GENERAL ¨ ARTICLE

Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey

The First Family of Palaeoanthropology

Rajan Gaur

Louis and Mary Leakey are two famous palaeoanthropologists

and archaeologists of the twentieth century whose discoveries
have had a major influence on our understanding of human
evolution. These discoveries were spectacular and brought
popular attention to the field of palaeoanthropology, though
at times they also courted controversies. Though, debate on
the proper interpretation of many of the fossil hominid finds Rajan Gaur is a Professor
made by them continues even today, no one questions their at the Department of
tremendous contribution to our knowledge about evolution of Anthropology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh.
humankind. This article is focussed on their life and works.
His major area of research
has been
Introduction palaeoanthropology,
mammalian palaeontology,
Ever since Darwin published his monumental work in his book palaeoecology and physical
‘On the Origin of Species’ in 1859, the idea of evolution has anthropology. Over the
gradually caught the imagination of the scientific community. last thirty years he has led
several
However, it took a while for the concept of human evolution to be
palaeoanthropological
accepted, in the face of the millennia-old and deeply entrenched fieldworks in the Siwaliks
biblical view of the universe as a static representation of God’s of Northwest India and the
creative device. Before Darwin’s theory, most scholars believed Narmada Basin and
collected a number of
the explanation of Archbishop James Ussher of Armagh, Ireland
vertebrate fossils.
and John Lightfoot (Vice Chancellor of the University of Cam-
bridge), who in the early 1600s had deduced from a careful study
of the Bible that earth had been created at 9 o’clock on October
23, 4004 BC. By the middle of the nineteenth century, fossilized
remains of human ancestors had begun to be unearthed from
various localities in Europe.

One of the earliest was perhaps some cranial and limb bones Keywords
recovered in 1856 from the limestone cave in ‘Neander Valley’ Palaeoanthropology, human
evolution, Louis Leakey, Mary
near Düsseldorf, Germany, which, a few years later, were re- Leakey, Africa, Olduvai gorge,
ferred to as the ‘Neanderthal Man’ (or, Homo neanderthalensis, fossil hominids.

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It was the efforts of a name first used by an English geologist William King in 1864 ).
Louis and Mary For a major part of the 19th century, most discoveries of human
Leakey, the patriarchs fossils were reported from Europe. It was in 1892 that Eugene
of the first palaeo- Dubois, a Dutch doctor working in the army in Dutch East Indies
anthropology family, (now Indonesia), reported the first hominid from outside Europe
which conclusively and named it Anthropopithecus erectus, popularly known as the
brought into spotlight ‘Java Man’ (subsequently named as Pithecanthropus erectus and
the significance of finally as Homo erectus).
Africa as the cradle of
In the 1920s, several hominid finds were reported from
humankind.
Zhoukoudian in China (named as Sinanthropus by Davidson
Black in 1927 and now known as Homo erectus). Thus, for some
time (even beyond the first quarter of the twentieth century), after
the discoveries from Java and Zhoukoudian in China, it was
believed that humans had had Asian origins and Asia was the
cradle of human evolution. The discovery of the fossil skull of a
baby from a lime quarry at Taung in the Northern Cape, South
Africa by Raymond Dart in 1924 was a significant
palaeoanthropological event. This find was published as
Australopithecus africanus in 1925 in Nature as the first evidence
of an early fossil link between the apes and humans and Dart
boldly proposed Africa as the cradle of humanity, a claim that was
largely dismissed by scholars at the time. This find was dismissed
as a relative of either a chimpanzee or a gorilla with little bearing
on human ancestry, more so, because the specimen was of a child
and for the authorities of the time, the matter was not even worth
discussing until an adult specimen was discovered [1].

In the middle and late 1930’s, fossil remains of adult hominid

ancestors were discovered by Robert Broom from South African
cave deposits (Australopithecus transvaalensis from Sterkfontein
in 1936 and Paranthropus robustus from Kromedraii in 1938),
which lent support to Dart’s contention. However, it was the
efforts of Louis and Mary Leakey, the patriarchs of the first
palaeoanthropology family, which conclusively brought into spot-
light the significance of Africa as the cradle of humankind.
Figure 1 shows the timeline of the evolution of the genus Homo.

