LITERATURE with animals in the steppe until a hunter brings him to

civilization.
Literature is a term used to describe written and
sometimes spoken material. Derived from the Latin word Enkidu is introduced to human ways through a temple
literature meaning "writing formed with letters," literature prostitute, Shamhat. He loses his strength and wild nature,
most commonly refers to works of the creative becoming more like a man. Enkidu and Shamhat travel to
imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, Uruk.
and in some instances, journalism, and song.
Gilgamesh hears about the wild man and plans to test his
The word literature suggests a higher art form; merely strength. The two meet and engage in a fierce battle, but
putting words on a page doesn't necessarily equate to eventually, Gilgamesh prevails. However, instead of being
creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of works enemies, they become close friends. Together, they embark
for a given author. Some works of literature are considered on heroic adventures, including the killing of Humbaba, the
canonical, that is, culturally representative of a particular guardian of the Cedar Forest.
genre (poetry, prose, or drama).
The gods, displeased with the killing of Humbaba, decide
Genre fiction typically does not have as much character that one of the friends must die. Enkidu falls ill and dies,
development as literary fiction and is read for leaving Gilgamesh devastated. The loss of his friend
entertainment, escapism, and plot, whereas literary fiction prompts Gilgamesh to seek immortality.
explores themes common to the human condition and uses
symbolism and other literary devices to convey the Gilgamesh sets out on a journey to find Utnapishtim, the
author's viewpoint on his or her chosen themes. Literary only mortal granted immortality by the gods. Utnapishtim
fiction involves getting into the minds of the characters (or tells Gilgamesh the story of the Great Flood, similar to the
at least the protagonist) and experiencing their biblical flood. Despite learning about the difficulty of
relationships with others. achieving immortality, Gilgamesh persists in his quest.

Having failed to obtain immortality, Gilgamesh returns to

Uruk. He now sees the value in the legacy he leaves behind
Epic conventions include a setting, hero, and deeds, all of through his city and its walls. The epic ends with a
which are of grand importance and appear in a long, reflection on the inevitability of death and the importance
narrative poem. of living a meaningful life.

Theme/Moral:

THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH "The Epic of Gilgamesh" explores themes of mortality,

