i

Editorial

Addressing the needs of humanity, the rest of creation, and the socio-economic, religio-cultural
and political realities of the present society has become a part and parcel of any theological
discourse. The word of God is a living word and any engagement with it should give and improve
life. There is still a lot to be achieved in realising an egalitarian society, be it in terms of a
classless, casteless, inclusive or a just society. The theological fraternity and every right thinking
citizen should not be weary of addressing the various structures, institutions and social constructs
that undermines the values of the Kingdom of God. We must be passionate to bring change, as
Luke 1:37 assures us, “For nothing will be impossible with God.” Witter Theological College, in
its endeavour to bring hope and improve the quality of life continue to grapple with the issues
confronting the church and the society. The articles are an outcome of such undertakings from
various departments.

It is also a joy to declare that the college has celebrated its 75th years of its existence.

Understanding the Principles of Zakat with Relevance to the Adverse Effect of Capitalism in
India strives to comprehend the concept of Zakat in relation to the negative impact of capitalism.
While Capitalism has indeed brought about growth and progress in every society, it has also
resulted in detrimental consequences such as environmental degradation, the prevalence of child
labour, and unequal wealth distribution among the population.

Social Media and Children’s Mental Health Risk: Model for Churches in Nagaland concerns
that, Social media have come to occupy a central place in children’s world. Despite the fact that,
children have been benefited from the social media however the downside part of social media is
that it has a conditioned stimulus that persuades the children to respond to it uncritically.Jean
Piaget Formal Operational Stage (FOS) is a critical stage for mental health risk in child
development. FOS are exposed to intensive and irrational use of social media are only aware of
the advantages it offers and are unaware of the mental health risk they may suffer as a
consequence. The consequences of not addressing mental health conditions in FOS can result in
risk taking behaviour. It’s sad to say that many potential risks of social media impact on
children’s mental health are overlooked by parents, teachers, Christian educators, school
personnel and the children themselves in Nagaland.There is no denying the fact that social media
culture therefore calls the church to be a place that raises children to be responsible
citizens/netizens.
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Hence, this article attempts to understand social media and children’s mental health risk in the
light of media psychology methodology as the issue demand an expertise that amalgamates an
understanding of children’s mental health risk and its related behaviour with an equal
understanding of media systems and context. In the light of this, the church needs reliable model
to help the children understand the mental health risk involves in excessive use of social media
based on “Imago Dei” so that children can navigate better in the social media platforms. One of
the most sensible arguments is for balanced use of social media through TEACH- model so that
we’ll bring our children up to the manhood and womanhood with full fruition and holistic
development of a child.

God as Covenant Partner with Creation: From Stewardship to a Covenantal Ecology argues
that Covenantal ecology corrects stewardship’s theological distortions by positing human beings
not as stewards, but as active participants within this covenantal ecology. The God at work in a
covenantal ecology is not the distant Owner of stewardship, but the God of Scripture who initiates
and maintains the covenant with creation. The development of a covenantal ecology not only has
implications for environmental ethics, but for the broader discussion and implementation of
creation care within the church.More specific articulations of a covenantal ecology can be found
in the Noahic Covenant. The Noahic covenant provides a scriptural foundation for a covenantal
ecology. Therefore, the writings limit down to the Noahic Covenant (Gen.6-9, specially 9:8-17), a
text often overlooked due to its unique description of God’s covenant with creation, and which
defies more common understandings of God’s covenant. The article sets forth a new theological
framework for the Christian church that aims to compel more environmentally conscious living. It
proposed an alternative metaphor rooted in a scriptural and theological account of covenant so
called a covenantal ecology - i.e., a relationship, rooted in covenant, in which God, humanity, and
nonhuman creation stand in proper relationship to one another. The church must move beyond the
metaphor of stewardship and its theological deficiencies. Unlike the stewardship environmental
ethic, it refutes a modern cosmic imaginary that establishes humans as lords “responsible” for a
godless creation and, in its place, reclaims a world in which humans and nonhuman creation are
bound together as partners in covenant with their ever-present Creator.

Eternal Life as Higher Consciousness in Gospel John: A Psychological Reading stresses on

The need to acquire the Scriptural knowledge of “Life” in the light of “eternity” remains ever
demanding of all times, because it permeates through all the aspects of one’s life. It has become
essential that scriptural knowledge about eternal life is also developed, updated and imparted to
the believers in line with the current times. The Fourth Gospel is called as the Gospel of “Eternal
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life” for the prominence of this theme. The internal evidences point to an unusual capacity for
feeling, aesthetic, and symbolic sensitivity as a mystical tendency of the temporal human psyche.
But like many, this sensitivity manifests in a profound spiritual sensitivity as well. 1 There are
mystical signs and symbols in the Gospel that focuses on the divine nature of humans and its
relationship to God and Christ, in a way that exhibits the latent potentiality for a “realized Divine
life” in human beings. John’s Gospel presents salvation as becoming a child of God or becoming
divine (1:12-13). Therefore God becoming human in Jesus is the basis as well as the means of
salvation as divinization. The Psychoanalytic perspective of looking at the biblical texts has the
potential for the readers to relate to their personal experiences in a form capable of appropriation
from unseen realities – the unconscious human dimension. This article therefore attempts to read
the “eternal life” texts in John’s Gospel in a psychological critical approach for an enriched
meaning and interpretation of the texts relevant to biblical spiritual experiences of present day
readers.

Liberative elements of the poor in the Gospel according to Luke see the gospel as holding
something special in deriving some liberative elements for the poor and the oppressed. The poor
are different from the rich because they are hungry, they weep, and they are hated, excluded
reviled and defamed. The writer is also cautious that, the purpose of stressing on poverty and the
poor is not to idealise poverty. The New Testament surely also does not consider it an ideal or a
virtue. Rather the focus here is in creating a better place for everyone for which the church and
every believer is called upon to do so. Jesus expressed his solidarity with the poor and the
oppressed and also the so called outcaste by associating with them. All four Gospels reflect Jesus’
profound concern for the poor. Therefore, His compassion and sharing his life with the harassed
and the helpless cannot be ignored. Proclaiming the year of Jubilee should bring the fullness of
life for the poor and the rejected in the society, in establishing a society that ensures protection
and dignity to every human being.