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Figure 1. Evolutionary time-

line of the hominids.

With this background, the readers will be able to better appreciate

the life and works of Louis and Mary Leakey, two of the pioneers
of palaeoanthropology and archaeology of Africa, which are
being presented here. Louis and his wife Mary Leakey are known
worldwide for their several landmark discoveries in Africa con-
nected with early human evolution. Their discoveries helped to
shift the opinion of the scientific community to the notion that the
earlier phases of human evolution happened in Africa.
Louis Leakey
Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey was the patriarch of a family that
stands out due to its profound contributions to the field of
palaeoanthropology and archaeology in particular; a family that
has dominated the field of anthropology as no other before. The
members of the Leakey family have made crucial discoveries
Besides
which have fashioned our understanding of human origins and
palaeoanthropology,
evolution. It would not be an exaggeration to state that very few
Louis made significant
people have had more influence on human origin studies than the
contributions to
passionate, enthusiastic, brilliant and sometimes unconventional
palaeontology,
and controversial Louis Leakey. Besides palaeoanthropology, he
primatology and
made significant contributions to palaeontology, primatology and
archaeology of Africa.
archaeology of Africa.

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Louis was more Early Years

interested in studying
Louis Leakey was born at Kabete, near Nairobi, Kenya on August
birds and while
searching for birds in
7, 1903. His British parents, Harry Leakey and Mary Leakey,
were missionaries sent to live among the Kikuyu, the largest tribe
the Kenyan bush he
stumbled upon stone
of Kenya. As a child, Louis lived among the Kikuyu and learned
their language and culture. He grew up in conditions which most
artefacts in river beds
at the age of 13 years.
people would consider as rough and his first home just had a
thatched roof. These early tough experiences probably helped
him face the harsh work environments at fossil localities. All
through his life, he remained a supporter for the cause of the
Kikuyu. In his childhood, Louis was more interested in studying
birds and while searching for birds in the Kenyan bush he
stumbled upon stone artefacts in river beds at the age of 13 years.
These initial finds were to shape his lifetime interest in human
origins.

Education and Family Life

In 1922, Louis went to study in England at St John’s College,

Cambridge University. There he was not very popular for several
reasons: his peculiar accent that was tinted with the Kikuyu
rhythm, his unique gait, his shyness and his strange stories of life
in Kenya [2]. He was forced to postpone his studies on account of
a head injury suffered during a rugby match, which doctors
diagnosed as post-traumatic epilepsy [2]. With no cure known at
the time, he was advised prolonged rest away from Cambridge. In
a way, the injury was to shape his destiny that would lead him to
become a legendary figure in palaeoanthropology. While recov-
ering from the injury, he left England to take up the management
of a palaeontological expedition sponsored by the British Mu-
seum of Natural History in what is now Tanzania. He later
returned to England in 1925 to resume his education and gradu-
ated from Cambridge University in 1926 with degrees in archae-
ology and anthropology.

Soon after graduating, Louis set out for his first archaeological
expedition in East Africa. It is interesting to note that a year

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before, Raymond Dart had reported the discovery of first hominid

fossil (Australopithecus africanus, also popularly known as Taung
Child) from the African continent. Louis’s main aim was to find
the earliest fossils of Homo, a genus to which we belong. Contrary
to prevailing beliefs of the day that humanity originated in Asia,
Louis was of the firm belief that man had arisen in Africa – a
notion originally put forward by Charles Darwin. However, for
the subsequent nearly two decades, his expeditions could recover
mainly stone tools and no early hominid fossil was found. His
works, nevertheless, attracted admiration and he was awarded a
doctorate degree in 1930.

Meanwhile, in 1928, Louis Leakey married an English lady,

Farida Avern, whom he had met in Africa, and the couple had two
children. This marriage did not last long and when Farida Avern
was pregnant with her second child, Leakey left her and married
Mary Nicols in 1936 [3]. Louis had met a very young Mary Nicols
in England in 1933. She had been introduced to Louis by Canton–
Thompson at the Royal Anthropological Institute. Impressed by
her talents, Louis invited her to illustrate for his book Adam’s
Ancestors (first edition, 1934, Box 1). Mary was shy and intelli-
gent while Louis was charming, gregarious and very charismatic.
Mary was a distant relative of John Frere, who had done pioneer-
ing work on the stone tool culture of Europe and she had had a
very unconventional education before becoming a promising
archaeologist. She became his field assistant [4].

