets the introductory scene of the novel – five o’clock on a winter’s
morning in Syria in [2.1]. This is presented as new information. Then once Syria is mentioned,
the platform at Aleppo in [2.2] is no longer new information if one has enough
geographical knowledge of Syria, but the train – the Taurus Express – is new information.
Then in [2.3], the train expressed by the third person pronoun it becomes given
information, whereas a sleeping-car is treated as new information. Again, the sleeping-car
is presented as given information in [2.4] while a young French lieutenant is new
information, who in turns is treated as given information in [2.5] whereas the description of
his performance as manfully is new information. A manful performance of seeing
somebody off includes graceful phrases, which is taken as given information in [2.6] and
so on.

This unmarked structure, i.e. Given ^ New, is most obvious in a dialogue with questions and
answers. Let’s illustrate with the following examples of exchange extracted from Paulo
Coelho’s The Alchemist:

266 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 [3.1]: “What is an alchemist?”
[3.2]: “It’s a man who understands nature and the world.”

[4.1]: “What is love?”

[4.2]: “Love is the falcon’s fight over your sands.”

In each question, the information being sought is being placed at the end of each
question: ‘an alchemist’ in [3.1] and ‘love’ in [4.1]. Both of them are not only new
information, but also the information being sought. In the answers, however, both ‘an
alchemist’ and ‘love’ are no longer new but given information. Both are fronted to the
beginning of the clause and become the topical Theme of it. They are thematized
because they become the topic upon which the speaker is going to comment. The new
information, i.e. ‘a man who understands nature and the world’ in [3.2] and ‘the falcon’s
fight over your sands’ in [4.2], are placed after the given information.

Among the new information of a message, there is an information focus. In spoken English,
the information focus is indicated by the pitch. In written English, the unmarked position of
information focus is towards the end of the clause. For example:

[5.1]: “What is a foreigner doing here?”

[5.2]: “He has brought money to give to your tribe.”

In [5.1], the new information, i.e. ‘a foreigner doing here’, comprises more than one
component. Among these components, the information focus is ‘doing here’. In the
answer, ‘a foreigner’ becomes the given information of the message and also the topical
Theme of the clause, whereas the information being sought ‘doing here’ is provided as
‘brought money to give to your tribe’.

Enabling Discourse 267

In this section, we examined the thematic and information structures of a message. In the
following section, we will look at Theme in more detail.

Types of Theme

Earlier in this chapter, we mentioned that the textual metafunction concerns how we
create and organise our messages as text in order to guide our readers/hearers to
interpret what we intend to mean. We achieve this through the selection of Theme. In
English, Theme is identified by position, i.e. at the beginning of a clause. The Theme of a
clause includes all the elements from the beginning of a clause to the first element that
has a function in ideational metafunction, i.e. a Participant, the Process or a
Circumstance. Let us illustrate with the following examples.

[6] Last year, Stephen worked for the Department of Transport.

Theme Rheme

[7] Perhaps, Peter is late again.

Theme Rheme

[8] Meanwhile, bake the apple till soft.

Theme Rheme

In [6], ‘Last year’ functions as the Circumstance in ideational metafunction. It is thus the
Theme of the clause. In [7], ‘Perhaps’ is an interpersonal Adjunct and does not carry any
ideational function; whereas, ‘Peter’ is the first element that has an ideational function –
the Participant. The Theme of the clause thus includes both ‘Perhaps’ and ‘Peter’. In [8],
‘Meanwhile’ is a textual conjunctive, whereas ‘bake’ functions as the Process in ideational
metafunction. The Theme of the clause thus includes both ‘Meanwhile’ and ‘bake’.

268 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

From these three examples, we notice that each of the three modes of meaning may
contribute thematic elements; for example, ‘Last year’, ‘Peter’ and ‘bake’ from the
ideational, ‘Perhaps’ from the interpersonal, and ‘Meanwhile’ from the textual mode of
meaning. When there are more than one thematic element, the typical sequence is
textual thematic element ^ interpersonal thematic element ^ ideational thematic
element in English. These three types of themes are known as textual Theme, interpersonal
Theme and ideational (also known as topical) Theme respectively. We will examine these
three types of themes in more detail below.

Textual Theme
Textual Themes provide a linking function, usually with the preceding clause but
sometimes with the following one. These can be further classified as continuative, wh-
(relative), (structural) conjunction and conjunctive. We will discuss each subtype
separately in the following paragraphs. All examples in this section are extracted from
Agatha’s Murder on the Orient Express and the element under discussion is bold while the
Theme in the clause is underlined.

Continuatives indicate the continuity with previous discourse typically in dialogue, showing
the speaker is ready to make their contribution or intends to continue their contribution in
the dialogue, e.g., Well, you know, breakfast isn’t always a chatty meal. In this example,
‘Well’ and ‘you know’ are textual Themes. Both of them do not embody any content
meaning but they indicate that the speaker will start to take up the floor in the
conversation.

Wh- (relatives) elements indicate the structural relationship between the connected
clauses, and they have a dual function as being Subject, Adjunct, or Complement and
marking some form of dependence such as I go as far as Lausanne, where I have affairs.
In this example, ‘I go as far as Lausanne’ is the main clause in which ‘I’ is the topical
Theme. We will discuss topical Theme in detail later. Here, we focus on the dependent
clause in which ‘where’ is the textual Theme. It serves to indicate the relation between the

Enabling Discourse 269

main clause ‘I go as far as Lausanne’ and the relative clause ‘where I have affairs’, in
which ‘where’ is a structurally essential element. Interpersonally, ‘where’ functions as an
Adjunct while ‘I’ and ‘affairs’ function as Subject and Complement respectively.

Structural conjunctions indicate the logico-semantic relationship between the

consecutive clauses in a clause complex, e.g., “When he passed me in the restaurant,” he
said at last, “I had a curious impression”. In this example, ‘When’ is the textual Theme of
the dependent clause which qualifies the main clause with some circumstantial feature of
time. It is noted that ‘when’ is a structurally essential element, and it marks the dependent
clause. Structural conjunction, on the other hand, can also link two clauses in a
coordinating relation, e.g., She turned away from him and went down the corridor to join
colonel Arbuthnot. In this example, ‘and’ is the textual Theme of the second clause in
which the ideational Theme ‘she’ is omitted. The textual Theme ‘and’ here indicates that
the following coordinating clause expands the previous one by adding new information.

Conjunctives, like structural conjunctions, also provide a cohesive link to the previous
clause. Conjunctives, however, are not essential elements in the clause and they do not
mark the clause as a dependent one, e.g., He shot a slightly annoyed glance in Poirot’s
direction. Then he went on: ‘But I don’t like the idea of your being a governess – at the
beck and call of tyrannical mothers and their tiresome brats.’ In the example, ‘Then’ is a
textual Theme. It links the clause with the previous one by indicating the temporal
relationship between the two clauses. However, unlike a structural conjunction, ‘Then’
here is not an essential element in the clause, meaning that the clause is grammatically
acceptable without it.

Before we discuss the interpersonal Theme, we want to point out that ‘yes’ and ‘no’ are
considered textual Themes when they serve a continuative function, and interpersonal
Themes when they initiate responses to a yes/no question as shown in the following
examples:

270 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 A: ‘Will there still be sugar after the Rebellion?’
B: ‘No, we have no means of making sugar on this farm.’ (interpersonal Theme)

The animals rushed to the top of it and gazed round them in the clear morning light.
Yes, it was theirs – everything that they could see was theirs! (textual Theme)

In the first example, ‘No’ is analyzed as an interpersonal Theme because it initiates a

response to the previous yes/no question; whereas in the second example, ‘Yes’ is
considered a textual Theme because it serves a continuative function.

Activity 10.1

Identify the textual theme(s) and its subtypes of all the main clauses, dependent
clauses and coordinate clauses in the following text.

(1) Predictably, the jeeps carrying the wood up to Korphe were halted by
another landslide that cut the track, eighteen miles shy of their destination.
(2) “The next morning, while Parvi and I were discussion what to do, we saw
this great big dust cloud coming down the valley,” Mortenson says. (3) “Haji
Ali somehow heard about our problem, and the men of Korphe had walked
all night. (4) They arrived clapping and singing and in incredible spirits for
people who hadn’t slept. (5) And then the most amazing thing of all
happened. (6) Sher Takhi had come with them and he insisted on carrying
the first load.
(Extracted from Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin, 2006. Three Cups of Tea,
New York: Penguin Books. p. 151)

Interpersonal Theme

Enabling Discourse 271

Interpersonal Themes include vocative, modal adjunct, interrogative, polarity and
exclamatory. Vocatives identify the addressee in an exchange, e.g., Dr Constantine – I
forgot, I have not introduced you – Dr Constantine, M. Poirot. In this example, ‘Dr.
Constantine’ is the interpersonal Theme of the clause. It serves to identify the addressee in
the conversation.

Modal Adjuncts specify the speaker’s attitude, i.e. comment and assessment towards the
proposition expressed in the clause as shown in the following example. In this example,
‘Certainly’ is an interpersonal Theme, and it serves to specify the degree of probability that
the speaker Dr. Constantine has on his agreement.

A: ‘You agree, Doctor?’

B: ‘Certainly I agree’, said Dr Constantine.

Interrogatives signal that an answer is required, e.g., Why did she do it? In this example,
‘Why’ serves as an interpersonal Theme of the clause, indicating that information is sought
from the addressee. Apart from wh- elements, auxiliary verbs, which serve as the Finite in
the interpersonal metafunction, also signal that an answer is sought from the addressee,
e.g., Isn’t that rather a pity?

Polarity elements, e.g., ‘yes’ and ‘no’, respond either to polar interrogatives or to
contradict an interactant in an exchange as shown in the following example.

A: ‘There is a conference somewhere? It is a party?’

B: ‘No, Monsieur. It is only chance.’

In this example, ‘No’ is an interpersonal Theme in the clause. It initiates a response to the
previous yes/no interrogative.

Exclamatory indicates the speaker’s emotion as shown in the following example.

272 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 A: ‘Ah! And you return home — when?’
B: ‘Tonight.’
A: ‘Splendid ! Me too.’

In this example, the exclamatory ‘Splendid!’ is an interpersonal Theme of the clause and it
indicates the speaker’s emotion.

Before we discuss the ideational topical Theme, we want to point out that while adverbs
of frequency are considered interpersonal themes because they are considered modal
Adjuncts of usuality, adverbs of time are considered topical themes because they are
elements with a function of transitivity. For example:

(1) Usually my dad drives me to school. (interpersonal Theme)

(2) This morning my dad drove me to school. (marked topical Theme)

In these examples, ‘Usually’ is an adverb of frequency, and is considered a modal Adjunct

of usuality. It is thus analyzed as an interpersonal Theme. In contrast, ‘This morning’ is an
adverb of time, and is considered a Circumstance in the ideational metafunction. It is thus
analyzed as a topical Theme. We will further come back to this in the following section.

Topical Theme
Topical Theme is the element in the Theme that has a transitivity role. A topical Theme can
conflate with any Participant, Circumstance, or Process in the ideational metafunction.
This forms the primary contrast between ‘unmarked’ and ‘marked’ topical Theme.
Unmarked Theme is the default case in English – a speaker will choose this element as the
point of department of a clause unless s/he has any specific reason not to do so.
Generally speaking, the unmarked topical Theme is determined by the choice of mood in
English, i.e. conflated with the Subject in declarative, wh- or finite element plus the Subject
in interrogative and [zero] in imperative. For example:

Enabling Discourse 273

 Mood types Examples
declarative His voice was slightly husky in tone.
interrogative What is it?
Imperative ‘Pay the bill, Hector,’ he said.
Table 10.2: Mood Types and Topical Themes

In the examples above, the wh- word ‘What’ in wh- interrogative ‘What is it?’ is considered
the unmarked topical Theme of the clause because it indicates the information being
sought. This can apply to all wh- interrogatives. However, for a yes/no interrogative, which
begins with an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb is considered the interpersonal Theme of
the clause as shown in the following examples.

(1) Can you oblige me with a light? (interpersonal Theme)

(2) Will twenty thousand dollars tempt you? (marked topical Theme)
(3) Is it a party?

Note also that while the anticipatory it is not considered topical Theme, the word there in
existential clauses are as shown in the following examples:

(1) It is my dad who drove me to school this morning. (marked topical Theme – Theme
predication)
(2) There was a snake in my front yard. (unmarked topical Theme)

In the first example, ‘It’ is not analyzed as topical Theme, it functions as a linguistic pointer,
pointing to the topical Theme ‘my dad’. In the unmarked case, the clause can be
rewritten as ‘My dad drove me to school this morning’, in which ‘My dad’ is analyzed as
an unmarked topical Theme. In contrast, ‘There’ in the second example is considered the
unmarked topical Theme of the clause. It is the unmarked point of departure of an
existential clause in English.

274 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Marked Themes include circumstance, non-subject participant, process, and absolute
Theme. In addition, there are Theme predication and Theme identification. Theme
identification is realized by the nominalization of the Theme while Theme predication by
the cleft-structure.

The Circumstance of a clause can be fronted to the beginning of a declarative clause,

e.g., At the next table, a small one, sat Colonel Arbuthnot – alone. In this example, the
Circumstance is said to be thematized because it is the marked topical Theme of the
clause.

Similarly, non-subject participants can also be thematized, e.g., Peter, I do respect but
David, his brother, I despise. In this example, ‘Peter’ and ‘David’ are the Complements of
the two clauses. But both of them are fronted to take up the thematic position and
become marked topical Themes.

The Process of a clause, though very rarely, can also be thematized, e.g., Murmured
Poirot, ‘Husband and wife — eh?’ In this example, ‘Murmured’ is the marked topical
Theme of the clause.

Apart from these three ideational elements, there are other strategies in English that serve
as a pointer to highlight the topical Theme of a clause. These strategies include absolute
Theme, Theme predication, and Theme identification.

Absolute Theme serves no role in the ideational and interpersonal metafunctions. It is

specified as the textual ‘subject matter’ and is related to the rest of the clause by lexical
cohesion. For example, La Sainte Sophic, it is very fine,’ said Lieutenant Dubose, who had
never seen it. In this example, ‘La Sainte Sophie’ is the Theme of the clause ‘La Sainte
Sophic, it is very fine’. However, it does not serve any role in the clause as shown in the
following analysis. Furthermore, ‘La Sainte Sophie’ in fact refers to the Participant ‘it’ in the
clause.

Enabling Discourse 275

La Sainte Sophie it is very fine
Participant Process Participant
Subject Predicator Complement
Theme Rheme

Theme predication is a structural resource to identify the topical Theme of a clause, e.g., It
is Stainboul I have never visited. This is known as a ‘cleft sentence’ in formal grammar. In
this example, ‘Stainboul’ has a ideational function. It is marked off by predication to be
the topical Theme.

Theme identification (also known as identified Theme or thematic bracketing) sets off a
particular portion of the clause as thematic, e.g., Enemy or enemies — it doesn't matter.
What does matter is my safety. In this example, ‘What does matter’ is the Theme of the
clause. An identified Theme, unlike other topical Theme, is realized by a clause instead of
a nominal phrase or a noun.

Note that while temporal conjunctions are considered textual themes, temporal
circumstance are considered marked topical theme. For example:

(1) At last, she agreed to sing the new anthem. (textual Theme)
(2) Tomorrow she will sing the new anthem for us. (marked topical Theme)

Activity 10.2

Identify the topical theme and its subtypes of all the main clauses, dependent clauses
and coordinate clauses in the following text.

(1) A strong leader with a good grasp of domestic and foreign policy issues is
the ideal. (2) The vice-president should be similarly equipped to deal with such

276 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 matters as an adviser and when required, to step into the president's shoes.
Unfortunately, (3) this is not necessarily the case; (4) as the present campaign
shows, (5) electability can take precedence. (6) This was why the ruling
Republican Party's presidential nominee, John McCain, chose Alaska's governor
for the past two years, Sarah Palin, as his running mate. (7) Through her, he seeks
to attract voters (8) he would not ordinarily appeal to: women, those in more
youthful age brackets and people on the conservative side of his party. (10) For
those qualities he has foregone high-level experience in government and a firm
understanding of foreign policy.
(Extracted from The South China Morning Post, 15 September 2008)

Activity 10.3

Identify and name the theme(s) and its subtypes of the main clauses and coordinate
clauses in the following text. Do not analyze the dependent clauses.

[1] Liberal imperialists have resisted explicitly racist arguments for domination,
instead justifying empire as a humane venture delivering progress. [2] Even
so, implicit in such a stance was the belief that other peoples were inferior.
[3] Just as John Stuart Mill contended that despotism was a ‘legitimate mode
of government in dealing with the barbarians’ provided ‘the end be their
improvement’, so the Fabians contended that self-government for ‘native
races’ was ‘as useless to them as a dynamo to a Caribbean’. [4] Intellectuals
of the Second International such as Eduard Bernstein regarded the
colonized as incapable of self-government. [5] For many liberals and
socialists of this era, the only disagreement was over whether the natives
could attain the disciplined state necessary to run their own affairs. [6]
Indigenous resistance, moreover, was interpreted as ‘native fanaticism’, to
be overcome with European tuition.
(Extracted from The Guardian, 27 January 2009)

Enabling Discourse 277

Thematic Progression

The choice of theme in the clauses of a text is by no means random. It usually, but not
always, conflates with given information. Furthermore, it is an important choice because
the selection of theme affects the information flow of a text, which in turns is closely
related to its social purpose. Let’s illustrate this point with Text 8.2 again. In this analysis, we
focus on where the content of the theme of each clause derives from. Note that Theme 5
and Theme 6 are missing in the text but the information can be recovered in the text. The
thematic selection in the text can be depicted in Figure 10.2.

It (T1) was five o'clock on a winter's morning in Syria (R1). Alongside the platform at
Aleppo (T2) stood the train grandly designated in railway guides as the Taurus Express
(R2). It (T3) consisted of a kitchen and dining-car, a sleeping-car and two local
coaches (R3).

By the step leading up into the sleeping-car (T4) stood a young French lieutenant,
resplendent in uniform (R4), (T5) conversing with a small lean man (R5), (T6) muffled up
to the cars (R6), of whom (T7) nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two
points of an upward curled moustache (R7).

T1 R1

T2 R2

T3 R3

T4 R4

T5 R5

T6 R6

T7 R7

Figure 10.2: Thematic selection of Text 8.2

278 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The selection of theme clause by clause in a text forms a particular pattern, which serves
a specific social function. Thematic progression is a notion that is concerned with where
themes in a text come from, i.e. how the theme of a clause relates to the previous
theme(s) or rheme(s) in the text. In this way, thematic progression reflects how the
information flows in a text. Fries (1983) identifies three major patterns of thematic
progression: linear thematic progression, theme iteration, and progression with derived
themes.

Linear thematic progression occurs when the information presented in the theme of a
second clause comes from the rheme of the previous clause, i.e. Rheme 1  Theme 2. For
example: I (T1) like Peter (R1). He (T2) is a diligent student (R2).

T1 R1

T2 (=R1) R2
Figure 10.3: Linear thematic progression

Theme iteration, on the other hand, exists when the same theme enters into a relation with
the Theme of the following clause, i.e. Theme 1  Theme 2. For example, Susan (T1) is a
little girl (R1). She (T2) lives next to my house (R2), and she (T3) climbs into my room through
the window every morning (R3).

T1 R1

T2 R2

T3 (=T2) R3
Figure 10.4: Theme iteration

Enabling Discourse 279

Finally, progression with derived themes refers to a pattern in which the themes of more
than one clause are derived from a general notion though they are not identical with
each other. For example, Shatin (T1) is a place worth visiting (R1). The Hong Kong Cultural
museum near its centre (T2) exhibits the history of Hong Kong from different perspectives
(R2). The Snoopy World above the train station (T3) is the largest of its kind in Asia (R3).

[T]

T1 R1

T2 R2

T3 R3
Figure 10.5: Progression with derived themes

In this section, we agreed that the theme in the clauses of a text is not chosen at random.
We discussed the three major patterns of thematic progression: linear thematic
progression, theme iteration, and progression with derived themes. It should be noted that
apart from these three major patterns, there are some minor patterns of thematic
progression at work. For example, Li (2007) identified two minor patterns known as
progression from combined themes and progression from an entire T-R structure. However,
these minor patterns do not dominate the choice of theme in a text as the three major
patterns examined in this section.

Application

In the previous sections, we examined the textual metafunction. In this section, we will
examine an academic paper to illustrate how the knowledge of textual metafunction is
applied in the analysis of world Englishes. The paper that we examine here is written by Li

280 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(2010), entitled ‘Hong Kong English! China English! or Chinese English as One of the World
Englishes!’. The paper reports the findings of a research into the characteristics of
language used in the English literary works written by Chinese.

In the introductory section, Li spelt out the background of his research: first, a large
number of English literary works written by Chinese had reached a new level of full
acceptability in the last three decades, supported by the evidence that an increasing
number of published English literary works written by Chinese writers in Mainland China,
Hong Kong and overseas. Second, with the rising of China both economically and
politically on the world platform, it was a matter of time before Chinese English would
become one of the World Englishes, with its own particular language features. On the
other hand, Li pointed out that the previous studies of Chinese English were predominantly
interested in the ‘non-standard’ pronunciation, the adoptions of vocabulary in Chinese
sources, and the ‘ungrammatical’ or ‘pidgin-like quality’ of syntactic structure. Li (2010)
thus investigates the language features revealed in the English literary publications written
by Chinese authors. Adopting the Systemic Functional Linguistics as its theoretical
framework, Li’s paper compares the choices of theme and modality in English literary
works written by two Chinese authors from Hong Kong and Mainland, and a British author,
in order to highlight the particular features in the Chinese English. Here we will only discuss
the findings concerning the textual metafunction.

Li (2010) pointed out that while the two Chinese authors preferred to indicate the logico-
semantic relation between the clauses within the sentence, the British author preferred to
make the linking function explicit in terms of continuative, wh-word in relative clauses, and
conjunctive between sentences. This was shown by the data that first, in general the British
author employed more textual themes than the Chinese authors; and second, the British
author employed more continuatives, wh-relative and conjunctive themes but fewer
structural conjunction themes than the Chinese authors.

Enabling Discourse 281

Li also mentioned that in comparison with the English author, the Chinese authors were less
likely to thematize their personal assessment in the text. Furthermore, they preferred less
dialogic texts than English authors did. As a result, the Chinese authors employed less
interpersonal themes, especially vocative, modal adjunct, interrogative, and polarity.

With reference to the selection of topical themes, Li focuses on the marked theme
because unmarked theme is the default case in English. In general, the two Chinese
authors preferred significantly less marked themes than the English author did. Li further
found that the two Chinese authors preferred more circumstantial theme, complement
theme and theme identification but less absolute theme, process theme and theme
predication than that of the English author. Based on the findings, Li discussed the
possibility of ‘hypercorrection’ and ‘L1 preference’ as feature of ‘Chinese English’. Li’s
work, unlike the previous studies of ‘Chinese English’ which identified and described
‘errors’ in the English produced by Chinese English learners, intended to describe the
language features of the English produced by educated Chinese authors from the
systemic functional perspective.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we examined the textual metafunction in some detail. The textual
metafunction relates to how speakers/writers arrange the ideational and interpersonal
meanings and structure these meanings into messages. In general, a message comprises
of two structures: thematic structure, i.e. Theme and Rheme, and information structure, i.e.
Given and New. The Theme of a clause may comprise of more than one element, and
these elements can be categorized into textual Theme, interpersonal Theme and topical
Theme. Topical Theme can be further classified into unmarked and marked. Unmarked
Theme is element that a speaker will choose as the point of department of a clause unless
s/he has any specific reason not to do so. We pointed out that thematic selection is a very
important strategy for the development of discourse or text. There are three major types of

282 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

thematic progression: linear thematic progression, theme iteration, and progression with
derived themes. We mentioned that from the formal (or traditional) perspective, the
ultimate boundary of the description of grammar is sentence or complex sentence. From
the functional perspective, the selection of Theme and the thematic progression push the
description of grammar beyond the sentential level into the level of discourse and text. In
Chapter 11, we will discuss another language resource that concerns textual continuity in
discourse and text.

Enabling Discourse 283

Textual Continuity
11
Introduction

In Chapters 8, 9, and 10, we laid out some of the fundamentals of functional grammar. In
doing so, we focused on the grammar of English in terms of three metafunctions –
ideational, interpersonal, and textual. We mentioned that while both ideational
metafunction and interpersonal metafunction concern phenomena that are non-linguistic
in nature, the textual metafunction is intrinsic to language. This third metafunction
concerns how speakers arrange the ideational and interpersonal meanings and structure
these meanings into messages. We discussed the thematic structure and information
structure of a message in Chapter 10. We then focused on Theme because it is an
important strategy for the development of discourse or text. We also examined three
major types of thematic progression of a text: By doing this, the description of grammar
has been pushed beyond the level of sentence (Chapter 4) into the level of discourse and
text. In this chapter, we will continue building our understanding of a text-based grammar.
We will focus on grammatical resources in English which link the information in the different
clauses of a text, and as a result, build the textual continuity of a text. In order to do this,
we will first discuss the notions of ‘cohesion’, ‘coherence’, and ‘text’. We will then examine
the grammatical resource, known as cohesive devices, which contributes to the textual
continuity of a text. These cohesive devices include reference, substitution and ellipsis,
conjunction, and lexical cohesion.
Text, coherence, and cohesion

In Chapter 8, we learnt that language is a tristratal construct – i.e., it can be understood at

three levels: meaning, wording and sound/writing. The relation between any two
adjacent strata is one of realization; meaning is realised as wording which, in turn, is
realised as sounding/writing. In this way language is perceived as a multiple coding
system. Above the semantics stratum, there is the stratum of context. This refers to the
context of culture and the context of situation. This stratum is beyond the domain of
language. From a systemic functional perspective, a text is a unit of meaning at the
semantics stratum. Being a semantic unit, a text usually, but not necessarily, comprises a
number of messages; and it is defined as ‘any message, spoken or written of whatever
length, that does form a unified whole’ (Halliday & Hasan, 1976:1). In other words, a text
consists of a single phrase, one or more than one clause and forms a unified whole. To
achieve this sense of unity, a text must be coherent. In understanding the notion of
‘coherence’, we adopt Halliday & Hasan’s point of view that there are two types of
coherence: first, a text can be coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive; and
second, a text can be coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore
consistent in register/text type. In this chapter, we will examine the first type of coherence,
i.e. cohesion, and leave the discussion of the second type of coherence, i.e. context of
situation to Chapter 12.

According to Bell (1991), cohesion is a standard feature of textuality, which holds the
clauses together by creating sequences of meanings and projects a sense of unity. It
‘consists of the mutual connection of components of surface text within a sequence of
clauses/sentences; the process being signaled by lexico-syntactic means’ (165). Cohesion
therefore addresses the question: ‘How do the clauses hold together?’ Baker (1992: 218)
also takes a similar stance by defining cohesion as ‘the network of surface relations which
link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text’. Similarly, Blum-Kulka
(1986:17) defines cohesion as ‘an overt relationship which holds between parts of the text,

Textual Continuity 285

expressed by language specific markers.’ The network of ‘surface relations’ or ‘overt
relations’ are achieved through various cohesive devices in English.

Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify five different types of cohesive device: reference,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. These devises were later
recategorised and reduced to four categories, with substitution being seen as a sub-
category of ellipsis (Halliday 1985). Each category of cohesion is sub-divided into several
subcategories as shown in Figure 11.1. Below we will look at each of the categories in
more detail.

personal
reference demonstrative
comparative

nominal
substitution & ellipsis verbal
clausal
cohesion
adversative
conjunction additive
temporal
causal

reiteration
lexical cohesion Personal
collocation

Figure 11.1: Cohesive Devices in English

Reference

The notion of ‘reference’ has been employed to convey different senses. According to
Boxwell (1990:29), views of reference fall into two groups: the logical-semantic or
philosophical view and the structuralist view. The logical-semantic tradition can be
represented by Lyons who defines reference as ‘the relation that holds between

286 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

expressions of a language and observable entities (objects or properties of objects)
outside the language’ (Lyons 1966:293). With respect to the nature of the referent, some
take a broader point of view. For instance, Strawson (1950) extends the range of referent
to include an event, a place, or even a process. The structuralist tradition, on the other
hand, takes a broader view on the concept of reference deriving from Saussure’s notion
of significance and value. Saussure suggests that every sign of a language, including
abstract terms such as ‘loyalty’ or prepositions like ‘in’, refers to a particular thing, event,
process, stage or characteristic. This second view of reference has been adopted by
linguists of the structural and functional schools.

Halliday and Hasan (1976) take the structuralist and functionalist stance that every
linguistic sign can refer. But, they also adopt Firth’s stance that meaning is strongly
associated with the context of situation. In the heart of their notion of reference is the
essential property of reference items: ‘instead of being interpreted semantically in their
own right they make reference to something else for their interpretation’ (Halliday & Hasan
1976:31). They suggest that the source of reference can either lie outside the language
(i.e. in the context of situation or culture) or be embedded inside the text (i.e. in the co-
text). The identification of a reference item, therefore, can be retrieved in two ways:
explicitly from within the text (known as endophoric reference or endophora) or with
reference to the situation (known as exophoric reference or exophora). When an
endophora is referred backward in the text to some previous item for its interpretation, it is
known as anaphora. On the other hand, when it is referred forward in the text for its
interpretation, it is known as cataphora. This is depicted in Figure 9.2. Halliday and Hasan
(1976) point out that only endophoric reference is cohesive. This is because reference
refers to the relation in which one item in a text relies on something else for its
interpretation. When this ‘something else’ is another item in the same text, the
dependence of one item on the other constitutes the cohesive relation between the two.
Halliday and Hasan (1976:3) call this relation a ‘tie’. In this regard, exophoric reference
cannot constitute the cohesive relation since it relies on factors from the situation for its
interpretation, but not from another item within the text.