Partnership of Equals in the Church from the Feminist Perspective is of the opinion that,
Partnership of Equals in the church today has become a fiery issue that continues to thread
without being able to come to temperate answers. All Feminist theologies share the importance of
the analysis of sexism in different religious traditions, women’s exclusion from both theology and
equal opportunities in religious institutions.

1
A fine example of the author’s capacity for visionary projection is found in the end of chapter one of the
fourth Gospel, where the Gospel’s Christ promises “Hereafter ye shall see heaven open, and the angels of God
ascending and descending upon the Son of Man.” (John 1:51)
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Feminist hermeneutics of the Bible continues to enhance and develop towards the
liberation of women in many aspects. In order to project an alternate future for women, it is
important for them to discover their roots and history. The Church is the most powerful opinion
maker today for the tribal Christians in NEI. However the Church today is silent on this issue of
women except to reinforce the old attitudes and oppressive roles of women. Women in the
Church should also take advantage of the opportunities that are open to them instead of shying
away from responsibilities.

We believe that sharing and reading these articles will enlighten and broaden our worldview,
thereby embarking on a pragmatic envisioning of the word of God in addressing the many issues
confronting us.
Eternal Life as Higher Consciousness in Gospel John: A Psychological Reading

Mr. VebuzoKeyho, Research Scholar at SHUATS, Prayagraj, UP.

Introduction

In the Gospel of John we observe the focus of the Author on the divine potential of humans without
downplaying the human frailty. St. Athanasius of Alexandria made a paradoxical statement, “He
became man so that we might become God.” 1 There seems to be an attempt at unraveling the mystery
of Christian salvation as revelation of the unconscious preexistent truth through the Spirit. 2 The
“Unconscious” is the central theme of the modern psychology of Religion. But the reality itself is old.
The Author of the Fourth Gospel is familiar with the idea of unconscious impulses within human
beings. In order to articulate this idea, he has recourse to elements in the biblical-Jewish tradition but
he changes them in characteristic fashion. Three traditional elements of thought are involved: (1) Faith
in the omniscient and Omnipotent God, who probes even inner motives and thoughts; (2) Conviction
that human insight with regard to oneself is limited, that one does not fully probe even one’s own
being; (3) Recognition of an autonomous inner reality in which, in addition to the remembrance of
past action, motives and impulses are also real and significant.

The combination of these three elements of thought makes it possible to imagine an unconscious
human dimension. The three conceptual presuppositions of the conception of the unconscious are
found within a coherent section of texts in John 20: 30 -31; 21: 19 – 25. We therefore begin with these
texts.

The Mystery of Christian Salvation

In Chapter 20, Jesus makes his wonderful and mysterious appearances to Mary Magdalene and the
Disciples. From the point of view of some scholars today, these physical appearances are products of
John’s imagination, and the stories of Jesus’ body after resurrection are not to be taken seriously, but
are to be seen as illustrative of an unscientific magical or mythological thinking with which we must
now dispense in order to arrive at a mature faith. 3 From the point of view of the early church,
however, they were evidences of the reality of the spiritual, or subtle, body. References to such a
spiritual body occur in the Epistles, and such a belief clearly belonged to John. The idea was that a
soul without a body was a disembodied soul, like a ghost; a complete and true human being had to
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have a body, so the Christian belief was that after a person died that person lived in a spiritual body. It
was spiritual, but not ethereal; it was real and tangible, but did not have the same qualities as our
earthly physical body.

It is a mystical teaching of John that says that we are mysteriously transformed by the profound
believe and union with Christ.4 To be transformed through a “mystery’ is highly experiential. It does
not revolve around the correct verbal profession of faith but occurs through the life-giving change of
one’s being and consciousness through “the Spirit.” It is far more difficult and subtle to describe than
the legalistic theology we have discussed because essentially each individual passes through the
transforming mystērion of Christ in his or her own way. The best way to describe this process of
transformation is through a mystical psychological language, and, as we can see, this is the language
of the fourth Gospel. As J. Harold Ellens had observed, Psychology and Biblical studies are inevitably
interlinked, regardless of what the immediate focus or concern of either is. 5 Hence, whether we are
exploring the biblical text or the living human document, the mutual illumination of psychology and
biblical studies becomes imperative because a properly enlightened anthropology is required for both.
Here, because both disciplines deal with the psycho-spiritual domains, neither of these can ignore the
other. Therefore, psychological reading of eternal life is attempted here.

Eternal life for the pneumatic believer as higher consciousness

In John 1: 1-18 & 3: 1-21, we observe that the restructuring of the superego through “the Christ”
symbolism expanded the consciousness of the author: he accepted the possibility of unconscious
“eternal life” in himself without the feeling of being threatened. In this article, we will interpret the
expansion of his conscious life-world in a different direction. The blindness of the ego relates not only
to its own failure but also to all the norms that direct and asses behaviour – to the “Darkness,” as John
names the sociocultural norms and rules of Judaism. These norms mark the superego aspects of his
self. His new insight consists in recognizing that prior to his revelation he had perceived these
superego aspects falsely. His consciousness has connected with them the promise of “eternal life.”
Unconsciously, however, they had exercised an aggressive-destructive function. In this observation,
the symbols and images of John 1: 1-18, which are difficult to interpret, give expression to this
recognition.

a)The Prologue
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It has been the general view that the prologue may be based on an old hymn (John 1:1-5, 8-14). It is
certainly true that there is a rhythm to the first fourteen verses. 6 A skilful novelist introduces her major
characters in the opening pages of the story. In the same way, John skillfully introduces in his
Prologue many of the major themes that he will discuss in detail later on: Light and its contrast with
darkness, the unbelieving people of this world with those do believe, the possibility of becoming
children of God, the importance of Faith, and the relationship of the Son to the Father. There is an
exception to this poetic structure however. Verses 6-8, which concern John the Baptist, appear to be
an intrusion into the original hymn-like text. They leave us with the impression that the information
about the Baptist was a later insertion in the original text either by the author – John himself – or
others. We will look at the reasons for including this material about John the Baptist here below.

b)The Witness of John the Baptist

We have already noted (Ch. 1) that verses 6-8 in the first chapter of John’s Gospel are believed to be
later insertions in to the original text designed to make it clear from the beginning that the central
figure is Jesus and not John. Scholars believe that there was a powerful cult of followers of John the
Baptist and that his followers may have resisted following Jesus because of their admiration for John.
It is thought that John the Baptist’s cult centered at Ephesus because the Book of Acts tells the story of
Paul as going to Ephesus and finding that the disciples there had been baptized only with the baptism
of John (Acts 19:3). There is also the account of Apollos, a learned and eloquent teacher of the way of
the Lord, who had experienced only John’s baptism (Acts 19:1-7 and 18: 24-28). The fourth Gospel
also refers to a group of John’s disciples in John 3: 25.

