1.

Introduction to Geology

2. Structure of the Earth

GEOLOGY
3. Plate Tectonics

4. Introduction to petrology

5. Stratigraphy and sedimentology

6. Paleontology and the fossil record

7. The shape and size of the Earth

8. Geomorphology

9. Geology of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin

10. Natural resources and hazards

 6. Paleontology and the fossil record
• Concept and historical development of Paleontology
• Fossilization processes
• Taphonomy and Paleobiology
• Paleontology and evolution
• Paleontology and its application

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 Inclusion

Incrustation
 Mineralization

Carbonate mineralizations

Silicification Piritization
Is the fossil record a representative sample of organisms alive at the time?
 Origin and evolution of the Biosphere
• The primitive atmosphere
• The origin of life
• The oldest paleontological data
• Oxygenation of the atmosphere
• The origin of eukaryotes
• The appearance of metazoans

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The Precambrian

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 Earth’s primitive atmosphere

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 The origin of life
"a self-sustaining chemical system capable of Darwinian evolution” NASA

In the 1920s: The biochemical model

A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane

Black
smoker

A.I. Oparin J.B.S. Haldane

Stanley Miller

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 Black White
smoker smoker
Along oceanic ridges

Cartoon by Jack Holden

Subaerial hot springs on Earth

Credit: Werner van Steen Getty Images

 The oldest paleontological data
STROMATOLITES

North Pole (Australia) Shark Bay (Australia)

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ONCOLITES
Alamo Bolide impact breccia (Guilmette
Fm., Pahranagat Range, Nevada)
 Earth’s earliest life?
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
R

Earth and Planetary Science Letters 217 (2004) 237^244

www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl

U-rich Archaean sea-£oor sediments from Greenland ^

indications of s 3700 Ma oxygenic photosynthesis
Minik T. Rosing a;b;! , Robert Frei b;c
a
Geologisk Museum, !ster Voldgade 5^7, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
b
Danish Lithosphere Center, !ster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
c
Geologisk Institut, !ster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
Received 19 March 2003; received in revised form 18 September 2003; accepted 21 October 2003

Abstract

s 3700 Ma metamorphosed pelagic shale from West Greenland contains up to 0.4 wt% reduced carbon with N13 C
values down to 325.6x [PDB, PeeDee Belemnite]. The isotopic signature and mode of occurrence suggest that the
carbon derived from planktonic organisms. The Pb isotopic composition shows that the shale had high primary U/Th.
This indicates that organic debris produced a local reducing environment which precipitated U transported to the site
of sedimentation by oxidized ocean water. The existence of highly productive plankton that fractionated C isotopes
strongly and set up oxidation contrast in the environment suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis evolved before 3700
Ma.
! 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Isua; oxygenic photosynthesis; carbon; Archaean; Pb isotopes; U; Th

1. Introduction levels of structural complexity the deeper they

are rooted on the phylogenetic tree. Life forms
The most important evolutionary step for the that existed during deposition of the oldest sedi-
proliferation of life on Earth was the development ments on Earth left no morphological fossils that
of oxygenic photosynthesis. The advent of this could sustain the strong metamorphic recrystalli-
metabolic strategy marked the beginning of global zation and deformation that have a¡ected all
atmospheric management by life, and the determi- rocks older than 3600 Ma. Early life must thus
nant in£uence of life on Earth climate. This node be identi¢ed and characterized by its metabolic
on the tree of life is thus one of the most impor- interaction with Earth’s chemical environments.
tant geological events to date. The interaction of life with its environment causes
Living organisms generally display decreasing characteristic geochemical fractionations, which
can be identi¢ed in geologic deposits. Metabolic
processes can also cause isotope fractionations
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +45-3532-2345;
that are diagnostic of speci¢c enzymatic catalysts.
Fax: +45-3532-2325. Characterization of pre-3600 Ma life must thus be
E-mail address: minik@savik.geomus.ku.dk (M.T. Rosing). based on the identi¢cation and interpretation of

0012-821X / 03 / $ ^ see front matter ! 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00609-5

EPSL 6907 15-12-03

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 Oxygen
Banded Iron Formations

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 The Great Oxidation Event (GOE)

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 Eukaryotes and the origin of sex
[Palaeontology, Vol. 58, Part 1, 2015, pp. 5–17]

FRONTIERS IN PALAEONTOLOGY

EARLY EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTA

by NICHOLAS J. BUTTERFIELD
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK; e-mail: njb1005@cam.ac.uk