Textual Continuity 287

 cataphora [to following text]
endophora [texual]
anaphora [to preceding text]
reference

exophora [situation]

Figure 11.2: Sources of reference (Halliday and Hasan 1976:33)

Being a type of cohesive device, reference is further divided into three sub-categories:
personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. We will
examine them separately below.

Personal Reference
Personal references ‘refer to something by specifying its function or role in the speech
situation’ (Halliday and Hasan 1976:44). They take the forms of personal pronoun,
possessive determiner and possessive pronoun as shown (underlined) in the following
dialogue.

Dialogue 11.1

[1.1] A: Hey. Do you know that Peter will come to Sydney?

[1.2] B: You mean the Peter we write, Jose?
[1.3] A: Yes, from the States. In his letter, he said that he’s arriving at 6 am. In the
morning. He asked us to show him around the city.
[1.4]B: I’ve got mine too. He said he’d stay in a hotel at Hyde Park. He’ll be
leaving for Melbourne at 10 am on Sunday.

In the dialogue, the personal pronouns include ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘him’, ‘we’ and ‘us’; the
possessive determiner includes ‘his’; and the possessive pronoun includes ‘mine’. Personal
references function as ‘head determinative’, ‘deictic possessive’ and ‘head possessive’
respectively. For example, in the dialogue above, the personal pronouns ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’,

288 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

‘him’, ‘we’ and ‘us’ function as ‘head determinative’; the possessive determiner ‘his’ as
‘deictic possessive’; and the possessive pronoun ‘mine’ as ‘head possessive’.

Personal references can be categorized in terms of the roles in the communication

process, i.e. the roles of the speaker and addressee (speech roles) as opposed to all
relevant entities other than the speaker and addressee (other roles). Let’s illustrate how this
works in the dialogue presented above.

The second personal pronoun ‘you’ in [1.1] refers to speaker B while the one in [1.2] refers
to speaker A. It therefore does not have a fixed referent but rather refers to whoever the
addressee is in the communication. In other words, the second personal pronoun refers to
a particular speech role – the addressee – in a communication. Similarly, the first personal
pronoun ‘I’ in [1.4] refers to the speaker instead of a particular person. In contrast, the third
personal pronoun ‘he’ in both [1.3] and [1.4] refers to the same person, Peter, who is first
mentioned in [1.1] and confirmed in [1.2]. The roles and functions of personal references
are tabulated in Table 11.3.

Function Head Head Deictic

Role Determinative Possessive Possessive
speech roles listener(s) you yours your
speaker singular I/me mine my
plus other(s) we/us ours our
other roles singular masculine he/him his his
feminine she/her hers her
neuter it [its] its
plural they/them theirs their
generalized one --- ---
Table 11.3: Personal reference in English

Textual Continuity 289

Note that the classification of first and second personal pronouns normally refer to the
speaker and listener in the speech roles instead of some mentioned body in a spoken
discourse. They are, therefore, interpreted exophorically. As a result, they are not
considered as cohesive (Halliday & Hasan 1976:48). However, as far as written text is
concerned, they are anaphoric or cataphoric when they occur in direct speech. In other
words, readers have to look in the text to find out the referents of the speaker and listener
in the dialogue.

Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is ‘a form of verbal pointing’, with the speaker identifying the
referent by locating it on the scale of proximity (Halliday and Hasan 1976:57).
Demonstrative references function by means of heads (i.e. this, these, that, those and it),
determiners (i.e. this/that book, these/those books, and the book), and adverbs (i.e. here,
there, now and then). They are tabulated in Table 11.4.

Function Head Deictic Adjunct

Class
Specific Near this this here
these these now
Specific Remote that that there
those those then
Non-specific the
Table 11.4: Demonstrative reference in English (Halliday & Hasan 1994:313)

There are three types of demonstrative reference: circumstantial, selective nominal and
non-specific.

Circumstantial demonstratives refer to the location of a process in space or time. It can,

therefore, be subdivided into spatial demonstratives – here and there – and temporal
demonstrative – now and then. In general, while ‘here’ and ‘now’ imply proximity to the

290 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

speaker, ‘there’ and ‘then’ imply a remote distance from the speaker. Let’s illustrate with
the following dialogue:

Dialogue 11.2

[2.1] A: Okay Okay. I can see that we have a bit of disagreement here. And there is
no point in arguing.
[2.2] B: I’ve got an idea, okay, the places to visit. First we get to Manly that will take a
whole hour of drive. I see if I can find a car to drive up there.
[2.3] A: I don’t think we can do anything now. Let’s wait and see what Peter think
about it.
[2.4] B: Okay. See you on Friday then.

In the dialogue, there are two circumstantial references that refer to the location in
space. First, the adjunct ‘here’ in [2.1] refers to a specific issue which is regarded as ‘near’
on the scale of proximity because the issue refers to the places to visit that they are yet to
agree with each other. Second, the adjunct ‘there’ in [2.2] refers to ‘Manly’ which is far
from where they are. It is thus regarded as ‘remote’ on the scale. On the other hand,
there are two circumstantial references that refer to the location in time. First, the adjunct
‘now’ in [2.3] refers to that particular point of conversation and is thus regarded as ‘near’.
And second, the adjunct ‘then’ refers to Friday which is considered ‘remote’ on the scale.

In analysis, it is necessary to distinguish: (1) spatial demonstrative ‘there’ from pronoun

‘there’ as in There is a mouse in the kitchen; (2) temporal demonstrative ‘now’ from the
conjunction ‘now’ as in Now what are we going to do about the presentation; and (3)
temporal demonstrative ‘then’ from the conjunction ‘then’ as in He dropped on the bed
and then fell asleep.

Selective nominal demonstratives refer to the location of entities taking part in the
process, including this, that, these and those. They differ from each other in three respects:

Textual Continuity 291

First, their functions as head or as deictic; second, their proximity from the speaker as near
(this, these) or as remote (that, those); and third, their quantity as singular (this, that) or as
plural (these, those).

Selective nominal demonstratives take the same forms whether they function as deictic
(modifier or demonstrative adjective) or as head (demonstrative pronoun). Functioning as
deictic, they may refer to any class of noun; however, functioning as head, they can refer
to any non-human as in [1] but not human referent as in [2].

[1] That is good. (referring to a car)

[2] *That is good. (referring to a boy)

Generally speaking, while ‘this’ implies proximity to the speaker, ‘that’ implies a remote
distance from the speaker. This implication of proximity extends to a tendency for the
speaker in a dialogue to use ‘this’ to refer to something s/he has said and ‘that’ to
something said by his/her interlocutor (Halliday & Hasan 1976). Furthermore, ‘this’ tends to
be associated with a present or future-time referent and ‘that’ with a past-time one. There
are, of course, differences among different styles and varieties of English.

Plural selective demonstrative forms may refer anaphorically not only to a preceding
plural noun as in [1] below, but also to sets that are plural in meaning as in [2].

[1] The prize winners were eating jovially in a grandiose restaurant. No one could
imagine that all these men would die one after the other in a few days.
[2] ‘What should I do? Where should I go? How can I explain it to Mary?’ he thought.
Peter heard the clock strike one, and then two, and then three. At last, he
brought all these questions with him to a dream.

The singular forms may refer to a whole list, irrespective of whether or not it contains items
that are themselves plural. The following example is quoted from Halliday and Hasan
(1976:62):

292 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 I’ve ordered two turkeys, a leg of lamb, some cooked ham and tongue, and two
pounds of minced beef. Whatever are you going to do with all that food.

The non-specific demonstrative ‘the’ does not embody any content, but merely points out
that the item in question is specific and identifiable somewhere in the text (Halliday &
Hasan 1976). While ‘the’ can be used exophorically or endophorically, only the
endophoric ones are cohesive. When ‘the’ is used endophorically, it is either cataphoric
or anaphoric. Cataphoric ‘the’ is limited to the structural type with it referring to a
modifying element within the same nominal group, e.g., ‘the’ in the nominal group ‘at the
top of the mountain’. It cannot refer forward cohesively. Anaphoric ‘the’ is cohesive only
when the item is repeated. Let’s illustrate this with the following dialogue.

Dialogue 11.3

A: I’ve got an idea, okay, the places to visit. First we get to Manly that will take a
whole hour of drive. I see if I can find a car to drive up there.
B: I like the idea of let Peter rest a while and we take him to Manly so we use that.
The second one let’s make some change. Instead of taking the ferry, we go to
Taronga Zoo. That will add up most of a day. We’ll then head toward the Opera
House. It looks more beautiful at night anyway. And to finish the day, we’ll dinner
at Circular Quay, yea?

In the example above, the demonstrative ‘the’ in ‘the idea’ refers to the one suggested
by speaker A, i.e. to get to Manly. In this dialogue, the non-specific demonstrative ‘it’ is
also used anaphorically because ‘it’ refers to ‘the Opera House’ in the previous sentence.
The anaphoric ‘the’ in both instances are cohesive.

Comparative reference
Comparatives are referential because there must be a standard of reference by which
one item is said to be identical to, similar with or different from another item; or is said to

Textual Continuity 293

be superior, equal, or inferior to another item. Halliday and Hasan (1976:76) divide
comparative reference into two subtypes: general comparison and particular
comparison.

General comparison is concerned with likeness and unlikeness between things, without
respect to any particular property. It can be expressed by adjectives and adverbs. While
adjectives function in nominal groups as pre-modifier, either deictic or epithet, (known as
adjectives of comparison), the adverbs function as adjunct in the clause (known as
adverbs of comparison). Just like the other two types of reference, the referents of
comparison can be either exophoric or endophoric. If they are endophoric, they can be
either anaphoric or cataphoric. Furthermore, comparative references may be either
structural or non-structural. Only non-structural comparative references are cohesive
because they are able ‘to make explicit the external relationship between one clause or
clause complex and another in a way which is not dependent on grammatical
constraints’ (Halliday and Hasan 1994:309). In contrast, structural comparative references
are under certain grammatical constraints, and they are thus not cohesive.

General comparison is divided into three subcategories: identity, similarity, and difference.
Let’s illustrate these with the following examples.

[1] I think the same as you do about the matter. (identity)

[2] Gold is similar color to brass. (similarity)
[3] His taste is different from mine. (difference)

In [1], the comparative reference ‘same’ indicates that what the speaker thought about
the matter is identical to what the hearer thought about it. In [2], the comparative
reference ‘similar’ signals that the color of gold looks more or less the same but not
identical to that of brass. In contrast, the reference ‘different’ in [3] tells us that the taste of
a third party is not identical nor similar but different from the speaker’s taste.

294 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Particular comparison, on the other hand, deals with comparability between things in
respect of their quantity and quality. It can be expressed by adjectives as in [4.1] and [4.2]
and adverbs as in [4.3] in Text 11.4.

Text 11.4

(4.1) My current apartment is smaller than the last one. (4.2) But it provides a more
expensive view. (4.3) And I like the view so much that I spend several minutes by the
window every evening.

The two types of comparative reference – general and particular comparisons – are
summarized in Table 11.5.

Function Deictic/Numerative Epithet Adjunct/Submodifier

Class
General same, equal, identical identically, (just) as etc.
identity etc.
similarity similar, additional etc. such so, likewise, similarly etc.
difference other, different etc. otherwise, else,
differently etc.
Particular more, fewer, less, bigger etc.; better etc.;
further etc.; so, as, more, less so, as, more, less etc. +
so, as etc. + numeral etc. + adjective adverb
Table 11.5: Comparative reference in English (Halliday & Hasan 1994:313)

Activity 11.1

Textual Continuity 295

 Identify the referential cohesive devices in the following text.

One night, more than a year ago, I took a taxi along the Island Expressway and fell
into conversation with the driver. It would be more accurate to say he fell into
conversation with me because he told me he was Hong Kong’s first disabled taxi
driver. We chatted for a while and he said the Chinese papers had written about him
and I should do a story on him one day. As he didn’t have a name card, he wrote his
name (Jonathan Lam) on a scrap of paper, which I filed under “T” for taxi when I got
home and then forgot about.

A couple of months ago, and within the space of week, two people working on this
magazine independently found themselves in Lam’s taxi. Both of them suggested I
interview him. I dug out the scrap of paper, rang him up and we arranged to meet.

I had wanted to take him out for yum cha but he said he preferred to stay in the taxi;
later, I discovered he had been in his car for the previous 33 hours, either working or
sleeping on the back seat.

Ellipsis and Substitution

Ellipsis and substitution set up a grammatical relationship in the wording of a text by

leaving out parts of a structure or by replacing with another word respectively when they
can be presumed from the co-text. As a result, they allow the speaker to focus on what is
new and/or contrastive, and therefore indicates the continuity of the text. Let’s illustrate
the point with the following dialogue:

Dialogue 11.5

296 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 [5.1] A: Hi. Guess what? I got a letter from Peter yesterday.
[5.2] B: Hey. So did I.
[5.3] A: Isn’t it great that we can finally get meeting each other.
[5.4] B: Oh. Have you got any idea where to take him?
[5.5] A: To Taronga Zoo, Manly, Opera House, Homby Lighthouse or ...

In this dialogue, when speaker B replies, ‘So did I’ in [5.2], speaker A has no problem in
understanding that what B meant was ‘I got a letter from Peter too’. On the one hand, the
underlined wording is replaced with the word ‘did’, which can be presumed from [5.1].
This replacement, on the other hand, allows speaker B to focus on the new information, i.e.
s/he ALSO got a letter from Peter. A textual tie is thus created between [5.1] and [5.2].
Similarly, when speaker A answers speaker B’s question in [5.5], it is obvious that speaker A
leaves out a large part of the sentence, i.e. I have got an idea where to take him, which
can be presumed in [5.4], and as a result, speaker A is able to focus on the new
information, i.e. the places that s/he wants to take Peter to. Here, another textual tie is
created. These textual ties contribute to the continuity of a text.

There are three types of substitution and ellipsis: (a) nominal, (b) verbal, and (c) clausal. All
of them can be partially or totally ellipsed.

Nominal substitution and ellipsis

Nominal substitution involves the replacement of one lexical nominal item with another. In
the following example, the nominal phrase ‘soft drink’ is substituted by a pronoun ‘some’
to avoid repetition.

There is no more soft drink in the fridge. Go and buy some.

Nominal ellipsis, on the other hand, occurs when some essential structural element in the
noun phrase is omitted in a sentence or clause. In the following example, the

Textual Continuity 297

demonstrative pronoun ‘those’ clearly carries the meaning ‘those examination papers’,
making repetition of ‘examination papers’ unnecessary.

These examination papers get a pass and those get a fail.

It is noted that the speaker may insert his personal assessment on the original referent
through substitution. In the following example, the speaker not only replaced the original
word ‘loan-sharks’ by the word ‘parasites’, but his personal judgment is clearly expressed
in the word ‘parasites’ as well.

There are always loan-sharks in a society. These parasites are non-productive to the
economy here.

Verbal substitution and ellipsis

Verbal substitution involves the replacement of one verbal item with another. In the
following example, the phrase ‘work too hard’ is substituted by ‘do’.

A: You work too hard.

B: So do you.

Verbal ellipsis involves omission of parts of the verb phrase. In the following example, the
main verb ‘write’, together with its object ‘him’, is omitted in speaker B’s response, which
may be ‘We can’t write to him because he’s coming this Saturday’ in full form.

A: Why don’t we write to him?

B: We can’t because he’s coming this Saturday.

Clausal substitution and ellipsis

Clausal substitution involves the replacement of one or more clauses with short forms. For
example, in the following dialogue below, the clause ‘Me too’ stands for ‘I’ve got a letter
from Peter too’.

298 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 A: I’ve got a letter from Peter.
B: Me too. He says he’s going to come down.

Clausal ellipsis, on the other hand, involves omission of parts of the clause. Let’s illustrate
this with the following dialogue.

Dialogue 11.6

[6.1] A: So what should we do?

[6.2] B: I think we should take him to three places only.
[6.3] A: Okay. Which three then?
[6.4] B: Let’s have a look. I want to take him to the Opera House since it is a cultural
symbol of Australia. And then have a walk along the beach in Manly. Then go
to Darling Harbor for a buy. Maybe join a harbor cruise.

…..
[6.5] A: Okay, then Darling Harbor it is. So far we’ve decided the Opera House and
Darling Harbor. What about the third place?
[6.6] B: North Head and Manly Beach.
[6.7] A: No, Taronga Zoo.

In this dialogue, the question ‘Which three then?’ in [6.3] stands for ‘Then which three
places should we take him to?’ Similarly, the answers in [6.6] ‘North Head and Manly
Beach’ stands for ‘The third place can be North Head and Manly Beach’; and in [6.7] ‘No,
Taronga Zoo’ may stand for ‘No, the third place can be Taronga Zoo.’ In all these
instances, the underlined wordings are omitted in the clauses.

Activity 11.2

Textual Continuity 299

 Identify the cohesive devices in terms of ellipsis and substitution in the following
dialogue.

A: Paul and Mary are having a happy event next month.

B: Congratulations to them. That’s their third, isn’t it?
A: No, it’ll only be the second.
B: But I thought they already had one boy and one girl.
A: Yes, they do but what’s that got to do with it?
B: Mary isn’t pregnant again then.
A: No, of course not. They’re having a party to celebrate Paul’s promotion.

Conjunction

Unlike reference (which serves as a deixis by pointing to a referent mentioned in the same
text or beyond the text) or ellipsis and substitution (which allow a speaker to focus on what
is new and/or contrastive by leaving out parts of a structure that can be found in the
same text), conjunction is a device which signals the relation between the contents and
ideas between adjacent clauses in the same text. Conjunction is thus considered a
cohesive device, which helps explicate the textual continuity and build the unity of a text.
There are four types of conjunctions: adversative, additive, temporal and causal.

Adversative conjunction
Adversative conjunction is a cohesive device that signals that the content in a clause is
contrary to the expectation derived ‘from the content of what is being said, from the
communication process, (and) from the speaker-hearer situation’ (Halliday and Hasan
1976:250). Let’s illustrate with Text 11.7.

Text 11.7

300 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 [7.1] Throughout the Board Meeting, she remained defensive and refused to
acknowledge any wrongdoing. [7.2] But it was her expensive medical plan that she
obtained for herself that first caught the auditor's attention and later was brought
under scrutiny.

In Text 9.7, the information expressed in [7.2] is contrary to the expectation derived from
the content of [7.1]. This is what ‘adversative’ means, and this adversative relation is
explicated by the conjunction ‘but’ at the beginning of [7.2].

Adversative conjunctions can be further sub-categorized into simple, contrastive,

corrective, or dismissive in terms of function. The general meaning of a simple adversative
relation is ‘in spite of’ as shown in [1] below; a contrastive adversative relation is ‘as
against’ as in [2]; a corrective adversative relation is ‘not … but’ as in [3]; and a dismissive
adversative relation is ‘no matter …, still’ as in [4].

[1] Common sense alone should have suggested this is by no means insignificant
and has legal implications. Nevertheless, the government has had the good sense
to decide not to appeal against the March ruling.
[2] For decades, harbor reclamation has been used to provide new space for
transport and property development. This has been a formula for economic
success and has determined the mindset of many government officials. But since
the handover, a sea change in public opinion has occurred as people realize the
harbor is our city's most precious natural asset and that reclamation, in most
cases, is irreversible.
[3] It doesn’t seem ugly to me; on the contrary, I rather like it.
[4] Whichever way you look at it, solar energy is the energy of the future.

Some typical adversative conjunctions in English are presented in Table 11.6.

simple contrastive corrective dismissive

Textual Continuity 301

yet, though, only, but, and, however, instead, rather, on in any/either
but, however, on the other hand, the contrary, at case/event,
nevertheless, at the same time, least, rather any/either way,
despite this, all the as against that, in whichever,
same fact, as a matter of anyhow, at any
fact, actually, in rate, in any case,
point of fact,
Table 11.6: Adversative conjunctions (adapted from Halliday & Hasan 1976)

Additive conjunction
Generally speaking, additive conjunctions signal the presentation of additional
information; however, in terms of function, additive conjunctions can be further sub-
categorized into simple, emphatic, appositive, or comparative additive relations. A simple
additive relation implies that there is something more to be said as in [1] below; emphatic
additive relation implies that there is yet another point to be taken in conjunction with the
previous one as in [2]; appositive additive relation that ‘there is another (alternative) way
to say it’ as in [3]; and finally comparative additive relation implies ‘in comparison to’ as in
[4].

[1] Common sense alone should have suggested this is by no means insignificant
and has legal implications.
[2] The house was out of our price range and too big anyway. Besides, I’d grown
fond of our little rented house.
[3] The rail link is one of 10 major infrastructure projects the chief executive
announced in his last policy address. In other words, someone in the government
developed two showcase infrastructure projects on the mistaken assumption that
temporary reclamation did not amount to full reclamation in law.
[4] She was late and I similarly was late.

Some typical additive conjunctions in English are presented in Table 11.7.

302 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 simple emphatic appositive comparative
and, and also, nor, furthermore, in that is, in other likewise, similarly, in
or, or else addition, words, I mean, for the same way, on
moreover, besides example, for the other hand, by
instance contrast
Table 11.7: Additive conjunctions (Green, Han, and Li 2009)

Causal conjunction
As the name suggests, causal conjunctions express a causal relation between adjacent
clauses. Causal conjunctions can be further classified as causal (general), causal
(reversed), conditional and respective. The causal (general) types are those in which
cause is followed by effect, meaning ‘a, therefore b’ as in [1] below; the causal (reversed)
types have effect following cause, meaning ‘b, because a’ as in [2]; the conditional types
express either ‘under these circumstances’ or ‘under other circumstance’, meaning
‘possibly a; if so, then b’ as in [3]; and finally, respective conjunctions are used to
introduce a new topic or reintroduce one considered earlier in the text, meaning ‘with
respect to’ as in [4].

[1] At the same time, however, shipping fleets have expanded dramatically to
service booming global trade. As a result, there is a dire shortage of trained men
and women to man ships carrying everything from oil to toys.
[2] Since last year's ministerial and bureau reshuffle, it has found itself under the
Environment Bureau.
[3] Given that policy bureaus can be overprotective of their own turf and
objectives in policy debates, the chief secretary is arguably better placed to
resolve inter-bureau differences.
[4] In recent disasters, the PLA has been at the forefront of disaster relief. As much
as it is a defence force, part of its mission has evolved into a rapid aid force for

Textual Continuity 303

 civilians in distress. In this regard, new, advanced training and equipment should
be provided to enhance its relief capabilities.

Some typical causal conjunctions in English are presented in Table 11.8.

causal (general) causal (reversed) conditional respective

so, then, hence, since, because, then, in that case, in this respect, in
therefore, thus, it follows, on this in such an event, this regard,
consequently, basis, arising out of that being so, regarding, with
because of, this, to this end under the regard to,
for this reason, on circumstances, in other respects,
account of this, as otherwise, under aside/apart from
a result, in other this
consequence circumstances
for this purpose,
with this in mind
Table 11.8: Causal conjunctions (Green, Han, and Li 2009)

Temporal conjunction
Temporal conjunctions express the temporal relationships between two successive
clauses. Temporal conjunctions can be further divided into four sub-categories, i.e. simple,
external, internal, and here and now. Let’s illustrate this with the examples below. Simple
temporal conjunctions as in [1] and external conjunctions as in [2] concern the events in a
text in terms of the timing of their occurrence. In contrast, internal temporal conjunctions
as in [3] and those in the ‘here and now’ category as in [4] concern the events involved in
communication processes, i.e. they relate not to actual events but to the points a speaker
or writer is making at a particular stage or time.

[1] This month, two catastrophes have hit Asia. Myanmar was devastated more
than a week ago by a severe cyclone, leaving tens of thousands dead or missing,
and many more without food, medical care, and shelter. Then, on Monday, the

304 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 worst earthquake in a generation rocked China, laying waste to major cities and
villages in Sichuan and killing at least 12,000 people.
[2] At the moment, the best that can be hoped for in the current phase of the
conflict when the dust has settled and enough blood has been shed - is that Israel
will ease or end the Gaza blockade and that an exhausted Hamas will give up its
missile harassment. Meanwhile, a lasting peace in this tragic land is as remote as
ever.
[3] I don’t think the plan works. Firstly, we don’t have enough manpower; and
secondly, we don’t have the time.
[4] Their parents were killed in the disaster. From now on, the brother and sister
have to rely on themselves.

Some typical temporal conjunctions in English are presented in Table 11.9.

simple external internal here and now

at first, then, next, at once, soon, firstly, secondly, up to now, at this
after that, finally, after a time, next thirdly, finally point, from now
just then, at the time, an hour later, on, in short, to
same time, meanwhile, until return to the point
previously, before then, at this
that, in the end, at moment
last
Table 11.9: Temporal conjunctions (Green, Han, and Li 2009)

Temporal conjunctions can extend their semantic coverage to express conclusive relation
as in [1] and summary relation as in [2].

[1] We may try our best to take care of our child in every aspect of his daily lives.
But we have to understand that eventually our child will leave home to lead his
own lives as a fully independent adult.

Textual Continuity 305

 [2] Send her an email, buy her some flowers, and call her every evening. In short,
show her that you care for her.

In addition, some conjunctions such as ‘however’ and ‘but’ may convey more than one
sense, depending on the context. According to Green, Han and Li (2009: 160), ‘and’ is the
most frequently used conjunction because it can be used to signal a range of
relationships between ideas in a text, including addition as in [1], adversative (negative)
as in [2], causal as in [3], and temporal as in [4].

[1] Our new product is innovative and cheap.

[2] Our new product has been on the market for three years and we haven’t
made a dollar in profit so far.
[3] Our new product failed and was withdrawn.
[4] We withdrew the new product and later destroyed all stocks of it.

It should also be noted that there can be more than one conjunction in a sentence. In the
following example, the causal conjunction ‘as a consequence’ is combined with the
simple additive ‘and’ to make the message more explicit and formal.

Peter failed to work hard and as a consequence found himself a very poor
academic result this year.

Similarly, the use of the conditional conjunction ‘if’ alone in the following example would
be acceptable, but the combination of the adversative conjunction ‘but’ lends the
quality of explicitness.

The most cost-effective and acceptable option is to come up with alternative

building plans that will not involve reclamation. But if this is not possible, the
government should revise plans to minimize the extent of the temporary reclamation.

Activity 11.3

306 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Identify the cohesive devices in terms of conjunction in the following text.

The OUHK’s Jockey Club Multimedia Laboratory, which took two years to complete,
was officially opened on 4 July, marking a new phase in the University’s application
of IT in distance education.

‘In a networked multimedia environment with keen global competition,

effectively integrating technology and pedagogy for learning has become a
major challenge to educational institutions around the world,’ said Prof. Leung
Chun-ming, Director of Technology Development at the OUHK.

Council Chairman the Hon. Charles Lee said the University was going ahead with its
$98-million three-year Information Technology Development Plan. The plan was
mapped out after a series of consultations and will serve as a blueprint for enhancing
the IT strengths and services at the OUHK. It focuses on four areas of development:
enriching the student learning environment; enhancing student support services;
strengthening staff support, communication, and IT training; and improving external
relations.

Lexical cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to the ‘cohesion effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary’
(Halliday and Hasan 1976: 274). It occurs when two or more words in a text are related in
terms of their meaning, and therefore sets up a lexical relationship between them. There
are two major kinds of lexical cohesion: reiteration and collocation.

Textual Continuity 307

Reiteration
Reiteration involves either directly repeating an item in a text or restating it in a different
form. There are four major types of reiteration: repetition, synonym or near-synonym,
superordinate, and general word.

Repetition occurs when a word or phrase is directly repeated in a text. For example, in
Text 11.8, the phrase ‘Hong Kong’ first occurs in [8.1] and then in [8.2].

Text 11.8

[8.1] Since Hong Kong has returned to China, there have been many events to mark
the city's national identity, such as National Day, anniversaries of the handover, flag-
raisings and fireworks celebrations. [8.2] None, however, has proclaimed the city's
proud sense of patriotism as spontaneously as yesterday's Hong Kong section of the
Olympic torch relay.

Synonym refers to a word that means the same thing. In other words, being a lexical
cohesive device, synonym occurs when an alternative word is used to refer to a
mentioned item in a text. For example, in the following text, ‘the Games’ in [9.2] refer to
‘the 2008 Olympics’ mentioned in [9.1].

Text 11.9

[9.1] The 2008 Olympics is a source of immense pride to Chinese everywhere as a

showcase of modern China's achievements. [9.2] The patriotic fervour on display
yesterday leaves no doubt that the overwhelming majority of Chinese in Hong Kong
support the Games.

But few words really have identical meaning, i.e. covering the same semantic scope. A
near synonym also creates a cohesive effect in a text. In fact, just like a synonym or near
synonym, an antonym – a word presenting an opposite meaning – can also create a

308 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

cohesive effect. Let’s illustrate with the following examples. The pair of words ‘scorching’
and ‘freezing’ in [1], ‘pessimism’ and ‘optimism’ in [2] and ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ in [3] are
antonyms. Each pair creates a cohesive effect in each example.

[1] Sahara is a place which is scorching in the day but freezing at night.
[2] After I heard the news, the feeling of pessimism was replaced by an optimistic
one.
[3] China’s economy is growing fast but political change is relatively slow.

Superordinate refers to ‘any item whose meaning includes that of the earlier one; in
technical terms, any item that dominates the earlier one in the lexical taxonomy’ (Halliday
and Hasan 1976: 280). A cohesive effect is achieved through a hierarchical (also known as
hyponomy) relationship between a superordinate and a subordinate items in a text. In
Text 9.10, ‘warships’ in [10.4] is the superordinate element while ‘carriers’ in [10.3] and
‘aircraft carrier’ in [10.2] are the subordinates. They form a hyponomy relation and create
a cohesive effect in the text.

Text 11.10

[10.1] George H.W. Bush is the America's newest aircraft carrier. [10.2] It is a
potent symbol of America's global power and presence. [10.3] It is also the last of
10 nuclear-powered Nimitz-class carriers to enter service with the US Navy. [10.4]
They are the world's largest warships.