The Greek help us out a bit in ascertaining the importance of John the Baptist. In 1:7 we read, “A man
came, sent by God.” The preposition translated “by” could have been expressed in Greek in three
ways. The preposition ek could have been used; this word denotes the idea of “out of” or “out from.”
Or the preposition apo might have been used; this word denotes the idea of “away from” or
“separation from.” The preposition chosen by the author, however, is the word para, which denotes
“from as with regard to source or origin.” Thus the text emphasizes that while John the Baptist is
subordinate in importance to Jesus, nevertheless the source of his mission, power, and authority was
God.
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Much the same emphasis is found later in verse 7: “He came as a witness, as a witness to speak for the
light, so that everyone might believe through him.” The Greek preposition used here is dia, a word
that is used with reference to the one who ministers as the agent of another person’s will. Thus the
ultimate agent is God, but the minister who carries out God’s will in this particular instance is John the
Baptist.7

c)Significant Terms and Themes

The author of the Fourth Gospel is anxious not only to show the supremacy of Jesus over John and not
only to show that Old Testament prophecy is being fulfilled, but also to show that what transpired in
Christ is the fulfilment of a divine intention, only dimly perceived by people of Old, but now made
clear in Christ. We will primarily see what the author means in 1: 14 when he says that the Word
became flesh, a preexistent revelation of God made conscious to the pneumatic believers, and then
proceed to discuss in some detail the origin and meaning of the idea of the “Life” (eternal life) as we
find it in the Psychological aspects.

John 1:14 is one of the most important verses in the New Testament, a cornerstone of the Cornerstone
of the Christian religion: “And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth”.
But how strange it sounds to the contemporary reader for whom a “word” is something a person
speaks or writes, and “flesh” is what is covered by the skin on our bodies. In John’s day, the Greek
words we translate as “Word” and “Flesh” had special meanings that defy the capacity for expression
of our contemporary vocabularies, for they embody certain thought forms that are now alien to us. 8
Among all, one meaning of special importance, is the idea of “flesh” as identical with the principle of
sin in human nature. When used in this way, “flesh” denotes the existence of a propensity towards sin
as the result of our fallen human nature. In psychological language this is a way of saying that it is a
part of the innate, archetypal structure of the human psyche that human beings tend to act in a way
that is contrary to the will of God. This is an idea of great psychological importance to which we shall
return later.

It is importance to note that sarx as the seat of sin within us does not refer specifically to our material
nature or to our earthly bodies. In neither the Old Testament nor the New Testament is the body
regarded as inherently sinful or as the seat of sin. 9 It was an ancient understanding that when the word
sarx was used in the New Testament as a synonym for the source of sin, it did not refer to bodily flesh.
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Methodius, early fourth-century bishop of Olympus in Asia Minor, wrote: “By flesh, he did not mean
[bodily] flesh itself, but the irrational impulse towards the lascivious pleasures of the soul.” 10 It is true
that later the church acquired a prejudice against the body, and especially against sexual desires, but
this is not biblical; it originates in Gnostic and certain Greek thinking, for it was a Greek idea that the
body was a kind of prison for the soul, to be shed at death. The biblical point of view about the body is
that God created both body and soul, so both are equally good. In fact, so essential an element is the
body that rather than being rejected at death it also will be raised and transformed into a spiritual body
in order that it may remain a fitting and eternal holy dwelling place for the soul (cf. Phil. 3: 21; 1 Cor.
15: 42ff). John is saying that the Word who is God himself became a human being and took upon
himself our weak and mortal humanity and our physical nature.

John 1:14 is psychologically important. It is all well and good to say that when Christ became man
one could see God, but how could this help persons born long after the incarnated Christ had
ascended? It might seem that for those who did not see Christ-in-the-flesh his incarnation must be
experienced only as a historical truth in which one must believe. However, early Christian thinkers
pointed out that this incarnated Christ lived on within each one of us. When God was incarnated as
Christ, it was as though the divine Logos of which John speaks in his prologue “was broken up and
thinned out,” as Origen once put it.11 This is a way of saying that the creative Mind of God lives on
within each one of us. Psychologically speaking this corresponds to the fact that Center lives within
each one of us. We could say that God incarnated in this world so Christ could be incarnated in each
one of us.

The psychology of individuation which has teleological aspects to it finds significance here. It points
out that the life in us is striving toward a goal that is usually unseen and unrecognised by natural
intellect but is known somewhere in the unconscious. The increasing recognition by consciousness
that such a goal exists and the increasing cooperation of the ego with the fulfillment of this goal make
up an important part of psychological development. The fact that the achievement of such a
psychological goal seems to be intrinsically important fortifies the faith that there is an overall purpose
to life. Philosophically this kind of thinking, rooted in the Old Testament and the New Testament,
flowered in the ancient world in the thinking of a man such as Origen and in modern times in the
thinking of Teilhard de Chardin. Psychologically it finds expression in the thinking of C. G. Jung and
Fritz Kunkel.
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Pneumatic Believer as Higher Consciousness

In John 1: 1-18; 3: 1-21, one can recognize formal correspondences between the forensic unconscious
and the pneumatic unconscious. What is unconscious forensically is in two aspects – unconscious sin
and unconscious norm, the first being inherent in human beings, the second originating in God. 12
What is unconscious pneumatically is similar. Eternal life is, on the one hand, an anthropocentric
unconscious human action before God (John 1: 10), on the other hand, revelation of Eternal Life is, a
theocentric unconscious norm on human beings (John 1: 14). Both dimensions of the unconscious has
an anthropological aspect and a theocentric aspect to it, as a result, in total, four dimensions of the
unconscious needs special consideration. The fourth Gospel is familiar with, besides pneumatic
special revelation, a knowledge that surpasses natural human possible consciousness, the dimension of
which is expressed in clear language. The classic text of such an ecstatic expression is found here.