Sin-Leqi-Unninni friendship, the search for meaning, and the acceptance of
one's fate. It provides valuable insights into the human
Characters: condition and has influenced many later works of
1. Gilgamesh: The protagonist of the epic, Gilgamesh is literature.
the king of Uruk. He is a powerful and arrogant ruler at
the beginning of the story but undergoes significant
character development. His friendship with Enkidu BEOWULF
and the loss of his friend leads him on a quest for Unknown
immortality.
2. Enkidu: Initially created by the gods to humble Characters:
Gilgamesh, Enkidu starts as a wild man living with 1. Beowulf: The protagonist and hero of the poem.
animals. Through a series of events, he becomes more Beowulf is a Geatish warrior who comes to the aid of
human, and his friendship with Gilgamesh forms a Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, to defeat the monster
central part of the narrative. Enkidu's death Grendel. Later in the story, he also battles Grendel's
profoundly affects Gilgamesh and prompts his quest mother and a dragon.
for immortality. 2. Hrothgar: The king of the Danes. Hrothgar is plagued
3. Shamhat: A temple prostitute who plays a crucial role by the attacks of the monster Grendel until Beowulf
in the transformation of Enkidu. She is sent by arrives to help him. He is a wise and respected ruler.
Gilgamesh to civilize Enkidu, and their encounter leads 3. Grendel: A monstrous descendant of Cain, Grendel
to Enkidu losing his wild nature. terrorizes the hall of Heorot, killing Hrothgar's
4. Humbaba: A monstrous guardian of the Cedar Forest, warriors. Beowulf engages in a fierce battle with
Humbaba is slain by Gilgamesh and Enkidu in their Grendel to protect the Danes.
quest for glory. His death brings consequences, as the 4. Grendel's Mother: After Beowulf defeats Grendel,
gods decide that one of the friends must die in return. Grendel's mother seeks revenge. Beowulf pursues her
5. Ishtar: The goddess of love and fertility, Ishtar is to her underwater lair and engages in another epic
attracted to Gilgamesh but faces rejection. Angry and battle.
seeking revenge, she unleashes the Bull of Heaven on 5. Wiglaf: A Geatish warrior and loyal follower of
Uruk, leading to further challenges for Gilgamesh and Beowulf. Wiglaf plays a crucial role in the later part of
Enkidu. the epic when he assists Beowulf in his battle against
Plot/Summary: the dragon.
6. Unferth: A Danish warrior who initially doubts
The story begins by introducing Gilgamesh, a powerful and Beowulf's abilities. He lends Beowulf the sword
arrogant king who oppresses his people. The gods create Hrunting to use against Grendel's mother. Despite
Enkidu, a wild man, to humble Gilgamesh. Enkidu lives some tension, Unferth later becomes an ally.
7. Higlac: The king of the Geats and Beowulf's uncle. 3. Agamemnon: The Achaean (Greek) commander-in-
Beowulf serves Higlac faithfully until Higlac's death, chief. His actions, including the mistreatment of
after which Beowulf becomes king. Achilles, contribute to the conflict in the epic.
8. Ecgtheow: Beowulf's father. Though deceased by the 4. Patroclus: Achilles' close friend and companion. His
time the events of the poem take place, Ecgtheow's death in battle by Hector's hand is a turning point in
reputation as a great warrior and his connections play the story.
a role in the unfolding events. 5. Priam: The king of Troy and father of Hector and Paris.
9. Hygelac: Beowulf's cousin and king of the Geats after 6. Paris (Alexander): Prince of Troy, known for abducting
Higlac. Beowulf serves under Hygelac before Helen, which sparked the Trojan War.
eventually becoming king himself. 7. Helen: The most beautiful woman in the world, whose
abduction leads to the conflict between the Greeks and
Plot/Summary: Trojans.
The poem begins with the arrival of Beowulf, a Geatish 8. Zeus: The king of the gods, who plays a pivotal role in
warrior, to the court of King Hrothgar of the Danes. the destiny of both the Greeks and Trojans.
Hrothgar's hall, Heorot, has been under attack by the 9. Hera: Queen of the gods and wife of Zeus. She supports
monstrous Grendel, who terrorizes the kingdom every the Greeks.
night. 10. Athena: Goddess of wisdom and warfare. She supports
the Greeks and often aids Odysseus.
Grendel, a descendant of Cain, is a monstrous creature who
has been wreaking havoc on Heorot. Beowulf, renowned Plot/Summary:
for his strength and courage, volunteers to help Hrothgar The story begins with the wrath of Achilles, the greatest
and confronts Grendel in a fierce hand-to-hand combat. warrior among the Greeks. Agamemnon, the Achaean king,
Beowulf succeeds in tearing off Grendel's arm, forcing the offends Achilles by taking his war prize, the maiden Briseis.
monster to retreat. In response, Achilles withdraws from the battle, leading to
Seeking revenge for her son's death, Grendel's mother a series of events that negatively impact the Greek forces.
attacks Heorot. Beowulf, undeterred, tracks her to her Achilles pleads with his mother, Thetis, to persuade Zeus to
underwater lair and engages in a perilous battle. With the help the Trojans in their war against the Greeks. The gods
help of a magical sword, Beowulf manages to defeat on Mount Olympus take sides, interfering in the mortal
Grendel's mother and returns triumphant to Hrothgar's conflict and influencing the outcomes of battles.
court.
Hector, the noble Trojan prince and warrior, emerges as a
Beowulf returns to Geatland, and after the death of his central figure on the Trojan side. He leads the Trojan forces
uncle, King Hygelac, he becomes the king. He rules wisely against the Greeks and engages in several key battles,
and is admired for his strength and leadership. showcasing his bravery and skill in combat.
In Beowulf's old age, a dragon is awakened when a thief Driven by grief over the death of his close friend Patroclus,
steals a cup from its hoard. The dragon begins to terrorize who was killed in battle by Hector, Achilles returns to the
Beowulf's kingdom. Despite his age, Beowulf decides to fight. He seeks revenge for Patroclus's death and engages
confront the dragon. In the ensuing battle, Beowulf is in a dramatic duel with Hector outside the walls of Troy.
severely wounded, but with the help of his loyal follower
Wiglaf, he manages to slay the dragon. The epic concludes with the funeral rites for Hector, where
his body is returned to King Priam of Troy. The poem
Beowulf, aware that he is mortally wounded, reflects on his emphasizes themes of honor, fate, and the consequences of
life and legacy. He dies, and his people mourn his passing. war.
The epic concludes with a sense of loss and the recognition
of Beowulf's heroic deeds and the challenges faced by Throughout the narrative, the gods play a significant role in
future generations. shaping the events of the war. Their interference reflects
the ancient Greek belief in a world where divine forces
Theme/Moral: directly impacted mortal affairs.
Beowulf's relationships with others, particularly his loyal Theme/Moral:
followers like Wiglaf, emphasize the importance of
companionship and working together to overcome It provides insight into the cultural values and beliefs of
challenges. The poem highlights the strength derived from ancient Greece while also offering timeless reflections on
strong bonds between warriors. the nature of conflict and the consequences of unchecked
pride and anger.