Just like the hyponomy relation, a cohesive effect can also be achieved through a
metonymy relationship. It refers to the relationship between the whole and the parts of an
object as ‘hospital’ and ‘wards’ in [1] and ‘hotel’ and ‘entry’ and ‘lobby’ in [2] below.

(1) This hospital is new and its wards are furnished with state-of-art equipment.
(2) The new hotel has a grand entry, which leads to an attractive lobby area.

Textual Continuity 309

General words, as Halliday and Hasan (1976:280) point out, are ‘on the borderline
between lexical items and substitutes’. When a general word is used to refer back to a
lexical item in a text, a cohesive effect is created. For example, ‘things’ is a general word
which includes ‘seafood’.

A: Have you tried the seafood?

B: No, I don’t like the things much.

Collocation
In English, certain words usually collocate with other words, meaning that certain lexical
items are frequently found in each others’ company. Being a cohesive device,
collocation is the most ‘problematical part’ of lexical cohesion because it tends to include
almost all items in a text which are semantically connected, and it is sometimes difficult to
decide whether or not a relation of collocation occurs (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Nunan
1993). On the other hand, as Martin (1981: 1) points out, ‘its contribution to coherence in
text is so significant that it cannot be ignored.’ In fact, this type of cohesive effect is
overwhelming in a text. The following text is extracted from Mitch Alboum’s (2009: 26)
Have a Little Faith.

Text 11.11

[11.1] The parking lot was mostly empty. [11.2] I approached the temple, with
its tall glass archway, but I felt no nostalgia. [11.3] This was not the prayer
house of my youth. [11.4] As with many suburban churches and synagogues,
our congregation, Temple Beth Sholom (which translates to: “House of
Peace”), had followed a migratory pattern. [11.5] It began in one place and
moved to another, growing larger as it chased after its members who, over
the years, picked more affluent suburbs. [11.6] I once thought churches and
temples were like hills, permanent in location and singular in shape. [11.7] The
truth is, many go where the customers go. They build and rebuild. …

310 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

In the text, the items ‘temple’ in [11.2], ‘prayer house’ in [11.3], ‘synagogues’ in [11.4] and
‘churches’ in [11.4] and [11.6] are examples of collocation because they all belong to the
field of religious architecture. However, the collocation of ‘temple’ obviously extends to
the items ‘Temple Beth Sholom’ and ‘House of Peace’ in [11.4], and also ‘congregation’ in
[11.4], ‘members’ in [11.5], and maybe ‘customers’ in [11.7]. In fact, we may also argue
that the item ‘temple’ may further associate with the other items such as ‘parking lot’ in
[11.1] and ‘glass archway’ in [11.2] with a whole-part relationship. In fact, there are other
lines of collocation such as ‘place’ and ‘suburbs’ in [11.5] and ‘location’ in [11.6]. But what
we have just discussed is the noun-noun collocation. Apart from the noun-noun
collocation, there are adjective-noun collocations such as empty – parking lot, tall – glass
archway, affluent – suburbs, and also verb-noun collocation such as approach – the
temple, follow – migratory pattern, began – in one place and moved – to another etc.
Hoey (1991) claims that lexical cohesion can be considered as the most important type of
cohesion in terms of the number of cohesive ties in any text.

Now that we have examined all the cohesive devices in English, including reference,
substitution and ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, let’s analyze the cohesive
devices in the following short text extracted from Mitch Alboum’s (2009: 27) Have a Little
Faith.

Text 11.12

[12.1] We walked down the hallway toward his office. [12.2] At this point, in
semiretirement, his hours were strictly of his own choosing.

[12.3] But religion is built on ritual, and the Reb loved the ritual of going in to work.
[12.4] He had nurtured this congregation from a few dozen families in 1948 to
more than a thousand families today. [12.5] I got the feeling the place had
actually grown too big for his liking. [12.6] There were too many members he

Textual Continuity 311

 didn’t know personally. [12.7] There were also other rabbis now – one senior, one
assistant – who handled the day-to-day duties. [12.8] The idea of assistants when
the Reb first arrived would have been laughable. [12.9] He used to carry the keys
and lock the place up himself.

With respect to reference, we find the personal references ‘he’ in sentences [12.4], [12.6]
and [12.9]; ‘his’ in [12.1], [12.2] and [12.5] and ‘himself’ in [12.9], all of them refer to the
same referent – ‘the Reb’ in [12.3]. In addition, ‘I’ in [12.5] refers to the writer while ‘we’ in
[12.1] refers to both the writer and the Reb. Both items – the writer and the Reb – have
been mentioned in the previous chapter. We also find the demonstrative reference ‘this’
in [12.4], which refers to the specific congregation at the time when the book is written;
the deictic ‘the’ in [12.5] refers to the place of the present church, and the ones in [12.9]
refers to the keys and the place of the previous church. Similarly, both the current and the
previous church have been mentioned in the previous chapters. Furthermore, we also find
two comparative references: ‘more than’ in [12.4] is making comparison of the number of
congregations in 1948 and the present; and ‘too’ in [12.5] and [12.6] is making
comparison of the size of the church and the number of church member with the Reb’s
liking.

While the writer employs many references to bind the text together, he employs very few
ellipses. In fact, the only type of ellipsis at work is the omission of the post-modifier of ‘the
temple’ in [12.1], of ‘the church’ in [12.4], [12.5], [12.7] and [12.9], and in ‘the church’ in
[12.6].

Regarding conjunction, we find adversative relation expressed by ‘but’ in [12.3], which is

in contrast with the expectation of what mentioned in the previous sentence that the
Reb’s hours were strictly of his own choosing as he is semiretired. We also find additive
relation expressed by ‘and’ in [12.3], which introduces additional information to the
statement that ‘religion is built on ritual’, and the one in [12.9] introduces further action
that the Reb did by himself in the past. Finally, we also find temporal relations expressed by

312 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

the adverbial ‘At this point’ in [12.2] and also ‘now’ in [12.7], indicating the ‘here and
now’ in the process of writing than the sequence of events happened in the narration.

Lexical cohesion is at work throughout the text. There are instances of repetition such as
‘ritual’ in [12.2], ‘families’ in [12.4], ‘the Reb’ in [12.3] and [12.8], and ‘assistant’ in [12.7]
and [12.8]. There is also a pair of antonym ‘senior’ and ‘assistant’ in [12.7]. Furthermore, a
hyponomy relationship between a superordinate and a subordinate is also found as ‘the
place’ in [10.5] is the superordinate element while ‘the hallway’ and ‘his office’ in [12.2]
are the subordinate items. With respect to collocation, we find noun-noun collocation in
the text such as ‘hallway’, ‘office’ in [12.1], ‘place’ in [12.5] and [12.9]; ‘congregation’
and ‘families’ in [12.4], ‘member’ in [12.7]; ‘keys’ and ‘lock’ in [12.9]; ‘religion’ and ‘ritual’
in [12.3]. Lastly, we find some structures of parallelism such as ‘too big’ in [12.5] follows by
‘too many’ in [12.6]; ‘There were too many members …’ in [12.6] and ‘There were also
other rabbies …’ in [12.7]. In short, within such a short passage, we find that all sorts of
cohesive devices are at work. They bind the text closely together to form a cohesive and
coherent text, which form a unity by itself.

Activity 11.4

Identify the use of lexical cohesion in the following text.

Etymologists research how a word enters a language and how it changes meanings
and use after it has been introduced. Etymologists also look at various processes of
word formation and describe ways in which the meanings of words evolve and
change over time within and across languages. For example, etymologists suggest
that the word ‘smooch’ (kiss) is derived from the word ‘smouch’ and is onomatopoeic,
i.e., the word represents the sound of a kiss. They also note that the word was first
recorded in the late 1500s and is related to the German word ‘schmutzen’. Students
who are interested in etymology will note that a number of dictionaries include this
information (e.g., the Oxford English Dictionary). There are also specialized

Textual Continuity 313

 etymological dictionaries and reference books (e.g., the John Ayto’s Dictionary of
Word Origins: Histories of More Than 8,000 English-Language Words). Today, there are a
number of online etymology dictionaries (e.g., http://www.etymonline.com/) as well.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we discussed the relation of the three notions: text, coherence and
cohesion. A text is a semantic unit, consisting of one or more than one clause and forming
a unified whole. To achieve this textual unity, a text must be: (1) coherent with respect to
itself, and therefore cohesive; and (2) coherent with respect to the context of situation,
and therefore consistent in register. In this chapter, we explored the first type of
coherence, i.e. cohesion. In English, there are grammatical resources known as cohesive
devices, which help maintain textual continuity and therefore contribute to the unity of a
text. These cohesive devices include reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction, and
lexical cohesion. We examined these devices and discussed how they bind a text closely
together to form a cohesive one. In Chapter 10, we will explore the context of situation, in
relation to the second type of coherence, as well as the context of culture.

314 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Language in Context
12
Introduction

In the previous chapter, we explored the cohesive devices in English, including reference,
substitution and ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. These devices signal the textual
continuity of a text and partly contribute to the coherence of it. In this chapter, we will
explore another issue that also concerns the coherence of a text – language in context. In
daily life, language is produced and comprehended in a particular social context, which
in turn affects how language is used and meaning is interpreted. In the following sections,
we will first discuss the three dimensions of context of situation, i.e., field, tenor and mode,
and then various genres of context of culture.

Language in Context

We are ‘social beings’ – being socialized into who we are in the society through language,
and becoming language users in the social environment that we live in. We make
language choices, consciously or unconsciously, in our daily conversation, observing the
social norms in order to perform the social functions that we intend. The social context in
which a conversation takes place, to a very large extent, affects the ways in which
language is used and meanings conveyed. From the perspective of language analysis, as
Martin (2001: 151) puts it, ‘you cannot understand the meaning of what someone says or
writes unless you know something about the context in which it is embedded.’ Let’s
illustrate the point with an example extracted from Thomas (1995: 5). This is a conversation
between two young Englishmen, and speaker A was reading a newspaper.
 Text 12.1

A: What’s this lump they’re always on about?

B: Read it out.
A: [Reads aloud from paper] Inland Revenue cracks down on lump.
B: Oh, isn’t it something to do with casual labor on building sites? The way they’re
paid – tax evasion and that?

In the above example, speaker B could answer speaker A’s question only after the
context of situation – Inland Revenue – was provided. In general, without the knowledge
of the context of situation in which a discourse or a text occurs, we may not make sense
to it. Furthermore, not only the knowledge of the situation, but the knowledge of culture
also affects our understanding of a text. Let’s illustrate the point by the text extracted from
Margaret Atwood’s The Sin Eater.

Text 12.2

[2.1] I think of them as women,’ he says, ‘though there’s no reason why they shouldn’t
have been men, I suppose. [2.2] They could be anything as long as they were willing
to eat the sins. [2.3] Destitute old creatures who had no other way of keeping body
and soul together, wouldn’t you think?[2.4] A sort of geriatric spiritual whoring.

Unless we have the knowledge of the culture and/or custom, there is no way for us to fully
comprehend the statement in [2.2] ‘They could be anything as long as they were willing to
eat the sins’. How ‘sins’ can be eaten? Why only those ‘destitute’ old people ‘who had no
other way of keeping body and soul together’ were willing to eat the sins? Or why are
they referred to as ‘a sort of geriatric spiritual whoring’ in [2.4]?

In other words, every discourse or every text occurs within two layers of social context, one
within the other. In order to capture the effect of social context in language analysis, we

316 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

thus need a stratum of context, which is beyond the domain of language, immediately
above the stratum of meaning. This stratum is further divided into the context of situation
and the context of culture. This is depicted in Figure 12.1:

context of culture

context of situation

meaning the semantic system

wording the lexicogrammatical system:

grammar & vocabulary

the phonological/orthographic system

sounding/writing

Figure 12.1: Social context and stratification of language

Context of situation: Register

Context of situation refers to the things going on in the world in which the text is created.
They are social factors beyond the domain of language, affecting the use of language in
the text and thus creating the extralinguistic features of it. In SFL, these social factors are
grouped into three dimensions, namely field, tenor and mode (Halliday 1964, 1975, 1976).
They are patterned into situation type (known as register). A situation type is characterized
by a complex of features of field, tenor and mode, which sets it apart from other situation
types. Martin (1999) and Coffin, Donohue & North (2009) have further explanation of these
notions.

Language in Context 317

The dimension of field refers to ‘what is going on in the text’, i.e. what is to be talked or
written about. It concerns the socio-semiotic process and experiential domain, and
addresses the following questions:

 What is the social activity taking place through the use of language?
 What is the topic being negotiated in the text?
 How does the issue construed in the text being deal with? (i.e. whether the matter is
discussed or handled from a professional or layman perspective)
 From what angle is the matter presented?

Let’s illustrate with the following dialogue.

Text 12.3

[3.1] A: Wilmington tower, this is helicopter two-one-nine Sierra Bravo.

[3.2] B: Go ahead, helicopter two-one-nine, Wilmington tower.
[3.3] A: Requesting clearance from university athletic field, direct to your location
from ISO Aero. Over.
[3.4] B: Contact tower when entering pattern. Cleared from present position, on
course, stay with me and report down and secure at ISO.
[3.5] A: Two Sierra Bravo, wilco.

The dialogue represents a social activity – a request for approval – between the pilot of a
helicopter and the control tower of an airport, and the topic concerns the departure and
landing of a helicopter. This is construed through the meaning of lexicons in the dialogue.
The request and approval are made from the professional perspective with a high degree
of specialization, reflecting in the use of technical terminology in that particular field such
as ‘requesting clearance’ in [3.3], ‘entering pattern’ and ‘report down and secure at ISO’
in [3.4]. In addition, imperative is used as command such as ‘Go ahead, helicopter two-

318 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

one-nine, Wilmington tower’ in [3.2] and ‘Contact tower when entering pattern’ in [3.4].
The pilot presented him/herself as the helicopter (‘this is helicopter two-one-nine Sierra
Bravo’ in [3.1]), which was the subject to request the approval of departure and flight
route (‘Requesting clearance from university athletic field, direct to your location from ISO
Aero.’ In [3.3]). The controller, on the other hand, identified him/herself as the control
tower (‘Go ahead, helicopter two-one-nine, Wilmington tower.’ In [3.2]) and the one
which issues various orders to the helicopter (‘Go ahead …Contact tower …stay with me
and report …’). This can be summarized in the following table.

Field Analysis Linguistic features

Social A request for approval Participants, processes
activity and circumstances
Topic The departure and flight route of a helicopter Participants, processes
and circumstances
Perspective The request is made and approved from the Lexis/terminology,
professional perspective with a high degree of clause structure
specialization.
Angle of The pilot presented him/herself as the Role of the participants
presentation helicopter, which was the subject to request
the approval of departure and flight route. The
controller, on the other hand, identified
him/herself as the control tower and the
subject to issue various orders to the helicopter.
Table 12.2: Linguistic features relating to the dimension of field

Activity 12.1

Language in Context 319

 Analyze the ‘field’ of the following text. Indicate the linguistic features as evidence of
your deductions.

At the age of three my grand aunt proclaimed her independence by categorically

refusing to have her feet bound, resolutely tearing off the bandages as fast as they
were applied. She was born in Shanghai (city by the sea) in 1886 during the Qing
dynasty when China was ruled by the child emperor Kuang Hsu, who lived far away
up north in the Forbidden City. The pampered baby of the family, 8 years younger
than my grandfather, Ye Ye, Grand Aunt finally triumphed by rejecting all food and
drink until her feet were, in her words, 'rescued and set free'.

Shanghai in the late nineteenth century was unlike any other city in China. It was
one of five treaty ports opened up to Britain after the First Opium War in 1842.
Gradually it burgeoned into a giant intermediary between China and the rest of
the world. Strategically situated on the Huangpu River seventeen miles upstream
from the mighty Yangtse, the city was linked by boat to the inner western provinces.
At the other end to the east, the Pacific Ocean was only fifty miles away.

Britain, France and the United States of America staked out foreign settlements
within the city. To this day, amidst the new high-rise buildings, Shanghai's
architecture reflects the influence of the foreign traders. Some of the great
mansions, formerly homes of diplomats and business magnates, possess the stately
Edwardian grandeur of any fine house by the River Thames at Henley in England or
the Gallic splendour of a villa in the Loire valley in France.

The dimension of tenor concerns ‘who is/are taking part in the activity’. It concerns the
social relationship between the participants involved in the social activity – speaker and
hearer (or the writer and the readers), and sometimes a third party – and responds to the
following questions:

320 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

  What is the institutional role of the participants involved in the social activity, including
their social responsibility in performing the task and their authority?
 What is their social status and relative power, including their level of expertise, and
possession of knowledge of the topic?
 What is their social distance, i.e. the level of familiarity between the participants?
 What are their persona technically known as socio-metric roles), i.e. their general
stance towards, alignment with, agreement with, and valuation of each other?

Let’s examine the dimension of tenor of the following dialogue between two friends.

Text 12.4

[4.1] A: Hey. Do you know Peter will come to Sydney?

[4.2] B: You mean the Peter we write?
[4.3] A: Yes, from the States. In his letter, he said he’s arriving at 6 in the morning. He
asked us to show him around the city.
[4.4] B: I’ve got a letter too. He said he’s staying in a hotel at Hyde Park … would be
leaving for Melbourne at 10 on Sunday.
[4.5] A: So, have you got any idea where to take him?
[4.6] B: Well. First, I think I’ll take him to the Opera House.
[4.7] A: Sure. That’ll be great. Then?
[4.8] B: Then we’ll head down to North Head and Manly Beach and then visit Darling
Harbour.
[4.9] A: Well. I’m actually thinking of South Head and the Homby Lighthouse and
Taronga Zoo. How about we take him to all the places? I’m sure he’ll have
an exciting time.

The two participants in the above dialogue are friends studying at the same high school in
Sydney. They write to the same pan-friend, Peter, who lives in the United States. Peter is
going to Australia for vacation. He plans to stay in Sydney for one day to meet A and B,

Language in Context 321

and then travel to Melbourne. Speakers A and B are therefore planning to show Peter
around.

Since speakers A and B are friends studying at the same high school; they are thus
supposed to have similar status. They are talking about the same friend they know and
they are going to show their friend in Sydney, a place they both live in. None of them has
any advantage in terms of knowledge and expertise. This is linguistically reflected on their
equally contribution in the dialogue. On the other hand, as A is the one who initiates the
conversation and the one who asks B the places to show their friend, A issues more
questions, realized by interrogatives, and B more statement, realized by declarative. In
addition, the lengths of their turn are similar as well. They are closed friend, and they meet
each other regularly at school. This closeness reflects on how they address each other
(e.g., ‘Hey’ in [4.1]), their directness in the questions (e.g., ‘You mean the Peter we write?’
in [4.2] ‘So, have you got any idea where to take him?’ in [4.5]) and also B’s counter-
suggestion (‘Well. I’m actually thinking of South Head and the Homby Lighthouse and
Taronga Zoo.’ in [4.9]). The participants’ desire to align with each other is obvious. This is
shown in their use of modality (e.g., ‘I think’, ‘will’), as well as the evaluative language
(e.g., ‘Sure. That’ll be great.’ in [4.7]). It is particularly obvious when B makes the counter-
suggestion. He tries to align himself with A with another suggestion in an interrogative ‘How
about we take him to all the places?’ in [4.9]. The analysis above can be summarized in
Table 12.3.

Tenor Analysis Linguistic features

Institutional Friends with equal status, in terms Amount of contribution in terms of
roles, social of knowledge, knowledge and the number and length of turns;
statuses and authority distribution of speech functions
relative power
Social Close to each other as they meet Formality, politeness and directness
distance regularly at school of language used, terms of
address, and lexis

322 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Socio-metric Both try to align themselves with Modality, evaluative language,
roles the other. distribution of speech functions
Table 12.3: Linguistic features relating to the dimension of tenor

Activity 12.2

Analyze the ‘tenor’ of the following text. Indicate the linguistic features as evidence of
your deductions.

At the age of three my grand aunt proclaimed her independence by categorically

refusing to have her feet bound, resolutely tearing off the bandages as fast as they
were applied. She was born in Shanghai (city by the sea) in 1886 during the Qing
dynasty when China was ruled by the child emperor Kuang Hsu, who lived far away
up north in the Forbidden City. The pampered baby of the family, eight years
younger than my grandfather, Ye Ye, Grand Aunt finally triumphed by rejecting all
food and drink until her feet were, in her words, 'rescued and set free'.

Shanghai in the late nineteenth century was unlike any other city in China. It was
one of five treaty ports opened up to Britain after the First Opium War in 1842.
Gradually it burgeoned into a giant intermediary between China and the rest of
the world. Strategically situated on the Huangpu River seventeen miles upstream
from the mighty Yangtse, the city was linked by boat to the inner western provinces.
At the other end to the east, the Pacific Ocean was only fifty miles away.

Britain, France and the United States of America staked out foreign settlements
within the city. To this day, amidst the new high-rise buildings, Shanghai's
architecture reflects the influence of the foreign traders. Some of the great
mansions, formerly homes of diplomats and business magnates, possess the stately
Edwardian grandeur of any fine house by the River Thames at Henley in England or
the Gallic splendour of a villa in the Loire valley in France.

Language in Context 323

The dimension of mode identifies ‘the kinds of text that are being made’, referring to the
rhetorical functions and channels assigned to language in the situation. Language used in
different channels varies from each other. Let’s illustrate this point with the following texts.

Text 12.5

channel example
email Sorry it’s a little bit late!
Thanks!
Richard

That’s fine Richard – an impressive presentation! Well done! So you see, you
always had it in you! Never ever give up when there IS time to spare – time
stretches to suit your need!
Best
Ms. K

online X: lalalalalalala
chat
Y: lol
let’s play
X: in a bit
i’ll tell u when
Y: ==,===
X: new drafts today?
Y: yep
X: ohhhh
lets play

324 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 (Call to X, no answer.)

X: cannot
listening to cantopop
with the wise man
Y: ..
X: lol
just play with me
Y: kk

We can see that though all the above texts are written ones, email possesses a number of
written language features while online chat a number of spoken language features.

The dimension of mode addresses the following questions:

 What is the mode, i.e. spoken or written?

 What are the channel and medium?
 How interactive and spontaneous is the language used?
 What is the communicative distance between the text and the events discussed in
terms of time and space?
 What is the role of language (technically known as division of semiotic labor), i.e.
whether the language in the text is the sole meaning-making resource or whether it
interacts with other meaning-making resources such as visual images, gesture etc. as
the text unfolds?

Let’s examine the following dialogue:

Text 12.6

Language in Context 325

 [6.1] A: I think I think many .... people are are strange as to hear that there are many
classes in my country. Actually ( laughter ) I
[6.2] B: In your country, it is not class. It
should be caste, right? ……... No?
[6.3] A: No, No
[6.4] C: Oh. That’s in India.
[6.5] A: That’s in India. In my
country, there are. Because there are some Hindu people in my country. They
have actually you are born in a particular caste in Hindu society
[6.6] B: nhn You
can’t change, right?
[6.7] A: Yeah, you can’t change. You can’t change. You will
be married be married with a guy in the same caste.
[6.8] B: You can’t ...
[6.9] A: No, you
may have a lot of wealth, a lot of money that doesn’t matter at all. You can’t
change. You can’t change your caste.

The above text is a typical dialogue (or multilogue in this case). It lies as the spoken end of
the spoken-written cline of language. There are a number of spoken language features
such as minor clauses (e.g., ‘No, No’ in [6.3]), tag questions (e.g., ‘It should be caste,
right?’ in [6.2]), backchannelling (e.g., ‘oh’ in [6.4], ‘nhn’ in [6.6], ‘yeah’ in [6.7]). The
dialogue is highly interactive. There are a number of exophoric references which can be
located in the context but not in the text. In the above text, these exophoric references
indicate the speech roles such as ‘I’ and ‘you’. Apart from exophoric references, there
are interruptions in turns [6.1], [6.5], [6.8] and [6.9], and overlapping in turns [6.2] and [6.3].
The sentence structure, in general, is simple. The dialogue also shows a high degree of
spontaneity, with a number of repetitions such as ‘I think I think many .... people are are
strange’ in [6.1]; ‘Yeah, you can’t change. You can’t change’ in [6.7]. There are also
instances of false starts such as ‘In my country, there are. Because there are some Hindu

326 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

people in my country.’ In [6.5]. The lexical density is comparatively low. The
communicative distance is long; they are talking about a socio-cultural system fully
institutionalized at speaker A’s country, which is far away from the location of this
dialogue. The system has been there for centuries and it does not change much. The
three participants are talking about it as a separate social phenomenon. This is reflected
in the use of remote determiner ‘that’ in ‘That’s in India.’ In [6.4] or possessive adjective
‘my’ instead of ‘this’, as well as the exophoric reference ‘they’ as in ‘In my country, there
are. Because there are some Hindu people in my country. They have actually … ‘ in [6.5].
As this is a face-to-face conversation, there are other semiotic modes that may affect the
use of the language, such as facial appearance, body language, gesture and also the
laughter as indicated in the transcription. This can be summarized in the following table.

Mode Analysis Linguistic features

Mode, channel, Spoken language; face-to-face; Interruptions, overlapping, minor
medium highly interactive and clauses, nominal groups, back-
spontaneous channelling, exophoric references
(indicating the speech roles) as
theme, clause structure
(indicating theme and
information focus); repetitions,
mid-utterance corrections/false
starts, clause structure (indicating
theme and information focus),
cohesive devices, lexical density
Communicative Long communicative distance – Exophoric/anaphoric reference
distance about a social system far back at
A’s country
Role of Face-to-face conversation: other Exophoric/anaphoric reference
language semiotic modes which may affect
the use of the language, such as

Language in Context 327

 facial appearance, body
language, gesture and also the
laughter as indicated in the
transcription.
Table 12.4: Linguistic features relating to the dimension of mode

Activity 12.3

Analyze the ‘mode’ of the following text. Indicate the linguistic features as evidence
of your deductions.

At the age of three my grand aunt proclaimed her independence by categorically

refusing to have her feet bound, resolutely tearing off the bandages as fast as they
were applied. She was born in Shanghai (city by the sea) in 1886 during the Qing
dynasty when China was ruled by the child emperor Kuang Hsu, who lived far away
up north in the Forbidden City. The pampered baby of the family, eight years
younger than my grandfather, Ye Ye, Grand Aunt finally triumphed by rejecting all
food and drink until her feet were, in her words, 'rescued and set free'.

Shanghai in the late nineteenth century was unlike any other city in China. It was
one of five treaty ports opened up to Britain after the First Opium War in 1842.
Gradually it burgeoned into a giant intermediary between China and the rest of
the world. Strategically situated on the Huangpu River seventeen miles upstream
from the mighty Yangtse, the city was linked by boat to the inner western provinces.
At the other end to the east, the Pacific Ocean was only fifty miles away.

Britain, France and the United States of America staked out foreign settlements
within the city. To this day, amidst the new high-rise buildings, Shanghai's
architecture reflects the influence of the foreign traders. Some of the great
mansions, formerly homes of diplomats and business magnates, possess the stately
Edwardian grandeur of any fine house by the River Thames at Henley in England or

328 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 the Gallic splendour of a villa in the Loire valley in France.

Activity 12.4

Analyze the ‘register’ of the following text. Indicate the linguistic features as evidence
of your deductions.

A: And those soldiers had younger wives. So now it is a social problem. So what they
will do? They will remarry err..err..err
B: That you mean the women?
D: That means the windows.
C: Are they allowed to marry? Are they allowed to marry? You know in that sort of
country.
A: Ah ….. It depends on the social class. If they belong to the lower class … in Iraq …
they are not allow to but … in another way, they can be married for three months
C: After three months?
A: That will be decided by the leader of the community.
B: Oh so what happen after three months?
A: After three months, someone can marry her again.
D: Oh yes, it is allow to for women to marry again.

As indicated in the above analysis, the social factors in these three dimensions of context
of situation, on the one hand, are reflected in patterns of linguistic features, which are
closely associated to the three modes of meaning that we explored in Chapters 8, 9 and
10. Field relates to the representational meanings of a situation, tenor to the interpersonal

Language in Context 329

meanings and mode to the textual meanings. To put it in another way, these three
dimensions affect our choices of language corresponding to the three basic functions:

 to talk about our experience in the world

 to interact and/or to express our point of view
 to organize these two modes of meaning into a text

In this way, the notion of register in SFL can be considered as an attempt to examine the
general principles that govern the variation in the use of language in different context,
that is, the association between situational factors and linguistic features. Given a certain
configuration of these situational factors, a corresponding set of linguistic features will be
anticipated and these constitute a text’s register. This anticipation in turn facilitates and
constrains the interpretation of the text (for details, see Coffin, Donohue & North 2009;
Hasan 1983; Halliday & Hasan 1985; Martin 1985, 1990; Matthiessen 1993). Furthermore,
when the linguistic features of a text are congruent with the situational factors, i.e.
consistent in register, the text is coherent with respect to the context of situation and
provides a sense of unity. The relationship between the context of situation and different
modes of meaning are summarized in Table 12.5.

situation: realized by text:

feature of the context functional component of semantic system

field of discourse experiential meanings

(what is going on) (transitivity etc.)
tenor of discourse interpersonal meanings
(who are taking part) (mood, modality, person etc.)
mode of discourse textual meanings
(role assigned to (theme, information, cohesive relation)
language)

330 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Table 12.5: Relation of the context of situation to the modes of meaning (Halliday 1985b:
26)

Context of culture: Genre

Every conversation or every text occurs in two contexts – context of culture and context of
situation – and the latter is within the former. In other words, within the context of culture,
the speakers of a conversation or the writer(s) of a text use language in a specific context
of situation. Within the context of situation, the notion of register is designed to interface
the analysis of social context with the diversified organization of language resources
realizing the three metafunctions, i.e. representational, interpersonal, and textual. Similarly,
within the context of culture, another notion – genre – is set up above and beyond
metafunctions (at a higher level of abstraction) to account for relations among social
processes in more holistic terms, with a special focus on the stages through which most
texts unfold. Their relationship is depicted in Figure 12.2.

