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LABORATORY ANATOMY OF FEMALE BREAST

TESTS RELATED TO
BREAST CANCER
*Breast cancer can affect people of all genders. In this material, the terms
“male” and “man” are used to refer to people assigned male at birth. The terms
“female” and “woman” are used to refer to people assigned female at birth.

THE FEMALE AND MALE BREAST

The breast refers to tissue on the front of the chest, above the
chest wall muscles. Breasts are made of connective tissue, ANATOMY OF MALE BREAST
fat, glands, and lymphatic vessels. Both male and female
breasts have mammary glands (glands that can produce milk)
and a nipple-areolar complex.

BREAST CANCER
Breast cancer is a malignant growth that begins in the breast.
Most breast cancers are called carcinomas, and begin in the
milk glands, (technically called terminal duct-lobular units)
Some common signs and symptoms of breast cancer for both
females and males include a lump or mass in the breast, BREAST CANCER IN MEN
nipple discharge that is not breast milk, breast or nipple
Male breast cancer is rare and seen most commonly in
pain, swelling of the breast, nipple turning inward and
those with a genetic predisposition (BRCA1 and BRCA2). It
skin dimpling.
is very similar to breast cancer in women, although most
tumors are Estrogen Receptor positive and HER2 positive and
triple negative breast cancers are very rare. The signs and
symptoms for male breast cancer are the same as
for females.

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BREAST CANCER GENES (BRCA) HER2-POSITIVE BREAST CANCER
Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is another protein
Breast Cancer genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) suppress that drives the growth of many breast cancers (approximately 15% in
breast, ovarian and other types of cells from growing in an Caucasians, 20% in Asians, and 25% in Africans). HER2 positive breast
cancers typically grow and spread more aggressively compared to other
uncontrolled way. Every person has BRCA1 and BRCA2
types of breast cancers.
genes and inherits a copy of each gene from each parent.
The BRCA1 gene is located on chromosome 17 and the
TRIPLE-NEGATIVE BREAST CANCER (TNBC)
BRCA2 gene is on chromosome 13. An inherited genetic
Triple-negative breast cancer is a type of cancer where the cancer cells
mutation from either parent in one or both of these genes
do not have estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, or HER2.
can increase the risk of developing certain cancers. A TNBC grows and spreads quickly. Women who are younger than 40,
mutated BRCA1 gene increases the risk of getting breast, have the BRCA1 mutation or who are African, Black or Hispanic are
ovarian, pancreatic, cervical, uterine and colon cancer. more commonly diagnosed with TNBC. Triple-Negative breast cancer
contributes to about 15% of all breast cancer cases.
BRCA2 gene mutations increase the risk of getting breast,
ovarian, pancreatic, gallbladder, bile duct and melanoma
INFLAMMATORY BREAST CANCER (IBC)
cancers. In men. BRCA1 and/or BRCA2 mutations increase
Inflammatory breast cancer is a rare type of cancer where the cancer
the risk of getting testicular and prostate cancer.
cells fill and block the lymphatic vessels in the skin. IBC is usually a
type of invasive ductal carcinoma and it develops quickly. The signs
TYPES OF BREAST CANCER and symptoms include discoloration of the breast, enlargement of the
breast, enlarged lymph nodes under the arm and dimpling of the skin on
The type of breast cancer refers to the affected cells in the the breast. Between 1-5% of all breast cases are inflammatory breast
breast or the location of the cancer. There are numerous cancers.
types of breast cancer and certain types are more common
than others. DUCTAL CARCINOMA IN SITU (DCIS)
DCIS is a non-invasive cancer that develops in the milk glands. Typically,
INVASIVE BREAST CANCER -
there are no signs or symptoms for DCIS but signs could potentially
INVASIVE LOBULAR CARCINOMA, INVASIVE
(rarely) include a breast lump and bloody nipple discharge. It is most
DUCTAL CARCINOMA commonly diagnosed on a screening mammogram as the presence of
Invasive breast cancer is cancer that has spread beyond the duct-lobular suspicious calcifications (small deposits of calcium). The risk factors
units into to the surrounding breast tissue stroma. The most common for DCIS include increasing age, genetic mutations such as BRCA1 and
types of invasive breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma (80%) and BRCA 2, personal history of benign breast disease and having your first
invasive lobular carcinoma (15%). Both tumors develop from the duct- menstrual cycle before age 12.
lobular unit and the names describe their different appearance under
the microscope and differences in biology. The signs and symptoms PAGET’S DISEASE OF THE BREAST
of invasive breast cancer include redness of the skin on the breast or
Paget’s disease of the breast is rare and contributes to about 1 to 5% of
nipple, a small lump or mass in the breast, a blood stained or clear liquid
all breast cancers. It is ductal carcinoma in situ that has spread up the
discharge from the nipple and change in shape or position of the nipple.
nipple ducts and out onto the nipple skin. In half the cases it is associated
ESTROGEN-RECEPTOR POSITIVE with an invasive breast cancer too, not just in situ cancer. The signs and
symptoms include tingling or burning sensation on the nipple, hardened
BREAST CANCER
skin on the nipple, a flattened or inverted nipple, itching and thickening
Estrogen receptor is an important protein that drives the growth of many skin on the breast.
breast cancers using the hormone, estrogen (approximately 70% in
Caucasians and Asians, and 55% in Africans).