Text Analysis: John 1: 1-18 and 3: 1-21

We can see the problem that is decisive in the interpretation of the text by proceeding from a structural
analysis of the context. The parallelism is obvious between 1: 1-18, the section on the gospel of the
Unknown “Life”, and 3: 1-21, the section on the gospel of the known “Eternal Life.” The formal
parallelism poses the most important problem in the exegesis of John 1: 1-18 and John 3: 1-21. What
is the relationship of the gospel preaching of the Word (Logos) to the Eternal life teaching?
Juxtaposition illustrates the parallelism:

The gospel as unknown The gospel as eternal

John 1: 1-14: The gospel of life as unknown John 3:3-15: The gospel as eternal life
To the world (Children born of blood, the will to the born again pneumatic (children
Of the flesh, and the will of man) born of God, the spirit)
a. is unrecognizable by the world on its own (v.10) a. is unrecognizable by the world (Israel’s
teacher) (v. 10)
b. is not received by the world (v. 11) b. is not received and believed by the
world
(v. 11-12)
1:12-15: Application to John: 3: 13-15; Application to the Son of Man:
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John did not preach ‘eternal life’ but only testify The One who himself came from heaven
must
to the light (v.15) be lifted up to give eternal life

1: 16-18: Application to the Community:3: 16-21: Application to the Community:

The gospel of life is unknown to social composition The separation in the community as the
Based on Mosiac Law, who do not know grace believing and the unbelieving shows that
its members are not fully conscious yet.

In principle there are possibilities of determining the relationship of the gospel of the Unknown to the
gospel of eternal life. Either one conceives the eternal life teaching as a higher level for the advanced
(consciousness), or one conceives the two as a dialectical unity. Under the first supposition, Unknown
(gospel truth) and Eternal Life would relate to each other as initial teaching relates to doctrine for the
advanced; John 3: 11–16 would be a surpassing of the gospel unknown. 13 Under the second
supposition, the gospel of life is unknown with respect to the world, but it is eternal life in God’s
view. It is a matter not of two successive contents of gospel but rather of the same content under two
aspects – as “unknown” for those who reject it, as “eternal life” for those who concur with it.

Now therefore, there is a question of which conception is correct – the gradualist or the dialectical?
Each can appeal to weighty arguments – the gradualist chiefly to observations about the form, the
dialectical to observations about the content. As we shall see, the key to understanding the text lies
precisely in this tension between form and content.

1. The Form of Eternal Life discourse in Gospel John

The Author of the fourth gospel speaks in the style of a revelation discourse and in doing so makes use
of a threefold “revelation pattern” (1:6-18). What (1) was hidden (vv.10-11) has been revealed (2) to
the pneumatic (vv. 12-14), so that (3) he can proclaim it further among pneumatics (vv. 15-18). A
comparable pattern is found in 3: 1-21. The hidden (vv. 1-4) has now been revealed (vv. 5-8) and been
preached to all man (vv. 11-21). In a similar manner, unknown, revelation, and further communication
of revelation through the preaching follow upon one another in John 3: 22-36; 4: 1-14; 5: 16 – 26; and
6: 26-68. What is striking in comparison is that the passing on of revelation is identical with the
mission of preaching. It is directed to “everyman,” - as many as (1:12), encompasses “whosoever” -
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Jews and the Gentiles (3:15&16) and is public preaching (1:15,&19). The Author, on the contrary,
restricts the passing on of revelation to the circle of the disciples (1:35-37; 3:10-15). The pneumatic
believer is not the goal of preaching (3:17&18) but is a presupposition (3:19-21). Is the author here
varying a traditional pattern? Did the author want to correct a false darkness that was overly impressed
with the state of knowledge already reached? Or was an originally esoteric revelation pattern later
“universalized in the Johannine community on the basis of the mission experience – that is, broadened
to everyone as possible recipient of revelation? We do not know. Yet we can with good reasons
surmise that author is using a form of discourse that was known in the Christian liturgy.14

Finally, we may also infer that the oral form presupposed in John 15: 18ff. – 16:1-15 is a “pneumatic”
form of discourse. It is imparted by the Spirit, taught by the Spirit, and intelligible only to “spiritual”
people. We therefore assume that the SitzimLeben of the Logos teaching lay in assemblies of an inner
circle in the communities or around the apostle, in which one heard higher consciousness as inspired
by the Spirit. In such small circles (in his circle of disciples? In select house communities?), the author
spoke as to the pneumatic believers.

In any case, the literary form of the text presupposes that the author is here communicating a special
revelation that exceeds what is already known. Yet one should ask if He disposes over a revelation
that he does not wish to communicate to everyone (John 20:30; & 21:25). It could be the case that
something of this hidden “revelation” has been preserved for us by the author. But what is the content
of this higher revelation?

2. The Content of Eternal Life discourse in the Fourth Gospel

On the basis of form, style, and theme, one should assume that in John 1: 1-18 the Author is
communicating previously unknown contents. But he does not write much beyond what he had
already said in the purpose of the gospel in 20:30; & 21:25; in reality, he only unfolds what he had
already implicitly presupposed there.

In John 1:4-11, the author had confronted a “light” of life (v.4) with the “darkness” of the world (v.5).
The unknown darkness of the world has been revealed by the light of God; the light of God is rejected
by men as unknown. There are in other words two types of revelation, just as there are two types of
unknown. When the author writes about John the Baptist in 1:29-34 that he has not “known” him, he
obviously means the “darkness of men”, in other words, the human consciousness God has destroyed
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(1:31). When he then nonetheless speaks of “revelation” among the pneumatic, beginning in 1:33, that
is the “revelation of God,” a point the author underlines so clearly through the twofold negation that it
is “not the forensic knowledge of this world or of the Israelites” (1:31), that there can be no doubt of
the opposition of the “Human consciousness” (v.17) and the “higher consciousness of God” (v.18).
The author therefore undertakes no about-face. While the form of the text may awaken expectations of
the entirely new content, as far as content is concerned the train of thought suggests development of
the divine revelation hidden in the gospel. A more precise analysis of the text structure in 3: 1-21
shows in fact that not much points beyond the gospel of the logos in 1:1ff., the greater part of the
revelation discourse offers no new revelation as far as content is concerned; it is rather reflection on
the possibility of receiving revelation and passing on revelation.