Social conte xt Ge nr e
stage ^ stage ^ stage

Re gis te r
f ield tenor mode

Conte nt plane
representational interpersonal textual
meaning

w ording
Language

Expre s s ion phonological/orthographic system

sounding/w riting

Figure 12.2: The stratification and metafunction of language

Language in Context 331

Genre is a French word, meaning kind, type, class, variety etc. In the field of literature, the
notion means a conventional literary form or format, such as novel, drama, or letter;
whereas in the field of linguistics, it means a form of discourse with a distinctive goal, such
as exposition or narrative. When texts share the same general purpose in a culture, they
often share the same obligatory and optional structural elements and so they belong to
the same genre. In simple terms, genres can be defined as staged, goal-oriented social
processes. According to Martin (1985), genres have the following characteristics:

 It is staged;
 It is goal-oriented;
 It is a purposeful social activity;
 It is engaged in a specific culture; and
 It reaches its goal through language (language in use).

Texts of most genres in a culture consist of an expected sequence of stages to unfold. In

other words, lack of a certain stage in a text will bring the sense of frustration or
incompletion unless there are obvious reasons for the derail. Let take the following text as
an example.

Text 12.7

ALMOND AND APRICOT STUFFING

First, you should melt 1 oz. of butter. Second, you should fry 2 large chopped onions
until they were slightly brown. Now, you can add 4 oz. coarsely grated or chopped
almonds and continue cooking for 3-5 minutes. Then, you must remove the pan from
the heat and add 6 fresh or about 12 soaked apricots (which were diced finely), 1
tablespoon chopped fresh herbs, grated zest and the juice of ½ lemon, and finally
sea salt and brown sugar to taste into it.

332 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 This makes a very good stuffing for cucumber. If you want a more substantial stuffing,
you can add a little mashed potato and use for stuffing marrows.

While we can understand this text, it appears a bit odd. This is not because of any
grammatical mistaken, but because of the fact that it does not follow the expected
stages of a text of recipe.

So in writing a text, we have to think about the readers and their context of culture – the
social goal that the text intended to achieve as well as the expected sequence of stages.
In the following section, we will explore the social purposes and the schematic structure of
seven genre types: procedure, recount, narrative, (information) report, explanation,
exposition, and discussion.

Procedural Text
According to the differences in purpose, each genre type often has its own sequence of
stages. The following text is a recipe. Let’s examine the sequence of stages it embodies:

Text 12.8

PRAWN AND GRAPE SALAD

 1 kg cooked prawns, shelled and deveined

 1 cup sour cream
 1 cup mayonnaise
 2 cups grapes, washed and patted dry
 ½ cup fresh dill, chopped
 ½ cup fresh chives, chopped
 Juice of 1 small lemon
 Freshly ground black pepper to taste

Language in Context 333

 Whisk the sour cream, mayonnaise and lemon juice together.

Put prawns into serving bowl. Pour over dressing and toss gently. Add the grapes and
toss again.

Sprinkle on chopped dill and chives and pepper. Toss once more and refrigerate
covered, for at least 4 hours.

The social purpose of a recipe is to give instruction, telling the readers how to prepare a
dish. The title of the recipe ‘PRAWN AND GRAPE SALAD’ indicates the dish to be prepared;
it is the final product if the instructions are followed – the goal of this social activity. The text
moves on to the listing of ingredients (i.e. the materials to be used to prepare the dish),
and then the procedures that the readers should follow step by step to get the work done.
In terms of genre, a recipe is a procedural text, which embodies some structural elements:

 Goal
 Materials
 Steps (in sequence)

These structural elements in the above text follow a certain order: Goal ^ Materials ^
Steps.

Let’s examine another procedural text, a section on broadcasting in a facsimile operation

manual.

Text 12.9

334 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 BROADCASTING (sending a fax to multiple destinations)

This function allows you to send the same fax to as many as 20 different locations in
just one operation.
 When sending to multiple locations, only auto-dial numbers can be used to
dial the numbers of the receiving machines.

1. Load the document(s)

 If desired, press ‘resolution/reception/mode’ to set the resolution and/or
contrast.
2. Press ‘start/memory’.
3. Press ‘>’ (or ‘<’) until the name of the number appears in the display (if no name
was stored, the number will appear).
4. Press ‘v’ to select the number.
5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4 for each of the other locations to which you wish to send the
fax (maximum of 20).
 To check your selected locations, press ‘^’ to scroll through them. To delete a
location, scroll to the location and then press ‘stop’.
6. When you are ready to begin transmission, press ‘start/memory’.
 A Transaction Report is automatically printed out after Broadcasting is
completed. Check the ‘Note’ Column of the report to see if any of the
locations are marked ‘Busy’ or have a communication error code. If so, send
the document to those locations again.

A user manual, just like a recipe, has the same social purpose, i.e. to tell the readers how
to do something. It thus shares similar stages in the text. The title ‘BROADCASTING’ indicate
the goal – ‘sending a fax to multiple destinations’. Unlike the recipe text, there is a short
explanation of the goal. In addition, the materials the facsimile machine and the
document(s) to be uploaded are assumed to be there, though not explicitly stated. It is
followed by the sequence of steps. In other words, among the structural elements in a

Language in Context 335

procedure text, Goal (including explanatory note) and Steps (in sequence) are essential
elements while Materials is optional. However, the order of these elements is the same.

Similar to recipe and user manual, travelling guide also shares the same social purpose.
The following text is extracted from Macau Guide Book. Read the text and identify the
structural elements in it.

Text 12.10

To explore some of the most historic areas of Macau, go up the Calçada do Tronco
Velho from the Senado Square. If you go right you’ll find Rua da Felicidade
(Happiness Street), which was in the past the centre of Macau’s nightlife. Today the
facades of the traditional china coast buildings have been restored, while small shops
and restaurants continue to flourish behind them. Or you can proceed to St
Augustine’s Square to look at its collection of buildings. On one side is the Sir Robert
Ho Tung Library (a colonial house donated by a Hong Kong benefactor), next door
are the St. Joseph’s Seminary and chapel, which were built by the Jesuits around 1758
and were recently restored to their original splendor. (The cruciform church provides
an ideal auditorium for concerts.) On another side of the square is St. Augustine’s
Church. Built in 1591, it is famous for its altarpiece statue of Christ carrying the cross,
which is parade through the streets of Macau before Easter. Opposite the church is
the Dom Pedro V Theatre, the first Western-style theatre on the Asian mainland. Built in
the 1860, it was for many years on the international circuit for European opera
companies, and is still used for concerts and plays, following extensive renovations.
(Excerpted from Macau Guide Book, Macau Government Tourist Office p. 61)

Recount
The social purpose of recount is to use language to tell what happened, to document a
sequence of events and to evaluate their significant in some way, while the social
purpose of narrative is to construct a pattern of events with a problematic and/or

336 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

unexpected outcome that entertains and instructs the reader or listener. Let us look at the
following text and its analysis.

Text 12.11

One day the postman delivered a package to my door which I hadn’t ordered. I was
very curious to see what it was. I opened the box to find a dozen red roses and a card
that read “Happy Anniversary, I love you Abby!” and burst out laughing. I looked
closely at the label on the box to see it was addressed to my married neighbor who
lived across the hallway, a crucial detail that the postman forgot to mention when
asking me to sign for the package.

In the above text, the first sentence ‘One day the postman delivered a package to my
door which I hadn’t ordered’ provides information about the topic and the scene: who,
when and where. The following two sentences ‘I was very curious… and burst out
laughing’ record the events in the order in which they occurred. The next sentence ‘I
looked closely at the label …to sign for the package’ rounds off the events while the last
one ‘I felt extremely embarrassing when I brought it to my neighbor’ provides the author’s
personal evaluation of the event.

There are four structural elements in a text of recount, and they follow a particular order:

 Orientation

– Information about who, when and/or where

 Record of events

– In the order in which they occurred

 Reorientation

– Rounding off the sequence of events

 Coda

Language in Context 337

 – Personal evaluation

These structural elements in the above text follow a certain order: Orientation ^ Records of
events ^ Reorientation ^ Coda. Now we can analyze the text as below:

Structural elements Text

Orientation One day the postman delivered a package to my door
which I hadn’t ordered.
Record of events I was very curious to see what it was. I opened the box to
find a dozen red roses and a card that read “Happy
Anniversary, I love you Abby!” and burst out laughing.
Reorientation I looked closely at the label on the box to see it was
addressed to my married neighbour who lived across the
hallway, a crucial detail that the postman forgot to mention
when asking me to sign for the package.
Coda I felt extremely embarrassing when I brought it to my
neighour.
Table 12.7: Analysis of Text 12.11

Narrative
The social purpose of narrative is to construct a pattern of events with a problematic
and/or unexpected outcome that entertains and instructs the reader or listener. A
narrative text has similar but somewhat different structural elements than a text of recount:

 Orientation

– Information about who, when and where

 Complication

– Events that constitute a problem or crisis

– Evaluation of the problem

 Resolution

– Information about how problem was resolved and normal events resumed
 Coda

– Personal evaluation

338 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The following is a narrative text. Let’s identify its structural elements and find out their order
in the text.

Text 12.12

When I was at university there were two students accused of plagiarism in my tutorial.
They had both handed in an essay on “The ethical treatment of participants in
psychological experiments” which the professor felt had the same content. When
questioned, they admitted to have brainstormed together but since it hadn’t been
explicitly said that students couldn’t work together, they felt it wasn’t really a case of
plagiarism. I thought it was a terrible excuse.

Structural elements Text

Orientation When I was at university there were two students accused of
plagiarism in my tutorial.
Complication They had both handed in an essay on “The ethical treatment
of participants in psychological experiments” which the
professor felt had the same content. When questioned, they
admitted to have brainstormed together
Resolution but since it hadn’t been explicitly said that students couldn’t
work together, they felt it wasn’t really a case of plagiarism.
Coda I thought it was a terrible excuse.
Table 12.8: Analysis of Text 12.12

These structural elements in the above text follow a certain order: Orientation ^
Complication ^ Resolution ^ Coda

Let’s analyze the following narrative text to identify its structural elements and their order:

Text 12.13

Language in Context 339

 A Fresh Start: A persistent stray finds home

In August 2008 I noticed a stray ginger cat coming into my garden. He had
discovered that I sometimes threw scraps out for the birds. I started to put food out for
him, but he was really wild and I couldn’t get near him. Nevertheless, he kept coming
most evenings for food.

Then, in late November, I discovered that back in February, he had escaped from a
vet clinic 2 kilometres away. After trapping and returning him to the clinic to be
reunited with his owners, I assumed I’d seen the last of him. But 12 days later, he was
back in the garden – I couldn’t believe my eyes.

It transpired that the cat had become so wild that the owners could not cope with
him, and had let him go. He had voted with his paws, and made the 2-kilometre
journey back to where he wanted to be. After all that effort, what could I do but
succumb, and keep him?

After neutering and giving him many months of encouragement, he finally

conquered his fears and allowed me to touch him. From that point we never looked
back; he is now a much loved and extremely affectionate member of the family.
(Excerpted from Marilyn Pullen, Reader’s Digest January 2011)

Structural elements Text

Orientation In August 2008 I noticed a stray ginger cat coming into my
garden.
Complication He had discovered that I sometimes threw scraps out for the
birds. I started to put food out for him, but he was really wild
and I couldn’t get near him. Nevertheless, he kept coming
most evenings for food.
Resolution Then, in late November, I discovered that back in February,
he had escaped from a vet clinic 2 kilometres away. After
trapping and returning him to the clinic to be reunited with
his owners, I assumed I’d seen the last of him.
Complication But 12 days later, he was back in the garden – I couldn’t
believe my eyes.

It transpired that the cat had become so wild that the

owners could not cope with him, and had let him go. He
had voted with his paws, and made the 2-kilometre journey
back to where he wanted to be. After all that effort, what
could I do but succumb, and keep him?
Resolution After neutering and giving him many months of
encouragement, he finally conquered his fears and allowed

340 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 me to touch him.
Coda From that point we never looked back; he is now a much
loved and extremely affectionate member of the family..
Table 12.9: Analysis of Text 12.13

In the analysis, we find that there are two stages of complication and resolution in the text,
but the overall order of the structural elements in the text remains the same: Orientation ^
(Complication ^ Resolution) x 2 ^ Coda

Activity 12.5

Analyze the structural element of the following text.

When I went to work as a veterinarian’s assistant for Dr. Sam Holt and Dr. Jack Gunn
last summer, I was under the false impression that the hardest part of veterinary surgery
would be the actual performance of an operation. What might transpire before or
after this feat didn’t occur to me as being of any importance. As it happened, I had
been in the veterinary clinic only a total of four hours before I met a little animal who
convinced me that the operation itself was probably the easiest part of treatment. This
animal, to whom I owe thanks for so enlightening me, was a chocolate-colored
Chihuahua of tiny size and immense perversity named Smokey.
Now Smokey could have very easily passed for some creature from another
planet. It wasn’t so much his gaunt little frame and overly large head, or his bony paws
with nearly saber like claws, as sit was his grossly infected eyes. Those once-shinning
eyes were now distorted and swollen into grotesque balls of septic, sightless flesh. The
only vague similarity they had to what we’d normally think of as the organs of vision
was a slightly upraised dot, all that was left of the pupil, in the center of a pink and
purply marble. As if that were not enough, Smokey had a temper to match his ugly
sight. He also had surprisingly good aim, considering his large diminished vision, toward
any moving object that happened to place itself unwisely before his ever-inquisitive
nose, and with sudden and wholly vicious intent he would snap and snarl at whatever
blocked the little light that could filter through his swollen and ruptured blood vessels.

Language in Context 341

 Truly, in many respects, Smokey was a fearful dog to behold.
Such an appearance and personality did nothing to encourage my already
flagging confidence in my capabilities as a vet’s assistant. How was I supposed to get
that little demon out of his cage? Jack had casually requested that I bring Smokey to
the surgery room, but did he really expect me to put my hands into the mouth of the
cage of that devil dog? I suppose it must have been my anxious expression that saved
me, for as I turned uncertainly toward the kennel, Jack chuckled nonchalantly and
accompanied me to demonstrate how professionals in his line of business dealt with
professionals in Smokey’s. He took a small rope about four feet long with a slipnoose at
one end and began to unlatch Smokey’s cage. Then cautiously he reached in and
dangled the noose before the dog’s snarling jaws.
Once in the surgery, however, the question that hung before our eyes like a
vertical presence was how to get the dog from the floor to table. Simply picking him
up and plopping him down was out of the question. One glance at the quivering little
figure emitting ominous and throaty warnings was enough to assure us of that.
Realizing that the game was over, Jack grimly handed me the rope and reached for
a muzzle. It was a doomed attempt from the start; the closer Jack dangled the tiny
leather cup to the dog’s nose the more violent did Smokey’s contortions and rage-
filled cries become and the more frantic our efforts became to try to keep our feet
and fingers clear of the angry jaws. Deciding that a firmer method had to be used,
Jack instructed me to raise the rope up high enough so that Smokey’d have to stand
on his hind legs. This greatly reduced his maneuverability but served to increase his
tenacity, for at this the little dog nearly went into paroxysms of frustration and rage. In
his struggles, however, Smokey caught his forepaw on his swollen eye, and the blood
that had been building up pressure behind the fragile cornea burst out and dripped to
the floor. In the midst of our surprised and the twinge of panic startling the three of us,
Jack saw his chance and swiftly muzzled the animal and lifted him to the operating
table.
Even at that point it wasn’t easy to put the now terrified dog to sleep. He fought
even the local anesthesia and caused Jack to curse as he was forced to give Smokey

342 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 far more of the drug than should have been necessary for such a small
beast.[resolution] After what seemed an eternity, Smokey lay prone on the table,
breathing deeply and emitting soft snores and gentle whines. We also breathed
deeply in relief, and I relaxed to watch fascinated, while Jack performed a very
delicate operation quite smoothly and without mishap.
Such was my harrowing introduction into the life of a veterinary surgeon. But
Smokey did teach me a valuable lesson that has proven its importance to me many
times since, and that is that wherever animals are concerned, even the smallest detail
should never be taken for granted.

Information Report
The social purpose of language use is to present information about something. The
schematic structure of text is very simple – a general statement following by a description.
The general statement identifies and/or classifies the topic to be reported. In the text
below, the first sentence identifies ‘blueberries’ to be the topic and classifies them as
‘flowering plants of the same family as cranberries and bilberries’. The rest of the text
provides information about them: their appearance ‘dark-purple berries’, their origin
‘mainly native in North America’, the size of ‘the blueberry shrub’, the description of ‘the
blueberry flowers’, their fruit from raw to ripe.

Text 12.14

Blueberries are flowering plants of the same family as cranberries and bilberries. They
have dark-purple berries and are mainly native in North America. The blueberry shrub
varies in size from 10 cm to 4 m tall. The blueberry flowers are usually bell-shaped,
white, pale pink or red in color. The fruit is a berry which is pale greenish at first, turns
indigo when ripe. When mature, blueberries have a sweet but somewhat acidic
taste.

Structural elements Text

General statement Blueberries are flowering plants of the same family as

Language in Context 343

 cranberries and bilberries.
Description They have dark-purple berries and are mainly native in North
- their appearance America.
- their origin
- their shrub The blueberry shrub varies in size from 10 cm to 4 m tall.
- their flower The blueberry flowers are usually bell-shaped, white, pale
pink or red in colour.
- their fruit The fruit is a berry which is pale greenish at first, turns indigo
when ripe. When mature, blueberries have a sweet but
somewhat acidic taste.
Table 12.10: Analysis of Text 12.14

In short, we can sum up the schematic structure of an information report as below:

Structural elements: General statement ^ Description

 General statement

– Identification and classification

 Description

– Information organized in bundles (appearance, habitat, behavior etc)

Explanation
A text of explanation looks similar but in fact is different from an information report
because an explanatory text serves a social purpose different from that of an information
report. While the purpose of an information report is to present information about
something, an explanatory text is to tell how and why something occurs. There are two
structural elements in an explanatory text: identifying statement, which identifies the
phenomenon or problem to be explained, and an explanation sequence, typically
following the causal sequence or the temporal sequence in the order in which the
phenomenon occurs. Let’s illustrate with the following text.

Text 12.15

344 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Clouds of all shapes and sizes are made from the same thing: condensed water. They
are formed when rising air, through expansion, cools down to the point where water
vapor molecules stick together faster than they are torn apart by thermal energy. This
forms cloud droplets. Cloud droplets either collide together to form a big cloud mass
that eventually falls to the ground as rain or snow or they evaporate and change
back to water vapor molecules.

Structural elements Text

Identifying statement Clouds of all shapes and sizes are made from the same
thing: condensed water.
Explanation They are formed when rising air, through expansion, cools
sequence: down to the point where water vapor molecules stick
- formation of cloud together faster than they are torn apart by thermal energy.
droplets This forms cloud droplets.

- formation of cloud Cloud droplets either collide together to form a big cloud
mass mass that eventually falls to the ground as rain or snow or
they evaporate and change back to water vapor
molecules.
- formation of rain or that eventually falls to the ground as rain or snow or they
snow evaporate and change back to water vapor molecules.
Table 12.11: Analysis of Text 12.15

The schematic structure of an explanation can be sum up as below:

Structural elements: Identifying statement ^ Explanation Sequence

 Identifying statement

– identifying the phenomenon or problem

 Explanation sequence

– following the casual sequence

– or temporal sequence in the order in which they occur

Exposition

Language in Context 345

The social purpose of exposition is to argue a case. The typical schematic structure of this
text type is more complicate than an information report and an explanatory text. Let us
examine the expository text provided below.

Text 12.16

Big companies should pay for the carbon pollution they release into the environment.
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide happen naturally in our environment.
However, excess levels or “carbon pollution” in the atmosphere causes global
warming. Big companies are the biggest producers of carbon pollution and at the
moment, they do not have any incentive to switch to greener technology, products
or services. Therefore, the government should intervene and require big companies
pay for each tone of pollution that they emit.

Structural elements Text

Statement of position Big companies should pay for the carbon pollution they
release into the environment.
Arguments Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide happen
naturally in our environment. However, excess levels or
“carbon pollution” in the atmosphere causes global
warming. Big companies are the biggest producers of
carbon pollution and at the moment, they do not have any
incentive to switch to greener technology, products or
services.
Reiteration/reposition Therefore, the government should intervene and require
of statement of position big companies pay for each tone of pollution that they
emit.
Table 12.12: Analysis of Text 12.16

The first sentence ‘Big companies should pay for the carbon pollution they release into the
environment’ is somewhat different from a general statement in an information report,
which identifies and/or classifies the topic to be reported. It is also different from an
identifying statement in an explanatory text, which identifies the phenomenon or problem.
In the first sentence here, the modal auxiliary ‘should’ indicates the position of the writer

346 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

towards the case being examined – whether or not big companies should pay for the
carbon pollution they release into the environment. This statement of position is followed
by points of argument to support the position: excessive greenhouse gases cause global
warning, but big companies are major producers of greenhouse gases because they do
not switch to greener technology, products or services. Then a concluding statement
wraps up the whole text.

The schematic structure of an exposition can be sum up as below:

Structural elements: Statement of position ^ Arguments ^ Reiteration/reposition of

statement of position
 Statement of position (thesis)

– Statement of position

– (Preview of argument)
 Arguments

– points

– supported by evidence
 Reiteration/reposition of statement of position

– Summary

– Conclusion

– Reiteration/reposition of statement of position

Discussion
Unlike an exposition, the social purpose of a text of discussion is to look at more than one
side of an issue, e.g., the merits and the drawback of a certain action. The writer usually
explores various perspectives before coming to an informed decision. It is reflected on the
first statement of the following text. Unlike the first statement of the above text, which
clearly indicated the position of the writer, the first statement here, though expresses the
writer belief – ‘Facebook is an issue that is worth to look into’, does not indicate his/her

Language in Context 347

position of pros or cons towards the issue. The text that follows examines both the merits
and the drawbacks on the issue before reaching an implicit conclusion.

Text 12.17

I think that Facebook is an issue that is worth for us to look into. It is undoubtedly the
most useful social medium of the 21st century. It has revolutionized the way in which
people socialize; you can search for friends who you’ve lost contact with, you can
share photos of your life and you can keep in touch with overseas relatives easily.
However, many hours can be wasted looking through friend’s profiles, you can also
replace real life socializing with chatting on Facebook and last of all, there are many
privacy issues to consider when using Facebook. Despite this, Facebook is gaining
millions of new members every year.

Structural elements Text

Issue I think that Facebook is an issue that is worth for us to look
into.
Arguments for It is undoubtedly the most useful social medium of the 21st
century. It has revolutionized the way in which people
socialize; you can search for friends who you’ve lost
contact with, you can share photos of your life and you
can keep in touch with overseas relatives easily.
Arguments against However, many hours can be wasted looking through
friend’s profiles, you can also replace real life socializing
with chatting on Facebook and last of all, there are many
privacy issues to consider when using Facebook.
Conclusion Despite this, Facebook is gaining millions of new members
every year.
Table 12.13: Analysis of Text 12.17

The schematic structure of an exposition can be stated as:

Structural elements: Issue ^ Arguments for ^ Argument against ^ Recommendation

 Issue

348 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 – State the issue

– Preview
 Arguments for

– points (supported by evidence)

 Arguments against

– points (supported by evidence)

 Recommendation

– Summary

– Judgment

– Conclusion

The social purposes for using language in these seven genres and their schematic
structures can be summarized in the following table.

Activity 12.6

Analyze the structural element of the following text. Discuss what is missing in the text.

Robots – Our servants of the future?

What will our future look like? No one knows for certain, but most people are sure that
robots will exist in our future. Will they be friendly, like C3-PO in the Star Wars films, or will
they be the frightening machines which will destroy humans in films like the Terminator
series?

In fact, rarely have robots created problems for humans. The word ‘robot’ is one that
actually comes from Europe and originally meant ‘slave labor’. In other words, robots
are meant to be our slaves, working for us and helping us all the time. Already, there
are robots in laboratories all over the world which are capable of helping humans. For

Language in Context 349

 example, there are already ‘Robodocs’ in some hospitals which help carry out
operations on humans. Not only are the robot doctors extremely accurate, but they
are also fast, and unlike human doctors, they don’t have hands that shake when they
are nervous!

Robots are also especially useful for working in environments which humans would find
difficult or impossible to survive in – for example, in environments where there is high
radiation, freezing temperature, fire, or great pressure, such as at the bottom of the
ocean. Soon, robots will be created that will know how to swim, and other robots will
walk like lobsters on the ocean floor. Before long, we may not see any construction
workers in Hong Kong. Robots will eventually take over their role and do our building
for us.

Even science fiction writers are becoming amazed at just how quickly robots are
developing. Do you remember the character of ‘Robocop’? Well, a warehouse
security guard called Veronica has already been created. It doesn’t look very human
– it has a met6al skeleton, and there is no flesh on its body. Instead of eyes, it has two
TV cameras. It also has lasers and a radar. If any criminals are nearby, Veronica will
‘see’ them and record their appearance on the TV cameras. At the same time, ‘she’
will contact the police.

Veronica will only do what she is programmed to do, but in Britain, a set of robots
known as ‘the seven dwarfs’ has been developed. These robots are very different from
most robots that exist today. Although they move around on three wheels, they have
the ability to learn through trial and error, unlike computers and other robots that can
only be programmed to behave in a certain way. As a result, they display many types
of behavior normally only seen in animals or humans such as following a leader or
grouping together in times of confusion. In a few years, robots may appear which
learn just as easily as humans do and can think and act for themselves.

350 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 However, once robots have been developed which can think for themselves, the
problems may begin. One scientist warns that if robots continue to be developed at
such a quick pace, and the robots start to think for themselves, they will no longer
want to be our servants. Because they will be as intelligent as we are, and they will be
able to do things that humans could not, such as survive radiation, and work with
great accuracy and speed, they may decide that they are much better than we are
and want to become our masters. The scientist warns that if we are lucky, they might
treat us the way we treat domestic animals now, such as dogs or cats. If we are not
lucky, who knows? Perhaps a terrifying future similar to the one shown in the Terminator
films may become a reality after all.
(Extracted from Christie & Thomas, 1998. Progressive English 5. Teacher’s Book. P. 82-83.
Hong Kong: Aristo Educational Press Ltd.)

Genres/text Social purposes for using Generic/schematic structure

types language
recount to tell what happened, to orientation ^ record of events ^
document a sequence of reorientation ^ coda
events and evaluate their
significant in some way
narrative to construct a pattern of events orientation ^ complication ^
with a problematic and/or resolution ^ coda
unexpected outcome that
entertains and instructs the
reader or listener
information to present information about goal ^ material ^ steps (in
report something sequence)
procedure to tell how to do something general statement ^ description
explanation to tell how and why things occur identifying statement ^
explanation sequence
exposition to argue a case statement of position ^ preview
of argument ^ argument ^
reinforcement of statement of
position
discussion to look at more than one side of issue ^ argument for ^ argument
an issue; to explore various against ^ conclusion or
perspectives before coming to recommendation
an informed decision
Table 12.14: Social purposes and schematic structures of various genres

Language in Context 351

It is noted that the social purposes achieved by these seven genre types are very general
and not exhaustive. There are other social purposes, which will produce texts with different
generic structures. Furthermore, some texts may intend to achieve a combination of the
above social purposes and as a result, will produce a combination of generic structures.

Conclusion

Language is always used in a particular social context, which in turn affects the language
in use. In this chapter, we have explored the two strata of social context: context of
situation and context of culture. Each context affects language in use in some specific
ways. Context of situation concerns social factors that affect the use of language in a
text. These social factors are grouped into three dimensions: field, tenor, and mode. The
combination of these three dimensions creates the extralinguistic features of a text, which
is characterized with particular linguistic patterns. Context of culture, on the other hand,
affects the schematic structure of the whole text. Texts that shared similar social purpose in
a culture often share similar obligatory and optional structural components. These
structural components usually follow similar order in a text.

352 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 R
Language and Translation
13
Introduction

This chapter is built on what we have learnt in the previous chapters, applying in the
discipline of translation (as a language phenomenon). This chapter will begin with a brief
historical account of the development of translation studies.

The study of translation saw a long history in the West and in the East. In the West, the
tradition of ‘word-to-word’ translation (or literal translation) dated back to the Roman
times – individual words of Greek text were translated to their closest grammatical
equivalent in Latin. Cirero of the first century BCE and St Jerome of the late fourth century
CE started the great debate on ‘word-to-word’ translation vs. ‘sense-to-sense’ translation
(or free translation), and that debate dominated the study of translation in the West in the
‘pre-linguistics period of translation’ (Newmark 1981). In China, the development of
translation also took a similar path, starting with the word-to-word rendering in the Han
Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period. Not until the early twentieth century did Yan Fu
(1973: 4) advocated the three requirements for translation: faithfulness (xin),
comprehensibility (da), and elegance (ya). These three requirements closely correspond
to Tytler’s (1790: 8) three principles of translation.

Following the centuries of debate on literal translation vs. free translation, the study of
translation turned a new page – characterizing with the systematic description of
translation phenomenon under the theoretical framework of certain linguistic traditions.
During this new phase, the conception of ‘equivalence’ drew much attention and came
to a climax in the 50s and 60s, and the discussion is still lingering on; for instance, Roman
Jakobson’s (1959; 2000) linguistic meaning and equivalence, Nida’s (1964) formal
equivalence vs. dynamic equivalence, Koller’s (1979) five types of equivalence, namely
denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence, Baker’s
(1989) equivalence at the levels of the word, phrase, grammar, text and pragmatics, to
name just a few. Coming hand in hand with the conception of translation equivalence is
the categorization of the translation process, including Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958)
direct translation and obligue translation, Catford’s distinction between formal
correspondent and textual equivalence (1965) and the notion of translation shift (2000),
and van Leuven-Zwart (1989) comparative model and descriptive model of translation
shifts.