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ANGIOSARCOMA • The tumor is smaller than 2cm and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes
orAges 30 to 39: 45 to 270 µg/dL or 1.22 to 7.29 µmol/L
Angiosarcoma is a very rare cancer that begins in the stromal cells
lining the blood vessels. Primary angiosarcoma occurs in the breast • The cancer has not spread outside the breast and the tumor is between
tissue in women who have never been diagnosed with breast cancer 2cm-5cm
while secondary angiosarcoma occur in the breast skin as a result of
radiation treatment in women who have been previously diagnosed with STAGE IIB: One of the following conditions applies:
breast cancer (post-radiation associated cutaneous angiosarcoma).
• The tumor is larger is larger than 5 cm and the cancer has not spread
Angiosarcomas are malignant and can spread beyond the breast. The
signs and symptoms of angiosarcoma include splotchy purple colored to the axillary lymph nodes orAges 20 to 29: 65 to 380 µg/dL or 1.75 to
skin and a lump in the breast. 10.26 µmol/L
• The tumor is between 2cm -5 cm and has spread to the axillary
PHYLLODES TUMOR lymph nodes
Phyllodes Tumors are rare tumors that begin in the stromal cells and
STAGE III: The breast cancer has spread to more lymph nodes and the size
also include ducts or glands within the tumor mass. Most are benign and
of the tumor has increased
do not spread beyond the breast, but malignant phyllodes tumors can
spread beyond the breast. The signs and symptoms of phyllodes tumor is STAGE IIIA: one of the following conditions applies:
typically a lump in the breast.
• The cancer is present in 4-9 axillary lymph nodes and there is no tumor
in the breast or the tumor may be of any size orThe tumor is smaller than
STAGES OF BREAST CANCER 2cm and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes orAges 30 to 39: 45 to
The stages of breast cancer determine how far the cancer 270 µg/dL or 1.22 to 7.29 µmol/L

has spread and what parts of the body it has spread to. Your • The tumor is larger than 5cm and the cancer has spread to the lymph
nodes or
treatment plan and prognosis (course of the disease) will depend
• The tumor is larger than 5 cm and the cancer has spread to 1-3 axillary
on the staging portion of your diagnosis. Below is a short
lymph nodes
description of each stage:
STAGE IIIB:
STAGE 0: The breast cancer is in situ – it has not spread beyond the duct-
• The tumor has spread to the chest wall or the skin of the breast and
lobular units (milk ducts)
causes inflammation or an ulcer and
STAGE I: The breast cancer has spread beyond the duct-lobular units into
• The cancer has spread to about 9 axillary lymph nodes or lymph nodes
the stroma of the breast tissue
near the breast bone.
STAGE IA: The invasive breast cancer has not spread outside of the breast
and no lymph nodes are affected. The tumor size is up to 2 cm. STAGE IIIC:
STAGE IB: The breast cancer has spread to the lymph nodes and the growth • The tumor may be any size or may not be present and may have spread to
is larger than 0.2 mm but less than 2mm. There may be no tumor
the chest wall or the skin of the breast andll or the skin of the breast and
in the breast or the tumor is less than 2cm.
causes inflammation or an ulcer and
STAGE II: T he breast cancer has spread to a larger area of the breast and
• The cancer cells have spread to the lymph nodes around the collarbone or
has spread to some lymph nodes
• The cancer has spread to the axillary lymph nodes and lymph nodes near
STAGE IIA: One of the following conditions applies: the breast bone
• There is no tumor in the breast but the cancer has spread to the axillary
(underarm) lymph nodes or STAGE IV: The breast cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes and other
organs beyond the breast (metastatic) such as the lungs or the liver.