They soon struck a chord and the ensuing affair culminated in

marriage. This launched the beginning of what would prove to be
Contrary to prevailing
a mutually beneficial and scientifically a very rewarding relation-
beliefs of the day that
ship. Who knows, without this union, some of the stunning
humanity originated in
hominid fossil discoveries from East Africa could still have
Asia, Louis was of the
eluded the scientific community. At that time, Louis’s marriage
firm belief that man
with Mary was not taken very kindly. A year after their marriage,
had arisen in Africa –
Louis returned to Africa to conduct a detailed ethnological study
a notion originally put
of the Kikuyu tribe. Louis and Mary Leakey had three sons: the
forward by Charles
eldest Jonathan (born in 1940), the middle one Richard (born in
Darwin.
1944), and the youngest Philip (born in 1949).

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One of the During World War II, Louis Leakey also worked for the British
important early intelligence [2]. But in between his wartime duties, whenever he
discoveries made got time, he and Mary continued their archaeological and
by Louis and Mary palaeontological work in Kenya. Louis was made honorary cura-
Leakey includes an tor of the Corndon Museum in 1941 (the museum was subse-
early Miocene ape, quently renamed as the Kenya National Museum). In 1945, he
Proconsul. joined as a curator of the museum, a job that was not highly paid
but allowed him to continue his archaeological and
palaeontological work in Kenya. He successfully organised the
first Pan-African Congress of Prehistory, which not only en-
hanced his reputation but also gave him a chance to showcase his
work that he has been doing in Kenya and Tanzania, since the
early 1930s.

Major Discoveries

Proconsul africanus

One of the important early discoveries made by Louis and Mary

Leakey includes an early Miocene ape, Proconsul. During their
expedition of 1947–1948 to Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria,
Kenya, they uncovered a complete fossil skull of Proconsul in
1948 – the first Miocene ape described from Africa [5]. Though
the genus had been identified earlier, Leakey’s find was particu-
larly complete with lower and upper jaw, complete dentition and
a major part of the cranium. Moreover, it happened to be the first
ape skull to be found from Africa. Louis named it Proconsul
africanus, a name that remained for the find for several decades,
until it was reclassified as Proconsul heseloni in 1993 by Alan
Walker [6]. Proconsul is one of the best represented Miocene
hominoids in fossil records. It lived from approximately 23–14
million years ago. The Rusinga Proconsul skull find gave Leakeys
some attention and also led to more funding to continue their
explorations.

Zinjanthropus boisei

Subsequent to the Rusinga Proconsul find, it took more than a

decade for the Leakeys to make another landmark discovery. On

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July 17, 1959, Mary Leakey unearthed the remains of a human

cranium (nicknamed ‘Nutcracker Man’) eroding out of a site
named FLK Zinj, about 22 feet below the upper limit of Bed I at
Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika (now Tanzania) [7]. Incidentally, on
that day, Louis Leakey had stayed back at the camp due to fever
and a headache. Subsequently, the Leakeys found nearly 400
fragments which were put together resulting in a nearly complete
skull. It was a robust specimen that was not greatly different from
the finds of Raymond Dart and Robert Broom from South Africa.
But Louis Leakey thought it was different enough and published
the find in Nature in August, 1959 as Zinjanthropus boisei; Zinj,
after the ancient name of East Africa as a whole and boisei in
honour of Charles Boise, who had been funding the Leakeys’
projects since 1948. Stone tools were also reported from the same
bed, on the basis of which, Leakey concluded in the paper,
“….new find represents one of the earliest Hominidae, with the
Olduvai skull as the oldest yet discovered maker of stone tools”
[7]. A date of 1.75 million years was suggested for the find.
Although the tools were later attributed to Homo habilis, this find
helped to establish the long-held view of Louis Leakey that
Africa, rather than Asia, was the cradle for human evolution.