In the 70s onwards, the study of translation in the West saw a new twist – the
conceptualization of translation theory from various linguistic approaches. These include
the emergence of a functionalist and communicative approach in the 1970s and 1980s,
and the adoption of systemic functional approach in the 1990s. Hallidayan systemic
functional linguistics is, in fact, one of the most influential linguistic approaches adopted in
translation theory.

In the following sections, we will further develop our understanding of the theory of
Systemic Functional Linguistics in general, discuss its conceptions in discourse analysis in
particular, and apply them onto the study of translation.

At the outset, it is noted that the notion of translation embraces a very broad meaning.
Jakoson (1959: 233) classified translation into three divisions: intersemiotic translation,
intralingual translation and interlingual translation. Intersemiotic translation refers to the
transforming of a message in one semiotic system, such as music or painting, into a
message in another semiotic system, such as language. Intralingual translation refers to
the transforming of meaning from expression x into expression y in the same language, i.e.
rewording. Interlingual translation, on the other hand, refers to the transforming of
meaning from expression x into expression y in another language, which is the most

354 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

common understanding of ‘translation’. Though the three kinds of translation bear a great
deal of similarities, the present chapter will focus on the discussion of the interlingual
translation.

In this chapter, we will first briefly explore the concept of translatability in terms of relativism
and universalism because it is the most common topic in the discussion of language and
translation. Then we will examine the relation between linguistics and translation study.
Finally, we build on our understanding of the concept of Systemic Functional Grammar to
explore the overall environment of translation (Matthiessen 2001) and end up with the
discussion of some important concepts in the study of translation from this perspective.

Linguistic Relativitism and Linguistic Universalism

Thought and language are inseparable. Knowledge of the world, including culture and
society, is labeled and also categorized for the language users in their language. As a
matter of fact, people are being socialized into their family, their community, their industry,
their society in the course they learn their language first at home and then in school.
Furthermore, their social identity is closely related with the language that they speak.
Scholars in the tradition of linguistic relativity point out the differences among different
languages in terms of the categorization of things and events with respect to noun, and of
process types with respect of verb, as well as of grammatical categories. In terms of
translation, they may sound extremely pessimistic as they point out the impossibility of a
one-hundred-percent perfect translation equivalence.

On the other hand, some scholars are less pessimistic. Jakobson, for instance, pointed out
that:

All cognitive experiences and their classifications are conveyable in any existing
language. Whenever there is a deficiency, terminology can be qualified and

Language and Translation 355

 amplified by loanwords or loan translations, by neologisms or semantic shifts,
and, finally, by circumlocutions. … No lack of grammatical devices in the
language translated into makes impossible a literal translation of the entire
conceptual information contained in the original. (Jakobson 1959/1987: 431-2)

From the Systemic Functional point of view, Halliday (1970: 141) noted:

The nature of language is closely related to … the functions it has to serve. In

the most concrete terms, these functions are specific to a culture: the use of
language to organize fishing expeditions in the Trobriand Islands, described
half a century ago by Malinowski, has no parallel in our society. But underlying
such specific instances of language use, are more general functions that are
common to all cultures. We do not all go on fishing expeditions; however, we
all use language as a means of organizing other people, and directing their
behaviors.

However, it is also noted that while it is possible to express the same meaning in different
dialects and presumably, in different languages, it is impossible to express the same
meaning in different register (Halliday 1978: 185). We will come back to this later.

Linguistics and translation

According to Malmkjær (2005: 58), there are three kinds of interaction that may take
place between linguistic theory and translation study:

(1) Using a linguistic theory as the theory of translation;

(2) Using translation studies as a source of data for linguistics;
(3) Using linguistics as a source of data for translation studies.

In this chapter, our discussion will concentrate in the first kind of interaction, i.e., using a
linguistic theory as the theory of translation. For instance, Nida’s (1964) took Chomsky’s

356 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

generative view of language as the starting point of building his theory of translation. As
mentioned, the linguistic theory that is in central focus of this chapter is Hallidayan
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), which has long been adopted as the theoretical
framework in the study of translation in the West. For instances, the notions of scale and
category in SFL have been employed to differentiate the concept of literal translation
from that of free translation (Catford 1965); the notions of context – genre and register –
have been developed to assess the quality of a translation (House 1997) and to analyse
the translation process (Hatim & Mason 1997); the theoretical framework of SFL has been
adopted to predict the potential problems arisen in the translation process and to
establish the criteria to solve the problems (Bell 1991); and also to compare the linguistic
structure of the original text and the translated text (Baker 1992). Other linguists who
models translation in systemic functional approach include Erich Steiner, Elke Teich and
Colin Yallop, to name just a few.

In the rest of this chapter, we will look into the nature, the process, the features, and some
important notions of translation from the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics.

Nature of translation from a Systemic Functional Perspective

In this section, we will locate the context of translation from a systemic functional
perspective. To do so, we need to introduce some basic concepts in SFL that are
relevant to the study of translation. Once we have explained some of these key
concepts, we will look at how they relate to our study translation.

Stratification and realisation

In Chapter 6, we learnt that language is a tristratal construct – i.e., it can be understood at
three levels: meaning, wording, and sound/writing. The relation between any two
adjacent strata is one of realization; meaning is realized as wording which, in turn, is
realized as sounding/writing. In this way, language is perceived as a multiple coding
system. Above the semantics stratum, there is the stratum of context. This refers to the

Language and Translation 357

context of culture and the context of situation. This stratum is beyond the domain of
language. Halliday (1964, 1975, 1976) proposes three aspects of the context of situation,
namely field, tenor, and mode. The field of discourse refers to ‘what is going on’,
concerning the nature of the social process, as institutionalized in the culture. The tenor of
discourse concerns ‘who are taking part’, specifying the role and status relationships of
the interactants. The mode of discourse identifies ‘what the text is doing’, referring to the
rhetorical functions and channels assigned to language in the situation. Field thus relates
to the ideational meanings of a situation, tenor to its interpersonal meanings and mode to
its textual meanings.

Potential and instance

Apart from the notions of stratification and realization, another important notion which is
vital to the understanding of the nature of translation is the cline of potential and instance.
From the systemic functional perspective, a particular language such as English and
Chinese is seen as a ‘potential’ for creating meaning, whereas a particular text written in
the language is an ‘actual’ act of meaning, i.e. what language users can mean and
what they mean in a given instance respectively. The relationship between language and
text is one of instantiation (or actualisation); a text in a particular context of situation
instantiates (or actualizes) the linguistic system in its context of culture. The relation
between them, as Halliday (1991) has pointed out, is analogous to the relation between
the climate and the weather in that language is an accumulation of instances of text, just
as climate is an accumulation of instances of weather. We can observe the weather of a
particular area over a period of time and generalise our observations in terms of a
weather pattern. In the same way we can identify text patterns by analysing a number of
texts. In this way we can arrange the language (as a potential), an observed pattern (as
subpotential/instance types, depending from which end we approach it) and the text (as
an instance) on a cline, namely the cline of instantiation.

We can approach the cline from either end. If we come from the end of potential and
move towards the instance, we find in-between clusters of “subpotential”. If we start from

358 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

the other end, we find patterns of “instance types”. This notion of instantiation can be
represented diagrammatically as in Figure 13.1.

subpotential

instance
potential
instance type

Figure 13.1: Cline of instantiation (Halliday 1997)

Language as a potential, including social semiotic potential, meaning potential and

wording potential, is represented systemically in the form of a network of choices (or
options), i.e. alternative possibilities. In this way a text as an instance is meaningful
because it represents certain choices in contrast with alternative possibilities. As a result,
each instance keeps alive the potential, reinforcing it, challenging it and/or changing it.

At this point we can integrate the notion of stratification with the notion of instantiation to
produce an instantiation/stratification matrix as shown in Table 13.2. This matrix shows the
total systems of language in context distributed along the hierarchy of stratification and
extended along the cline of instantiation.

INSTANTIATION

STRATIFI- subpotential
CATION potential (system) (subsystem) instance type instance

Language and Translation 359

 context of culture: subculture/ situation type: situation:
institution:
set of like
“the culture” as networks of situations instantial values of
context social semiotic regions of social forming a field, tenor & modes;
system: networks of semiotic space situation type
social semiotic particular social
features constituting semiotic situation
the systems-&- events, with their
processes of the organization
culture; defined as
potential clusters of
values of field,
tenor, mode

semantic system: register: text type: [text as] meaning:

meaning as networks of a set of like texts semantic selection

potential; networks typological (meanings) expressions (features
of different modes regions of forming a text from passes through
semantics of meaning semantic space type semantic networks),
* to be elaborated and their
representation as
meanings

particular texts, with

their organization
lexicogrammatical [register]: [text type]: [text as] wording:
system:
networks of a set of like texts lexicogrammatical
wording potential; typological (meanings) selection expressions
lexicogramm networks of wording regions of forming a text (features from passes
ar realizing different semantic space type through grammatical
modes of meaning networks), and their
manifestation as
wordings particular
texts, spoken or
written, with their
organization
phonology/
graphology/
sign
Table 13.2: Instantiation/stratification matrix (adapted from Halliday 1997: 48 and
Matthiessen 2001: 48)

Translation as a semiotic process

360 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

At this point, we are ready to locate the issue of translation into the picture. In a very
broad sense, translation is a process occurring between two semiotic systems. It is a
process in which ‘(experience construed as) meaning in one system is (re)construed as
meaning in another’ (Matthiessen 1999: 9). In other words, translation is ‘a semantic
mapping (transformation)’ (Matthiessen 2001: 73). It is noted that such a conception of
translation still leaves open the possibility that “translation may occur between semiotic
systems of kinds (what Roman Jakobson called intersemiotic translation) as well as
between systems of the same kind, e.g., between languages (Jakobson’s interlingual
translation). However, our discussion focuses only on the interlingual translation, i.e. the
translation between two languages; or to be more exact, the translation of a written text
of the SL into another written text of TL. All the examples are extracted from an Chinese
novel entitled Tai Bei People and its English translation.

In interlingual translation, translation is located at the instance pole of the cline of

instantiation, i.e. we translate texts in source language (SL) into texts in target language
(TL); but we do not translate source language into target language. On the other hand,
while translation takes place at the instance pole of the cline, texts are translated as
instances of the overall linguistic system they instantiate because translation of the
instance always take places in the wider environment of potential that lies behind the
instance. As Matthiessen (2001: 74) put it, ‘any act of translation is multiply contextualized
and that we have to identify these contexts or environments… to make translation
maximally effective, we should make it maximally contextualized…the wider the context,
the more information is available to guide the translation.’ In short, translation is a
semantic mapping (transformation) of a written text of the SL into another written text of
TL in the contexts as shown in Figure 13.2. There are relevant environments intermediately
between the two poles of the cline of instantiation. One such environment is that of
registers – a region on the cline of instantiation halfway between instance and potential.
Another such environment is that of culture.

Language and Translation 361

 The environment of translation
mapping

potential (system) subpotential/ instance type instance

TL
potential (system) subpotential/ instance type instance
SL
context context of culture subculture/ situation type situation
context context of culture subculture/ situation type situation

semantics semantic system register / text type [text as] meaning

semantics semantic system register / text type [text as] meaning:

lexicogrammar lexicogrammatical system [register] / [text type] [text as] wording

lexicogrammar lexicogrammatical system [register] / [text type] [text as] wording:

with linguistic system/culture as frame of Translation process

with register/ subculture as frame of
reference
reference

with semantics and context

as frame of reference

Figure 13.2: The environment of translation (adapted from Matthiessen 2001)

Some basic translation notions from a Systemic Functional

Perspective

System and choice

System and choice are important concepts in the theory of Systemic Function Linguistics.
According to Halliday (1985: 30, stress added), SFL is

… an analysis-synthesis grammar based on the paradigmatic notion of

choice…. It is a tristratal construct of semantics (meaning),
lexicogrammar (wording), and phonology (sound). The organizing

362 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 concept at each stratum is the paradigmatic ‘system’… Options are
realized as syntagmatic constructs or structures; a structure is a
configuration of functional elements.… A text in systemic-functional
grammar is an instantiation of the system.

In fact, whatever we analyze of anyone’s speech or writing, we can always be asking

‘what were the alternative ways? Or what was the meaning potential within which these
choices were being made? Without that, we cannot in fact understand the meaning.’
(Halliday, 2004 seminar). For instance, the word ‘possible’ means what it is supposed to
mean because the speaker has the choice to use other options in the same system such
as ‘probable’ or ‘perhaps’.

With respect to the notion of register, we mentioned in Chapter 7 that field relates to the
ideational meanings of a situation, tenor to its interpersonal meanings and mode to its
textual meanings. In terms of choice, it is most probable that the field affects our choices
among the use of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs of the open word classes, and
also the preposition of the closed word classes. It also affects our choices of tenses and
aspects. The tenor, on the other hand, affects our choices among personal pronouns, the
mood types, and modality. Finally, the mode affects our choices on thematic selection
and information focus, as well as the textuality through the choices of cohesive devices.

Translation, as in creative writing, is basically a process of choice; the basic decision a

translator has to make is to choose among various options available in the language
systems, and the basic problem a translator has to face is also the problem of choice such
as to choose either the translation equivalence at the word level or at the meaning level.
We may usually make the choice unconsciously in daily informal conversation; however,
we normally make the choice consciously in formal context. In the process of translation,
the choosing is supposed to be a conscious one. A ‘good’ translator is the one who is
always aware the availability of the options provided in the potential of the source
language and the target language to fully comprehend the ‘meaning’ of the original text

Language and Translation 363

and to make meaningful choice with respect to the co-text and context to produce the
translated text in the target language. This leads our discussion to some important
concepts in translation: literal translation vs. free translation, and translation equivalence
and translation shift.

Free translation vs. literal translation

Language is stratified into several strata; the number of strata is fixed for all languages.
Each stratum is organised internally through a series of contextualisations, resulting in a
hierarchy of units. These units are related through the relation of constituency, i.e. through
a part-whole relation. In other words, the highest-ranking unit consists of units of the rank
immediately below, which in turn consist of units at the next rank below, and so on.
Though the number of ranks within a given stratum may not be the same in different
languages, the rank scale at the lexicogrammatical stratum of both Chinese and English is
clause – group/phrase – word – morpheme, in which a clause consists of groups/phrases,
and a group/phrase consists of words.

In this understanding of rank and stratification, we can re-examine the concept of free
translation and literal translation. We can consider free translation and literal translation
lying onto the two ends of a cline. In terms of rank, a word-to-word translation is
comparatively literal while a clause-to-clause translation is comparatively free. In terms of
strata, taking into consideration the lexicogrammar in the process of translation is
comparatively literal while taking into consideration the context or culture is
comparatively free. This is shown in Figure 13.5.

364 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 STRATIFICATION RANK

context clause free translation

semantics group/phrase

lexicogrammar word
literal

Figure 13.3: Free translation vs. literal translation and environment of translation (adapted
from Matthiessen 2001)

Types of translation equivalence

Translation and equivalence are closed collocation in the study of translation in the
western cultures. As a matter of fact, translation is often defined in terms of equivalence.
For instance, Bell (1992) defined translation as the replacement of a representation of a
text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language.
However, as Meethan and Hudson (1972: 713) suggest, texts in different languages can be
equivalent in different degrees – fully or partially equivalent – in respect of different levels
of presentation equivalent, such as context, semantics, grammar, lexis, etc., and at
different ranks, such as word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence. In this
section, we examine some notions of equivalence and discuss what SFL can offer in this
aspect.

(A) Catford’s translation equivalence and translation shift

Language and Translation 365

Catford’s model on translation is built on Hallidayan linguistic model on category, which
was later developed into the SFL. In this model, a formal correspondent is distinguished
from a textual equivalence. In Catford’s (1965: 27) own words, a formal correspondent is
‘any TL category (unit, class, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as
nearly as possible, the “same” place in the “economy” of the TL as the given SL category
occupies in the SL’; whereas a textual equivalence is ‘any TL text or portion of text which is
observed on a particular occasion … to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of
text’. When there are occurrences of translation equivalence, there are possibilities of
translation shift. Translation shifts, according to Catford, refer to ‘departures from formal
correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL’ (Catford 2000: 141-7). There
are two kinds of translation shift: level shift and category shift. A level shift occurs when the
meaning is expressed by grammar in the SL but lexis in the TL or vice versa.

There are four kinds of category shift – structural shift, class shift, unit shift or rank shift, and
intra-system shift.

 A structural shift occurs when there is a shift in grammatical structure from the SL to
the TL in the translation process. For example, in [11.2], the orders of the subject and
the modal auxiliary in the ST and in the TT are different. In [11.3], the circumstance
jīnwǎn (tonight) is thematized to the beginning of the clause in the ST; however, it is
placed at the end of the clause in the TT.

[11.2] Suàn le wǒ kànzhe yǒudiǎn bù guòyi máng zhǐzhu

「算了，」 我 看 著 有點 不 過意， 忙 止住

Guō Zhěn dào Zhū xiǎojie tóu yī cì lái zìrán yǒud iǎn

郭 軫 道，「 朱 小姐 頭 一 次 來， 自然 有 點

jū ni nǐ bùyào qù chuō tā

366 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 拘 泥，你 不要 去 戳 她。

(“That’s all right.” I felt rather sorry for the girl and stopped Kuo Chen. “This is Miss
Chu’s first visit; of course she’s a little shy. Now don’t you pick on her.”)

[11.3] Wǒ děng zhū Qīng kūguo le cái pāipāi tā de jiānbǎng shuōdao

我 等 朱 青 哭過 了，才 拍拍 她的 肩膀 說道：

tóu yī cì zhàrán fēnlí zǒng shì zhèyàng de jīnwǎn bùyào

「頭 一次，乍然 分離， 總 是 這樣 的 ——今晚 不要

kāi huǒ dào wǒ nàr chī yèfàn gěi wǒ zuò gè bànr

開 伙， 到 我 那兒 吃 夜飯， 給 我 做 個 伴兒。」

(I waited until Verdancy had cried herself out. Then I patted her shoulder. “Well,
these sudden partings – the first time around, it always hits you like this. Don’t
cook tonight. Come have dinner with me and keep me company.”)

 A class shift occurs when there is a shift from one part of speech to another. For

example, in [11.4], the modal auxiliary zǒng yào (總要) in the ST is translated into an

adverb always in the English TT.

[11.4] Wǒ yě bùguǎn tāmen yǎnhóng Lú xiānsheng de càilai wǒ

我 也 不管 他們 眼紅， 盧 先 生 的 菜裏，我

zǒng yào jiāxiē liào niú ròu shì jiànzi ròu zhū ròu dōu shìs hòu de

總要 加些 料： 牛 肉 是 腱子 肉， 豬 肉 都 是 瘦 的。

(I didn’t care what they thought or how envious they were, I always put

Language and Translation 367

 something extra in Mr. Lu’s order – beef, I’d give him the shank cut; pork, all lean
meat.)

 A unit shift or rank shift is said to occur when the meaning(s) is realized at particular
rank in the SL is expressed at a different rank in the TL. For example, in [11.5] the main
clause in the SL, tā de yījīng peìguà shì yàojǐn de, in the SL is a simple emphatic
attributive shì … de construction; whereas in the TL, the original noun phrase tā de
yījīng peìguà is construed as a clause ‘his full military regalia be displayed’, which
realised the extraposed subject of the sentence.

[11.5] rìhòu yílíng tā de yījīng peìguà shì yàojǐn de

日後 移靈，他 的 衣衾 佩掛 是 要緊 的。」

(When the time comes to move his body, it is important that his full military regalia
be displayed.)

 An intra-system shift is said to take place when there are approximately

corresponding systems in both the SL and the TL but the meaning is realized in a non-
corresponding option in the TL. For example, to express assessment of probability, the
modal auxiliary yao in Chinese carries a medium level of force, and its translation
equivalence in English should be either will or would. However, in [11.6], yao has
been translated into a modal auxiliary has got to with different degree of force.

[11.6] Wǒ kànguo de Táiběi zhèqi fūren tàitai men fūren de pífū yào shǔ dì-yī

「我 看過 的」 臺北 這起 夫人 太太們， 夫人 的 皮膚 要 數 第一！

(Of all the ladies I’ve seen in Taipei Madame’s complexion has got to be the
finest!)

(B) Baker’s translation equivalence

368 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Mona Baker also adopted the theoretical framework of SFL to discuss the notion of
translation equivalence. In her book In other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (1992),
Baker examines the various common problems of non-equivalence at word level:

 The source language concept is a culture-specific one, or is not lexicalized in the

target language;
 Words in the source language are semantically complex and do not have formal
correspondences in the target language;
 General words (superordinate) and specific words (hyponyms) in the source-
language do not have formal correspondences in the target language;
 The source and target languages have differences in physical or interpersonal
perspective, in expressive meaning, in form, and in frequency and purpose of using
specific forms, and make different distinctions in meaning; and
 The use of loan words in the source text.

Baker then moves on to discuss the strategies used by professional translators, including
translation by a more general word (superordinate) or a more neutral/less expressive word,
by paraphrase using a related word, unrelated words, a loan word or loan word plus
explanation, and by cultural substitution, omission or illustration.

Apart from the equivalence at the word level, Baker (1992) also discusses the equivalence
equivalence above word level, including collocation, idioms, and fixed expressions, as
well as grammatical equivalence. Unlike Catford, Baker’s (1992) notion on equivalence is
not confined to formal category. Baker also examines the textual equivalence, including
thematic and information structures, and cohesion, and also pragmatic equivalence. For
instance, there is a mismatch of theme in example [11.7] because Wǔbǎo (Baby Five) is an
unmarked topical Theme in the original Chinese sentence while ‘over and over’ is a
marked Theme of circumstance in the target English translation.

Language and Translation 369

 [11.7] Wǔbǎo kǒu.kou shēngshēng dōu duì wǒ shuō Wǒ yào biàn guǐ

五寶 口口聲聲 都 對 我 說： 我 要 變 鬼

qù zhǎoxún tā

去 找尋 他！

(Over and over Baby Five had sworn: I’ll turn into a ghost and hunt him down!)

(C) Bell’s translation equivalence

According to Bell (1992), it is desirable for the study of translation to follow a descriptive
tradition than a prescriptive one, and for translated products to be deal with within the
conventions of text-linguistics. Such a stance can be reflected on Bell’s discussion on the
debate about whether translation should be taken as an art or a science:

‘[t]he linguist inevitably approaches translation from a ‘scientific’ point of view,

seeking to create some kind of ‘objective’ description of the phenomenon … It
could, however, be argued that translation is an ‘art’ or a ‘craft’ and therefore
not amenable to objective, ‘scientific’ description and explanation and so, a
fortiori, the search for a theory of translation is doomed from the start.”
(Bell1992: 4)

Bell defined translation as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language

by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell (1992) examines
three types of meaning in a communication, namely the cognitive meaning (concerning
the propositional context of the text), the interpersonal meaning (concerning the
orientation of the sender-speaker or receiver-writer – to the exchange in which they are
engaged) and the discourse meaning (concerning the organization of the information,
extending to the standards of textuality and discourse parameters). It is obvious that these
three types of meaning are in fact corresponding to the three metafunctions and

370 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

cohesive devices in SFL. As a result, apart from Baker’s textual equivalence, Bell (1992) also
discusses the equivalence in cognitive meaning and the equivalence in interactional
meaning. This naturally leads our discussion to the three metafunctional equivalences.

(D) Metafunction and the concept of equivalence

As mentioned previously, language is a higher-order semiotic system, which is able to
create more than one mode of meaning simultaneously. Halliday (1985/1994, 1997, 2004)
identifies three modes of meaning, i.e. ideational, interpersonal and textual, are referred
to in SFL as metafunctions. The ideational metafunction concerns our experience of the
world around us and inside us, whereas the interpersonal metafunction concerns the
interaction between speaker and listener(s) or between writer and reader(s). These two
metafunctions orient themselves towards the material world and the social world,
respectively, and both concern phenomena that are non-linguistic in nature (Matthiessen
& Halliday 1997). They call the third metafunction – textual metafunciton – into being. The
textual metafunction enables the presentation of ideational and interpersonal meanings
as information that can be interpreted by speaker and addressee(s). It concerns the
creation of text/discourse, the flow of meaning and the phenomena that are linguistic in
nature. All these three modes of meaning are simultaneously realized in any major clause
as text unfolds (see Halliday 1985). In the process of translation, a translator has to
consider the equivalence of these three modes of meaning as shown in Table 6.

Ideational whether a certain process in the ST is translated into the same type of
equivalence process in the TT (with the same participant(s) and under the same
circumstance(s)). For instance:

[11.8] n ǐ bùyào qù chuō tā (process: material; transitive)

你 不要 去 戳 她。
(Now don’t you pick on her.) (process: material; transitive)

whether the same logico-semantic relationship between the two clause

simplexes in the ST is translated into the same type of relationship in the TT.
Interpersonal whether a certain mood type in the ST is translated to the same mood
equivalence type in the TT (with the same choice of modality and with the same level

Language and Translation 371

 of force). For instance:

[11.10] yīdìng yào bǎoliú yī tào Mèng Yǎng cháng chuān de jūn ǐfú.
一定 要 保留 一套 孟 養 常 穿 的 軍禮服
(mood type: command; modality: obligation – high degree of force)
(They absolutely must have one of his full-dress uniforms put aside for
this purpose.) (mood type: command; modality: obligation – high degree
of force)

Textual whether the ST and the TT are having the same thematic prominence and
equivalence the same information focus as in [11.7].

whether the ST and the TT are having the same textuality in terms of
cohesive devices. For instance:

[11.11] 舅舅留下了一筆很可觀的產業，因此舅媽和表妹一向都過著十分富裕的生
活。(conjunction: result)
He (my uncle) left a considerable estate, so my aunt and my cousin
had always lived a life of luxury. (conjunction: result)

from clause into discourse

whether the ST and the TT are developed in the same way in terms of
thematic development. For instance:

[11.12] 舅媽叫我去認屍的時候，王雄的屍體已經讓海水泡了好幾天了。王雄全身
都是烏青的，肚子腫起，把衣衫都撐裂了；他的頭臉給魚群叮得稀爛，紅的紅、黑
的黑，儘是一個一個的小洞，眉毛眼睛都吃掉了。

(When my aunt, my mother's brother's wife, sent me to identify the body,

Wang Hsiung had been in the water for days. His whole body had turned
black and blue; his belly was so swollen it had burst through his shirt; the
fish had been eating at his head and it had turned into rotten pulp with
little holes all over, some dark red, some inky black; even the eyes and
eyebrows were gone. )

Table 13. 6: Ideational, interpersonal, and textual equivalence at the clausal rank

House’s model of translation quality assessment

372 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

A theory of translation decides the point of view of translation, which in turns decides the
assessment of a translation quality. In this section, we will specifically focus on House’s
assessment model.

After reviewing various approaches toward translation assessment, House (1997) proposes
an assessment model which incorporated the notions of register and genre in SFL. House’s
model basically involves a systematic comparison of the textual profile of the ST and the TT.
Each textual profile, in fact, consists of a profile of register and a profile of genre. The
profile of register is a detailed analysis of the three dimensions of the register of the text,
including the examination of the lexical means, syntactic means and textual means on
the field, tenor and mode. The profile of genre, on the other hand, is a description of the
social goal and textual features in the culture of the text. Through the comparison of the
profiles of register of the ST and TT, lexical mismatches, syntactic mismatches, and textual
mismatches in the register are identified. Similarly, through the comparison of the profiles
of genre of the two texts, ‘overt errors’ in the genre are stated. Based on these two
comparisons, the assessment of the translation is presented in a ‘statement of quality’.
Finally, the translation is categorised into an ‘overt translation’ or ‘covert translation’. The
assessment process is depicted in Figure 7.

A translation being categorised as ‘overt’ is one in which ‘the addressees of the

translation text are quite “overtly” not being directly addressed’. In other words, an overt
translation is one that does not purport to be a “second original” but overtly a translation.
According to House (1997), texts which call for an overt translation include those “overt
historically-linked” texts and “overt timeless” texts. On the other hand, a covert translation
is ‘a translation which enjoys the status of an original source text in the target culture’. It is
usually a translation of the ST which is not specifically addressed to the particular source
language and culture, and as a result, the translator can have equal concern for the
source and target language communities (House 1997: 66-70).

Language and Translation 373

mmm
Individual textual

Register Genre
(generic
purpose)

Field Tenor Mode

subject participant - medium
matter and relationship (simple/comple
social action - author’s x)
provenance and - participation
stance (simple/comple
- social role x)
relationship
- social attitude

Figure 7: Scheme for analyzing and comparing original text and target text (House 1997:
Language/text
108)

374 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Figure 13.4: Scheme for analyzing and comparing original text and target text (House 1997:
108)

Conclusion

Translation is basically a language phenomenon, and is therefore able to be studied from

a linguistic approach. This chapter is built on what we have learnt about systemic
functional grammar in the previous chapters. From this perspective, we explored the
nature of translation, basic notions in translation, types of translation equivalence and
translation shift, and a model of translation quality assessment. This linguistic approach, in
general, provides us a comprehensive understanding of the study of translation.