Typescript received 11 September 2014; accepted in revised form 17 October 2014

Abstract: The evolution of eukaryotes represents one of Despite their relatively early establishment, crown-eukaryotes
the most fundamental transitions in the history of life on appear not to have become ecologically significant until the
Earth; however, there is little consensus as to when or over middle Neoproterozoic. I argue that this billion-year delay
what timescale it occurred. Review of recent hypotheses and was due to the singular, contingent evolution of crown-
data in a phylogenetic context yields a broadly coherent group animals and their unique capacity to drive co-
account. Critical re-assessment of the palaeontological record evolutionary change.
provides convincing evidence for the presence of crown-
group eukaryotes in the late Palaeoproterozic, and stem- Keywords: Eukaryotes, Proterozoic, stem-group, last eukary-
group eukaryotes extending back to the early Archaean. otic common ancestor (LECA), major evolutionary transitions.

F R O M a Phanerozoic perspective, the eukaryotes have spliceosome and nuclear pore complex. Endomembranes
been an extraordinary success. In addition to the multi- further define a wide range of intracellular organelles,
cellular plants, animals and fungi that define the modern including the highly dynamic endoplasmic reticulum and
biosphere, the domain is populated by a host of simpler, Golgi apparatus. Combined with the energy-generating
protistan-grade forms that contribute fundamentally to capacity of mitochondria, these features impart a novel
global productivity, biodiversity and ecosystem function. range of properties to eukaryotic cells, not least exo-/
Such was not always the case, however, with both palae- endo-cytosis, sexual reproduction, sophisticated multicel-
ontological and molecular signals pointing to a substan- lular development and, by extension, unparalleled mor-
tially attenuated pre-Cambrian presence. The formative phological, behavioural and macroecological complexity.
stages of eukaryotic evolution can potentially be tracked At a deeper level, eukaryotes represent a unique style of
back through these earlier times, converging not only on individuality, foregoing much of the promiscuously hori-
the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), but also its zontal gene exchange of prokaryotes for a fundamentally
assembly in an underlying stem-lineage. The key to more contained identity, and largely vertical inheritance
reconstructing the origin of this revolutionary new clade (Fig. 1). All agree that the shift from a prokaryotic
of organisms lies in the integration of modern cell biology to eukaryotic grade of organization constitutes one of
and evolutionary theory with molecular phylogeny, Earth the ‘major evolutionary transitions’ determining the
history and the early fossil record. long-term trajectory of life on Earth (Szathm!ary and
Crown-group eukaryotes (LECA plus all of its descen- Smith 1995).
dants) are united by a unique combination of genetic and Based on multigene analyses, extant eukaryotes fall
cytological machinery, yielding a grade of organization broadly into five or so deeply diverging clades: Opi-
fundamentally more complex than found in any prokary- sthokonta (metazoans + choanozoans + fungi), Amoebo-
otes (Bacteria plus non-eukaryotic Archaea). The most zoa, SAR (stramenopiles/alveolates/Rhizaria), Plantae and
conspicuous feature of the Eukaryota is their intracellular Excavata (Adl et al. 2012). Although less well resolved, phy-
compartmentalization, supported by an elaborate signal- logenetic analyses also support the recognition of two
ling/trafficking system and dynamic cytoskeleton (Cava- higher-order clades: Amorphea (Opisthokonta + Amoe-
lier-Smith 2002; Koonin 2010; Koumandou et al. 2013; bozoa) and Diaphoretickes (SAR + Plantae), which
Mariju!an et al. 2013). With their primary, intron-rich together constitute the ‘neozoan’ sister-group to the
genome sequestered in a membrane-bound nucleus, tran- remaining excavates (Fig. 1B). The root of all living eukary-
scription is decoupled from translation via a sophisticated otes appears to fall between the Neozoa and Excavata, or

© The Palaeontological Association doi: 10.1111/pala.12139 5

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 Endosymbiotic theory
Lynn Margulis 1967

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 Multicellularity

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 Earth’s first macroscopic multicelled organisms
Ediacara biota