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TUMOR GRADES test result means that there is a genetic mutation in your
BRCA1 or BRCA 2 gene which means there is a higher risk
Tumor grades determine the appearance and growth rate of of developing breast or ovarian cancer.
cancer cells compared to health cells in the breast.
DIAGNOSIS
GRADE 1: The breast cancer cells look similar to normal cells, form the
shapes of normal milk ducts, and are slow growing. BIOPSY: For this test, a small sample of breast tissue is removed
GRADE 2: The breast cancer cells do not look like similar cells and are from the breast. This test is important because the sample of tissue is
growing a little faster than normal cells. examined in the laboratory to check for malignant cells in the breast. A
GRADE 3: The breast cancer cells are very abnormal and they grow and normal breast biopsy would not show any cancer cells.
spread quickly.
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT (CBC): This test determines your overall
health status by looking at your overall blood count levels, including your
red and white blood cell count, your platelets, and lymphocytes. This

TUMOR GRADES test is important because it can indicate if you are having a condition or
disease, such as an infection, anemia, inflammation, or cancer.
Tumor grades determine the appearance and growth rate of cancer cells HER2 BY FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION (FISH): This test
compared to health cells in the breast. checks for the presence of extra copies of the HER2 gene which produces
the HER2 protein. This test is important because the level of HER2 protein
indicates how fast the cancer cells will grow.

IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY TESTS (IHC): This test measures the amount

of HER2 protein, estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors that are
present in a sample of breast tissue. This test is important because it
helps determine the type of breast cancer that you may have and the type
UNDER THE MICROSCOPE of treatment needed. If the results are positive for estrogen receptors or
Metastatic breast cancer cells (islands with cleared out spaces around them) progesterone receptors, it means that you are ER-positive or PR-positive.
within the lymph node (dark blue cells) in a patient with advanced breast These results mean that hormone therapy would be effective for cancer
cancer. treatment. HER2 results are reported as follows:

Score Result

0, 1+ HER2-negative
LAB TESTS RELATED TO 2+ Unclear, further testing needed (FISH)

BREAST CANCER 3+ HER2-positive

*Please note that reference ranges are set by individual

laboratories for their specific populations so reference ranges
might differ slightly.

SCREENING TESTS
BBRCA1/BRCA2 Testing: These tests measures the
presence of genetic mutations on BRCA 1 or BRCA 2
genes in the blood. This test is important because it helps
determine the risk of developing breast cancer. A positive

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ADDITIONAL SCREENING TESTS LAB TESTS RELATED TO BREAST
BREAST MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI): This test uses CANCER MONITORING
strong magnets and radio waves to take detailed images of the breast. CANCER ANTIGEN 15-3 (CA 15-3): This test measures the levels of the
This test is important because it identifies abnormalities in the breast protein CA 15-3 in the blood. Increased levels of CA 15-3 in the blood
such as breast cancer. Breast MRIs are recommended for women who indicate the presence of cancer tumors and the test may help monitor
are at high risk of breast cancer. For women with average risk, there is a the response to treatment. The typical reference range* of CA15-3 is less
higher possibility of false positive results. than 30 U/mL. This is not used as screening, but may occasionally be
BREAST SELF-EXAM: This test is an examination of your breasts to used for monitoring disease progression.
assess any changes in the breast tissue and armpit. Doing a self-exam BLOOD CELL COUNTS: These tests measure the white blood cell
once a month is helpful in increasing familiarity with breasts and helps counts, red blood cell counts and platelet counts in the blood. This test is
increase awareness of changes early. important during treatment because it helps to monitor effects of
CLINICAL BREAST EXAM: This test is a physical examination of the the chemotherapy.
breast by a medical professional to check for any lumps, changes to the
texture of the skin and other abnormalities. This test is important because
it is used together with mammograms to screen for breast cancer.

