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EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 1

Early identification of dyslexia: Understanding the issues

Danielle Colenbrander1, Jessie Ricketts2 and Helen L. Breadmore3

1
School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

2
Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, United

Kingdom

3
Centre for Advances in Behavioural Science, Coventry University, Coventry, United

Kingdom

Purpose

To provide an overview of the benefits and challenges associated with the early identification

of dyslexia.

Method

The literature on the early identification of dyslexia is reviewed. Theoretical arguments and

research evidence are summarised. An overview of Response to Intervention as a method of

early identification is provided and the benefits and challenges associated with it are

discussed. Finally, the role of speech language pathologists in the early identification process

is addressed.

Conclusions

Early identification of dyslexia is crucial to ensure that children are able to maximise their

educational potential, and speech language pathologists are well placed to play a role in this

process. However, early identification alone is not sufficient – difficulties with reading may

persist or become apparent later in schooling. Therefore, continuing progress monitoring and

access to suitable intervention programs is essential.

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 2

Early Identification of Dyslexia: Understanding the Issues

Functional reading and writing abilities are essential for full participation in society.

The inability to read accurately and fluently has many negative consequences, including poor

educational outcomes (McLaughlin, Speirs, & Shenassa, 2014; Ricketts, Sperring, & Nation,

2014), reduced occupational choices and lower levels of employment (McLaughlin et al.,

2014; OECD, 2013), poor self-esteem and poor mental and physical health (Boetsch, Green,

& Pennington, 1996; Dewalt, Berkman, Sheridan, Lohr, & Pignone, 2004). Unfortunately,

there is evidence that children who begin schooling with poor reading abilities either continue

to be behind their peers years later, or fall even further behind in a “rich get richer” effect

known as the Matthew effect (Ferrer et al., 2015; Stanovich, 1986). This is likely to be

because children who are poor readers may have less exposure to written text, which not only

hinders the development of fluency and automaticity but also limits exposure to more

advanced vocabulary and grammar. As a result, children’s reading comprehension and ability

to learn from what they read is reduced (A. E. Cunningham & Stanovich, 1998; Mol & Bus,

2011).

To prevent such consequences, it is essential to be able to accurately identify reading

difficulties as early as possible, so that children can be provided with the intervention they

need. This is even more crucial in the face of evidence that effective early schooling has

benefits which are apparent more than a decade later (Tymms, Merrell, & Bailey, 2017), and

some types of intervention may be most effective when delivered early in the school years

(Catts, Nielsen, Bridges, Liu, & Bontempo, 2015; Dion, Brodeur, Gosselin, Campeau, &

Fuchs, 2010; Scanlon, Vellutino, Small, Fanuele, & Sweeney, 2005). Furthermore,

intervention later in schooling is both more expensive and resource-intensive than

intervention early in schooling (Fuchs, 2003; Pfeiffer et al., 2001; Wanzek & Vaughn, 2007).
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 3

Aims

In this tutorial, we summarise existing research and theoretical debates about early

identification of reading difficulties with the needs of practitioners in mind. The literature in

this area is extensive and it is beyond the scope of this article to provide an exhaustive review.

Rather, we aim to provide sufficient information to allow speech language pathologists (SLPs)

and other professionals who work with young children to play an informed role in the early

identification process. Specifically, we will address the following questions:

1) What are the key issues with early identification of reading difficulties?

a. How should we define dyslexia and other reading difficulties?

b. How do we decide whether or not a child has a reading difficulty?

c. What risk factors are associated with development of reading difficulties?

d. Can knowledge of risk factors support early identification of reading

difficulties?

2) How can early identification be implemented? What role can SLPs play?

3) What are the limitations of early identification?

Key issues with early identification of reading difficulties

How should we define dyslexia and other reading difficulties?

The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990)

provides a useful framework for understanding why children might struggle to comprehend

what they read. According to the Simple View, reading comprehension skill is the product of

word reading abilities (decoding and word recognition abilities) and language comprehension

abilities. Deficits in one or both of these areas will result in different profiles of reading

difficulty that require different forms of intervention.

Within this conceptualisation, the term “dyslexia” is reserved for children who have

poor word reading abilities despite age-appropriate language comprehension skills. Children
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 4

with weaknesses in both word reading and language comprehension are referred to as

“generally poor readers”. Children with age-appropriate word reading abilities and poor oral

language are referred to as “poor comprehenders”. These children are able to read words

without difficulty, but have impaired reading and listening comprehension because of their

oral language difficulties.