The first part (1: 4-5) speaks of the objective event of revelation, of the hidden revelation that was not
recognised by the Cosmos - world (vv. 9-11). The preexistence of logos, and especially the mention of
the cosmos, go beyond Jewish Leaders (1: 19ff.) but are present there implicitly. For the Jews
represent the world, and that is already mentioned in 1:10, the revelation of God has long been ignored
– even independently of the one and only Son, Jesus. Thus it is preexistent. In both instances
revelation runs into “non-recognition.” The oukegno in 1:10 corresponds to the ouparalambano in
1:11. In both texts the “revelation of God” is also discussed emphatically (1:10; 1:11).

The second part (1: 12-14) thematizes the subjective aspect of the event of revelation – first its
acceptance, then its mediation to others. Verses 12-13 speak first of the human reception of revelation.
Verse 14 had already prepared this theme, when it was mentioned that God’s revelation “had made his
dwelling among man.” A presupposition of the reception of revelation is the Spirit (1: 32); the goal of
conferral of the Spirit is a knowledge or consciousness of God, namely, a grasping of what God has
given (v. 16). Verse 18 hark back formally to the beginning. The “Logos” and the “One and only Son”
stand parallel to each other. Now it is developed why the “eternal life” can be expressed only among
the “pneumatics.” This is connected with the nature of revelation. The section in 3: 10-13 is therefore
parallel in thought to v. 18: there the Spirit reveals all (3:5-8), here the pneumatic knows all (3:11).
There the axiom that “ we know” appears in the form that only the Spirit knows what is in man, and
that only the divine Spirit knows what is in the depths of the deity (vv.12&13). Here, on the contrary,
it is said that pneumatic things are made intelligible only by pneumatic things (3:13-15).
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We may summarize thus, in the writing of the Logos gospel and in the “Eternal Life” teaching, the
same symbol stands materially at the center – the Son, Jesus. But it is shifted into a new context
through the pneumatic revelation. In the course of this, new accents are set as far as content is
concerned:

Beyond the writing of the gospel in John 1:1ff., there appear the hidden figures of the “people of this
world,” as if with them the deeper causes of the pneumatic consciousness were exposed.

Beyond the communication of the objective event of the revelation there is reflection on the subjective
conditions of the reception of revelation.

The event of revelation becomes conscious of itself. As far as content is concerned, in other words, the
same reality stands at the center in each text, but as far as the form is concerned, John’s gospel is
clearly a further development of the writing of the gospel.

Readings in Psychological Aspects

1. Aspects in Learning Theory

The author of the fourth gospel himself describes the reception of revelation as learning. He contrasts
two learning processes: the learning process by which one is “socialized” into the world and opposed
learning process that confers entirely new possibilities of behaviour and experience. The author is
aware that these are processes stimulated and influenced from without: one receives the spirit of the
world or the spirit from God. Here “Spirit” means a formative influence from without. A change takes
place within the formative environment. Or, formulated more cautiously, we observe the attempt to
free oneself from the existing learning environment. But the new environment is by definition not
accessible to outsiders – them world does not know him nor receive him (1:10-11). It is inaccessible to
natural “psychic” experience (6:65). Despite this inaccessibility we can make some statements about
the stimuli, reinforcements, and models that lead to the new learning process (1:17; c.f. 5: 39-47).

The author connects the “pneumatic” revelation with a specific social situation. Only among the
pneumatic does Jesus speak of “eternal life” (3:12-15). In 1:12 the active use of the word elabon 15 in
antithetical parallelism to ouparelabon (v.11) could refer to “the active, definitive acceptance of God’s
offer of life and light by one group in contradistinction to the other group. The words are rather to be
 32

understood, as an indication of the social framework. For each pneumatic discourse there is a situation
that stimulates it; the author gives us a sample of this – the group of the pneumatic believers.

The homogenous group of the pneumatic with its positive emotional climate is not only the stimulus
of the “life” discourse but also it’s most important reinforcements. Only in this group does the higher
consciousness find positive resonance. Jesus’ inability to communicate to the “people of the world”
(Nicodemus) is grounded in the inability of the world to receive it. The author presents this state of
affairs in generalized form in chapter 3:6; the psychic man does not receive what is of the divine spirit.
To him it is darkness, and he cannot recognize it, for it must be judged pneumatically. Here one can
note a certain imbalance in the estimation of the reinforcing consequences. On the one hand, Jesus
binds the pneumatic revelation to positive resonance in the group (5:19ff.); on the other hand, he states
that “the Son judges all things, but the pneumatic believer will not be judged,” as if he were
completely independent of the reaction of others, no matter they are pneumatics or psychics (5:24).

What the author presents in the social relationships of pneumatics and psychics has a model in the
relationship of Christ to the people of this world. By reference to this model, it becomes clear about
that “reinforcement system” the author wishes to separate the pneumatic from. Just as the pneumatic
person moves among those who reject the life and light and misunderstand him, so too Christ
appeared in a world that misunderstood and rejected him. In both cases the revelation of God was
misunderstood. The people of this world are models of the psychic person who cannot grasp divine
revelation, who even stands opposed to it in hostility. But Christ is the model of the pneumatic who
proclaims the same “eternal life” of God that is the cause of the Christ-event.

But who are the people of the world? Whether or not the author thought of mythic figures in this
regard, the recipients of the letter must also have thought of the Jewish Leaders who were responsible
for Christ crucifixion.16 Yet, not only the recipients but the author as well thought of the Jews with the
“people of the world”(6:64b). However, on the basis of this chain of associations, “the world” in 1:9-
10 are primarily earthly psychics – not merely the Jewish leaders of Palestine (priests and Levites),
Pilate and Antipas, but earthly psychics in general.