After this discovery, researchers began to define the roots of

human lineage back to Africa, as was once suggested by Charles
Darwin. This discovery made the Leakeys a household name and
also brought in much needed funding from the National Geo-
graphic, which permitted the Leakeys to significantly increase
the scope of their work. Zinjanthropus boisei was eventually
referred to as Paranthropus boisei [5].

Homo habilis

Another landmark discovery by the Leakeys is that of Homo

habilis (‘handy man’). Homo habilis is a species of the genus The Leakeys found
Homo that lived during the Pleistocene period, between roughly nearly 400 fragments
2.8–1.5 million years ago [8]. The first specimen of this hominid which were put
(designated as OH 7) was discovered by Mary Leakey and her together resulting in a
eldest son, Jonathan, from a site very near to the Zinjanthropus nearly complete skull.

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“... two different site in the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania. In 1964, Louis Leakey,
branches of the along with Philip Tobias and John Napier, published the find in
Hominidae were Nature as Homo habilis, a name that was suggested by Raymond
evolving side by side Dart [9]. Leakey believed that H. habilis was the first member of
in the Olduvai region the genus Homo and a true tool maker and it coexisted with
during the Upper Zinjanthropus. In this paper, Leakey and colleagues conclude,
Villafranchian and the “….two different branches of the Hominidae were evolving side
Upper part of the by side in the Olduvai region during the Upper Villafranchian and
Middle Pleistocene.” the Upper part of the Middle Pleistocene” [9]. Though interpreta-
tions of Leakey’s discoveries are still controversial, it cannot be
denied that they had a great significance for studies of human
origins.

Early in his career, Louis courted a controversy that did not do

much good to his reputation. In 1932, Leakey discovered fossils
at Kanam and Kanjera in East Africa, which he claimed as the
oldest direct ancestors of modern humans and a proof for the
origin of humanity in Africa. But he was unable to show the site,
when asked, due to inadequate documentation [10]. In fact, the
stratigraphic provenance of these finds was not certain and subse-

Box 1. Major Works of Louis Leakey

Dr Louis Leakey was a prolific writer who wrote a number of books, beginning 1931. Some of his important
books are listed below.

The Stone Age Culture of Kenya Colony (1931)

Adam’s Ancestors: The Evolution of Man and His Culture (1934)
The Stone Age Races of Kenya (1935)
Stone Age Africa (1936)
White African (1937)
Olduvai Gorge (1952)
Mau Mau and the Kikuyu (1952)
Animals in Africa (1953)
Defeating Mau Mau, (1954 with Peter Schmidt)
Olduvai Gorge, 1951–61 (1965)
Unveiling Man’s Origins (1969, with Jane Goodall)
Animals of East Africa: The Wild Realm (1969)
By the Evidence: Memoirs, 1932-1951 (1974).

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quent studies indicated that these were not much different from
anatomically modern humans and the specimens came largely
from sub-recent terraces above the recent lake level [11].

Other Interests

Besides archaeology and palaeoanthropology, Leakey had an

interest in African palaeontology and he discovered several new
fossil taxa of lizards, beetles, gastropods, ostriches, carnivores,
rhinoceroses and other mammals. In addition to looking for tools
and hunting for fossils, Leakey was also interested in primatol-
ogy. He believed that one of the keys to sorting out mysteries of
human evolution was to study and understand living primates in
their natural habitat. He inspired and helped three researchers –
who were to later become doyens in the discipline of primatology
– to take up research on living apes. The first of these three was
Jane Goodall who in 1957 initiated her work on chimpanzees in
the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. The second was
Dian Fossey who in 1967 started her study of mountain gorillas in
Rwanda. And the third was Birutơ Galdikas who began her work
in 1971 on orangutans in Borneo. These three ladies were the
forerunners in living among the great apes to observe their
behaviour. They are together popularly known as ‘Leakey’s
Angels’.