In the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), diagnostic criteria for

dyslexia (also known as “specific learning disability with impairment in reading”) are more

specific. In the DSM-5, dyslexia is defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised

by impairments in decoding, word reading accuracy and fluency, and spelling. A diagnosis of

dyslexia can only be made if difficulties have persisted for at least 6 months despite adequate

intervention, and cannot be accounted for by a range of related factors, such as intellectual

disabilities, psychosocial adversity or inadequate instruction.

In this tutorial, we focus on identifying children with word reading difficulties1. This

includes children with dyslexia under the DSM-5 definition, but also includes those that do

not meet DSM-5 criteria, and those who have additional difficulties (such as generally poor

readers). In our view, any child whose word reading skills are not adequate for their age

should be entitled to appropriate intervention. There is a need for intervention regardless of

whether difficulties are due to (or comorbid with) neurodevelopmental issues, socioeconomic

factors, inadequate early instruction, or other relevant factors such as weak oral language

skills or limited exposure to English. However, this is not to say that knowledge about causes

or comorbidities is unimportant. Such knowledge can be crucial for informing choices about

the nature and intensity of intervention (e.g. see Al Otaiba, Rouse & Baker, this issue).

Our specific focus is on the identification of word reading difficulties at the very

beginning of reading instruction – pre-school and the first two years of formal education.

1
For discussion of issues associated with identifying poor comprehenders, see Cain & Oakhill, 2006; Clarke,
Henderson, & Truelove, 2010; Keenan et al., 2014
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 5

Note that spelling is closely associated with word reading difficulties and often results from

impairments in similar underlying skills. However, spelling may need specific attention and

targeted intervention (for discussion of these issues see Caravolas, Hulme, & Snowling, 2001;

Kohnen, Nickels & Castles, 2009; Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon, 2004).

How do we decide whether or not a child has a reading difficulty?

The success of early intervention relies heavily on the methods of identifying the

children who are at risk of literacy difficulties. These methods need to be specific and

sensitive. They need to be specific enough to ensure that the process does not result in over-

identification of children who are not genuinely at risk. Misdiagnosis may result in

unnecessary worry and stress for parents or caregivers, stigma from being labelled as

impaired, and wasted time and money (Catts, 2017). Crucially though, identification methods

must be sensitive enough to detect all children who are at risk of developing reading

difficulties: the consequences of missing children who are at risk are serious and long-term.

Reading is a complex task which draws on a wide range of knowledge and skills, and

reading abilities fall along a continuum. There is no objective cut-off point below which all

children are poor readers and above which all children are good readers (Bishop, 2015;

Snowling, 2013). In practice, however, time and financial considerations may demand use of

a defined cut-off to determine which children receive additional support and intervention.

Within the research literature, word reading difficulties are commonly operationalised as

performance in the lowest 16% or 25% of the population (equivalent to a standard score

below 85 or 90). In clinical and educational settings, cut-offs may vary widely. The choice of

cut-off is crucial – it will influence the sensitivity and specificity of identification methods,

and should be driven by research on optimal criteria in particular populations (Catts, 2017;

O'Connor & Jenkins, 1999; Speece, 2005).

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 6

Furthermore, children’s skills develop rapidly due to both maturation and schooling,

and different methods of identification will be more sensitive at different stages (Cunningham

& Carroll, 2011; Speece, 2005; Thompson et al., 2015). Once children begin reading

instruction, their progress can be assessed on curriculum-relevant reading measures (we

discuss this in further detail in the sections on implementation of early identification).

However, before children begin formal instruction, reliable measurement of reading skills can

be difficult or even impossible. Therefore in the pre-school years in particular, it is important

to consider broader reading-related skills and risk factors when attempting to determine the

likelihood of future reading difficulties (Pennington et al., 2012). We discuss such factors

below.

What risk factors are associated with the development of word reading

difficulties?

There is no single risk factor which is reliably associated with the later development

of reading difficulties. Reading difficulties are the product of a complex mixture of genetic,

environmental, cognitive and non-cognitive risk factors which interact with each other, and

may vary across individuals. Children at risk are best identified on the basis of multiple,

probabilistic difficulties (Carroll, Mundy, & Cunningham, 2014; Pennington et al., 2012;

Thompson et al., 2015).

Some risk factors are likely to be directly and causally related to word reading, such

as difficulties in underlying cognitive skills. Other factors are more likely to have an indirect

effect on literacy acquisition, and some of these factors may be more open to intervention

than others. Either way, the greater the number and severity of risk factors, the more likely

the individual is to develop word reading difficulties (Snowling, 2008). Below we discuss a

number of risk factors which may be key early indicators of the future development of

reading difficulties.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 7

Genetic factors

There is strong evidence that reading difficulties are heritable; children with a family

member who has a reading difficulty are more likely to go on to develop reading difficulties

than children with no family history (Pennington & Lefly, 2001; Scarborough, 1990;

Snowling, Gallagher, & Frith, 2003; Thompson et al., 2015). Of children who have a first

degree relative with reading difficulties, 40-66% will go on to develop reading difficulties

themselves, as compared with 6-14% of those who do not have a family member with reading

difficulties (Catts, 2017; Pennington & Lefly, 2001; Scarborough, 1990; Snowling et al.,

2003). Therefore, there are strong reasons to consider family history, and monitor the

development of reading amongst relatives of those with literacy difficulties.