The rejection of Christ by the world corresponds to the rejection of eternal life among human beings.
But it is then clear from which system of reinforcement the author wishes to be independent: it is the
system of reinforcement represented by the dominant classes and the leading groups. The assertion
 33

that the pneumatic is not judged pointed against those who otherwise have the power to judge others.
If the powerful people have opposed with hostility the revelation of God in Christ, and if Christ has
overcome the resistance, then Christ becomes a model of behaviour and experience that has made
itself independent of the negative sanctions of the dominant system of convictions. This is not only a
purely formal independence. The darkness of this world is characterized by its link with social and
political power; the “life” and “Light” of the revelation of God is characterized by its link with Christ.
If this “pneumatic revelation” is recognized as superior consciousness, then the principle of
dominance that rules the world is itself called into question. A struggle for power and influence would
contradict this pneumatic consciousness. The divided disciples are thus not matured enough for it (7:
25-43). They are still “fleshly” (3:6). The author still conceals what he opposes positively to the
fleshly struggle. At the beginning of chapter 1:4-5 the accent lies wholly on the fact that a system of
reinforcement independent of the old world has appeared with Christ. In the citation, the author
implies that this system, of reinforcement is operative among those who received God (1:12-13). The
author concretize materially that all pneumatic experience is directed toward “eternal life.”

In John 3:16-21, the author shows the way to maturity: What is pneumatic is “eternal life.” From
3:19f., we thus come to know the new reinforcement system, which is only imperfectly operative even
among people of the world. One characteristic is striking here. As a rule, the author motivates life and
solidary behaviour extrinsically. If there is a demand of life – If, in the language of learning theory,
there is anything that stimulates life – then this occurs through presentation of God’s loving behaviour
and through nothing else. The author also motivates in a purely intrinsic manner, by invoking the
model of Christ. For this reason, he speaks of “life” as a person, Jesus. Here, life appears as an
example of itself. It is its own model. It is from “life” that one learns what “life” is. From the
perspectives of learning theory, the new reality the author presented as overpowering revelation and as
pneumatic can be described as intrinsically motivated life: life is experienced as a value in itself. It
unfolds itself among the pneumatic, those who are driven by the spirit of God, without appeal to
external authorities, without reference to reinforcing consequences, without dependence on exemplary
models.

In summary, from the perspective of learning theory, we find the author wishes to desensitize with
regard to the dominant reinforcement system in society through development of the revelation of God
as “darkness” for the world and as “life” for the pneumatic. The dominant system is to lose its power
 34

over believers. The revelation is to make one independent from every external judgments. The
decisive condition for learning is the model of Christ. In Him the impotent is shown as powerful, the
powerful as weak. With a view to Christ one need not be impressed by the claims of the world: the
powerful, the respected, and the well born. In the fourth gospel the author develop the new
reinforcement system for the pneumatic. He concretize materially what for him is pneumatic,
something that points far beyond the everyday reality of the community: what is pneumatic is
intrinsically motivated “eternal life.” Only “life” has completely overcome the reinforcement system
based on domination. Only life emancipated itself from all external authorities, consequences, and
models, from all the extrinsic reinforcements whose functioning is inconceivable without power. Such
consciousness is for those who are pneumatically mature believers.

2. Readings in Psychodynamic Aspects

The transformation of the Christian is not only an event evoked from without. The spirit transforms
within. The linguistic use of pneuma encompasses both aspects – both the gift conferred from without
and the inner tribunal. Each individual has a pneuma. But pneumatic persons have in addition
participation in another person – in the pneuma of God (3:34). They have opened their individual
spirits to the more comprehensive spirit of God. Only now does what the world knows not, and
receives not, what has entered the hearts of man become accessible to them. Only as transformed do
they become receptive to new impulses, reinforcements, and models. This inner transformation can be
described more readily with psychodynamic categories than with those of learning theory.

The structural analysis has already yielded an initial conjecture. Tensions between form and content
suggested the idea that the higher consciousness of revelation consist in grasping what was received
unconsciously in the initial revelation. Every believer possesses the spirit of God, but only the
pneumatic in the stricter sense “understands the gifts bestowed on us by God”. The author depicts this
process of something conscious first as an objective event, then as a subjective process. The key to
psychodynamic interpretation of the text lies in the homology between objective and subjective
depiction. The objective depiction could be the symbol of an inner transformation. Conversely, the
symbols suggested to an individual by the author’s writing effect a profound subjective process of
transformation.
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2.1. The Objective Depiction

On examining first if the depiction of the Christ-event is transparent for something else. Does it have
additional symbolic value that points beyond an external event? Whether it does points to an inner
event will be examined in a second step. The question is to be addressed above all to “the world” or
“people of this world”. The author has always surmised that these are not just historical Jewish rulers
but are rather evil powers of darkness. The two interpretations are not sharp alternatives. The
historical rulers could be heightened symbolically to mythical powers. Such mythical heightening is
possible within the world of Johannine thought. The earthly relationships have correspondences in
heavenly relationships. In this regard the author can also evoke Satan if the events on earth are
repugnant to Christ. That the opponents of Christ have found response in their communities can lie
only in the appearance of false believers of God. 17 The parallelism of forces and powers illustrates the
parallelism of earthly and mythical events, in which one cannot distinguish sharply between simple
correspondence and causal involvement. Should not something similar be true of “the world” or
“people of this world”? It is unmistakable that author takes his point of departure from the historical
earthly people. Yet, they are transparent to a mythical connection that exceeds the historical
connections.

The interpretation of the “people of the world” rejects the widespread alternative “historical or
demonic.” The people of the world are historical Jews who are heightened symbolically to demonic
powers. The mention of “true light” in 1:9 is often considered the decisive argument for a historical
interpretation of “the world,” since here reference is made to an unambiguously historical event. It
brings “the world” into connection not only with the historical revelation of God in “the true light” but
also with the mythically conceived preexistence of divine true light. The subordinate clause in which
“the world” is mentioned stands in parallel to a subordinate clause that relates to preexistent realities.
Both relative clauses elucidate what is meant by the “true light”: first, positively, that he was in the
world; and second, negatively, that none of the world recognized him. Here unambiguously historical
figures such as Pharisees, scribes, and John the Baptist are viewed as “people of the world”. There,
John the Baptist also becomes one of “the world.” That these “people of the world” are really mythical
realities is clear, where the world and the powers are mentioned together. The cited references assure
the historical possibility that historical figures could simultaneously be conceived as mythical powers.
 36

In a sense, we experience in the fourth gospel the birth of a myth. But mythification occurs when there
is brought to expression something that has occurred not only once but constantly, since its archetypal
occurrence , and that can occur further.