Through 1960s, Louis became increasingly involved in lecturing,

travelling, mentoring young researchers and fund-raising, mostly
in the US, where he was very popular. During these years, he
turned over most of the archaeological and palaeoanthropological
exploration work to his wife, Mary. In the last years of his life, the Louis inspired and
relations between Louis and his wife Mary remained estranged helped three
[12]. At the age of 69, on October 1, 1972, Louis Leakey died of researchers – who
a heart attack in London. were to later become
doyens in the
Mary Leakey discipline of prima-
tology – to take up
Mary (Nicol) Leakey, archaeologist and anthropologist, is best
known for her explorations at the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania. research on living
apes.
Along with her husband, she made several stunning discoveries,

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Mary’s major discovery which helped to focus the world’s attention on Africa. The
was however in 1959 discoveries she made not only suggested that human ancestors
when she found arose in Africa but also that human ancestry extended farther
Zinjanthropus boisei back in time than understood then. Her discovery of the footprints
(now Paranthropus at Laetoli pushed back the date of bipedal locomotion to nearly 3
boisei) from Bed I at million years. No wonder that Mary and her husband Louis
Olduvai Gorge, Leakey are often r eferred to as the first family of
Tanzania. palaeoanthropology.

Early Years

Mary Douglas Nicol was born on February 6, 1913 in London.

Her father, Erskine Nikol, was a painter whose professional work
took him to various countries, such as Switzerland, Italy, France,
etc. Mary also moved along with the family and her formal
education was limited. In France, she could visit cave art sites and
meet famous pre-historians along with her father and thus devel-
oped an abiding interest in archaeology. She was only 13 when
her father died unexpectedly in France and Mary returned to
England along with her mother. This trauma and other changes
affected her and she was twice expelled from school due to her
rebellious nature.

She did not pursue a formal university degree. Instead, Mary

began participating in archaeological expeditions. She had a
natural artistic flair and she worked as an illustrator for an
archaeological expedition in England at the age of 17. As noted
earlier, she had done illustrations for a book entitled The Desert
Fayoum by anthropologist Gertrude Canton–Thompson, who in
1933 recommended her at Cambridge to Louis Leakey who was
looking for an illustrator for his second book, Adam’s Ancestors.
Louis and Mary eventually got married in 1936 after an affair.
The couple then moved to Kenya in 1937 where they continued
archaeological and palaeoanthropological work and made sev-
eral landmark discoveries, most from Oduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

Major Discoveries

As noted earlier, the first major discovery by Mary Leakey was

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from Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria of Kenya in 1948 when she Mary considered the
discovered the first nearly complete skull with lower jaw and all Laetoli footprints her
teeth of an early Miocene ape Proconsul africanus. Her major most significant find
discovery was however in 1959 when she found Zinjanthropus which conclusively
boisei (now Paranthropus boisei) from Bed I at Olduvai Gorge, pushed back the age
Tanzania. Next year, she along with her son, Jonathan discovered of bipedalism to over
a new hominid that was published as Homo habilis in 1964 by 3 million years.
Louis Leakey and colleagues. In fact, she was instrumental in the
discovery of all the major fossil hominid finds from East Africa
that made the Leakeys famous. While Mary explored and meticu-
lously excavated, Louis publicised and published the fossil finds.
In the 1960’s, Louis and Mary Leakey got estranged. After her
husband’s death in 1972, she devoted most of her time exploring
the Olduvai Gorge area.

In 1978, Mary, along with her team, made another landmark

discovery, when she found volcanic-ash-filled footprints in the
mud deposits at Laetoli. These were dated to 3–3.5 million years
old and were made by an upright bipedal hominid, probably
Australopithecus afarensis. Mary considered this her most sig-
nificant find which conclusively pushed back the age of bipedal-
ism to over 3 million years [12]. After more than forty years of
active field explorations, Mary retired in 1983. She passed away
in 1996 at the age of eighty-three years. Mary was a meticulous
and thoughtful researcher with bundles of energy and lots of
patience and doggedness. She wrote such books as Olduvai
Gorge: My Search for Early Man (1979), and Disclosing the Past
(1984).