Oral language skills

Weak oral language skills at the time of learning to read are associated with a high

risk of developing future reading difficulties (Catts, Fey, Tomblin, & Xhang, 2002; Snowling,

2014; Snowling, Duff, Nash, & Hulme, 2016; Thompson et al., 2015). Conversely, there is

some indication that good oral language skills may act as a protective factor. Children at

family risk of reading difficulties who have age-appropriate oral language skills are less

likely to develop reading difficulties, perhaps because they are able to use these relative

strengths in oral language to compensate for other weaknesses (Snowling et al., 2003;

Snowling, 2008). Below, we focus on impairments in phonological skills, vocabulary

knowledge and morphological awareness as risk factors for the developmental of word

reading difficulties. We also consider the impact of speech and hearing difficulties.

Phonological skills and letter knowledge

At the beginning stages of learning to read and spell an alphabetic language like

English, children must learn how letters relate to sounds. They can then start to blend sounds

together to pronounce words and segment sounds to spell words. This knowledge of letter-
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 8

sound mappings, blending and segmenting is often referred to as phonics. Once children have

phonic skills, they have many of the building blocks needed to develop a memory store of

word spellings and pronunciations. For example, as Share (1995) argues in the self-teaching

hypothesis, once children can decode or blend for reading, they can teach themselves to read

words that they have never seen.

Knowledge of phonology is central to successful phonics and early word reading.

Indeed, weaknesses in phonological processing are strongly associated with difficulties in

decoding, word reading and spelling (Carroll et al., 2014; Melby-Lervag, Lyster, & Hulme,

2012; Snowling et al., 2003). Tasks tapping the ability to manipulate and make judgements

about units of sound at the phoneme level (phonemic awareness) are particularly strong

predictors of future reading abilities (Melby-Lervag et al., 2012). In many studies, phonemic

awareness is the strongest single predictor of word reading difficulties (e.g. Pennington et al.,

2012; Snowling, 2000), although prediction is more accurate when other relevant factors are

also taken into account, and phonological difficulties alone are not always sufficient to cause

dyslexia (Carroll, Solity, & Shapiro, 2016; Pennington et al., 2012; Snowling, 2008, 2014).

Evidence from longitudinal and training studies suggests that there is a causal relationship

between phonemic awareness and reading abilities (e.g. Melby-Lervag et al., 2012). This

relationship is likely to be reciprocal, in that learning to read also leads to better phonemic

awareness (Caravolas et al., 2001; Castles & Coltheart, 2004; Melby-Lervag et al., 2012).

Letter knowledge is another strong predictor of future word reading and spelling

abilities (e.g. Caravolas et al., 2001; Pennington & Lefly, 2001; Thompson et al., 2015).

Knowledge of letter names and/or sounds plays a crucial role in the learning of grapheme-

phoneme correspondences, alongside phonemic knowledge. As with phonemic awareness,

there is evidence from both longitudinal and training studies that letter knowledge may be

causally related to later reading abilities (Hulme & Snowling, 2014).

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 9

Vocabulary knowledge

Poor oral vocabulary knowledge is strongly linked to poor reading comprehension

(Elwer, Keenan, Olson, Byrne, & Samuelsson, 2013; Nation, Snowling, & Clarke, 2007).

Logically, a child must be able to understand all of the words in a given text in order to fully

understand it. Less well-understood is the role that oral vocabulary knowledge plays in word

reading. There are two complementary hypotheses about the nature of this link. Firstly, good

vocabulary knowledge allows children to correct their partial decoding attempts (Dyson, Best,

Solity, & Hulme, 2017; Share, 1995; Tunmer & Chapman, 2012). For example, a child who

sounds out the word “deaf” as /deef/ may be able to guess the correct pronunciation of the

word because it is the closest pronunciation in their spoken vocabulary. Secondly, good

vocabulary skills may influence word reading via its effects on phonological processing. The

Lexical Restructuring Model (Metsala & Whalley, 1998; Walley, Metsala, & Garlock, 2003)

proposes that growth in oral vocabulary results in more detailed specification of phonology.

More precise phonological representation can then better support word reading development

(see above). There is mixed evidence for this model (e.g. see Goodrich & Lonigan, 2014;

Lerner & Lonigan, 2016).