2.2. The Subjective Aspect

As we have seen, the rejection of the Son by the people of this world is a model for the resistance the
divine counter revelation finds in society. From a psychodynamic perspective, we must deepen this
view further. The “people of this world” does not represent only the external resistance of society, in
other words, an external system of reinforcement; in addition, there are symbols of the inner resistance
that has its locus in the human being – symbols of the interiorized censorship of the historical system
of convictions. It is precisely for this reason that they receive mythical character. They represent
something lying ready, beyond what is unique and historical. They are the symbol of an inner limit to
understanding, which the ancients articulated in mythical images just as self-evidently as we articulate
it in psychological language.

A first indication of this inner limit to understanding is given by 3:19, which mediates between the
objectively and subjectively formulated sections. With the apocryphal citation, the author wishes to
establish why the world misunderstood the revelation of God and crucified Christ – why in other
words, they gave him no place in their realm (5:39-40). The foundation reads “You have never heard
his voice nor seen his form, nor does his word dwell in you, for you do not believe the one he sent”
(5:37b-38). Here the issue is suddenly no longer that Christ has no place in this world but that in him
one encounters reality which in principle has no place in any human heart. The internalization of the
objective mythical event is unmistakable. For this history, as a rule, is concerned with future salvific
goods that lie prepared as reward for the just. The idea of reward recedes in the fourth gospel. It does
echo in the citation, for the light of God is a presupposition for attaining salvific goods, but the author
does not pick up on this idea. Nor does he distinguish between current revelation of the future salvific
goods and their later mediation. The current revelation is already mediation of salvation. It mediates
access to the depths of God and expands consciousness beyond human limits.

Thus the author’s train of thoughts is as follows. Something that was accessible to no one has
penetrated into the hearts of believers. God has revealed it to them – against the embittered resistance
of “the world.” The “people of this world” thus become hostile guards in front of the human heart.
 37

This means that “the life” and “the light” forced its way into the unconscious human depths against an
inner resistance.

In this context, “the world” symbolizes three things: First, they symbolize a resistance on the border
between what is conscious and what is unconscious; they are the censorship on the threshold between
consciousness and what transcends consciousness. Second, they make the form of this resistance
transparent by exposing it as a censorship that admits “the light” only in the deformed figure of Christ.
Finally, they make transparent the origin of the resistance. “The world” represents the dominant
consciousness of society, which is experienced as a compulsive power.

So far, we have interpreted psycho-dynamically the negative side of the process of transformation –
the liberation from the censorship of the historical system of convictions. But what about its positive
side? If the world represent an inner censorship what does the figure of Christ, who falls into conflict
with them represent?

Just as the historical rulers of Palestine became mythical realities, so too did the historical Jesus. He
becomes the embodiment of pre-existent revelation of God. Even if one understands revelation as a
gift conferred on the pneumatic, one cannot deny that revelation shimmers through the pre-existent
revelation of 1:1-5. Here there is no sharp either - or. Even in the earthly human literature, revelation
is both mythical figure and human quality. Now the author makes the following statements about the
revelation. It is pre-existent (1:1-5). The world could have known God through it but it was revealed
only through Christ. What the author formulates now – in 3:19ff – is revelation, precisely this pre-
existent, hidden revelation revealed in Christ that is rejected by the world. What imposes itself against
their resistance is in other words a pre-existent tendency. It stems from a realm whose temporal
dimension is sketched with the words “in the beginning” and whose spatial dimension is sketched as
the “in the darkness.” Something has penetrated the human heart from a primeval depth dimension of
reality – a cosmic tendency that is programmed into creation and that already existed before people
fell under the power of the rulers of the world. Up to now it was hidden, but it became manifest in the
figure of Christ – just as a concrete symbol can be a manifestation of an invisible pre-existent
structure, and archetype. In fact it lies close at hand to think here of a psychic tendency, programmed
into us by evolution, which achieves consciousness of itself in the figure of Christ – even against the
resistance of the given cultural system of convictions.
 38

At what do these tendencies which arise from creation and from one’s own interior aim? The author
develops tangibly in John 1:1-5, 9-13. If the Spirit of God dwells in believers, if even the Son Jesus
himself is present in them, then from this follow overcoming of fleshly nature, and the deep
consciousness of solidarity with the central reality that the author calls “eternal life,” and that
overcomes the judgment, death and the hostile powers.

In sum, the problem with which we began was the distinction of an initial writing about the higher
consciousness of revelation for the pneumatic. Since the Son sent by God is the central content for
every stage of faith the difference lies not in faith in new contents but in a more profound
consciousness of the Christian symbols. Both simple believers and advanced pneumatics are grasped
by the symbol of the Christ-event. But only the latter penetrate the unconsciousness connections in
which the writing of the gospel functions. Only they penetrate the inevitable psychic and social
resistance against the symbol of the Christ-event; only they emancipate themselves consciously from
the compulsive standards of this world. Their consciousness has opened itself into unknown depths, so
that they think they have grown beyond human consciousness. The sudden expansion of
consciousness achieved by the revelation of Christ – “the life,” is experience as ecstatic absorption
into a greater divine consciousness to which even the depths of the deity do not remain concealed. On
the one hand, the revelation of God – “the light,” effects the unconscious, by passing the censorship of
societal consciousness; on the other hand hitherto hidden tendencies from the human depths, which
become conscious with the aid of “the light,” come to meet it. They penetrate into the heart, fill it with
the spirit, and confer freedom with respect to the world’s system of sanctions – and simultaneously a
new consciousness emerges, the “eternal life.”