Language and Translation 375

Key to activities
Introduction
Activity 1
(1) C (2) A (3) B (4) A (5) C (6) C (7) B (8) A (9) A (10) C

Activity 2
(1) E (2) F (3) H (4) F (5) V/I (6) F/E (7) I (8) E (9) D (10) P

Chapter 1: Phonetics and Phonology

Activity 1.1
11) a labio-dental fricative: phrase, vest
12) a dental fricative: themselves, thesis
13) a velar plosive: chrysanthemum, quadruple
14) an alveolar fricative: czar, psychiatric
15) a bilabial plosive: biography, panorama
16) a palato-alveolar fricative: chauvinism, schwa
17) an alveolar plosive: dwindle, tortoise
18) a semi-vowel: union, whenever
19) a velar plosive: choral, gearwheel
20) a glottal fricative: humor, whose

Activity 1.2
1) A velar consonant: plaque, Prague
2) A bilabial consonant: scallop, tube
3) A labio-dental fricative: adhesive, triumph
4) An alveolar plosive: mopped, stipulated
5) A palato-alveolar affricate: hostage, scratch
6) An alveolar nasal: cortisone, deign
7) A palato-alveolar fricative: beige, douche
8) A voiced alveolar fricative: appease, mouths
9) A voiceless dental fricative: beneath, hearth
10) A voiced velar plosive: pedagogue, vague

Activity 1.3
1) A schwa: Malaysia, recollection
2) A palatal semi-vowel: tuberculosis, yawn
3) A diphthong: thrive, share
4) A voiced palato-alveolar fricative: treasure, precision
5) A voiced velar nasal: Bangkok, banquet
6) A central vowel: abrupt, pursue
7) A labio-velar semi-vowel: squirrel, oneness
8) A palato-alveolar frictionless continuant: progress, parish
9) A diphthong: poster, climbing
10) A lateral consonant: helm, solemn

Activity 1.4
‘China is America’s banker’ is a phrase one often hears, along with ‘China has massive
foreign exchange reserves’. Hold on, though. No US stimulus package will need a cent
from China. At the risk of grossly oversimplifying, here is how America finances a stimulus
package like the one it needs now.

377
Using only entries on its balance sheet, the Federal Reserve System creates cash and uses
it to buy bills from the Treasury Department. The Treasury spends the money, based on
Congressional appropriations. Congress also has to raise the debt ceiling. That’s it. It has
nothing to do with China.

Activity 1.5
11) The Immigration Bureau refused to grant him a work permit to work in Hong Kong.
12) She has ex tracted a description of the murderer from the newspaper.
13) Manchester is one of the industrial cities in Britain.
14) He was a famous en viron mentalist before he took up the position of CEO in our
company.
15) The police conducted a thorough search for an escaped convict in the forest.
16) The author reca pitulated the main points of the paper in the conclusion.
17) There are strict limits on immi gration into the United States.
18) The perfume contains extracts from several flowers.
19) The proceeds of today’s concert will go to several schools for students with learning
disabilities.
20) This report rein forces the findings of the pilot study.

Chapter 2: Morphology
Activity 2.1
Derivational affixes
e.g., The farmer's cows returned home. –er, re–
(s) This is an historic occasion. -ic
(t) And I am particularly pleased to see that Chairman
-ly
Deng Xiaoping is able to be present.
(u) The Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong, -ation
(v) which we have just signed on behalf of our two
-ment
Governments,

378 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(w) is a landmark in the life of the territory;
(x) in the course of Anglo-Chinese relations -ese, -ion
(y) and in the history of international diplomacy. inter-, -al, -cy
(z) The Agreement establishes a firm basis for confidence in
-ment, -ence
Hong Kong up to 1997 and beyond,
(aa) and for its continued stability, prosperity and growth. -s, -(e)d, -ity, ity, -th

Activity 2.2
Inflectional affixes
e.g., The farmer's cows returned home. –'s, –s, –ed
(bb) This is an historic occasion.
(cc) And I am particularly pleased to see that Chairman
-ed
Deng Xiaoping is able to be present.
(dd) The Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong,
(ee) which we have just signed on behalf of our two
-ed, -s
Governments,
(ff) is a landmark in the life of the territory;
(gg) in the course of Anglo-Chinese relations -s
(hh) and in the history of international diplomacy.
(ii) The Agreement establishes a firm basis for confidence in
-es
Hong Kong up to 1997 and beyond,
(jj) and for its continued stability, prosperity and growth.

Activity 2.3
Derivational Inflectional
affixes affixes
e.g., The farmer's cows returned home. –er, re– –'s, –s, –ed
(e) Those socks are inexpensive. in–, –ive –s

379
 (f) The strongest rower won. –er –est
(g) The dramatization went well. –tic, –ize, –ation
(h) The dispute was eventually resolved after –(u)al, –ly, re– ,
–ed, –s
protracted negotiations. pro–, –ation

Activity 2.4
Acronyms Abbreviations Blendings Back-
formations
16. interpol International
+ police
17. to juggle Juggler
18. FBI Federal Bureau
of Investigation
19. deli delicatessen
20. telecom telephone +
conference
21. biz business
22. cardy cardigan
23. TOEFL Test(ing) of
English as a
Foreign
Language
24. hi-tech high +
technology
25. Oxbridge Oxford +
Cambridge
26. to escalator
escalate
27. BBC British

380 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Broadcasting
Corporation
28. heliport helicopter +
airport
29. UFO unidentified
flying object
30. limo limousine

Activity 2.5
The conversed word Type of
conversion
e.g., Mr. Lam’s fingering the piano. finger 1
(f) Listen to the exciting contest! contest 2
(g) He’s gonna open the door. open 3
(h) My mum’s buttoning my shirt. button(ing) 1
(i) The boutique has upped the price. up(ped) 5
(j) Jesus asked us to love the poor. poor 4

Activity 2.6
(a) unhappiness [[un [happy]]ness]
(b) incomprehensible [ in [ [ comprehen(d)] sible]]
(c) redisposal [ [ re [ dis [V pos(e)]]] al]
(d) disestablishment [ [ dis [ establish]] ment]
(e) impossibly [ [ im [ possibl(e)]] ly]

Activity 2.7
Original words Morphological processes

381
 (f) loveseat love, seat compounding
(g) comfy comfortable + (derviational) -y clipping
(h) aerobathon aerobics, marathon blending
(i) automate automation backformation
(j) autocide Automobile, suicide blending

Activity 2.7
Example bookshelf It is created by compounding by which two separate
words (i.e. ‘book’ and ‘shelf’) are combined to produce
a single form ‘bookshelf’.
8. hurdy gurdy It is created by reduplication. There is a repetition of two
words with an initial consonant change.
9. popfest It is created by blending, in which the first part of the first
word ‘popular (music)’ is joined to the first part of the
second word ‘festival’.
10. moneywise It is created by derivation (or suffixation). The word
‘moneywise’ is produced by adding a denominal adverb
suffix -wise to the root ‘money’.
11. to ape It is created by conversion, by which the word ‘ape
(verb)’ is created from the corresponding noun ‘ape’
without the addition of an affix.
12. hoover It is created by proper name. The word was originally
created as a (British) trade name for a product, but has
become an ordinary English word (without initial capital
letters) for any version of that product.
13. eighty It is formed by derivation by which the ending –ty [do not
accept –y] meaning ‘ten’ is added to a simple number.
14. to better It is created by conversion, by which the word ‘better
(verb)’ is created from the corresponding adjective

382 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 ‘better’ without the addition of an affix.
8. walkie-talkie It is created by reduplication. There is a repetition of two
words with a consonant change.
9. centimeter It is created by derivation (or prefixation). The word
‘centimeter’ is produced by adding a number prefix
‘centi’ to the root ‘meter’.
10. WWW It is an acronym formed from the initial letters of the term
‘World Wide Web’.
11. footprint It is created by compounding by which two separate
words (i.e. ‘foot’ and ‘print’) are combined to produce a
single form ‘footprint’.
12. to better It is created by conversion, by which the word ‘better
(verb)’ is created from the corresponding adjective
‘better’ without the addition of an affix.
13. limo It is created by clipping, which denotes the subtraction of
the last syllable from the word ‘limousine’.
14. nitty-gritty It is created by reduplication. There is a repetition of two
words with an initial consonant change.
15. medicare It is created by blending, in which the first part (or the first
two syllables) of the first word ‘medical’ is joined to the
whole form of the second word ‘care’.

Chapter 3: Syntax I
Activity 3.1
1) spell: count, abstract; China: proper, concrete; trading: non-count/mass, abstract;
firm: count, concrete
2) group: count, abstract; boys: count, concrete; cliff: count, concrete; caution: non-
count/mass, abstract
3) Nature: proper, abstract; force: count, abstract; strength: non-count/mass, abstract;

383
 beauty: non-count/mass, abstract; poem: count, concrete;
4) novel: count, concrete; poverty: non-count/mass, abstract; violence: non-
count/mass, abstract; streets: count, concrete; town: count, concrete
5) David: proper, concrete; dictionary: count, concrete; taxation: non-count/mass,
abstract; Routledge: proper, concrete, * collective
6) Evening: count, abstract; high-school: count, concrete; friend: count, concrete; love:
non-count/mass, abstract; dancing: non-count/mass, abstract; instructor: count,
concrete
7) story: count, concrete; scenes: count, abstract; childhood: non-count/mass,
abstract; London: proper; concrete; Second World War: non-count/mass, abstract
8) Management board: proper, concrete, * collective; meeting: count, abstract; level:
count, abstract; workers’: count, concrete; remuneration: non-count/mass, abstract

Activity 3.2
1) Have: aspectual auxiliary - perfect; felt: linking – sense; starts: transitive; blowing:
intransitive
2) are: aspectual auxiliary- continuous; impeaching: transitive; does: do-auxiliary; seem:
linking – copulative; care: intransitive
3) Did: do-auxiliary; invite: transitive; must: modal auxiliary; have: aspectual auxiliary -
perfect; made: ditransitive – factitive
4) Were: passive auxiliary; given: ditransitive – dative; come: intransitive; attend: transitive
5) Hurry up: phrasal verb; get on with: phrasal-prepositional verb
6) thinking about: prepositional verb; Come on: phrasal verb
7) must: modal auxiliary; be: continuing; feeling: linking – sense; was: passive; promoted:
transitive
8) heard: transitive; have: perfective; awarded: dative; performing: intransitive
9) was: passive; crowned: factitive; abdicated: intransitive; left: transitive
10) didn’t: do-auxiliary; ask: dative; had: perfective; been: passive; told off: transitive;
wasting: transitive

384 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Activity 3.3
(1) copulative (2) intransitive/transitive (3) monotransitive
(4) monotransitive (5) past participle
(6) were: passive ; made: monotransitive (7) monotransitive
(8) to-infinitive (9) phrasal verb (10) monotransitive

Activity 3.4
1) Why: interrrogative; seldom: time; nowadays: time; extremely: degree
2) Anyway: conjunctive; henceforth: time; constantly: manner; rather: degree
3) Probably: sentence; late: time; nowhere: indefinite; Where: interrogative
4) definitely: degree; not: negative; again: time; extremely: degree; today: time
5) perhaps: modality; somewhere: indefinite / place; else: manner; still: time; urgently:
manner
6) When: interrogative; back: place; rather: degree; where: relative; refreshingly: manner

Activity 3.5
1) Strings (N) of electric (adj) lights (N) were (V) now (adv) alight (adj) in the trees (N)
and along the alley (N).
2) A block (N) of frozen (adj) ice (N) was soon (adv) brought (V) in* and placed (V) in a
tin (N) tub (N).
3) His host (N) seemed (V) pleased (adj) at that too (adv), as though it were (V) a
special (adj) act (N) of politeness (N).
4) It was (V) like the China (N) Resources (N) building (N), glowing (V) hotly (adv) in
reflected (adj) sunlight (N) that dazzled (V) the eyes (N).
5) Going (V) indoors (adv) to remove (V) his shoes (N) he felt (V) his feet (N) bare (adj)
on the cool (adj) marble (N).
6) Harriet (N) is (V) a self-employed (adj) vendor (N) aimlessly (adv) roaming (V) the

385
 neighborhood (N).
7) The movie (N) portrays (V) a depressed (adj) actor (N) who has lost (V) his (adj) job (N).
8) They take (V) part (N) in a dance (N) contest (N) to raise (V) money (N) for two (adj)
friends (N).
9) The demands (N) of friendship (N) get (V) more (adv) complex (adj) as these (adj)
relationships (N) move (V) along (adv).
10) He then (adv) decided (V) to engage (V) a butler (N) to take (V) better (adj) care (N)
of him for a while (N).

Activity 3.6
1) Anyone: indef; who: rel; which: interrog: one: indef
2) These: demon; ones: indef; herself: reflex; hers: poss
3) What: interrog; you: pers; yourself: emphat; you: pers; nothing: indef
4) Somebody: indef; me: pers; I: pers; what: indef rel; mine: poss
5) That: dem; it: pers; who: rel; himself: reflex
6) Themselves: emphat; ones: indef; ours: poss

Activity 3.7
1) In regard to: complex, phrasal; of: simple; concerning: derived; to: simple
2) Because of: complex, phrasal; into: complex, compound; for: simple; underneath:
simple
3) Concerning: derived; because of: complex: phrasal; to: simple
4) For: simple; of: simple; in spite of: complex: phrasal; towards: simple
5) As regards: complex: phrasal; out of: complex: compound; into: complex: compound

Activity 3.8
1) If: subord, cond; or: coord, disjunct; so that: subord, purpose; as soon as:
subord, time

386 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

2) Even though: subord, concess; and: coord, cop; but: coord, advers; as:
subord, cause/reason
3) as if: subord, manner; while: subord, time; yet: coord, advers; so: subord,
result
4) Though: subord: concession; before: subord: time; as: subord: reason: both
… and: co-ord: copulative [correlative]
5) Once: subord: time; so that: subord: purpose; and: co-ord: copulative;
until: subord: time; than: subord: comparison
6) As far as: subord: manner; that: subord: reason; either … or: co-ord:
disjunct; so: co-ord: result

Activity 3.9
1) These (dem) private (desc) agencies investigate any (indef) matter from
cheating (desc) spouses to pirated (desc) foreign (desc) goods.
2) Many (indef) people in the (art) police and judiciary oppose their (poss)
unorthodox (desc) style, the (art) use of which (rel) techniques
contravene all (indef) normal (desc) standards.
3) With business so brisk (desc), his (poss) firm turned away nine of the (art)
ten (card) cheating cases that were offered last (ord) month.
4) What (interr) success I have had in this (dem) business is due (desc) to
my (poss) dogged (desc) determination to solve every (indef) case.

Activity 3.10
1.
Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
Kissinger’s secret visit to Beijing
attributive
adjectival noun preposition noun
adjective
2.
387
 Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
the level of mutual understanding
determiner preposition adjective noun
3.
Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
real conflict of interest
attributive adjective preposition noun
4.
Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
the lack of trust
determiner preposition noun
5.
Pre-modifier Head
Neither side
determiner
6.
Pre-modifier Head
a long-term strategic vision
attributive attributive
determiner
adjective adjective
7.
Head Conjunction Head
Germany and Britain
8.
Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
common global interest at the time
attributive attributive
preposition determiner noun
adjective adjective
9.

388 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
opposing sides in a major war
adjective determine attributive
preposition noun
(present participle) r adjective
10.
Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier
momen
a precarious for the Sino-US relationship
t
attributive simple adjectival
determiner determiner noun
adjective preposition noun

Activity 3.11
1) thinks: present; may: modal; know: infinitive; has just revised: present perfect
2) had been pinned: past perfect, passive; saying: present participle; called: past

3) didn’t own: past; would: modal; have: infinitive; to take: infinitive

4) couldn’t: modal; dance: infinitive; watched: past; perform: infinitive
5) kept: past; talking: present participle; had: past; was staring: past progressive/past
continuous

6) started: past; would: modal; have liked: perfect infinitive/infinitive perfect; to leave:
infinitive

7) Don’t confuse: imperative; ’ve always hated: present perfect; (’ve always)
avoided: present perfect

8) might: modal; have tried: infinitive perfect/perfect infinitive; to help: infinitive; had
been asked: past perfect, passive

9) weakened: past participle; were still valiantly saying: past progressive/past

continuous; Fight: imperative

10) ’s sitting: present progressive/present continuous; doesn’t seem: present; to have

been invited: perfect infinitive/infinitive perfect, passive)

389
Activity 3.12
a) intransitive b) monotransitive c) transitive

d) to-infinitive e) to-infinitive f) bare infinitive

g) present participle h) present participle i) present participle

k) were (auxiliary passive)

j) present participle l) intransitive
alerted (monotransitive)
m) to-infinitive n) present participle o) to-infinitive

Chapter 4: Syntax II
Activity 4.1
1. Peter murdered his wife.
Peter murdered his wife
S V (vt) DO
2. Mary watched the soccer match.

Mary watched the soccer match

S V (vt) DO

3. The dog chased the thief.

The dog chased the thief

S V (vt) DO

4. David took a taxi to school.

David took a taxi to school

S V (vt) DO AC

5. Rebecca presented the trophy to the winner on the stage.

Rebecca presented the trophy to the winner on the stage

390 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 S V (vd) DO IO A

6. Peter like the fact that soft drinks are being served in the party.

Peter like the fact that soft drinks are being served in the party.
S V (vt) DO

7. A piercing cold wind blew toward the platform.

A piercing cold wind blew toward the platform.

S V (vi) A

8. An officer died last night.

An officer died last night.

S V (vi) A

9. Marianne laughed wholeheartly.

Marianne laughed wholeheartly.

S V (vi) A

10. Tom bought Susan a gift yesterday.

Tom bought Susan a gift yesterday.

S V (vd) IO DO A

11. She saw the car accident.

She saw the car accident.

S V (vt) DO
12. Ronnie is the school prefect.

Ronnie is the school prefect.

S V (vc) SC

391
13. David climbed the mountain.

David climbed the mountain.

S V (vt) DO

14. They like serving soft drinks in the party.

They like serving soft drinks in the party.

S V (vt) DO

15. Rebecca looked at the doctor.

Rebecca looked at the doctor.

S V (vi) AC

16. The salt dissolved in the soup.

The salt dissolved in the soup.

S V (vi) A

17. She told me that it was raining heavily.

She told me that it was raining heavily

S V (vd) IO DO

18. There seems to be a tiger under the bridge.

There seems to be a tiger under the bridge

V (vc) S AC

19. Mary likes the movies very much.

Mary likes the movie very much

S V (vt) DO A
20. John is smart.

John is smart.
S V (vc) SC

392 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

21. She asked me a question.

She asked me a question.

S V (vd) IO DO

22. Both of the men shivered in the cold wind.

Both of the men shivered in the cold wind.

S V (vi) C

23. John is smart.

John is smart.
S V (vc) SC

24. The boys like the soft drinks.

The boys like the soft drinks.

S V (vt) DO

25. The one who killed Mary is John.

The one who killed Mary is John

S V (vc) SC

26. He has a million dollars in his pocket.

He has a million dollars in his pocket.

S V (vt) DO A

27. I forgot the answer.

I forgot the answer.

S V (vt) DO

28. I am looking at John.

393
 I am looking at John
S V (vi) AC

29. Litter is everywhere after the festival.

Litter is everywhere after the festival.

S V (vc) AC A

30. There seems to be a tiger under the bridge.

There seems to be a tiger under the bridge.

V (vc) S AC

31. On the tree is a cat.

On the tree is a cat.

SC V (vc) S

32. Jenny played Ophelia in the drama.

Jenny played Ophelia in the drama.

S V (vt) DO A

33. The people voted him president.

The people voted him president.

S V (vf) DO OC

34. They name the baby John.

They name the baby John.

S V (vf) DO OC
35. Red
stands for danger.

Red stands for danger.

S V (prepositonal vt) DO

394 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

36. Judy sounds like a star.

Judy sounds like a star.

S V (vs) AC / SC *

37. Winnie is a good girl.

Winnie is a good girl.

S V (vc) SC

38. The sign indicates that Gate 40-612 are to the right.

The sign indicates that Gate 40-612 are to the right

S V (Vt) DO

39. The boys like the idea of holding a party on Friday.

The boys like the idea of holding a party on Friday.

S V (vt) DO

40. Max owns the property.

Max owns the property.

S V (vt) Do

41. I saw Mary after school.

I saw Mary after school.

S V (vt) DO A

42. The cat smells the flower.

The cat smells the flower.

S V (vt) DO

395
Activity 4.2
1.
The people were singing on the bus.
S Vi A
2.
To my surprise the driver objected
A S Vi
3.
He complained that the bus was not a karaoke club.
S Vt DO
4.
On the other hand the passengers argued that they had paid for their
tickets.
A S Vt DO
5.
He complained that the people on the bus were interfering with his
concentration.
S Vt DO
6.
I felt a bit sorry for him.
S VS SC A
7.
As the singing was truly he stopped the bus at a small shop,
awful,
A S Vt DO A

got out and bought some to block his ears.

tissues
Vi (phrasal verb) Vt DO Vt DO

396 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 (infinitive)
8.
From his point of view the passengers were noisy and inconsiderate.
A S VC SC
9.
The passengers, however, were more concerned the driver’s
about attitude
S A VC SC Prep DO

Activity 4.3
[1] Summer (S) /is coming (V). [2] It (S) / is (V)/ time (SC) / for a few reminders (AC) /
about the effects of heat (A) / on your pets (A). [3] Do not leave (V) / your pets (DO) /
shut up (OC) / in a car (A) / without adequate ventilation (A). [4] The heat of the sun (S) /
can be (V) / so intense (SC) / [that (X) / a few inches of open window (S) / is (V) / not
enough (SC)] (AC). [5] Give (V) / your pets (IO) / enough fresh water (DO) / to drink (V).
[6] [When (X) / you (S) / are (V) / at a pool or on the beach (AC)] (A), / do not let (V) /
your dog (DO) / drink chemically-treated or salt water (OC). [7] Always (A) / keep (V) /
them (DO)/ clean, groomed and trimmed (OC), / especially (A) / [if (X) / it (S) / is (V) /
long-haired (SC)] (A).

Activity 4.4
Dialogue Mood type
Jane: I’m awfully sorry! exclamative
John: It’s all right. declarative
Don’t worry. imperative
Jane: Is anything broken? interrogative
John: No, no. declarative
Jane: No eggs in your shopping bag, I hope. declarative
John: No. Just potatoes and junk food. declarative

397
Jane: Oh good! exclamative
I mean, I’m glad nothing was broken. declarative
I don’t mean that I’m glad you’re buying junk food! declarative

Activity 4.5
(1) agreement: addition
(2) contrast
(3) agreement: general statement and explanation / massed details
(4) contrast
(5) consequence

Activity 4.6
(1) subject
(2) subject and auxiliary
(3) auxiliary
(4) subject complement
(5) verb/predicate and direct object

Activity 4.7
(1) Compound
(2) Compound:
(3) Complex:
(4) Simple
(5) Compound–Complex

Activity 4.8
(1) manner and comparison
(2) condition
(3) concession and contrast
(4) reason and circumstance

398 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(5) preference
(6) manner and comparison
(7) time
(8) condition
(9) proportion
(10) time

Activity 4.9
(1) prepositional complement
(2) indirect object
(3) subject
(4) direct object
(5) prepositional complement
(6) direct object
(7) adjectival complement
(8) appositive
(9) indirect object
(10) object complement
(11) delayed subject
(12) postmodifier in noun phrase
(13) subject
(14) delayed subject
(15) object complement

Activity 4.10
(1) which failed to stop at a checkpoint last night. (Relative clause: restrictive)
(2) what happened to Mary yesterday. (Noun clause: Direct Object)
(3) what I liked least. (Noun clause: Subject Complement)
(4) what he is today. (Noun clause: Object Complement)
(5) who is the suspect of sexually abused a young girl. (Relative clause: restrictive)
399
(6) that she would commit suicide. (Noun Phrase: postmodifier of the adjective,
“worried” or adjective complement)
(7) that he would marry the princess (Relative Clause: restrictive)
(8) Who is the least popular politician in the coming Chief Executive election (Noun
Clause: Subject)
(9) that he was responsible for the forgeries. (Noun Clause: Direct Object)
(10) who needs constant attention in the class (Relative Clause: Restrictive)

Activity 4.11
1) The claim (that the Great Wall of China can be seen from the moon) is not in fact
true.
MC- NC -MC = Complex
2) It’s hard for very well-known sites to be selected (because there’s skepticism as to
(whether they really need help)).
MC AC NC = Complex (Accept ‘as to’ included in NC) (OR bracket the SC and the
NC separately) (The reduced NC ‘for…selected’ could be included)
3) The upcoming 2008 Olympics have made cultural preservation a particularly hot
issue in
Beijing and China desperately wants to put on its best face for the occasion.
MC & MC = Compound
4) Some sources state (that the Great Wall was built 2000 years ago) but (although
sections of the wall existed then), the pieces weren't organised into a unified system
until the Ming Dynasty.
MC NC & AC MC = Compound-Complex
5) Nearly two decades ago Deng Xiaoping launched a national campaign (that was
aimed at rebuilding the Great Wall) but by that point two-thirds of the vast national
symbol had been reduced to rubble by centuries of war, weather and farmers mining
its bricks.
MC RC & MC = Compound-Complex (the reduced RC ‘mining its bricks’ could be
added)

400 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics
Activity 5.1
(a) Higher Diploma (HD): – Degree, – Research/Thesis
The referent of the phrase Higher Diploma has the semantic features of not being a
degree programme [– Degree], and is not research based [– Research/Thesis].
(b) Bachelor of Arts (BA): + Degree, – Research/Thesis
The referent of the phrase Bachelor of Arts has the semantic features of being a
degree programme [+ Degree], and is not research based [– Research/Thesis].
(c) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD): + Degree, + Research/Thesis
The referent of the phrase Doctor of Philosophy has the semantic features of being a
degree programme [+ Degree], and it is research based [+ Research/Thesis].

Activity 5.2
(a) FOOTBALL
Football: +SPORT, +TEAM (2%)
The referent of the word football has the semantic features of being a sport [+SPORT],
and being a team activity [+TEAM].

(b) SNOOKER
Snooker: +SPORT, -TEAM (2%)
The referent of the word snooker has the semantic features of being a sport [+SPORT],
and being a non-team activity [-TEAM].

(c) READING
Reading: -SPORT, -TEAM (2%)
The referent of the work reading has the semantic features of being a non-sport [-
SPORT], and being a non-team activity [-TEAM].

401
Activity 5.3
new - old (gradable opposite)
unprepared - prepared (non-gradable opposite)
big - small (gradable opposite)
no - yes (non-gradable opposite)
in - out (non-gradable opposite)
within - beyond (non-gradable opposite)

Activity 5.4
Super-ordinate Hyponym
Seafood squid, shrimp, tuna fish
Crops avocado, onion, corn, rice, bean, mushroom
Flesh chicken, bull, sheep
Infrastructure street, fountain, market

Activity 5.5
In (a), the first instance of chair refers to the post of professor and the second means a
position to be in charge of a committee. Chair is a case of polysemy because the two
meanings are closely related, and they have the same entry in the dictionary.

In (b) the first instance of row refers to the activity of rowing in boat and the second
means a serious disagreement between people or organization. Row is a case of
homonymy because the two meanings are unrelated, and as a result, they have
separated entry in the dictionary.

Activity 5.6
(1) synonym
(2) antonym: Non-gradable
(3) antonym: converse

402 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

(4) hyponym
(5) homonym
(6) polysemy
(7) metonymy (representative-symbol)
(8) homophone
(9) antonym: gradable
(10) antonym: reversive

Activity 5.7
(1) Assertive / representative
(2) Directive
(3) Commissive
(4) Expressive
(5) Commissive

Activity 5.8
(1) Assertive (representative)
The speaker ‘he’ stated his commitment to the truthfulness of the statement that there
were few people traveling that time of year.
(2) Assertive (representative)
The speaker M Poirot stated his commitment to the truthfulness of the statement
through his agreement.
(3) Expressive:
The speaker expresses her psychological state through the utterance, i.e. wishing that
M. Poirot would not be snowed up in the Taurus.
(4) Directive
The speaker attempts to elicit information from the hearer, in this case, to confirm
whether the mentioned situation might happen.
(5) Expressive:

403
 The speaker expresses his psychological state through the utterance, i.e. thinking that
the weather report was very bad.

Activity 5.9
When the first speaker (A) asked the hearer his/her annual income, the speaker expected
the hearer (B) to give a verbal answer. However, instead of given a definite amount, B
pretended not to catch the question at first and then give a vague answer when s/he is
being pressed. Such an answer obviously flouts the maxim of Manner because the
contribution that B made is not expected to be obscured or ambiguous. When B blatantly
fails to observe a maxim, it is taken to be that the speaker B wants to give a hint to A to
look for an implicature that is not expressed explicitly at the utterance level, i.e. B does not
want to answer the question.

Activity 5.10
According to Brown and Levinson (1987), when the speaker intends to carry out an act
that s/he believes to be potentially threatening to the hearer’s face, the speaker takes
certain factors into his/her calculation which measure the amount of risk involved in
performing this act. These factors are:
• Distance (D) i.e. the estimation of the closeness of the relationship between the
speaker and the hearer.
• The parameter of power (P) i.e. the power that the speaker has relative to the hearer.
• The rating of imposition (R) i.e. the size of the imposition as conceived by the hearer.

The calculation of the combined values of the above determines the overall size and
weight of the face-threatening act, and this in turn influences our choice of politeness
strategy.

(1) Shut up!

Low degree of politeness because the speaker deprives the hearer of freedom of
action without using any politeness strategy, i.e. bald on record.

404 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 D: close; and/or
P: speaker has the relative power much higher than the hearer;
R: medium as the directive cannot be considered as a very difficult one.

(2) Please can you be quiet?

Medium degree of politeness as the speaker puts the FTA in question form,
addressing the ability of the hearer to close the window, together with the politeness
marker ‘please’.
D: distance; and/or
P: speaker has similar relative power with than the hearer;
R: medium as the directive cannot be considered as a very difficult one.

(3) Excuse me, but could you possibly stop chatting?