Despite these claims, longitudinal research shows that an individual child’s oral

vocabulary knowledge in pre-school or in the first year of formal schooling is not a reliable

predictor of their later word reading abilities (Duff, Reen, Plunkett, & Nation, 2015; Muter,

Hulme, Snowling, & Stevenson, 2004). However, vocabulary knowledge measured in the

later elementary years does predict word and irregular word reading ability (Nation &

Snowling, 2004; Ricketts, Nation, & Bishop, 2007), and a recent study found that six-year-

old children’s ability to read regular and irregular words was related to their knowledge of the

words’ meanings (Ricketts, Davies, Masterson, Stuart, & Duff, 2016). Furthermore, in a

training study, Wang, Nickels, Nation, & Castles (2013) found that children were better at
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 10

learning to read novel irregularly spelled words when they knew the meanings of the words.

Thus, it is worth monitoring the reading abilities of children with weak vocabulary skills,

particularly if weak vocabulary skills are accompanied by other risk factors associated with

reading difficulties.

Morphological awareness

Because English is morphophonemic, the correct spelling of a word is determined by

a combination of phonological, morphological and orthographic factors. For example,

choosing the correct spelling of the homophone “missed” relies on knowledge about past

tenses. Knowledge about morphology not only supports accurate spelling, but also facilitates

access to meaning; morphological skills enable children to infer the meaning of newly

encountered words that are not in their vocabulary, provided they know something about the

constituent morphemes. Morphological awareness is associated with word reading, spelling

and reading comprehension, after accounting for the contribution of phonology and

vocabulary (Deacon, Benere, & Pasquarella, 2013; Deacon, Tong, & Francis, 2017).

Children with dyslexia tend to show weak or atypical morphological skills

(Breadmore & Carroll, 2016a, 2016b; Carroll & Breadmore, 2017; Joanisse, Manis, Keating,

& Seidenberg, 2000). There is some debate about when morphological skills become

important for literacy, with classic theories arguing that children initially focus on phonology

(e.g., Ehri, 1995; Gentry, 1982), while more recent statistical learning frameworks suggest

that children use their knowledge of morphology from the beginning of development (Deacon,

Conrad, & Pacton, 2008; Treiman, 2017). Increasing evidence suggests that although the

impact of morphological skills develops throughout childhood, morphology may have a key

role in reading and spelling from the beginning (e.g., Breadmore & Deacon, under review;

Pacton & Deacon, 2008).

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 11

There is evidence that instruction in morphological principles leads to improved

reading and spelling (P. N. Bowers, Kirby, & Deacon, 2010), suggesting that morphological

knowledge may play a causal role in reading development. However, there is fierce debate

surrounding the question of whether early reading instruction should involve instruction in

morphology (e.g. see Bowers & Bowers, 2017; Rastle, 2018). To date, the debate is largely

theoretical as very few empirical studies have directly explored this question. Nonetheless,

children who have weak morphological skills may be at risk of reading and spelling

difficulties.

Hearing difficulties

Hearing is a key risk factor to consider in early identification of word reading

difficulties. Deafness and hearing loss can affect the nature and quality of exposure to spoken

language. This impacts on oral language skills (particularly phonological skills and

vocabulary) which in turn affect reading. Profoundly and severely deaf children are at

significantly greater risk of literacy difficulties than hearing children. While there is wide

individual variation, the literacy difficulties that are common amongst the deaf population are

often very severe. By the end of elementary school, deaf children are already on average

three years behind in reading. The gap between them and their hearing peers increases, with

deaf children making a third of the progress that is expected each year (Herman, Roy, & Kyle,

2014; Kyle & Harris, 2010). Nonetheless, phonological awareness, vocabulary and other

(signed and spoken) language skills predict literacy attainment for deaf children (Kyle,

Campbell, & MacSweeney, 2016; Mayberry, del Giudice, & Lieberman, 2011).

It is not only severely and profoundly deaf children who are at greater risk of literacy

difficulties. Children with mild-to-moderate or unilateral deafness, and also those with a

history of fluctuating hearing loss due to glue ear (repeated middle ear infections also known

as otitis media with effusion) are also at greater risk of reading difficulties than hearing
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 12

children (Carroll & Breadmore, 2018). Children with mild-to-moderate or fluctuating hearing

loss are not at as high risk of vocabulary and language difficulties as those with severe and

profound deafness. Their difficulties appear to be more specific to phonology (Carroll &

Breadmore, 2018). Nonetheless, one should consider all levels of permanent and temporary

hearing loss to be risk factors for reading difficulties. It is, however, still crucial to consider

the individual child’s pattern of strengths and weaknesses in literacy related cognitive skills

(e.g., phonological and morphological awareness, vocabulary) to evaluate the level of risk

and provide appropriate intervention.

