WATER RESOURCES

 Freshwater comes from surface runoff and groundwater, constantly renewed and recharged through the

hydrological cycle. This cycle ensures that water is a renewable resource.

 the availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in seasonal and

annual precipitation,

Water scarcity
1. Water scarcity results from over-exploitation, excessive use, and unequal access among social
groups.
2. Some areas have sufficient water, yet water scarcity persists due to poor water quality.
3. Water scarcity can result from a large and growing population with greater water demands and
unequal access towards it.
4. to facilitate higher food-grain production, water resources are being over-exploited
5. Farmers using own wells and tube-wells in their farms for irrigation to increase their produce
can lead to falling groundwater levels, adversely affecting water availability and food security
of the people
6. Expansion of irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture contributes to over-exploitation of
water resources. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water
- Revolutionizing this agriculture requires developing drought-resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
7. Even with sufficient water, pollution from domestic and industrial waste, chemicals, and
agricultural inputs like pesticides and fertilizers makes it hazard to human use

 Post-independent India experienced intense industrialization and urbanization.

 Abundant opportunities arose, leading to the prevalence of large industrial houses.
 The surge in industries has strained existing freshwater resources.
 Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them Much of the
needed energy is supplied by hydroelectric power.
 India hydroelectric power contributes approximately 22 % of the total electricity produced
 multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have further
aggravated the problem most of these have their own groundwater pumping devices to meet
their water needs. These fragile water resources are being over-exploited and have caused
their depletion in several of these cities

jal jeevan misson (JJM) - aims to provide every rural household with a reliable supply of piped potable
water, aiming for a service level of 55 liters per day consistently. focusing on ensuring the functionality of
tap water connections for the long term.

The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources:

 Safeguard ourselves from health hazards.

 Ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
 Prevent the degradation of our natural ecosystems.
Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’ - the reason being
that it would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid
industrialisation and growth of the urban economy .

 First-century B.C.: Sringaverapura near Allahabad had advanced water harvesting from the Ganga.
 Chandragupta Maurya era: Extensive construction of dams, lakes, and irrigation systems.
 Evidences of sophisticated irrigation found in Kalinga, Nagarjunakonda, Bennur, Kolhapur.
 11th Century: Bhopal Lake- one of the largest artificial lakes of its time.
 14th Century: Iltutmish built the Hauz Khas tank in Delhi to supply water to Siri Fort area.

Dams
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure . Most dams
have a section called a spillway or weir over which or through which it is intended that water will
flow either intermittently or continuously

Uses of Dams

 To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
 For electricity generation.
 Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
 Flood control.
 Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
 EG: in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Nangal project water is being used both for hydel power
production and irrigation. the Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water
with flood control.
Side Effects of Creating Dams

 Altering their natural flow disrupts rivers, leading to inadequate sediment flow and excessive
sedimentation at the bottom reservoirs
 resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life
 fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning.
 Dams created on the floodplains submerge the existing vegetation and soil, leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
 Creating of large dams has been the cause of many new environmental movements like the
‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’.
 local people had to give up their land, livelihood and their control over resources for the
construction of the dam.

The Narmada Bachao Andolan - a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), that mobilised tribal
communities, farmers, environmentalists, and human rights activists against the construction of the
Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River in Gujarat. The dam, a major water resource project
spanning Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, aimed to address water needs in
drought-prone and desert areas.

Irrigation altered cropping patterns with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops,
causing ecological issues like soil salinization. Socially, it widened the gap between wealthy
 landowners and the landless poor. Dam construction led to conflicts over competing water
resource uses and benefits.

The Krishna-Godavari dispute arised from objections by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh governments.
regarding Maharashtra's plan to divert more water at Koyna for a multipurpose project, impacting
downstream flow with adverse effects on agriculture and industry in the protesting states.
Objections to dams arose due to their failure to achieve intended purposes, Dams constructed for flood
control triggered floods due to sedimentation. Big dams were ineffective during excessive rainfall, aggravating
the flood situation in 2006 in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Floods led to devastation, soil erosion, and land
degradation. Multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, water-borne diseases, pests, and pollution from
excessive water use.

Rain water harvesting

water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally. Ancient
India had a successful water-harvesting tradition alongside hydraulic structures.

Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage. The
collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for recharge purposes.

Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting.

1. In hill and mountainous regions, people have built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the
Western Himalayas for agriculture.
2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting is commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in
Rajasthan.
3. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
4. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in
other parts of Rajasthan.
The tankas are part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and are built inside the
main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi
and Barmer areas for saving rainwater. Many houses have constructed underground rooms
adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room cool. They were
connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops would
travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain was
usually not collected as this would clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater from the
subsequent showers was then collected. The rainwater can be stored in the tankas till the next
rainfall making it an extremely reliable source of drinking water Rainwater, or palar pani, as
commonly referred to in these parts, is considered the purest form of natural water.

- Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on the decline as
plenty of water is available due to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal, though some houses still
maintain the tankas since they do not like the taste of tap water

Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structures
compulsory for all houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish defaulters.

Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya. It is interesting
because Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55 km. from Shillong receive the
highest rainfall in the world, yet the state capital Shillong faces acute shortage of water.
 AGRICULTURE

Two-thirds of India population is engaged in agricultural activities

Primitive subsistence farming, - still practiced in some Indian areas, involves small land patches and basic
tools like hoe and ,dao , digging sticks. It relies on monsoons, natural soil fertility, and favorable environmental
conditions for crop growth.
 This is 'slash and burn' agriculture, where farmers clear land for producing food crops --> as soil fertility
declines, they move to a land and clear a new patch, allowing natural processes to restore fertility.
Productivity is low as no fertilizers or modern inputs are used..
 jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland The ‘slash and burn’
agriculture is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America.

Intensive Subsistence Farming- This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.
It is labourintensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining
higher production.

 ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among successive generations has rendered land-
holding size uneconomical, the farmers continue to take maximum output from the limited land in the
absence of alternative source of livelihood. Thus, there is enormous pressure on agricultural land.

Commercial farming - It involves the extensive use of modern inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers, and
pesticides for higher productivity. The level of commercialization varies by region,
 crops like rice considered commercial in some areas and subsistence in others.
 Plantation farming, a form of commercial agriculture, focuses on large-scale cultivation of a single crop,
using capital-intensive inputs and migrant labour.
 Important plantation crops in India include tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, and banana,]. the production
is mainly for market, a well-developed network of transport and communication connecting the
plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the development of
plantations

Horticulture Crops: In 2018, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after
China. India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of
Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the world over

RABI KHARIF ZAID

Sowing in winter from October On the onset of monsoon

season to December Short season during the
summer months b/w rabi and
Harvesting summer from April to September-October kharif
season June

Major crops Wheat, Barley, Peas, Paddy, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Watermelon, Muskmelon,
Gram and Mustard. Tur (Arhar), Cucumber,
Moong, Urad, Cotton, Jute, Vegetables and Fodder crops
Groundnut and
Soyabean
Rice:

1. Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
2. It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India.
3. Its kharif crop , high temperature (+ 25°C) & high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
4. Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in areas of less
rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat:

1. This is a Rabi crop. This is the second most important cereal crop
2. It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
3. It requires 50 - 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
4. The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and the black soil region of the Deccan are two main wheat-growing zones
5. It is the second most important cereal crop and main food crop in the north and north-western part of India.
6. The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.

Millets: These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value.

1. Jowar 2. Bajra 3. Ragi

3rd most important food crop 1. Grows well on sandy soils and 1. It is a crop of dry regions.
with respect to area and shallow black soil. very rich in iron, calcium, other micro
production. 2. Major states - Rajasthan, nutrients and roughage
It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, 2. Grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy
in moist areas. Gujarat and Haryana. and shallow black soils.
Mainly produced - Maharashtra, 3. Major states - Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Madhya Pradesh. Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh

Maize:

1. used both as food and fodder.

2. It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
3. In some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season
4. Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing
production of maize.
5. Major states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Pulses:

1. India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
2. major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
3. Major pulses - tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram
4. need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
5. leguminous crops all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air
6. Major states -Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Sugarcane:

1. It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.

2. hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C an annual rainfall between 75cm. and 100cm
3. needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
4. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
5. It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
6. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds:

1. (In 2018) India was the 2nd largest producer of groundnut in the world after China.
2. In rapeseed production India was 3rd largest producer in the world after Canada and China
3. oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country.
4. Main oil-seeds produced - groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds,
linseed and sunflower. some of these are used as raw material in production of soap, cosmetics & ointments.
5. Groundnut (kharif ) accounts for half of oilseeds produced in the country. Gujarat ,Rajasthan &Tamil Nadu.
6. Linseed and mustard are rabi crops.
7. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.
8. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop

Tea:

1. It is also an important beverage crop introduced by the British in India.

2. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-drained soil,
rich in humus and organic matter.
3. Tea bushes require a warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
4. Major tea-producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala. Tea is a labour-intensive industry
Rubber Fibre Cotton Jute

It is an equatorial crop. Cotton, Jute, Hemp It is a Kharif crop. It is known as the golden
also grown in tropical and Natural Silk are India is believed to be the original fibre.
and sub-tropical areas. the four major fibre home of the cotton plant
crops. India was 2nd largest producer of It grows well on well-
It requires a moist and cotton after China drained fertile soils in the
humid climate with Cotton, Jute and It requires high temperature, flood plains. A high
rainfall of more than Hemp are grown in light rainfall, 210 frost-free days temperature is required
200cm and temperature the soil. and bright sunshine for its for its growth.
above 25°C. growth. It is used in making gunny
Natural Silk is bags, mats, ropes, yarn,
obtained from carpets and other
It is an important Cotton grows
cocoons of the artefacts.
industrial raw material
silkworms fed on well in the black cotton soil of
green leaves the Deccan plateau.
grown in Kerala, Tamil Rearing of silkworms Major cotton-producing states Major jute-producing
Nadu, Karnataka and for the production of are Maharashtra, Gujarat, states are West Bengal,
Andaman and Nicobar & silk fibre is known as Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and
Garo hills of Meghalaya. Sericulture. Andhra Pradesh,,telengana Meghalaya.
tamil nadu , Punjab, Haryana
&uttar pradesh

5. . 2018 India was the second largest producer of tea after China
 Coffee:

Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in
the country.( Great demand all over the world.) introduced on the Baba Budan Hills , Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu

 ‘Land reform’ was the main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The right of inheritance had already
lead to fragmentation of land holdings necessitating consolidation of holdings. The laws of land
reforms were enacted but the implementation was lacking or lukewarm
 The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution
(Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture
 Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) schemes introduced by the
Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.