Charnia

Dickinsonia

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 Skeletons

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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Diversification of life in the Phanerozoic
The three eras of the Phanerozoic:
• Paleozoic (541 – 252 million years ago)
• Mesozoic (252 – 66 million years ago)
• Cenozoic (66 million years ago - present)
INTERNATIONAL CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHART
www.stratigraphy.org International Commission on Stratigraphy v 2020/03
on

on

on

on

od
od

od

od

ra
ste / Era

ste / Era

ste / Era
ath m / E

ath m / E

ath m / E

/E

eri
eri

eri

eri

/E

/P
/P

/P

/P

em
em

em

em
the

the

the

the

m
m

m
GSSP

GSSP

GSSP

GSSP
GSSA
ste
ath
no

no

no

no
numerical numerical numerical numerical
Series / Epoch Stage / Age Series / Epoch Stage / Age Series / Epoch Stage / Age
Eo

Eo

Eo

Eo

Sy
Sy

Sy

Sy
age (Ma) age (Ma) age (Ma) age (Ma)

Er
Er

Er

Er
present ~ 145.0 358.9 ±0.4 541.0 ±1.0
U/L Meghalayan
Ediacaran
Quaternary

0.0042
Holocene M Northgrippian 0.0082 Tithonian
L/E Greenlandian 0.0117 152.1 ±0.9 ~ 635
U/L Upper Famennian Neo- Cryogenian
0.129 Upper Kimmeridgian proterozoic ~ 720
M Chibanian 157.3 ±1.0 Upper
0.774 372.2 ±1.6
Pleistocene Calabrian Oxfordian Tonian
1.80 163.5 ±1.0 Frasnian 1000
L/E
Gelasian Callovian 166.1 ±1.2 Stenian

Devonian
Jurassic

2.58 Bathonian 382.7 ±1.6

Middle 168.3 ±1.3
Piacenzian Bajocian Givetian Meso- 1200
Pliocene 3.600 170.3 ±1.4
Middle 387.7 ±0.8 Ectasian
Zanclean Aalenian proterozoic

Proterozoic
5.333 174.1 ±1.0 Eifelian 1400
Messinian Toarcian 393.3 ±1.2 Calymmian
Neogene

7.246
Tortonian 182.7 ±0.7 1600
11.63 Emsian
Pliensbachian Statherian
Serravallian Lower 190.8 ±1.0 Lower 407.6 ±2.6
13.82 Pragian 1800
Miocene

Precambrian
Langhian Sinemurian 410.8 ±2.8
Orosirian
Mesozoic
Cenozoic

15.97 Paleo-
199.3 ±0.3 Lochkovian 2050
Burdigalian Hettangian 201.3 ±0.2 419.2 ±3.2 proterozoic
20.44 Rhyacian
Aquitanian Rhaetian Pridoli
23.03 ~ 208.5 423.0 ±2.3 2300
Ludfordian 425.6 ±0.9 Siderian
Chattian Ludlow Gorstian

Silurian
27.82
Oligocene Upper Norian 427.4 ±0.5 2500
Rupelian Homerian Neo-
Triassic

Wenlock 430.5 ±0.7

33.9 ~ 227 Sheinwoodian 433.4 ±0.8 archean
Priabonian Carnian 2800
Telychian
Paleogene

37.71 ~ 237 Meso-

Archean
Bartonian Llandovery 438.5 ±1.1
41.2 Ladinian Aeronian 440.8 ±1.2 archean
Phanerozoic

Phanerozoic

Phanerozoic
Middle ~ 242 Rhuddanian
Eocene Lutetian 443.8 ±1.5 3200
Paleozoic
Anisian Hirnantian
47.8 247.2 445.2 ±1.4 Paleo-
Lower Olenekian 251.2 archean
Ypresian Induan 251.902 ±0.024 Upper Katian
56.0 Changhsingian 453.0 ±0.7 3600
Thanetian 254.14 ±0.07 Eo-
Ordovician

59.2 Lopingian Wuchiapingian Sandbian

Paleocene Selandian 259.1 ±0.5 458.4 ±0.9 archean
61.6
Capitanian Darriwilian 4000
Danian 265.1 ±0.4 Middle
66.0 Guadalupian 467.3 ±1.1
Wordian Dapingian Hadean
Permian