High degree of politeness as the speaker choose to avoid interfering with the hearer’s
freedom of action by long hedging and put the FTA in question form, addressing the
ability of the hearer to refrain from smoking, together with a tag.
D: distance; and/or
P: speaker has the relative power lower than the hearer;
R: medium as the directive cannot be considered as a very difficult one

Chapter 8: Construing Experience

Activity 8.1
(1) behaviour (material: action: vi)
(2) material: action: transitive
(3) material: action : transitive
(4) behaviour
(5) attributive relational
(6) behaviour
(7) attributive relational
(8) material: event: intransitive
405
(9) mental: cognition
(10) behaviour
(11) behaviour (material: action: Vt)
(12) behaviour (material: action: Vt)
(13) behaviour
(14) verbal
(15) attributive relational
(16) behaviour

Activity 8.2
(1) possessive
(2) circumstantial
(3) behavioural
(4) behavioural
(5) material - action
(6) material - action
(7) material - event
(8) material - event
(9) relational - identifying
(10) mental - affection
(11) mental - cognition
(12) mental - cognition
(13) mental - cognition
(14) relational - identifying
(15) verbal
(16) verbal
(17) possessive
(18) material – action
(19) mental – affection
(20) verbal / behavioural

406 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Chapter 9: Enacting Relationship
Activity 9.1
(1) statement
(2) statement
(3) command
(4) question
(5) statement
(6) statement
(7) statement
(8) statement
(9) statement
(10) statement

Activity 9.2
[1] That not being destroyed so carefully can only mean one thing. There (1) must
(probability) be on the train someone so intimately connected with the Armstrong family
that the finding of that note (2) would (probability) immediately direct suspicion upon that
person.

[2] To begin with, you (3) must (obligation/probability) realize that the threatening letters
were in the nature of a blind. They (4) might (probability) have been lifted bodily out of
an indifferently written American crime novel. They are not real. They are, in fact, simply
intended for the police.

[3] ‘Exactly, and she (5) always (usuality) speak broken English, and she has a very foreign
appearance which she exaggerates. But it (6) should (probability) not be difficult to guess
who she is. Now what (7) would (probability) we do to her? Or what (8) should
(obligation) we do to her?

407
[4] Princess Dragomiroff loved Linda Arden as great ladies do love great artists. She was
godmother to one of her daughters. (9) Would (Probability) she forget so quickly the
married name of the other daughter? It is not likely. No, I think we (10) can (inclination /
capability) safely say that Princess dragomiroff was lying.

Activity 9.3
Line Number Modality Modality Type
1 may probability
1 usually usuality
2 would like inclination
2 probable probability
4 always usuality
5 may be probability
6 possibly probability
6 may be probability
7 can be probability

Chapter 10: Enabling Discourse

Activity 10.1
Predictably, the jeeps carrying the wood up to Korphe were halted by another landslide
that (textual /structural conjunction) cut the track, eighteen miles shy of their destination.
(2) “The next morning, while (textual / structural conjunction) Parvi and I were discussion
what to do, we saw this great big dust cloud coming down the valley,” Mortenson
(unmarked topical) says. (3) “Haji Ali somehow heard about our problem, / and (textual /
structural conjunction) the men of Korphe had walked all night. (4) They arrived clapping
and singing and in incredible spirits for people / who (textual/ structural conjunction)
hadn’t slep. (5) And then (textual / conjunctive) the most amazing thing of all

408 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

happened. (6) Sher Takhi had come with them / and (textual / structural conjunction) he
(unmarked topical) insisted on carrying the first load.

Activity 10.2
(1) topical Theme
(2) topical Theme
(3) topical Theme
(4) topical Theme
(5) topical Theme
(6) topical Theme
(7) marked topical Theme
(8) topical Theme
(9) marked topical Theme

Activity 10.3
[1] Liberal imperialists (Topical) have resisted explicitly racist arguments for domination,
instead justifying empire as a humane venture delivering progress. [2] Even so
(Textual/(structural) conjunction), implicit in such a stance (Topical/marked) was the belief
that other peoples were inferior. [3] Just as (Textual/structural conjunction) John Stuart Mill
(Topical) contended that despotism was a ‘legitimate mode of government in dealing
with the barbarians’ provided ‘the end be their improvement’, so (Textual/(structural)
conjunction) the Fabians (Topical) contended that self-government for ‘native races’ was
‘as useless to them as a dynamo to a Caribbean’. [4] Intellectuals of the second
International (or Topical) such as Eduard Bernstein (Topical) regarded the colonised as
incapable of self-government. [5] For many liberals and socialists of this era
(Topical/marked), the only disagreement was over whether the natives could attain the
disciplined state necessarily to run their own affairs. [6] Indigenous resistance (Topical),
moreover, was interpreted as “native fanaticism”, to be overcome with European tuition.

409
Chapter 11: Textual Continuity
Activity 11.1
Anaphoric references
- The subject/object pronouns He/him refers to the driver; I/me refers to the author; We
refers to the driver and the author;
- The possessive adjective his refers to the driver;
- The pro-form both of them refers to the noun phrase two people working on this
magazine;
- The relative pronoun which refers to the scrap of paper.

Cataphoric reference
- The pronoun It requires the readers to look ahead to the (that-)clause he fell into
conversation with me to find out what it refers to;

Exophoric/situation reference
- The noun phrase the Chinese newspapers requires the readers to look outside or beyond
the text to recover the meaning. The writer assumes that this information is already known
to the reader, who is part of the society.
- The determiner this in the noun phrase this magazine requires readers to look beyond the
text to recover the meaning. The writer assumes that this information is already known to
the reader of Post Magazine.

Activity 11.2
Ellipses are found in the following turns in the dialogue:
A: Paul and Mary are having a happy event next month.
B: Congratulations to them. That’s their third, isn’t it?
A: No, (it is not their second) (clausal ellipsis). It’ll only be the second.
B: But I thought they already had one boy and one girl.

410 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

A: Yes, they do (had one boy and one girl) (verbal substitution) but what’s that got to do
with it?
B: Mary isn’t pregnant again then.
A: No, of course not. (Mary isn’t pregnant again then)(clausal ellipsis) They’re having a
party to celebrate Paul’s promotion.

Activity 11.3
Only two additive conjunction “and” are found in the text: “a series of consultations and
will serve as a blueprint…” (para. 3) and “IT training; and improving external relations…”
(para. 3)

Activity 11.4
Repetition (e.g., etymologists, dictionaries, word, language, meanings, note ): frequent
 Synonymy, near synonym (e.g., changes <-> evolve, research <-> look at):
occasionally
 hyponomy (e.g., books <-> dictionaries, language <-> German, English): sometimes
 metonymy (e.g., language<-> word<->meanings): often
 No General word
 Collocation (abundance especially in the cluster of language: etymologists,
dictionaries, meaning German, English, omomatopoeic etc, other clusters such as
academic: research, students)

Chapter 12: Language in Context

Activity 12.1
Social activity
A narrating article concerning some past experience, probably the text being a section in
a novel related to the author’s grand aunt.

Topic

411
Mainly about the foot-binding experience of the writer’s grand aunt with some
supplementary background information of the social and historical background of
Shanghai in the late 19th century.

Social activity and topic is realized through the lexical terms relating to foot-binding
practice “bandages” “feet”, the recurring subject of “grand aunt”, the repeated
circumstances of time and place “in 1842” ...

The degree of specialization:

The text is mainly in everyday language, only a few historical terms related to Chinese
contemporary history such as “First Opium War” “treaty ports”. However these terms exist
in a level that does not impede the understanding of the overall content. It can be
inferred that the text is for general readers with some cultural knowledge of China.

Angle of representation
Grand aunt is posited as the main actor in the first part of the text. She is also the
dominate subject of all the three sentence in the first part.
In the second section, the historical and social background, there is a change of angle of
representation, from a personal perspective to a historical perspective, with Shanghai as
the main agent. But unlike the subject of the first section, in this section, the major
participant, Shanghai is portrayed as a static entity with the related processes mainly of
relational types, endowing characteristics to the subject rather than representing actions.

Activity 12.2
Social roles:
The writer acts as a story teller, giving details of her grand aunt’s past experience. And
thus the text is dominated with statements. The reader is the general public.

Status / relative power

412 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

The text is dominated by statements, indicating that the role of the writer as information
giver. But there exists no explicit inequality in power between the writer and the reader.
The writer does not impose instructions, teachings nor commands on the readers. The
tone is neutral and factual with the lack of obligation and epistemic modality.

Social Distance
There is moderate social distance between the writer and the readers. The facts that the
writer does not know the large audience of readers and that the text is one-way
communication enlarge the social distance between the two; however, by relating
personal events to readers, a more intimate relationship is established.

Writer Persona
Two different kinds of writer persona are displayed in the text. The first part, the first
paragraph is of more personal perspective. Although the events of great aunt are
presented in a third-person angle, because the narrator is of close relationship with the
protagonist, it is not difficult to see the tone is not completely neutral. And although the
writer does not explicitly pass any personal evaluation on her grand aunt, the word
choices however, disclose a sense of acclamation. For example positive lexis such as
“proclaimed independence”, “resolutely”, “triumphed”, “rescued”, “set free” projects a
heroic young girl daring to challenge authority and ingrained tradition.

Compared with the first part, the second part might seem more impersonal as it is an
introduction to the setting -- Shanghai the city in the late nineteenth century. However, just
like the first section, the tone is not completely neutral when the author depicts a picture
of Shanghai, although the author’s personal evaluation is not an overt one. With all the
factual information about Shanghai, such as the location, the strategic position of
Shanghai in China then, and the western architecture there, the author still manages to
create a positive image of Shanghai, impressing readers with the prosperity of Shanghai.
This is done by the more direct evaluative statement of the first sentence in the second
paragraph, “Shanghai … was unlike any other city in China.” And though no more direct

413
evaluative statements are given in the rest of the text, the image of Shanghai as a
metropolis is further enhanced through the positive lexis such as ‘burgeoned’, ‘giant’,
‘linked’, ‘Pacific Ocean … only fifty miles away’, ‘stately’, ‘grandeur’, and ‘splendor’.

Activity 12.3
Interactivity:
The text is a one-way communication without the involvement of readers. It is non-
interactive.

Spontaneity:
It is well-planned, revised piece of work, displaying no nonfluency features and is thus of
low spontaneity.

Communicative Distance:
Language is not accompanying actions. There exists distant communicative distance in
terms of both space and time as language is used for reflection in the text.

The Role of Language:

Language plays a constitute role. There are no other semiotic resources such as graphs or
illustration for communication.

Activity 12.4
Field:
The social activity:
A discussion of a social phenomenon.
The topic being discussed:
The remarriage of the widows of Iraqi soldiers. The topic is evident because the major
participants are “women” “wives” all referring to the widows of Iraqi soldiers. Furthermore,
“marry” is the most frequently used process.

414 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Perspective:
The degree of specialization is low. Or only everyday language is used.
The angle of representation:
In the beginning of the discussion, the widows are presented as actors – “what they will
do” “They will remarry.” However, as the conversion progresses, the widows are presented
as passive entities. They become the ones that are manipulated and controlled by others.
Instead of being the actors, they become the goal, “are they allow to marry,” “someone
can marry her again.”

Tenor
Institutional Roles:
The participants may be associates.
Status and Relative Power
The participants seem to enjoy comparatively equal status as no command is being
directed to any particular participants. However, A has higher relative power in terms of
expertise. A is the main information provider (his conversation is dominantly statements
with only one rhetorical question). He is also the initiator of the conversation who
introduces the topic into the discussion.
Social Distance
The social distance between the participants is relatively close as the language is not a
very formal one. Colloquial expression such as ‘you know in that sort of’ is used and there
is an interruption between speaker A and B, which, suggests a rather relaxed relationship.
Persona
A is an information provider who provides factual information in an impersonal way. This is
realized by the dominant statements in his speech and the third person pronouns. B is an
information seeker. All his speech is questions. C is also an information seeker with most of
his speech presented in questions. However, compared with B, C is more opinionative. The
repetition of the questions ‘Are they allow to marry’ displays a sense of suspicion toward
the information. Furthermore, by using ‘that sort of country’, C connotes a negative

415
judgment towards Iraq. D is the one who clarifies the information. In both cases, his
statements are to repeat and confirm A’s messages.

Mode
The channel is phonic and the medium is spoken.
Interactivity:
It is a highly interactive discourse. There are interruptions, questions, and turn taking.
Corrections such as “B: that you mean the women?” “D: that means the widows.”
Spontaneity
It is a spontaneous text featuring fillers “..err..err…err”, incomplete sentences / ellipsis ‘After
three months?’, mistakes, ‘they can be married for three months’, nonstandard grammar
“so what happen after three months?”
Communicative Distance:
The communicative distance between the participants is short as they have aural contact.
And the communication allows immediate feedback. There is some distance between
the social process and the language as the language is to carry out actions; however, the
issue being discussed is a current one.
Role of Language
Language is used to explain a social phenomenon. Language plays a constitutive role.
There are other semiotic resources such as tone, intonation, facial expression, body
language.

Activity 12.5
Structural Text
elements
Orientation When I went to work as a veterinarian’s assistant for Dr. Sam Holt
and Dr. Jack Gunn last summer, I was under the false impression
that the hardest part of veterinary surgery would be the actual
performance of an operation. What might transpire before or after
this feat didn’t occur to me as being of any importance. As it

416 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 happened, I had been in the veterinary clinic only a total of four
hours before I met a little animal who convinced me that the
operation itself was probably the easiest part of treatment. This
animal, to whom I owe thanks for so enlightening me, was a
chocolate-colored Chihuahua of tiny size and immense perversity
named Smokey.
Complication Now Smokey could have very easily passed for some creature
from another planet. It wasn’t so much his gaunt little frame and
overly large head, or his bony paws with nearly saber like claws, as
sit was his grossly infected eyes. Those once-shinning eyes were
now distorted and swollen into grotesque balls of septic, sightless
flesh. The only vague similarity they had to what we’d normally
think of as the organs of vision was a slightly upraised dot, all that
was left of the pupil, in the center of a pink and purply marble. As if
that were not enough, Smokey had a temper to match his ugly
sight. He also had surprisingly good aim, considering his large
diminished vision, toward any moving object that happened to
place itself unwisely before his ever-inquisitive nose, and with
sudden and wholly vicious intent he would snap and snarl at
whatever blocked the little light that could filter through his swollen
and ruptured blood vessels. Truly, in many respects, Smokey was a
fearful dog to behold.

Such an appearance and personality did nothing to encourage

my already flagging confidence in my capabilities as a vet’s
assistant. How was I supposed to get that little demon out of his
cage?
Resolution Jack had casually requested that I bring Smokey to the surgery
room, but did he really expect me to put my hands into the mouth
of the cage of that devil dog? I suppose it must have been my

417
 anxious expression that saved me, for as I turned uncertainly
toward the kennel, Jack chuckled nonchalantly and
accompanied me to demonstrate how professionals in his line of
business dealt with professionals in Smokey’s. He took a small rope
about four feet long with a slipnoose at one end and began to
unlatch Smokey’s cage. Then cautiously he reached in and
dangled the noose before the dog’s snarling jaws….
Complication Once in the surgery, however, the question that hung before our
eyes like a vertical presence was how to get the dog from the
floor to table. Simply picking him up and plopping him down was
out of the question. One glance at the quivering little figure
emitting ominous and throaty warnings was enough to assure us of
that. Realizing that the game was over, Jack grimly handed me
the rope and reached for a muzzle. It was a doomed attempt
from the start; the closer Jack dangled the tiny leather cup to the
dog’s nose the more violent did Smokey’s contortions and rage-
filled cries become and the more frantic our efforts became to try
to keep our feet and fingers clear of the angry jaws. Deciding that
a firmer method had to be used, Jack instructed me to raise the
rope up high enough so that Smokey’d have to stand on his hind
legs. This greatly reduced his maneuverability but served to
increase his tenacity, for at this the little dog nearly went into
paroxysms of frustration and rage.
Resolution In his struggles, however, Smokey caught his forepaw on his
swollen eye, and the blood that had been building up pressure
behind the fragile cornea burst out and dripped to the floor. In the
midst of our surprised and the twinge of panic startling the three of
us, Jack saw his chance and swiftly muzzled the animal and lifted
him to the operating table.
Complication Even at that point, it wasn’t easy to put the now terrified dog to

418 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 sleep.
Resolution He fought even the local anesthesia and caused Jack to curse as
he was forced to give Smokey far more of the drug than should
have been necessary for such a small beast
Coda After what seemed an eternity, Smokey lay prone on the table,
breathing deeply and emitting soft snores and gentle whines. We
also breathed deeply in relief, and I relaxed to watch fascinated,
while Jack performed a very delicate operation quite smoothly
and without mishap.

Such was my harrowing introduction into the life of a veterinary

surgeon. But Smokey did teach me a valuable lesson that has
proven its importance to me many times since, and that is that
wherever animals are concerned, even the smallest detail should
never be taken for granted.

Activity 12.6
Structural Text
elements
Issue What will our future look like? No one knows for certain, but most
people are sure that robots will exist in our future. Will they be
friendly, like C3-PO in the Star Wars films, or will they be the
frightening machines which will destroy humans in films like the
Terminator series?
Arguments for In fact, rarely have robots created problems for humans. The word
‘robot’ is one that actually comes from Europe and originally
meant ‘slave labor’. In other words, robots are meant to be our
slaves, working for us and helping us all the time. Already, there
are robots in laboratories all over the world which are capable of
helping humans. For example, there are already ‘Robodocs’ in

419
 some hospitals which help carry out operations on humans. Not
only are the robot doctors extremely accurate, but they are also
fast, and unlike human doctors, they don’t have hands that shake
when they are nervous!

Robots are also especially useful for working in environments which

humans would find difficult or impossible to survive in – for
example, in environments where there is high radiation, freezing
temperature, fire, or great pressure, such as at the bottom of the
ocean. Soon, robots will be created that will know how to swim,
and other robots will walk like lobsters on the ocean floor. Before
long, we may not see any construction workers in Hong Kong.
Robots will eventually take over their role and do our building for
us.

Even science fiction writers are becoming amazed at just how

quickly robots are developing. Do you remember the character of
‘Robocop’? Well, a warehouse security guard called Veronica has
already been created. It doesn’t look very human – it has a
met6al skeleton, and there is no flesh on its body. Instead of eyes,
it has two TV cameras. It also has lasers and a radar. If any
criminals are nearby, Veronica will ‘see’ them and record their
appearance on the TV cameras. At the same time, ‘she’ will
contact the police.

Veronica will only do what she is programmed to do, but in Britain,

a set of robots known as ‘the seven dwarfs’ has been developed.
These robots are very different from most robots which exist today.
Although they move around on three wheels, they have the ability
to learn through trial and error, unlike computers and other robots

420 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 which can only be programmed to behave in a certain way. As a
result, they display many types of behavior normally only seen in
animals or humans such as following a leader or grouping together
in times of confusion. In a few years, robots may appear which
learn just as easily as humans do and can think and act for
themselves.
Arguments However, once robots have been developed which can think for
against
themselves, the problems may begin. One scientist warns that if
robots continue to be developed at such a quick pace, and the
robots start to think for themselves, they will no longer want to be
our servants. Because they will be as intelligent as we are, and
they will be able to do things which humans could not, such as
survive radiation and work with great accuracy and speed, they
may decide that they are much better than we are and want to
become our masters. The scientist warns that if we are lucky, they
might treat us the way we treat domestic animals now, such as
dogs or cats. If we are not lucky, who knows? Perhaps a terrifying
future similar to the one shown in the Terminator films may become
a reality after all.

In this text, what is missing is the section on conclusion.

421
Glossary of terms

acoustic phonetics The study of the physical properties of the sound.

acronym A word formed by taking the first letters of (some or all) the words in
a title or a phrase to form a new word.
actor A participant who/which does something.
additive conjunction It signals the presentation of additional information.
adversative A cohesive device which signals that the content in a clause is
conjunction contrary to the expectation derived from the content of what is
being said, from the communication process, (and) from the
speaker-hearer situation.
affixation The process to create new words by altering or extending the
meaning of the words and/or changing their word class.
agreement The relationship of agreement refers to two or more statements
agreeing with each others being put together to form a
compound sentence.
allomorphs The same morphemes that have different phonological realization.
alternation The relationship of alternation refers to the choice among two or
more statements being put together to form a compound
sentence.
antonym A word presenting an opposite meaning.
appositional A compound in which the referents of them embody the meanings
compound of both components but one of them is the focal element.
arbitrariness No intrinsic connection between the word and the referent.
article A word which indicates whether a noun is ‘definite’ (i.e., has
deictic/anaphoric aspect) or ‘indefinite’ (i.e., has a general
aspect).
articulatory The study of the way listeners perceive the sounds is called auditory
phonetics phonetics.
attribute The quality which is assigned to the Carrier.
attributive process The process in which the speaker assigns a quality (the Attribute) to
a participant (the Carrier).
auditory phonetics The study of the way listeners perceive the sounds.
auxiliary verb A verb which carries no referential (or content) meaning but
grammatical function and has to accompany a principal (main)
verb.
base A word to which we add another morpheme.
backformation A process of word formation where a real or supposed affix is
removed from a word to form a new word.
behaver An animate whose behaviour is described in the clause.

422 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

behavioral process It construes (human) behavior, including mental and verbal
behaviors, as an active version of verbal and mental processes.
blending A process of word formation in which we join non-morphemic parts
of two words together to form a new word.
borrowing A process of using words in one language in another.
bound morpheme Morpheme that needs to be attached to another free morpheme
or morphemes.
bound roots Root words that must be attached to an affix to exist.
carrier The participant upon which a quality is assigned.
circumstance When, where, why and how the event is taking place.
circumstantial The location of a process in space or time.
demonstrative
circumstantial It expresses the circumstance in which a participant (the Carrier) is
process in.
clause A group of words which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
clausal ellipsis It involves the omission of parts of the clause.
clausal substitution It involves the replacement of one or more clauses with short forms.
causal conjunction It expresses a causal relation between adjacent clauses.
clipping A process of word formation in which a polysyllabic word is
shortened.
closed word classes A fixed inventory of words whose major function is grammatical –
joining, modifying, or relating major class words.
cohesion A standard feature of textuality which holds the clauses together
by creating sequences of meanings and projects a sense of unity.
coinage A process in which a totally new word is invented.
collocation The relationship that certain lexical items are frequently found in
each others company.
commissives Speech acts that commit the speaker to performing something in
the future, including promises, threats, and refusals.
complex sentence A sentence that contains one independent clause and one or
more dependent clauses.
complex word A word that is made up of a free morpheme and one or more
bound morphemes.
compound A sentence that contains two or more coordinate clauses.
sentence
compound word A word that is made up of two or more free morphemes (with or
without some bound morphemes).
compound-complex A compound-complex sentence is a combination of compound
sentence and complex sentences.
conjunction A word which joins two structures of the same kind; a cohesive
device, which signals the relation between the contents and ideas
between adjacent clauses in the same text.
consonants Speech sounds where the air stream from the lung is completely or
partially blocked.
context of situation The things going on in the world in which the text is created.

423
contrast The relationship of contrast occurs when two or more statements
disagree with each others being put together to form a compound
sentence.
conversion A process in which an existing word, which belongs to one word
class, is used as a word from a different word class.
coordinating A conjunction that expresses several basic logical connections of
conjunction structures of the same kind: copulative, disjunctive and
adversative.
contradiction A semantic situation when two or more sentences in a language
can contradict each other.
copulative A compound which shows a coordinating relationship and they
compound are often difficult to decide which of the components is the focal
element.
critical discourse The study of language use in relation to the relative power and
analysis status of the participants in the discourse.
cultural transmission A language is culturally transmitted; it is passed on from one
generation to the next by teaching and learning.
declarative A sentence that asserts and declares something.
sentence
declaritives Speech acts that by uttering bring about a change in the existing
situation.
demonstrative A form of verbal pointing, with the speaker identifying the referent
reference by locating it on the scale of proximity.
descriptive grammar Grammar that is concerned with observation and neutral
description of how language is actually used.
derivational The study of morphemes, which derives new words (lexemes),
morphology either by changing the meaning, or the category, or both.
derivational A morpheme that influences the meaning or the word class of the
morpheme base.
determiner A word placed before a noun to specify its range of reference.
dialect Variation in a language based on their geographical location.
disyllabic word A word with two syllables.
diphthong A vowel that could be described as a movement from one vowel
position to another.
directive The use of language to make the hearer to take some action.
directives Speech acts that direct hearers to do something that the speaker
wants.
discourse analysis The study of language use beyond the boundary of clause and
sentence.
discourse semantics A subdiscipline of semantics that examines how meanings are
constructed through a text.
discreteness The sounds used in a language are close but discrete so that the
distinctiveness of sounds leads to a distinction in meaning.
displacement A language does not confine its user to here and now. It can talk
about the past and future, and even impossible thing.

424 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

duality of patterning Sounds in a language can be combined in different ways to form
meaningful words.
endocentric A compound in which one component is the centre and the other
compounds is the modifier.
entailment A semantic situation in which the truth of one sentence implies a
number of related truths.
ethnolect A language variation based on ethnicity.
etymology The linguistic study of how a word enters a language and how it
changes meanings and use after it has been introduced.
exclamatory A sentence expressing strong or sudden feelings.
sentence
existent The participant who is introduced into the scene.
existential process The process in which the speaker introduces a participant (the
Existent) into the scene.
exocentric A compound in which there is no focal component and therefore
compound the whole compound refers to something else rather than either
one of the components denotes.
Expanding Circle The Englishes being used in countries as a foreign language (e.g.,
Englishes Brazil, China, Japan, Spain, etc.).
expressive The use of language to express our emotions and attitudes to a
situation.
expressives Speech acts that express a speaker’s feelings, attitudes, and
emotional reactions about something.
evocative The use of language to produce a reaction from the hearer such
as jokes and advertisements.
felicity conditions A set of conditions that need to be fulfilled for a speech act to
succeed.
field A dimension of social factors which is concerned with the nature of
social action.
free morpheme A morpheme that can exist independently.
functional A morpheme that consists largely of the functional words in the
morpheme language.
gender-exclusive A language that discriminates based on the basis of gender.
language
general comparison It is concerned with likeness and unlikeness between things, without
respect to any particular property.
general word A word on the borderline between lexical items and substitutes.
genre A staged social process with particular social roles and functions in
society that are goal-oriented, institutionalized forms of discourse.
given The information that is (presented as) known or information which is
obvious in the given situation.
goal A participant upon which the process has created an impact.
grammatics The theory of grammar
heuristic The use of language to find out about things and the environment
historical linguistics The branch of linguistics that studies how language changes over

425
 time.
hypotaxis The modifying relation between a dominant clause and a
dependent one.
ideational It concerns with how we construe the events that we experience
metafunction and how we interpret the logical relationship between these
events.
identified The participant who is identified as another participant – the
‘Identifier’.
identifying process A process in which the speaker identified a participant (the
Identified/Token) as another participant (the Identifier/Value).
imaginative The use of language to tell stories and jokes
imperative sentence A sentence which is used to express commands, requests, desires,
etc.
inclination An option of modulation in which the speaker expresses how
inclined is s/he to act.
infix A morpheme that can be inserted in the middle of another word.
inflectional The study of morphemes only give extra grammatical information
morphology about the already existing meaning of a word, it particularizes a
simple idea.
inflectional A morpheme that does not change the meaning of the base and
morpheme do not change the word class.
informative The use of language to provide factual information or tell us what
the speaker believes.
Inner Circle The Englishes being used as a mother tongue by a large proportion
Englishes of the population in ‘Inner Circles’ countries, e.g., Australia,
Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States
of America.
instance A particular text written in a language, i.e. what text means in a
given instance.
instantiation The relationship between language and text; a text in a particular
context of situation instantiates (or actualizes) the linguistic system
in its context of culture.
instrumental The use of language to express needs.
interactional The use of language to make contacts with others and form
relationships
interpersonal It concerns how we use English to interact with other people.
metafucntion
interpersonal It indicates interpersonal notions, including vocative, modal
themes adjunct, interrogative, polarity and exclamatory.
interrogative The use of language to address to the hearer and ask for an
expression of belief, opinion, judgment, feeling, and attitude.
interrogative A sentence used to ask question.
Sentence
intonation The variation of pitch to create specific semantic effects in
connected speech.

426 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

intransitive verb A verb expressing a state, process, or action that is completed in
itself, and does not permit a noun to follow it.
language A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
lexical cohesion The cohesion effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary.
lexical morpheme Morpheme that carries the ‘content’ of messages we convey.
lexical semantics A sub-discipline of semantics that examines the meaning of
individual lexical items.
linking verb A verb that has the logical relation of inclusion by or sameness.
logical metafunction It concerns how we interpret the logical relationship between
events of our experience.
logico-semantic Logical relationship in terms of meaning between clauses.
type
material process It expresses our experiences in the world of material reality.
mental process It expresses our conceptions in the world of consciousness.
metafunction Intrinsic basic mode of meaning in human language
metonymy The relationship between the whole and the parts of an object.
modality It is the language resources speakers of a language use to indicate
their modal assessment of the proposition or proposal expressed in
the clause.
modalization The speakers’ assessment on how probable or how usual it is for
something to happen in their belief.
mode A dimension of social factors which refers to the role of language
to realize meanings.
modulation The speakers’ signal on how inclined they are to do something or
to what degree they believe it is their responsibility to do
something.
monophthong Pure vowel.
monosyllabic word A word with only one syllable.
mood It contains the Mood elements, which differentiates the mood
types.
mora-timing The stress pattern in which syllable duration depends on vowel
length.
morpheme The smallest meaningful element of a language, the smallest unit,
which is grammatically relevant, and the smallest part into which a
word can be divided.
morphology The study of the internal structure of words and rules by which
words are formed.
negative face The want of every 'competent adult member' that his [sic.] actions
be unimpeded by others.
new The information which is (presented as) unknown or the information
which is not obvious in the given situation.
nominal ellipsis It occurs when some essential structural element in the noun
phrase is omitted in a sentence or clause.
nominal substitution It involves the replacement of one lexical nominal item with

427
 another.
obligation An option of modulation in which the speaker expresses how
certain s/he believed to be the obligation of the subject to act.
Outer Circle The Englishes that were formed as a result of colonization (as in
Englishes Bangladesh, Hong Kong, India, Kenya, Pakistan, and Singapore).
paraphrase A semantic situation when we have two or more sentences that
have similar meaning.
parataxis The developing relation between an initiating clause and a
continuing one, in which neither of them is grammatically
dependent on the other.
participant Who/what is taking part in n event.
particular It deals with comparability between things in respect of their
comparison Quantity and quality.
performative The use of language to do thing.
personal The use of language to express feelings, opinions, and individual
identity
personal reference Something by specifying its function or role in the speech situation.
phatic The use of language to for establishing or maintaining rapport
between people.
phenomenon The thing that is sensed by the Senser.
phonetics The study of the sounds that are employed across all human
languages.
phonology The study of sound system in particular languages or cross-
linguistically.
phoneme A distinctive sound that can distinguish words in a language.
polarity ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ (i.e. ‘is’ or ‘is not’) of a proposition, and ‘yes’
or ‘no’ (i.e. ‘do’ or ‘do not’) of a proposal expressed in a clause.
polysyllabic word A word with more than three syllables.
positive face The want of every member that his [sic.] wants be desirable to at
least some others.
possessive process It expresses a participant (the Possessor) who owns something (the
Possession).
possessor The participant who owns something.
potential A particular language as a source of meaning creation, i.e. what
users of such language can mean.
pragmatics The study of language use in particular social context.
prefix A morpheme that is attached to the front of a free morpheme.
prescriptive Grammar that establishes a set of grammatical rules that govern
grammar how the language should be used.
preposition A word that is placed before a noun or pronoun to connect the
noun/ pronoun with another major class word.
prepositional verb A verb that is made up of a verb + preposition.
probability An option of modalization in which the speaker expresses how
likely the proposition expressed in the statement is true.
process What is going on in an event.