ESTRADIOL: This test measures the levels of estradiol levels, which is

one type of estrogen. The test is important because it is used to monitor
ASK YOUR DOCTOR
antiestrogen therapies that are used to treat cancer. A typical reference • What screening test do you recommend for
range* for menstruating women is between 15-350 pg/mL. However, the
breast cancer?
levels can vary widely through the menstrual cycle. During the follicular
phase, the typical reference range* is between 19-140 pg/ml; just prior • What is the course of action based on my
to ovulation, the typical reference range* is between 110-410 pg/ml; lab results?
during the end of the cycle, the luteal phase, the typical reference range*
is between 19-160 pg/ml. During pregnancy, the estradiol levels will • What are all my treatment options?
continue to increase until the fetus is mature.
• Why do you recommend this particular
MAMMOGRAPHY: This test is an x-ray picture of the breast called a treatment option?
mammogram. This test is important because it helps detect breast cancer
early when there are no signs or symptoms. Annual mammograms are • How do we know the procedure was
recommended for women above the age of 45 in the US, and 50 in most successful/what lab tests and which results
of Europe. It is less effective in pre-menopausal women, than post-
indicate successful treatment?
menopausal women as the density of breast tissue affects its sensitivity
and pre-menopausal women typically have very dense breasts. • What are the markers we are monitoring?
CT SCAN: This test is a type of x-ray scan, usually of the whole body if What are the levels we are hoping for? What
there is any suggestion from a clinical examination or blood test that a happens if the markers are higher than we
cancer present in the breast has spread beyond the breast, for example, would like to see?
to lung, liver, or bones.
• What are the follow-up tests and what are we
looking for?

• Are there additional tests that could be used to

better understand my disease and prognosis?

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MEET ANNE AND MICHELE
ANNE ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
“My career is based on data
and technology. So being
a woman of science, lab
results are very important
to me. I use it to validate the
information that my doctors
give me. Read all your lab
results. It might be difficult
to understand but it will be
worth it.”

After finding a lump in her right breast, in January of 2019, Anne

immediately scheduled a doctor’s appointment. What was presumed
to be a one-hour appointment turned into four hours consisting of a Scan the QR code to view and download
mammogram, an ultrasound and a biopsy. A missed phone call and a our educational resources.
“results available” notification signified the beginning of Anne’s battle with
Stage 3 invasive ductal carcinoma cancer. Her background in laboratory
work helped Anne understand and appreciate the importance of the lab
and it helped her navigate the decision-making during her treatment. In
order to treat her cancer, Anne had a double mastectomy operation and
chemotherapy. Her experiences growing up in the slums of the Philippines
have equipped her with resilience and inspiration to win the battle
with cancer.

MICHELE
“Understanding what tests
are ordered and what the lab Scan the QR code to watch videos of our
work means is empowering.
The knowledge you gain Champions sharing their stories.
can be transformative. It
was for me! Pathology is at
the core of every diagnosis.
Understanding what tests
@ASCPPatientChampions
are ordered and what the lab
work means is empowering.”
/ASCPPatientChampions
After only enjoying eight months of newly wedded bliss, Michele received
a Stage 1 Invasive ductal carcinoma diagnosis. Within half an hour of @ASCPChampions
sharing the news with her husband, he suffered a stroke and passed
away a month later. The treatment journey for Michele was challenging ASCPPatientChampions
as she lost her financial stability, home and health. Michele signed up for
an experimental test to determine whether she was a good candidate for Champions@ascp.org
chemotherapy. After receiving the laboratory test results, she had surgery,
began chemotherapy, radiation and adjunctive therapy to treat the Stage
1 Grade 2 aggressive tumor. Since her diagnosis, Michele has grown an
appreciation for the lab and now has a better understanding of pathology
reports. She is currently in remission and has become an avid For more information and to get involved:
patient advocate. www.ascp.org/patients