THE ILLIAD
Homer THE ODYSSEY
Homer
Characters:
Characters:
1. Achilles: The central character and the greatest Greek
warrior. His wrath and withdrawal from the battle 1. Odysseus: The protagonist of the epic. King of Ithaca,
drive the narrative of "The Iliad." Odysseus is known for his intelligence, cunning, and
2. Hector: The noble Trojan prince and the greatest leadership. His journey home takes ten years.
Trojan warrior. Hector leads the defense of Troy 2. Penelope: Odysseus's wife, who remains faithful to him
against the Greeks. despite his long absence. She is besieged by suitors in
Ithaca during his absence.
3. Telemachus: Odysseus and Penelope's son. Telemachus and arduous journey. The epic remains a timeless and
sets out on a journey to find news of his father and, influential work in world literature.
later, to learn about his fate.
4. Athena: The goddess of wisdom and warfare. Athena is Theme/Moral:
a mentor and protector of Odysseus and Telemachus Revenge and Justice: Odysseus's journey is partly driven by
throughout their journeys. the desire for revenge against those who wronged him. The
5. Calypso: A nymph who keeps Odysseus on her island theme of justice is explored as characters face
for seven years. She falls in love with him and offers consequences for their actions, whether they are mortal or
him immortality, but he longs for home. divine.
6. Polyphemus: A Cyclops and son of Poseidon. Odysseus
and his men blind Polyphemus as part of their escape
from his cave.
BIAG NI LAM-ANG
7. Hermes: The messenger god who aids Odysseus with
Pedro Bukaneg
various tasks and provides guidance.
8. Zeus: The king of the gods. Zeus plays a significant role Characters:
in determining the fate of Odysseus.
9. Hera: Queen of the gods and wife of Zeus. She 1. Lam-ang: The protagonist of the epic, Lam-ang is a
occasionally aids Odysseus. remarkable and miraculous character. Born already
able to speak and walk, Lam-ang possesses incredible
Plot/Summary: strength and skills. He embarks on a journey to find his
missing father, facing various challenges and enemies
The epic poem is divided into 24 books.
along the way.
The narrative begins in Ithaca, where Odysseus's wife, 2. Namongan: Lam-ang's mother, Namongan, gives birth
Penelope, and son, Telemachus, are dealing with unruly to him despite the absence of his father, Don Juan. She
suitors who are vying for Penelope's hand in marriage, provides guidance and magical items to Lam-ang,
believing Odysseus to be dead. Athena, the goddess of helping him on his quest. Namongan is also
wisdom, disguises herself as Mentor and encourages instrumental in the resurrection of Lam-ang after he is
Telemachus to seek information about his father. killed.
Telemachus sets out on a journey to learn about 3. Don Juan: Lam-ang's father, who is missing for a
Odysseus's fate. significant portion of the epic. Lam-ang sets out to find
him, and the quest to reunite with his father becomes a
Meanwhile, Odysseus is stranded on the island of Ogygia, central part of the narrative.
held captive by the nymph Calypso. Hermes, the messenger 4. Ines Kannoyan: The beautiful maiden whom Lam-ang
god, is sent by Zeus to instruct Calypso to release Odysseus. falls in love with during his journey. Ines becomes
Despite Calypso's reluctance, she obeys the divine Lam-ang's wife after he impresses her and her family
command, and Odysseus builds a raft to leave the island. with his strength and bravery.
Odysseus faces numerous challenges and adventures on his 5. Sumarang: A rival suitor who competes for the love of
journey home. He encounters the Cyclops Polyphemus, the Ines Kannoyan. Sumarang becomes one of Lam-ang's
sorceress Circe, the Sirens, and the whirlpool Charybdis. adversaries, and Lam-ang defeats him in a series of
He also visits the land of the dead (Hades) and seeks the battles.
guidance of the blind prophet Tiresias. 6. Magical Creatures: Various supernatural beings and
creatures appear in Lam-ang's adventures,
Back in Ithaca, Telemachus returns and begins to assert contributing to the mythical and fantastical elements
himself. Athena helps Odysseus, who has finally reached of the epic. These include a self-aware rooster, a
the island of the Phaeacians. He recounts his adventures to magical wallet, and other companions.
King Alcinous and Queen Arete, and they provide him with 7. Animals: Lam-ang has interactions with animals,
a ship to return home. particularly his loyal rooster. This rooster plays a
crucial role in retrieving Lam-ang's dismembered body
Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, arrives in Ithaca. With the parts after he is killed and aiding in his resurrection.
help of his son Telemachus, loyal swineherd Eumaeus, and
the goddess Athena, he plans to reclaim his household. He Plot/Summary:
reveals his identity to Telemachus and devises a plan to
deal with the suitors. "Biag ni Lam-ang" is an epic poem from the Philippines,
specifically from the Ilocos region.
Odysseus, still in disguise, participates in a contest
involving his bow, which only he can string. He skillfully The epic begins with the birth of Lam-ang, a miraculous
wins the contest and then, with the help of Telemachus and child. His mother, Namongan, gives birth to him despite the
Eumaeus, slaughters the suitors who have been exploiting fact that his father, Don Juan, is away. Lam-ang grows
his household. rapidly, gaining the ability to talk and walk in just a few
days.
Odysseus reveals his true identity to Penelope, who is
initially doubtful. They are joyfully reunited, but Odysseus Upon reaching maturity, Lam-ang expresses his desire to
must still prove himself to his skeptical wife. He find his father, who has been missing for a long time. His
accomplishes this by recounting their bed's secret mother gives him advice and presents him with magical
construction. The epic concludes with the gods intervening items, including a self-aware rooster and a magical wallet.
to restore order, and Odysseus and Penelope are finally Lam-ang encounters various challenges on his journey to
reunited. find his father. He faces and defeats numerous foes,
"The Odyssey" explores themes of heroism, cleverness, showcasing his incredible strength and skills in combat.
loyalty, and the challenges of returning home after a long
Among his victories is defeating Sumarang, a rival suitor to 6. The Messenger: A messenger from Corinth who
his mother. reveals Oedipus's true identity and the circumstances
of his adoption.
During his travels, Lam-ang hears about the beautiful Ines 7. The Herdsman: A shepherd who, reluctantly, provides
Kannoyan and decides to court her. He goes to her village, details about Oedipus's origin and early life,
accompanied by his magical rooster and other confirming the tragic truth.
companions. Lam-ang impresses Ines and her family with 8. Laius: Oedipus's biological father and former king of
his strength and valor. Thebes. His murder sets in motion the events foretold
While fishing, Lam-ang is killed and dismembered by a in the prophecy.
group of jealous rivals led by Sumarang. His magical 9. Polybus and Merope: Oedipus's adoptive parents in
rooster retrieves his body parts, and his mother uses her Corinth. They raise him, and Oedipus believes them to
powers to resurrect him, making him whole again. be his biological parents.