Maastrichtian 268.8 ±0.5 470.0 ±1.4

Roadian ~ 4600
72.1 ±0.2 272.95 ±0.11 Floian
Campanian Kungurian Lower 477.7 ±1.4 Units of all ranks are in the process of being defined by Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Points (GSSP) for their lower boundaries, including
83.6 ±0.2 283.5 ±0.6 Tremadocian those of the Archean and Proterozoic, long defined by Global Standard
Upper Santonian 86.3 ±0.5 Artinskian 485.4 ±1.9 Stratigraphic Ages (GSSA). Italic fonts indicate informal units and
Cisuralian 290.1 ±0.26 Stage 10 placeholders for unnamed units. Versioned charts and detailed information
Coniacian ~ 489.5 on ratified GSSPs are available at the website http://www.stratigraphy.org.
Sakmarian
Paleozoic

89.8 ±0.3
293.52 ±0.17 Furongian Jiangshanian The URL to this chart is found below.
Turonian Asselian ~ 494
Cretaceous

93.9 298.9 ±0.15 Paibian Numerical ages are subject to revision and do not define units in the
Mesozoic

~ 497 Phanerozoic and the Ediacaran; only GSSPs do. For boundaries in the
Mississippian Pennsylvanian

Cenomanian Upper Gzhelian 303.7 ±0.1

Guzhangian Phanerozoic without ratified GSSPs or without constrained numerical
100.5 Kasimovian ~ 500.5 ages, an approximate numerical age (~) is provided.
307.0 ±0.1 Miaolingian Drumian
Cambrian

Albian Middle Moscovian ~ 504.5 Ratified Subseries/Subepochs are abbreviated as U/L (Upper/Late), M
Carboniferous

~ 113.0 315.2 ±0.2 Wuliuan (Middle) and L/E (Lower/Early). Numerical ages for all systems except
~ 509 Quaternary, upper Paleogene, Cretaceous, Triassic, Permian and
Aptian Lower Bashkirian Stage 4 Precambrian are taken from ‘A Geologic Time Scale 2012’ by Gradstein
323.2 ±0.4 ~ 514 et al. (2012), those for the Quaternary, upper Paleogene, Cretaceous,
~ 125.0 Series 2 Triassic, Permian and Precambrian were provided by the relevant ICS
Barremian Upper Serpukhovian Stage 3
330.9 ±0.2 subcommissions.
Lower ~ 129.4 ~ 521
Hauterivian Middle Visean Stage 2 Colouring follows the Commission for the
~ 132.6
~ 529 Geological Map of the World (www.ccgm.org)
Valanginian 346.7 ±0.4 Terreneuvian
~ 139.8
Lower Tournaisian Fortunian Chart drafted by K.M. Cohen, D.A.T. Harper, P.L. Gibbard, J.-X. Fan
Berriasian (c) International Commission on Stratigraphy, March 2020
~ 145.0 358.9 ±0.4 541.0 ±1.0
To cite: Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)
The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart. Episodes 36: 199-204.

URL: http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2020-03.pdf

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 Diversification of life in the Phanerozoic
• Life in the Paleozoic
– Evolution of marine invertebrates
– Earliest vertebrates (fish) appear
– Amphibians appear
– Reptiles appear
– Plants establish on land
– Mass extinction at the end of the Permian

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 The Cambrian Explosion

An expansion in biodiversity

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 Ediacara Biota Precambrian life

Cambrian Fauna

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 The Burgess Shale

Charles D. Walcott Middle Cambrian

(first period of the Paleozoic era)

Hallucigenia, a worm

Yoho Park (Burgess Shale), Canada

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Waptia, an arthropod
 Cambrian invertebrate marine life

6. Archaeocyatha

O Cambrian skeletonized life:

o Trilobites
o Brachiopods
o Archaeocyaths

O Predation

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 Trilobites Range: Cambrian - Permian

Cruziana

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 Brachiopods Range: Cambrian - Recent

Image by Jaleigh Q. Pier

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 Archaeocyaths Range: Cambrian

Longitudinal section

Cross section

Biological reefs
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 Paleozoic invertebrate marine life

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 Bryozoans Range: Ordovician - Recent

Fenestella
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 Tabulate and rugose corals Range: Ordovician - Permian

colonial
solitary
RUGOSE

TABULATE

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 Graptolites Range: Cambrian - Carboniferous

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 Cephalopod mollusks

Orthoceratids Range: Ordovician - Triassic

Nautilus
Triassic - Recent
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 Brachiopods Range: Cambrian - Recent

strophic shell © Jaleigh Q. Pier

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 Crinoids (stalked echinoderms) Range: Ordovician - Recent

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 Blastoids (stalked echinoderms)
Range: Silurian - Permian

Blastoids (A-E) and crinoids (F-N)

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