Speech sound disorders

Children with speech sound disorders – persistent difficulties with speech production

not due to sensory, motor or other physical conditions (American Psychiatric Association,

2013) – are also at an increased risk of developing reading difficulties, but the relationship is

complex. A recent study (Hayiou-Thomas, Carroll, Leavett, Hulme, & Snowling, 2017)

found that children who had speech sound disorders that persisted until school entry had a

small but significant risk of phonemic awareness and spelling difficulties, which attenuated

over time. The risk of reading and spelling difficulties was far greater for children with

speech-sound disorders who had co-occurring language difficulties and/or a family history of

reading difficulties, with each factor adding cumulatively to risk (Hayiou-Thomas et al.,

2017).

Other cognitive factors

A range of other cognitive factors have been associated with reading abilities such as

rapid automatic naming (RAN; e.g. Wolf & Bowers, 1999), short term memory, working

memory and executive functions (e.g. Alloway & Alloway, 2010; Gathercole, Alloway,

Willis, & Adams, 2006; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006). RAN in particular is a

powerful predictor of future reading achievement (e.g. Caravolas et al., 2012; Manis,
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 13

Seidenberg, & Doi, 1999). However, the evidence for causal relationships between these

skills and word reading is equivocal, and programmes training these broader cognitive skills

have not been effective in improving reading abilities (e.g. see Banales, Kohnen, & McArthur,

2015; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015; Kirby et al., 2010; Melby-Lervag & Hulme, 2013; Melby-

Lervag et al., 2012). Therefore, we do not discuss these risk factors in further detail.

Can risk factors support early identification of word reading difficulties?

As discussed above, no individual risk factor is a suitably sensitive or specific

predictor of reading difficulties on its own, and there is no single cause for word reading

difficulties. Consistent with this, children with word reading difficulties are a heterogeneous

population and may have various underlying patterns of impairment (Carroll et al., 2016;

McArthur et al., 2013; Pennington et al., 2012). To complicate matters even further, the role

played by different risk factors changes over time, and what is a strong indicator of future

word reading difficulties at a very young age may not be the best indicator at a later age

(O'Connor & Jenkins, 1999; Speece, 2005; Thompson et al., 2015). Thus, it is not possible to

recommend a single risk factor or assessment which is capable of identifying all children who

will develop word reading difficulties. Rather, the presence and severity of individual risk

factors should be seen as warning signs indicating that a child’s emergent and developing

literacy should be monitored. We now discuss ways in which this monitoring can be carried

out.

How can early identification be implemented?

At present, the most widely-researched framework for carrying out early

identification is Response to Intervention (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Speece,

2002). Response to Intervention (RTI) is a system which utilises multiple tiers of instruction

and assessment to determine which children need additional reading support. Typically, it

consists of three tiers of instruction (Gersten et al., 2009). The first tier involves effective
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 14

evidence-based initial reading instruction, delivered to all students in regular classrooms.

Children’s progress is monitored regularly using curriculum-relevant assessments. Successful

response to instruction is defined as making a pre-determined amount of progress or reaching

pre-determined standards on a particular assessment task. In this way, the first stage of

identification is focused on the functional consequence of a reading difficulty rather than its

cause. Children who do not meet pre-determined criteria go on to the second tier of

instruction. They receive additional support, which may involve more explicit or frequent

instruction, or instruction in smaller groups. Their progress continues to be monitored

regularly, and if these children continue to fail to meet required standards, they may be

referred for in-depth assessment and/or special education services to meet their specific needs.

A major advantage of this method is that it does not involve “waiting to fail” (Fletcher,

Coulter, Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006). Children’s progress is monitored

right from the beginning of reading instruction, which means that problems can be identified

and addressed early on. Furthermore, the emphasis on high quality, evidence-based initial

instruction means that successful implementations of RTI should reduce the number of

“instructional casualties”, or children who fail to learn to read due to inadequate instruction

(Fletcher et al., 2004). However, RTI methods are subject to the same complexities

associated with any method of early identification. Success relies on the methods of

instruction selected for each tier but also on the choice of appropriate criteria for growth and

achievement in reading abilities, as well as on the choice of sensitive, specific and reliable

assessments (e.g. Catts et al., 2015; Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006). RTI

has been implemented differently, and with varying degrees of success, across different

contexts. Below, we briefly discuss the research on issues of implementation within the US

context, where RTI methods were first conceptualised. We then discuss implementation of a
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 15

closely related early identification framework in England, where implementation has been

mandated at a national level.