With the help of his magical items and the intervention of Plot/Summary:
his mother, Lam-ang returns to life. He continues his The play begins with a city in crisis. Thebes is suffering
courtship of Ines and eventually marries her, marking the from a plague, and Oedipus, the king, is determined to find
culmination of his quest. a solution. He sends Creon, his brother-in-law, to consult
After marrying Ines, Lam-ang returns to his homeland with the oracle at Delphi for guidance.
his wife. The epic concludes with Lam-ang and Ines living Upon Creon's return, Oedipus learns from the oracle that
happily ever after. the plague will only end when the murderer of the former
Theme/Moral: king, Laius, is brought to justice. Oedipus vows to find and
punish the murderer.
Perseverance and Resilience: Lam-ang's resilience and
perseverance in the face of adversity, including his death Oedipus initiates an investigation, questioning citizens and
and subsequent resurrection, convey the importance of seeking information about the murder. He discovers that
persistence and determination in overcoming life's Laius was killed at the crossroads on the way to Delphi.
challenges. Despite Oedipus's efforts, the identity of Laius's murderer
Justice and Vengeance: The epic explores the theme of remains elusive. Tiresias, the blind prophet, is brought in
justice as Lam-ang seeks vengeance against those who for assistance. Reluctantly, Tiresias reveals that Oedipus
wronged him. While the pursuit of justice is a central himself is the cause of the city's woes.
theme, the epic also suggests the consequences of Oedipus is shocked and angered by Tiresias's revelation. As
excessive vengeance. he investigates further, he learns that he was adopted and
"Biag ni Lam-ang" is a celebration of strength, courage, and that his true parents are Laius and Jocasta. Disturbingly,
the triumph of good over evil. It is deeply rooted in Oedipus begins to piece together that he is the unwitting
Philippine folklore and is considered one of the most well- murderer of his father and the husband of his mother.
known epics in Philippine literature. The narrative reflects Jocasta, Oedipus's wife and mother, tries to comfort him
the cultural values and beliefs of the Ilocano people and and dismiss the oracles. However, as Oedipus uncovers
has been passed down through generations as part of their more details, Jocasta realizes the truth and, in despair,
oral tradition. hangs herself.