The Leakey Legacy

After Louis’ death in 1972, his wife Mary and son Richard
continued to explore East Africa for human ancestors. Richard
Leakey also made several stunning finds which included ER
1470, a Homo habilis skull in 1972, ER 3733, a Homo erectus
skull in 1975 and WT 15000 – a nearly complete skeleton of
Homo erectus in 1984, nicknamed ‘Turkana Boy’. Richard’s

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wife, Maeve Leakey, has also significantly contributed to

palaeonthropological researches and described Australopithecus
anamensis in 1995 and Kenyapithecus platyops in 2001. At
present, Louise Leakey, who is Richard and Maeve’s daughter
and Louis and Mary’s granddaughter, is continuing the Leakey
tradition.

Today, palaeoanthropology is a fast evolving discipline with new

discoveries and new techniques that investigate human origins
not only through fossil finds but also molecular biology. As a
consequence, some of Leakey’s fossil discoveries might have
been reinterpreted. But their finds never lost significance as they
contributed in defining the roots of human ancestry in Africa and
confirmed Africa as the cradle of human evolution — a view that
was once considered outlandish but is widely accepted today.

Suggested Reading

[1] C K Brain, Raymond Dart and our African origins, In A Century of

Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World,
Eds Laura Garwin and Tim Lincoln, University of Chicago Press, 2003.
[2] V Morell, Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for
Humankind’s Beginnings, Touchstone, 1996.
[3] M Payne, Family in search of prehistoric man, National Geographic,
February, p.218, 1965.
[4] B Regal, Human Evolution: A Guide to the Debates, ABC-CLIO, Inc.,
2004.
[5] J G Fleagle, Primata Adaptation and Evolution, 3rd Edition, Elsevier
Inc., 2013.
[6] A Walker, M F Teaford, L Martin and P Andrews, A new species of
Proconsul from the early miocene of Rusinga/Mfangano islands, Kenya,
J. Hum. Evol., Vol.25, pp.43–56, 1993.
[7] L S B Leakey, A new skull from Olduvai, Nature, Vol.184, pp.491--493,
1959.
[8] F Schrenk, O Kullmer and T Bromage, The Earliest Putative Homo
Fossils, Eds Winfried Henke and Ian Tattersall, and Handbook of
Paleoanthropology, pp.1611–1631, Springer-Verlag, 2007.
[9] L S B Leakey, P V Tobias and J R Napier, A new species of genus Homo
from Olduvai Gorge, Nature, Vol.202, pp.7–9, 1964.
[10] http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Louis Leakey
& oldid=983196 (accessed 30 May, 2015).

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[11] E Delson, I Tattersall, J Van Couvering and A S Brooks, Encyclopaedia

of Human Evolution and Prehistory, 2nd Edition, Routledge, p.359, 2004.
[12] M Leakey, Disclosing the Past: An Autobiography, Doubleday Books,
1984.
[13] Roger Lewin, Bones of Contention, University of Chicago Press, 1997.
[14] Mary Bowman-Kruhm, The Leakeys: A Biography, Prometheus Books,
2010.
[15] John Desmond Clark, Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey, 1903–1972: Pro-
ceedings of the British Academy, pp.447–471, Oxford University Press
for the British Academy, 1973.
[16] Sonia Cole, Leakey’s Luck: The Life of Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.
[17] Anne Katrine Jerløff, Louis Leakey. In Icons of evolution: An
encyclopaedia of people, evidence, and controversies, Vol.2, Edited by
Brian Regal, Greenwood, pp.545–572, 2008.
[18] L S B Leakey, Olduvai Gorge 1951-61, Vol.1, Cambridge University
Press, 1965.
[19] Virginia Morell, Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest Address for Correspondence
for Humankind’s Beginnings, Simon & Schuster, 1995.
Rajan Gaur
[20] Thomas P Ofcansky, L S B Leakey: A biobibliographical study, History
Department of Anthropology
in Africa, Vol.12, pp.211–224, 1985.
Panjab University
[21] Remembering Mary Leakey, the ‘Grande Dame of Archaeology’ (http:/
Sector 14
/ www. c s m o n i t o r . c o m / I n n o v a t i o n / 2 0 1 3 / 0 2 0 6 / R e m e m b e r i n g
Chandigarh UT 160 014, India.
MaryLeakeythegrandedameofarcheologyvide)
Email:
rajan_gaur7@yahoo.com

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