Response to Intervention in the US

In the US, RTI has formed a key part of national recommendations for identification

and remediation of learning difficulties since 2004 (Arden, Gruner Gandhi, Zumeta Edmonds,

& Danielson, 2017; Gersten et al., 2009; IDEA 2004). Decisions about when and how to

implement RTI are left to individual states and local education agencies. A number of

research studies have provided support for the effectiveness of RTI methods (e.g. see Burns,

Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005; Gersten, Newman-Gonchar, Haymond, & Dimino, 2017),

however the results of a recent large-scale, national evaluation of RTI were less positive.

The Evaluation of Response to Intervention Practices for Elementary School Reading

(Balu et al., 2015) consisted of an impact study involving 146 elementary schools that had

implemented RTI for at least three years at the time of the evaluation, and a descriptive

analysis based on survey (self-report) data from 1300 randomly selected schools. The impact

study used a regression continuity design to compare the reading outcomes of children above

and below each school’s designated cut-point score for access to Tier 2 intervention. Schools

used a variety of different screening assessments and cut points. The results were not

promising – in Grade 1, children scoring below the cut-point (i.e., those eligible for

intervention) scored more poorly on reading outcomes than children above the cut-point, and

there was no significant difference between the groups in Grades 2 and 3 (Balu et al., 2015).

The results of the impact study seem to imply that RTI was ineffective, however a

number of critiques have been made. Firstly, there is evidence to suggest that not all students

below the cut-point actually received Tier 2 intervention, while some students above the cut-

point did. In other words, the results of the study do not necessarily reflect a comparison of

those receiving intervention versus those not receiving intervention, and suggest that RTI was
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 16

not always implemented appropriately (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2017; Gersten, Jayanthi, & Dimino,

2017). Secondly, cut-points at some schools were extremely high, with 41% of students on

average receiving Tier 2 intervention (Balu et al., 2015). In other words, some students may

have been receiving instruction that was not appropriate for their skill level. Thus, the results

of the evaluation should not be taken as evidence that RTI does not work – rather, it should

be taken as evidence that RTI did not benefit children whose scores fell just below their

school’s cut-off point (Gersten, Jayanthi, et al., 2017).

More positive evidence for the effectiveness of RTI has come from smaller-scale

controlled trials, but these have tended to involve large amounts of support, training and

monitoring by experts (Gersten, Jayanthi, et al., 2017; Gersten, Newman-Gonchar, et al.,

2017). This suggests that it may be beneficial to devote more resources to training and

implementation monitoring at the school level (Arden et al., 2017; Gersten, Jayanthi, et al.,

2017). However, before resources are diverted in this way, far more research is needed on the

details of implementation – which assessments are most sensitive, which intervention

methods are most effective, and how best to ensure that Tier 1 and Tier 2 instruction methods

are complementary. Care will also need to be taken to specify the contexts in which particular

methods of RTI implementation are most effective – different settings may require different

approaches. With this in mind, we now consider how the principles of RTI have been adapted

and implemented in a very different education system.

Early identification in England

In England, requirements for educational providers are set by law and monitored by

the Department for Education at the national level. These requirements include guidance for

both curriculum and regular assessment. Systematic synthetic phonics is mandated as the

compulsory method of initial reading instruction. Statutory assessments of literacy skills are

regular, but are not the only way in which children’s reading difficulties are identified.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 17

Teachers refer children to Educational Psychologists or dyslexia specialists for formal

assessment when they have significant concerns (see Carroll et al., 2017). However, statutory

assessments do provide a framework to monitor all children’s progress, helping to ensure that

children with emerging literacy difficulties receive additional support.

Children begin formal schooling at a relatively young age: the September after their

fourth birthday. The first year of formal schooling is known as Reception. At the end of

Reception, an observational assessment known as the Early Years Foundation Stage Profile

(Department for Education, 2014) is completed by the child’s teacher, in consultation with

parents or carers and any other relevant adults. Teacher judgements are both internally and

externally moderated for consistency and accuracy. The EYFS Profile indicates a child’s

level of development against early learning goals. The EYFS Profile is given to each child’s

parents and Year 1 teacher alongside a commentary to inform them about a child’s learning

and development needs. Such information is expected to assist with planning of Year 1

activities and contribute to a smooth transition from the more play-focused Reception year to

the more formal Year 1.

There is research to support the validity of the EYFS Profile. Snowling (2013) found

that attainment on the literacy and communication and language aspects of the EYFS Profile

was highly correlated with teacher measurements of reading and writing performance at the

end of Year 2, and with standardised tests of reading, spelling and reading comprehension in

Year 3. However, there are also problems with the EYFS profile. Some feel that it places a

heavy administrative burden on teachers, and although the results of the profile can point to

the existence of difficulties in reading and writing, there is no clear guidance on how this

information should be acted upon (Ofsted, 2017; Ward, 2017). Currently, the Department for

Education is planning to improve the EYFS profile, and a baseline assessment at entry to

Reception is under consideration.