In horror and grief, Oedipus gouges out his own eyes,

OEDIPUS REX unable to bear the truth he has uncovered. He is now blind,
Sophocles both physically and metaphorically.

Characters: Oedipus, now blinded, begs Creon to exile him from

Thebes. Despite the turmoil he has caused, Oedipus seeks
1. Oedipus: The protagonist and tragic hero of the play. redemption and a release from the guilt he carries. The
Oedipus is the king of Thebes and seeks to uncover the play concludes with Oedipus leaving Thebes, guided by his
truth behind the city's suffering. Unknowingly, he daughters, Antigone and Ismene.
fulfills a prophecy that he would kill his father and
marry his mother. Theme/Moral:
2. Jocasta: Oedipus's wife and mother. Jocasta initially "Oedipus Rex" explores themes of fate, free will, and the
tries to comfort Oedipus in his quest for truth but later consequences of discovering uncomfortable truths. The
discovers the horrifying reality of their relationship. tragic downfall of Oedipus serves as a cautionary tale
3. Creon: Jocasta's brother and Oedipus's brother-in-law. about the limits of human knowledge and the inescapable
Creon is a central figure who plays a crucial role in the power of destiny.
unfolding events. He is often caught between loyalty to
Oedipus and his responsibilities to the city.
4. Tiresias: A blind prophet with the gift of foresight.
Tiresias is reluctant to reveal the truth to Oedipus, 3 TYPES OF IRONY
knowing the devastating consequences that will follow. 1. Dramatic - occurs when the audience knows
5. The Chorus: Comprising Theban citizens, the chorus
serves as a collective voice that comments on the something that the main characters do not.
unfolding events, expresses the public sentiment, and 2. Situational - occurs when an expected outcome is
interacts with the main characters. subverted.
3. Verbal - a statement in which the speaker’s words are
incongruous with the speaker's intent. A speaker says
one thing while meaning another, resulting in an ironic
clash between their intended meaning and their literal
meaning.