428 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

productivity Language users can understand and produce sentences that are
totally new to him.
pronoun A word that stands in place of a noun.
proper adjective An adjective which formed from proper noun.
proper noun A noun that refers to the name of individual entities — places,
persons, months, seasons, religions, customs, and festivals.
range It specifies the scope of the happening expressed in the process,
instead of being impacted by it.
reference The relation that holds between expressions of a language and
observable entities (objects or properties of objects) outside the
language.
regulatory The use of language to tell others what to do.
relational process It expresses our understanding of the world of abstract relations.
representational The use of language to convey facts and information
representational It concerns how we use language to construe our experience in
metafunction the world around us and inside us.
representatives Speech acts that describe states and events.
residue The rest of the clause that does not contain the Mood elements.
reiteration It involves either directly repeating an item in a text or restating it in
a different form.
rheme The rest of the clause that does not contain the thematic elements.
root A free morpheme which cannot be further divided into meaning
carrying units.
sayer The participant who addresses another participant – the ‘Receiver’
– a message.
selective nominal The location of entities taking part in the process, including this,
demonstrative that, these and those.
semantics The study of meaning in a language.
senser The participant who senses something.
shortening A cover term referring to any process of word formation to create
words by shortening the original shorter in various ways.
simple sentence A sentence that comprises of only one clause.
simple word A word that is made up of a single free morpheme.
sociolect A variation in a language based on socio-cultural factors.
stress-timing The stress pattern in which the average amount of time between
consecutive stressed syllables is approximately the same,
regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in between.
stylistics The study of language features of written texts and offers methods
for assessing the literary value of them.
subjunctive A fixed expression which uses only the base form of the verb.
sentence
suffix A morpheme that is attached at the end of a word.
superordinate Any item whose meaning includes that of the earlier one.
syllable-timing The stress pattern in which every syllable takes up approximately
the same amount of time.

429
synonym A word that means the same thing.
syntax The study of how we organize words in sentences and the rules
which govern the formation of sentences.
taxis The interdependency between the clauses in a complex.
temporal It expresses the temporal relationships between two successive
conjunction clauses.
tenor A semantic unit; a dimension of social factors that refers to the
relationship among participants, their roles and status.
text Any message, spoken or written of whatever length, that does form
a unified whole
textual metafunction It concerns how we turn the ideational and interpersonal modes of
meaning into message and discourse.
textual themes It provides a linking function, usually with the preceding clause but
sometimes with the following one.
theme The departure point from which the speaker begins a message,
and it is the topic upon which the speaker wants to comment.
topical theme The element in the theme that has a transitivity role.
transitive verb A verb which expresses an action that goes across from one noun
to the other.
usuality An option of modalization in which the speaker expresses how
often would the expressed action or event occur.
verbal process The process of ‘saying’, including different modes of saying such as
saying, telling, informing, stating, commanding, asking and so on.
verbal ellipsis It involves omission of parts of the verb phrase.
verbal substitution It involves the replacement of one verbal item with another.
verbiage A participant which refers to the message.
vowels Sounds that are made by changing the shape of the oral cavity,
but without obstructing air flow.

430 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

References

Austin, J.L. (1962) How to do things with words: The William James Lectures delivered at
Harvard University in 1955. Urmson, Sbisa (Eds.). Oxford: OUP.
Bailey, G., Wilke, T., and Tillery, J. (1991) The effects of methods on results in dialectology.
English World-Wide, 18, 36-63.
Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. New York: Routledge.
Bell, R.T. (1991) Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. England: Longman.
Berry, M. (1975) An Introduction to Systemic Linguistics. Vol 1 – Structures & Systems.
London: Catsford.
Berry, M. (1977) An Introduction to Systemic Linguistics. Vol 2 – Levels & Links. London:
Catsford.
Berry, M. (1981a), ‘Systemic linguistics & discourse analysis: a multi-layered approach to
exchange structure’. In M. Coulthard & M. Montgomery (eds). Studies in discourse
Analysis. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Bloor, T. and Bloor, M. (1995) The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach.
London: Arnold.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1986), ‘Shifts of cohesion and coherence in translation’, in House J. &
S. Blum-Kulka (eds), Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and
Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies. Tubingen: Cunter
Narr.
Bolton, K. (2003) Chinese English: A Sociolinguistic History. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Brown, P., Levinson, S. C. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language
usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983) Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Butler, C. (1985) Systemic Linguistics: theory and applications. London: Batsford.
Bulter, C. (2003) Structure and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-Functional
Theories. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Butler, J. ( 1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York:
Routledge.
Bybee, J.L. & Fleishman, S. (1995) ‘Modality in grammar and discourse: an introductory
essay’, in Bybee, J.L. & Fleishman, S. (eds) Modality in Grammar and Discourse, 1-14.
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Cameron, D. (2003) Gender and language ideologies. In J. Holmes & M. Meyerhoff
(eds), The handbook of language and gender (pp. 447–467). Oxford: Blackwell.
Canagarajah, S. (2007) Lingua Franca English, Multilingual Communities, and Language
Acquisition, Modern Language Journal, 91, 923-939.
Catford, J.C. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Catford, J. C. (2000) ‘Translation Shifts’ in L. Venuti. (Ed) The Translation Studies Reader.
431
 London and New York: Routledge.
Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The Basics. London: Routledge.
Charolles, M. (1983) Coherence as a principle in the interpretation of discourse. Text,
3(1), 71-97.
Cloran, C. (1995) Defining and Relating Text Segments: Subject and Theme in Discourse.
In On Subject and Theme: A Discourse Functional Perspective, R. Hasan and P.H. Fries
(eds.), 361-404. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Coates, J. (1983) The Semantics of the Modal Auxiliaries. London: Croom Helen.
Cook, G. (1989) Discourse. Hong Kong: OUP.
Coffin, Donohue & North (2009)
Coulthard, M. (1977) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. London: Longman.
Crystal, D. (1971). Intonation and metrical theory. Transactions of the Philological Society, 70
1-33.
Crystal, D. (1985) A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Blackwell, Oxford.
Crystal, D. (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
Cummings, M. (1995) A Systemic Functional Approach to the Thematic Structure of the
Old English Clause. In On subject and theme: a discourse functional perspective, R.
Hasan and P.H. Fries (eds.), 275-316. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pedgogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
De beaugrande, R. (1980) Text, Discourse and Process. London: Longman.
Downing, A. (1991). An alternative approach to theme: A systemic functional
perspective. Word 42.2, 119-143.
Downing, A. & Locke, P. (1992) A University Course in English Grammar. New York:
Prentice Hall.
Dubois, S., & Horvath, B. (2000). When the music changes, you change too: Gender
and language change in Cajun English. Language Variation and Change, 11,
287–313.
Eckert, P. (1997) ‘Age as a sociolinguistic variable’ in F. Coulmas (ed). The Handbook of
Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ehrlich, S., & King, R. (1992). Gender-based language reform and the social
construction of meaning. Discourse & Society, 3, 516–566.
Emmitt, M., & Pollock, J. (1991). Language and Learning. Melbourne: Oxford University
Press.
Fairclough, N. (2001). Language and power. (2nd ed.). Essex, England: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Foley, W. A. (1997) Anthropological linguistics: an introduction: Language in society.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Fowler, J. (1986) The social stratification of (r) in New York City department stores, 24
years after Labov. New York: New York University.
Fries, P.H. (1983) ‘On the Status of Theme in English: arguments from discourse’, in J.S.
Petöfi & E. Sözer (eds.), Micro and Macro connexity of Texts, 1-72. Hamburg: Helmut
Buske Verlag.
Fries, P.H. (1995a) A personal view on Theme. In Thematic Development in English Text,
M. Ghadessy (ed.), 1-19. London: Pinter.

432 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Fries, P.H. (1995b) ‘Themes, methods of development, and texts’, in R. Hasan & P.H.Fries
(eds.), On subject and theme: a discourse functional perspective. Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
Giles, H., & Smith, P. (1979). Accommodation theory: Optimal levels of convergence. In
H. Giles & R. St. Clair (Eds.), Language and social psychology. (pp. 45-65): Basil
Blackwell.
Goffman, E. (1955) On face work: an analysis of ritual elements in social interaction.
Psychiatry 18, 213-231.
Graddol, D. (2006). English next. <http://www.britishcouncil.de/pdf/english-next-
2006.pdf>.
Green, C., Han, Y. & Li, E.S.H. (2009) Analysing and Applying English Grammar. Hong
Kong: Open University of Hong Kong Press.
Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Languag. Essex:
Longman.
Grice, H. P. (1975) Logic and conversation. In Syntax and Semantics, vol. 9. Edited by
Peter Cole and Jerry Morgan. New York: Academic Press.
Gumperz, J. (1982) Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: CUP.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1964) ‘Comparison and translation’, in M.A.K. Halliday, A. McIntosh,
and P. Strevens, The Linguistics Sciences and Language Teaching. London and New
York: Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1967) Grammar, Society and the Noun. London: H.K.Lewis (for
University College London). [Republished in M.A.K. Halliday. 1977. Aims and
Perspectives in Linguistics. Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (Occasional
papers 1). 32-49.]
Halliday, M. A. K. (1970) ‘Language structure and language function’. In J. Lyons (ed.)
New Horizons in Linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 140-165.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1973) Explorations in the functions of language. London: Edward
Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1974) ‘Dialogues with M.A.K. Halliday’ in H. Parret (ed.) Discussing
Language. The Hague.Paris: Mouton.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1975) Learning how to mean. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1976) ‘Theme and information in the English clause’, in G. R. Kress
(ed.), System and function in Language: Selected Paper by M. A. K. Halliday.
London: Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1977) Aims and perspectives in linguistics. Australia: Applied Linguistics
Association of Australia (Occasional Papers Number 1).
Halliday, M. A. K. (1979), ‘Modes of meaning and modes of expression’, in Allerton et al.
(eds.), Function and context in linguistic analysis: essays offered to William Haas.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985/ 1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward
Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) Computing meanings: some reflections on past experience and
present prospects. Paper delivered at PACLING ’95.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1996) ‘On grammar and grammatics’, in R. Hasan, D.G. Butt & C.
Cloran (eds.), Functional descriptions: theory in practice. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

433
 Halliday & Matthiessen (1997)
Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1999). Construing Experience Through
Meaning: A Language-based Approach to Cognition. London: Cassell.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004) An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K., A. McIntosh. & P.D. Stevens. (1964) The linguistic science and language
Teaching. London & New York: Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K. & R. Hasan. (1976) Cohesion in English. London and New York:
Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K. & R. Hasan. (1985) Language, context, and text: aspects of language
in a social-semiotic perspective. Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University Press.
HartfHartford, B. & Mahboob, A. (2004). Models of discourse in the letter of complaint. World
Englishes, 23(4).
Hasan, R. (1980) ‘The texture of a text’, in M.A.K. Halliday & R. Hasan (eds.), Text and
Context: Aspects of Language in Sociosemiotic Perspective. Tokyo, TUP: Sophia
Linguistica VI.
Hasan, R. (1984) ‘Coherence and cohesion harmony’, in J. Flood (ed.), Understanding
Reading Comprehension. Delaware: International Reading Association.
Hasan, R. (1985a) ‘Discourse on Discourse’. Occasional Paper No. 7, ALAA: Wollongong.
Hasan, R. (1985b) ‘The texture of a text’, in M.A.K. Halliday & R. Hasan (ed.), Language,
Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective. Geelong,
Victoria: Hasan, Deakin University Press.
Hasan, R. and P.H. Fries. (1995) Reflection on Subject and Theme: An introduction. In On
subject and theme: a discourse functional perspective, R. Hasan and P.H.Fries
(eds.),xiii-xlv. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Hatim, B. & Mason I. (1997) The Translator as communicator. London and New York:
Routledge.
Hoye, L. (1997). Adverbs and modality in English. London: Longman.
Hoey, M. (1983) On the Surface of Discourse. London: Allen and Unwin.
Hoey, M. (1991) Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Holmes, J. (1983) ‘The structure of teachers’ directive’. In: Richards, Schmidt (Eds.),
Language and Communication. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Holmes, J. (1998) Women’s talk: The question of sociolinguistic universals. In Language
and Gender: A Reader, J. Coates, (ed.), 461–483. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hopper, P. & S. Thompson. (1980), ‘Transitivity in grammar and discourse’, Language.
56.2: 251-299.
House, J. (1997) A Model for Translation Quality Assessment. Tubingen: Gunter Narr.
Hudson, R.A. (1980) Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hu, Z., Liu, R. & Li, Y. (1987) Linguistics: a course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Hymes, D. H. (1974) Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Jakobson, R. (1959) 'On Linguistic Aspects of Translation', in R. A. Brower (ed.) On
Translation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 232-39.
Jenkins J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal
of Pragmatics 43.4, 926–936.

434 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Jespersen, O. (1998 [1922]). The woman. In D. Cameron (Ed.), The feminist critique
of language (2nd ed.) (pp. 225–241). London: Routledge.
Kachru, B. B. (1986) The alchemy of English. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1990) “World Englishes and Applied Linguistics”. Studies in Linguistic
Science, 19: 127-52.
Kachru, B. B. (1991) “Liberation linguistic and the Quirk concern”. English Today, 25: 121-
40.
Kachru, B. B. (1992) “Models of non-native Englishes”. In B.B. Kachru (ed.) The Other
Tongue: English Across Culture. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. 49-71.
Kirkpatrick, A. & Xu, Z.C. (2002) “Chinese pragmatic norms and ‘China English’”. World
Englishes, 21: 269-79.
Kitzinger and Thomas (1995)
Koller, W. (1979) ‘Equivalence in translation theory’, translated from German by A.
Chesterman, in A. Chesterman (ed), (1989) Readings in Translation Theory. Helsinki:
Finn Lectura.
Kövecses, Z. (2002). Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Labov, W. (1972) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Labov, W. (1990) The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic
change. Language Variation and Change, 2, 205–254.
Labov,W. (1994) Principles of Linguistic Change (Volume I: Internal Factors). Oxford,
U.K.: Blackwell.
Labov, W. (2001) Principles of linguistic change. Social factors. Malden, MA, Oxford:
Blackwell.
Leap, W. L. (1996). Word’s Out: Gay Men’s English. Regents of the University of
Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
Leech, G.N. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman.
Levinson, S.C. (1983) Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lockwood, D.C., P.H. Fries & J.E. Copeland. (2000) Functional Approaches to Language,
Culture and Cognition: Papers in Honor of Sydney M. Lamb. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Li, E.S.H. (2007) A Systemic Functional Grammar of Chinese. London: Continuum
International Publishing Group.
Li, E.S.H. (2010) ‘Hong Kong English! China English! Or Chinese English as One of the
World Englishes!’ Paper presented in the Fifth Annual Conference of The Asian Studies
Association of Hong Kong (ASAHK), the School of Modern Languages, The University
of Hong Kong.
Li, E.S.H. & Chan, S.F. (2011) ‘Sino-US Ties through Sociolinguistic Lens’, Paper presented
in the Sixth Annual Conference of The Asian Studies Association of Hong Kong
(ASAHK), Department of History, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Li, E.S.H. & Tam, R. (2010) ‘The interaction of modal verbs and modal adjuncts in the
system of MODALITY in English literary works written by Chinese authors’, Fang, Y. &
Wu, C. (eds.) Challenges to Systemic Functional Linguistics-Theory and Practice:

435
 Proceedings of ISFC 36. Beijing: Tsinghua University and Macquarie University.
Lyons, J. (1965), ‘The scientific study of language’, Inaugural lecture 1. 4-22. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Lyon, J. (1977) Semantics. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Malmkjaer, K. (2005). Linguistics and the Language of Translation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Martin, J.R. (1983) ‘Conjunction: the logic of English text’, in J.S. Petöti & E. Sözer (eds.),
Micro and Macro connexity of Texts, 1-72. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
Martin, J.R. (1985) Factual writing: exploring and challenging social reality. Geelong,
Victoria: Deakin University Press.
Martin, J.R. (1992) English Text: System and Structure. Philadelphia/ Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Martin, J R (1999) Mentoring semogenesis: ‘genrebased’ literacy pedagogy, in F. Christie
(ed.) Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: linguistic and social processes.
London: Cassell.
Martin, J.R., Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. & Painter, C. (1997) Working with Functional Grammar.
London: Arnold.
Martin, J R & Rose, D. (2003) Working with discourse: meaning beyond the clause.
London: Continuum [2nd Revised Edition 2007].
Martin, J R & Rose, D. (2005) Designing literacy pedagogy: scaffolding asymmetries in R
Hasan, C M I M Matthiessen & J Webster (eds.) Continuing Discourse on Language.
London: Equinox.
Martin, J R &Rose, D. (2007) Interacting with text: the role of dialogue in learning to read
and write. Foreign Languages in China 4.5. 66‐80.
Martin, J R & Rose, D. (2008) Genre Relations: mapping culture. London: Equinox.
Matilal, B. K. (1990). The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of
language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1988) ‘Representational issues in systemic functional grammar’, in

J.D. Benson & W.S. Greaves (eds.), Systemic perspectives on discourse: selected
papers from the ninth international systemic workshop, Volume 1. Norwood, NJ:
Ablex.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1992) ‘Interpreting the textual metafunction’, in M. Davies & L.
Ravelli (eds.), Advances in systemic linguistics. London: Pinter.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1993) ‘Register in the round: diversity in a unified theory of register
analysis’, in Ghadessy, M. (ed.) Register Analysis: Theory and Practice. London and
New York: Pinter Publishers.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1994) ‘THEME as an enabling resource in ideational ‘knowledge’
construction’, in M. Ghadessy (ed.), Thematic developments in English texts. London:
Pinter.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1995) Lexicogrammatical cartography: English systems. Tokyo:
International Language Sciences Publishers.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1996) ‘Tense in English seen through systemic functional theory’,
in M. Berry, C. Butler, R. Fawcett & G. Huang (eds.), Meaning and choices in
language: studies for Michael Halliday. (Volumn LVII in the series Advances in

436 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 Discourse Processes.) Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1999)
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2001) ‘The environments of translation’ in E. Steiner & C. Yallop
(eds.). Exploring translation and multilingual text production: beyond content. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004) ‘Descriptive motifs and generalisations’, in Caffarel, A., J.R.
Martin & C.M.I.M. Matthiessen (eds.) Language typology: A Functional Perspective.
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. & Halliday, M.A.K. (1997) Systemic functional grammar: a first
step into the theory.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. & C. Nesbitt. (1996) ‘On the idea of theory-neutral descriptions’, in
R. Hasan, D.G. Butt & C. Cloran (eds.), Functional descriptions: theory in practice.
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
McArthur, T. (1998) The English languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McArthur, T. 2002a. The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford & New York: Oxford
University Press.
McArthur, T. (2003) “English as an Asian language”. English Today, 74: 19-22.
Meethan and Hudson (1972)
Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert, and Leap (2000)
Mey, J.L. (1979) Pragmalinguistics: Theory and Practice. New York: Mouton Publishers.
Mey, J.L. (1993) Pragmatics: an introduction. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Modiano, M. (1999). International English in the global village. English Today 15.2, 22–28.
Mooney, A., Peccei, J., LaBelle, S., Eppler, E., Irwin, A., Preece, S., Soden, S. (2011)
Language, society and power. London: Routledge.
Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon.
Nida, E.A. (1964) Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
Nordlinger, R. & Traugott, E.C. (1997) ‘Scope and the development of epistemic
modality: evidence from ought to’, English Language and Linguistics 1: 295-317.
Nunan, D. (1993) Introducing Discourse Analysis. London: Penguin.
Ogden & Richards (1923)
Palmer, F.R. (1990) Mood and Modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pauwel, A. (1998) Women changing language. London.
Pinker, S. (2003) The Blank Slate. New York: Penguin Books.
Pride, J.B. & Liu, R.S. (1988) “Some aspects of the spread of English in China since 1949”.
International Journal of the sociology of Language, 74: 41-70.
Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1973) A University Grammar of English. China: Longman.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, & J. Svartik. (1985) A comprehensive grammar of the
English language. London: Longman.
Richards, S. (1983) Language and Communication. Cambridge: CUP.
Saussure, F. de (1916/1983). Course in General Linguistics (translated by Roy Harris).
London: Duckworth.
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004) The Language of Schooling: a functional linguistic
perspective. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Searle, J.R. (1979) Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts.

437
 Cambridge: CUP.
Sedlhofer, B. (2001) Closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of English as a
lingua franca’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 11:133 – 58.
Sinclair, J. McH. & R.M. Coulthard. (1975) Towards an Analysis of Discourse. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Strawson, P. F. (1950). On referring. Mind, 59:320-44.
Tam, K.K. (2007) “Englishness, Hybridity and Postcolonial Britain”. In Zhong, W.H. & Liu, Y
(eds.) Rereading Britain Today: Essays in British Literary and Cultural Studies. Shanghai:
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 185-198.
Tam, R. & Li, E.S.H. (2009) ‘The interaction of modal verbs and modal adjuncts in the
system of MODALITY in English literary works written by Chinese authors”. Paper
presented in the 36th International Systemic Functional Congress, Tsinghua University,
Beijing, China.
Thomas, M. (1995) Medieval and modern views of universal grammar and the nature of
second language learning. Modern Language Journal, 79(3), 315-55.
Thompson, G. and Collins, H. (Interviewers) (2001) Interview with M. A. K. Halliday,
Cardiff, July 1998. D.E.L.T.A., 17 (1). p. 131-153.
Trudgill, P. (1974). The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
van Leuven-Zwart, K. (1989) Translation and original: Similarities and dissimilarities, I’,
Target 1.2: 151-81.
Vinay, J. P. and Darbelnet, J. (1958). Stylistique Comparée du Français et de l’Anglais:
Méthode de Traduction. Paris: Didier. (Translated and edited by J.C. Sager and M.-J.
Hamel (1995) as: Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for
Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Widdowson, H.G. (1979) Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: OUP.
Wong, P. & Li, E.S.H. (2010) ‘Towards an Understanding of the Nature of Choice of
MODULATION’, Proceedings of ISFC 36: Challenges to Systemic Functional Linguistics-
Theory and Practice. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press.
Wyrick, J. (1984) Steps to Writing Well: A Concise Guide to Composition. Fort Worth: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston.
Yan, F. (1973). General remarks on translation (C. Y. Hsu, Trans.). Renditions, 4-6.
Yule, G. (2007) The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
Yule, G. (2009) Exploring English Grammar. Cambridge: CUP.
Zhao, Y. & Campbell, K.P. (1995) “English in China”. World Englishes, 14: 377-90
Zhichang, Z. Theorizing systems methodologies across cultures. Systems Research and
Behavioral Science, 27(2), 208-223.

438 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

Index

adjective
common
proper
adverb
adverb of degree
adverb of manner
adverb of place
adverb of time
clausal adverb
indefinite adverb
interrogative adverb
relative adverb
affix
infix
prefix
suffix
allomorphs
backchannelling
base
bound roots
circumstance
circumstantial demonstrative
circumstantial types
coherence
cohesion
cohesive device
conjunction
additive
adversative
causal
temporal
lexical cohesion
collocation
reiteration
general words
repetition

439
 superordinate
synonym
reference
comparative
demonstrative
personal
substitution & ellipsis
clausal
nominal
verbal
(types of) compounding
appositional compound
copulative compound
endocentric compound
exocentric compound
commodity
componential analysis
compound word
conjunction
coordinating conjunction
correlative
simple
subordinating conjunction
compound
correlative
simple
consonants
context of situation
Cooperative Principle
critical discourse analysis
degree of force
determiner
article
demonstrative
numeral
possessive
quantitative (quantifier)
derivational (affixation)
prefixation
suffixation
diachronic
dialect
disyllabic word

440 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

diphthong
discourse analysis
English as a lingua franca
equivalence
ethnicity
ethnolect
etymology
face
negative face
positive face
Face Threatening Acts (FTAs)
felicity conditions
(pragmatic) functions of language
directive
expressive
evocative
informative
interrogative
performative
phatic
(children’s) functions of language
heuristic
imaginative
interactional
instrumental
personal
representational
gender
gender-exclusive language
general comparison
general word
genre
(types of) genre
discussion
explanation
exposition
information report
narrative
procedure
recount
grammar
descriptive grammar
formal grammar

441
 functional grammar
prescriptive grammar
grammatics
hedging
historical linguistics
(types of) illocutionary act
commissives
declaratives
directives
expressives
representatives
implicature
information structure
given
new
information focus
instance
instantiation
intonation
Kachru’s three concentric circles
language change
lexical density
lexical relationship
antonymy
homonymy
homophony
hyponymy
polysemy
synonymy
linguistic relativity
linguistic universalism
linguistic sign
signified
signifier
logico-semantic types
expansion
elaboration
extension
enhancement
projection
quoting
reporting
McArthur’s circle of Englishes

442 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

metafunction
ideational metafunction
representational metafunction
logical metafunction
interpersonal metafucntion
textual metafunction
minor clause
modality
modalization
probability
usuality
modulation
inclination
obligation
monophthong
monosyllabic word
mood
subject
finite
mood type
declarative
exclamative
imperative
interrogative
subjective
mora-timing
morpheme
bound morpheme
derivational morpheme
free morpheme
functional morpheme
inflectional morpheme
lexical morpheme
morphology
derivational morphology
inflectional morphology
mutual intelligibility
noun
abstract noun
common noun
concrete noun
countable noun
proper noun

443
 uncountable noun
orientation
participant
participant role
Actor
Attribute
Behaver
Carrier
Existent
Goal
Identified / Token
Identifier / Value
Phenomenon
Possession
Possessor
Range
Receiver
Sayer
Senser
Verbiage
particular comparison
Peirce’s semiotic triangle
phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
phoneme
polarity
politeness
negative politeness strategies
positive politeness strategies
polysyllabic word
potential
pragmatics
preposition
complex preposition
compound preposition
phrasal preposition
derived preposition
simple preposition
process types
behavioural process
existential process

444 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 material process
mental process
relational process
attributive process
circumstantial process
identifying process
possessive process
verbal process
proficiency based model
projected clause
projecting clause
projection
hypotactic projection
paratactic projection
pronoun
definite pronoun
demonstrative pronoun
relative pronoun
indefinite pronoun
indefinite pronoun
indefinite relative pronoun
interrogative pronoun
reciprocal pronoun
personal pronoun
possessive pronoun
reflective/emphatic pronoun
properties of language
arbitrariness
cultural transmission
discreteness
displacement
duality of patterning
productivity
rank (part) of a sentence
clause
group/phrase
word
Received Pronunciation
(sources of) reference
endophora
anaphora
cataphora
exophora

445
register
field
tenor
mode
regulatory
residue
predicator
complement
adjunct
root
schematic structure
selective nominal demonstrative
(processes of) semantic change
dysphemism
euphemism
metaphor
metonymy
synecdoche
semantic relation (across sentences)
contradiction
entailment
paraphrase
sentence (grammatical) function
subject
predicate
adverbial
appositive
complement
adverbial complement
object complement
subject complement
object
direct object
indirect object
verb
sentence types
complex sentence
dependent clause
adverbial clause
comparative clause
nominal clause
relative clause
independent clause

446 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

 compound sentence
coordinating clause
agreement
alternation
consequence
contrast
Compound–complex sentence
simple sentence
sociolect
speech act
illocution
locution
perlocution
speech function
command
offer
question
statement
strata of language
discourse semantics
lexicogrammar
phonology
stratisfication
stress-timing
structure of language
discourse
morphology
phonetics
phonology
(lexical) semantics
syntax
stylistics
superordinate
syllable-timing
synchronic
taxis
parataxis
hypotaxis
text
textuality
thematic progression
linear thematic progression
progression with derived themes

447
 theme iteration
thematic structure
theme
rheme
theme type
interpersonal theme
textual theme
topical theme
marked
unmarked
transitivity
translation
free translation
interlingual translation
intersemiotic translation
intralingual translation
literal translation
translation shift
class shift
intra-system shift
rank/unit shift
structural shift
variation
variety
verb
auxiliary verb
aspectual verb
do verb
modal verb
passive verb
main verb
intransitive verb
linking verb
copulative verb
sense verb
transitive verb
mono-transitive verb
di-transitive verb
dative verb
factitive verb
prepositional verb
phrasal verb
vowels

448 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses

word classes (parts of speech)
close word classes
conjunction
determiner
preposition
pronoun
open word classes
adjective
adverb
noun
verb
word formation
borrowing
coinage
compounding
conversion
derivational
shortening
acronym
back-formation
blending
clipping
word phrase
adjective phrase
adverb phrase
noun phrase
prepositional phrase
verb phrase
word types
compound word
complex word
simple word
World Englishes
Inner Circle Englishes
Outer Circle Englishes
Expanding Circle Englishes

449
450 English Today: Forms, Functions and Uses