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 18

After Reception, statutory assessments include a Phonics Screening Check at the end

of Year 1, followed by tests of English Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling, and English

Reading (which focuses on reading comprehension, rather than word reading) at the end of

Year 2 (Standards and Testing Agency, 2017a). The Phonics Screening Check is most

relevant to word reading (Standards and Testing Agency, 2017b). Here, children complete a

brief assessment with their Class Teacher during which they are required to read 40 words

and nonwords. Nonwords are used because children cannot have seen them before, and they

can only be correctly read using knowledge of letter-sound correspondences. Hence, they

provide a relatively pure measure of the child’s knowledge of phonics. The assessment is

administered by teachers and is criterion-referenced. When children do not meet the criterion,

the Department for Education (2017) guidance highlights the need to evaluate the

effectiveness of phonics provision across the whole school, as well as considering whether

the child’s attendance has been sufficiently high. Once ineffective or insufficient phonics

teaching has been ruled out, there is then specific advice for identifying and supporting

specific areas of difficulty. The screen is then repeated at the end of Year 2.

Detractors of the Phonics Check suggest that it leads to increased stress for students

and teachers and leads to a narrowing of instructional focus. There are also reports of

“teaching to the test”, for example teaching children to read non-words (Walker, Bartlett,

Betts, Sainsbury, & Worth, 2014). This indicates that some teachers do not understand the

purpose of using nonwords. Despite these criticisms, the use of systematic phonics methods

in conjunction with the Phonics Check does seem to be associated with better reading

outcomes. Performance on the Phonics Check has improved every year since its

implementation, with 81% of students now achieving the expected standard of performance

(Department for Education, 2017). It is also worth noting that England’s performance in the

2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) was its highest since PIRLS
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 19

studies began, and more importantly, there were substantial increases in the performance of

lower performing pupils (McGrane, Stiff, Baird, Lenkeit, & Hopfenbeck, 2017), though there

may be other reasons for the improvements in PIRLS results.

What role can speech language pathologists play in early identification?

While further research into the most effective ways of implementing early

intervention in different contexts is sorely needed, it is clear that successful early

identification rests on the choice of sensitive and specific assessments with a clear link to

instructional recommendations, as well as the appropriate choice of cut-off points for access

to intervention, regular progress monitoring, and ongoing training and support (Arden et al.,

2017; D. Fuchs & Fuchs, 2017; Gersten, Jayanthi, et al., 2017). SLPs have access to a rich

knowledge base which is directly relevant to the early identification of reading difficulties,

and can play a key role in this process. Below, we outline some of the ways in which SLPs

can be involved (for further detail see Justice, 2006).

Firstly, SLPs should be part of a school-wide, multidisciplinary approach to RTI, and

should be involved in decision-making from the beginning (Justice, 2006). Because SLPs are

familiar with standardised tests, they can be involved in making recommendations on

assessment choice, administering screening/benchmarking and progress assessment, and

training others to administer assessments. In Kindergarten, assessments of phonological

awareness, letter name and/or letter sound knowledge and vocabulary are appropriate. In

Years 1 and 2, assessments of the ability to read simple nonwords and frequent regular and

irregular words are suitable, and passage reading fluency may also be assessed (Gersten et al

2009). Where possible it is important to use more than one assessment of developing reading

skills, as information from multiple assessments tends to be more sensitive than information

from a single assessment (Gersten et al., 2009). Differences in performance between

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 20

assessments may also help highlight areas of strength or weakness, which is key information

for informing intervention choices.

A gated assessment procedure may be more efficient and specific than a one-shot

screening procedure (Compton et al., 2010; Fuchs, Fuchs & Compton, 2012). In a gated

procedure, a single assessment or a set of brief assessments (such as word and nonword

reading fluency) with relatively high cut-points may be used to determine which children are

definitely not at risk of reading difficulties. Children who fall below the cut-point(s) at the

first screening assessment can then have further, more detailed assessment of response to

instruction. This may involve progress monitoring on assessments of letter-sound

correspondence knowledge, and regular, irregular and nonword reading accuracy and fluency.

While some assessments come with suggested cut-points for access to intervention,

generic guidelines may not be appropriate in every context (Gersten et al., 2009). It is crucial

that schools and teachers keep records of whether cut-points are functioning as intended

within their setting, and adjust them if necessary. This will be a process of trial and error, but

flexibility is an essential part of RTI, which in its most effective form should be a system that

responds to a child’s needs (Fuchs et al., 2012).

Finally, ASHA guidelines clearly state that SLPs have a key role to play in early

identification and in delivering literacy intervention at all tiers of RTI (ASHA, n.d.).

However, outside the US (and even in some contexts within the US), speech-language

pathologists may find it difficult to take any role in literacy identification or intervention, or

may even be actively discouraged from doing so by funding structures or regulations. In view

of what is known about the links between oral language skills and reading abilities (e.g. Catts

et al., 2002; Snowling, 2014), this artificial separation is wasteful, and may violate evidence-

based practices.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 21

It is undeniably difficult for SLPs working under these conditions to integrate

identification of literacy difficulties into their existing practice, but it is not impossible. Even

if SLPs do not have any direct contact with a child’s teacher, they are in a position to inform

parents or guardians that a child may be at risk of developing reading difficulties, based on

their knowledge of the child’s case history and their performance on reading-relevant

language assessments. SLPs have the skills to provide parents with information and to

support them in approaching their child’s school to request appropriate assessment and

intervention. In some cases it may be possible for SLPs to carry out brief screening

assessments themselves using existing resources. For example, most SLPs have access to

phonological awareness assessment batteries which often contain tests of nonword reading.

There are also researcher-designed assessments of reading freely available online (see for

example the MOTif website, www.motif.org.au).

Finally, SLPs can adapt their intervention programmes to include written language

components. For example, work on phonological awareness can be expanded to include work

on letter-sound correspondence knowledge, which is more effective for improving reading

than phonological awareness in isolation (Ehri et al., 2001). Work on vocabulary can, and

indeed should, include exposure to the written forms of words, as this leads to better learning

of both written forms and meaning (Parsons & Branagan, 2014; Ricketts, Bishop, & Nation,

2009; Ricketts, Dockrell, Patel, Charman, & Lindsay, 2015). Other language activities can be

structured to include discussion of books or other written texts so that children are exposed to

written as well as spoken language (e.g. websites, magazine articles).

What are the limitations of early identification?

Although there is evidence that children who have access to intervention in the early

years of schooling will have better long-term outcomes than children who begin intervention

later (e.g. Dion et al., 2010; Scanlon et al., 2005), children’s progress needs to be monitored
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 22

throughout their schooling. In some cases (particularly in the case of relatively constrained

skills such as letter-sound knowledge), early intervention may “innoculate” children and

allow them to catch up to their peers, but early gains may fade over time (Tymms et al.,

2017), and short-term intervention is unlikely to be enough for those with the greatest

weaknesses in word reading ability or the highest levels of risk of difficulties. Such children

are likely to need ongoing support as the demands of the curriculum change (McMaster,

Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005). In other words, early intervention should represent the

beginning of the intervention and support process.

This is even more crucial because due to the multifaceted nature of reading, some

forms of reading difficulty do not become apparent until later in schooling. We have focused

on early identification of word reading difficulties, but it is important to note that reading

comprehension difficulties may not become apparent until the later elementary years when

children are increasingly expected to read independently and learn from what they read

(Elwer et al., 2013; Hogan, Adlof, & Alonzo, 2014). Identification of reading comprehension

difficulties can be particularly challenging when emerging in the absence of word reading

difficulties (Cain & Oakhill, 2006; Colenbrander, Kohnen, Smith-Lock, & Nickels, 2016;

Nation & Snowling, 1997). Thus, early identification of word reading difficulties is crucial –

but monitoring of word reading, reading comprehension, and other literacy skills (e.g.,

spelling, writing) should continue throughout the school years. Such monitoring should be

supported by strong classroom instruction, not only in phonics but also in oral vocabulary,

morphological knowledge, reading comprehension strategies, and writing skills.

Conclusions

Early identification of reading difficulties is complex and challenging, but essential if

we are to optimise outcomes for children with reading difficulties. In an ideal world, SLPs

should work collaboratively alongside teachers to implement early identification. However,

EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 23

even if this is not possible, SLPs can still play a vital role through the awareness of risk

factors associated with the development of future reading difficulties, and by integrating

written language into their assessment and intervention practices wherever possible. SLPs can

also work closely with parents to ensure that parents and schools are aware of early risk

factors.

Response to Intervention is a promising model of early identification and service

delivery, but the jury is still out on the best way to implement it. More research into the

specifics of early identification and RTI is sorely needed - but it is clear that the success of

implementation relies on sufficient funding and support (Arden et al., 2017; D. Fuchs &

Fuchs, 2017; Gersten, Jayanthi, et al., 2017). Early identification should be a priority for

every school and education system, but it should not be the be-all and end-all of service

delivery for children with reading difficulties – rather, it should be the first step in an ongoing

cycle of monitoring and intervention which continues beyond the elementary years. Only

then will children with reading difficulties have the chance to reach their full potential.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF DYSLEXIA 24

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