3. Readings in Cognitive Aspects:

The goal of the Logos discourse is a radical restructuring of judgment and evaluation. What is
“hidden” from the perspective of the world is to appear as “revelation” through the Spirit. One who
has the “light” of the Lord judges differently from a “psychic”. The central purpose of the text is thus
a cognitive restructuring. We must therefore deepen our previous interpretations. In the fourth gospel,
the Son of God is not only behavior model for desensitizing with regard to the dominant system of
reinforcement. He is not only the symbol of liberation from an inner censorship. He is the cause of a
radical restructuring of the internal and external world. The psychological problem is where the figure
 39

of Jesus the Son receives its restructuring power. Where does the cause for the transformation of the
interpreted world lie?

An impetus toward restructuring the interpreted world lies in the cognitive dissonance that came into
the world through Jesus the Son. This dissonance was triggered by the Christ-event. Where an
executed man is presented as mediator of salvation, the interpreted world formed by the world and
historical traditions must appear disturbed. Jesus is not received by the Jews since he contradicts the
expectation of powerful signs in which God intervenes salvifically. He is not recognized by the
Pharisees, the Scribes, and Levites since he contradicts the standards of their traditions. Strong
cognitive conflicts force one either to defend the received system of interpretation through
reinforcement of elements consonant with it or to restructure it to such an extent that originally
dissonant elements appear as consonant in a more comprehensive or transformed framework. Seen
retrospectively, abrupt dissonances can have liberating effects because they necessitate restructuring
and open new perspectives.

The transition from the writing of the preexistent revelation (1:1ff) to the pneumatic revelation
(3:15ff) is not a “change of front” or polemic adaptation to the addresses; rather, in this transition
there occurs a cognitive restructuring of the interpreted world. Jesus the Son was misunderstood and
unrecognized in the world as traditionally interpreted. In it the revelation of Jesus was cognitively
dissonant. It is perception in the world, newly interpreted symbolically, that is created by the coming
of the Son. In this new world it affords access to a more profound consonance. This restructuring takes
place with regard to both the internal and the external world.

The restructuring of the “inner man” can be analyzed with the categories of psychodynamic theories.
But these categories change their original character in the framework of a cognitive approach. For if
religious symbols are no longer seen exclusively as representations but are rather conceived as active
cognitive structuring of inner-drive dynamism and unconscious archetypes, then psychodynamic
theories of religion are decisively modified. This will be demonstrated with reference to both the
interpretation of “the world” within the framework of classical psychoanalysis and the interpretation
of the figure of Christ within the framework of the doctrine of archetypes.

CONCLUDING SUMMARY:
 40

In Conclusion, one can propose a hypothesis to solve this classic problem of study. The higher
consciousness of the author consists not in new contents but rather in a higher stage of consciousness
in which the same contents are reflected upon. In the “initial revelation,” Believers are seized by the
symbol of the saving grace. But it is only through “the doctrine of Eternal life” that they grasp what
seizes them. Both the immature and the spiritual are affected by the same revelation, but only the
spiritual penetrate what happens to them and in them. In brief, “Eternal life” consists in making
conscious a previously unconscious content.

As we saw, one can interpret “the World” as symbols of the inner censorship which deform impulses
arising from the unconscious. Yet precisely through application of the psychoanalytic categories
“censorship,” “deformation,” and “unconscious,” one places oneself in opposition to the
psychoanalytic theory of religion. According to the classic formulation of that theory, religious
symbols are (neurotic) compromises between the censorship of the superego and impulses contrary to
norms, whose functioning depends in part on the resultant compromises’ remaining unconscious. Are
“the world” symbols in this sense? Only if one places entirely new accents; For, (1) in John 1:1ff, no
unconscious process is presented in a coded manner: rather, its basic elements are a made transparent.
The world symbolism is not the result of a process of repression but the presentation of such a process.
The psycho-mythic parallelism is even an indication that the psychic aspect of this process was
conscious. (2) The result is not a compromise between censorship and contradictory impulses but
rather an open confrontation. (3) What arises into the center of the person and penetrates into the heart
is not an impulse contrary to norms but rather something liberating, the Spirit. If one were permitted to
generalize on the basis of the selected passages here, one would have to say that religion is not (only)
collective compulsory neurosis but therapy with collective symbols. Its symbols are not symptoms but
symbolic actions in which a transformation of behavior and experience occurs. The task of
hermeneutics consists in making conscious what is contained unconsciously in these symbolic actions,
a task in which it pursues further a tendency contained in these symbols and images.

Once again John 1:1ff illuminates a theme that has run through these investigations – the expansion of
the Johannine life-world through incorporation of regions that were previously unconscious and that
transcended consciousness. Four dimensions of the unconscious have been uncovered in the course of
this; antinomian impulses and normative requirements as forms of the forensically unconscious:
ecstatic experiences and revelation as forms of the pneumatically unconscious. One could also
 41

describe the expansion of the Johannine life-world as follows. What otherwise is the hardly perceived
or denied background of the everyday life-world emerges in religious experience as decisive reality.
This restructuring can be grasped in the sense of Gestalt theory as a change in ground and background.
Religious experience and thought thematize the depth dimensions of the life-world. Here what is
otherwise background becomes the ground. The everyday life-world fades in significance. It becomes
the background until a change in phase allows it to step into the foreground again. This change in
phase can lead to paradoxical insights. Ignorance appears as wise, weakness as power, a defeat as
victory. The range of behavior and experience is enlarged by cognitive restructurings of this sort. The
ability to see reality in an entirely different way means freedom. Put in psychodynamic language,
“eternal life” through the image of Christ is enlightenment of the unconscious.
 Partnership of Equals in the Church from the Feminist Perspective

-C. ZuchobeniEzung

Introduction

Throughout the history of the Church, Christian theology has been done with the exclusion of women
and their experience.18Feminist theology does not deal with a separate feminine theme, rather claims to
seek for equality, justice, and liberation of women from what it perceives to be patriarchal or
androcentric systems of power and domination. All feminist theologies share the importance of the
analysis of sexism in different religious traditions, women’s exclusion from both theology and positions
of power in religious institutions. In its search for liberation of women from these structures, feminist
theology is informed by and usually considered a form of Liberation Theology. Feminist theology now
employs a wide range of methods and perspectives reflecting the varied experiences of women around
the globe.

Among the various issues that the world faces today, the issue of women and their fight for equal
shared responsibility is one of the most talked one. In churches today this has become a burning issue
that continues to tread without being able to come to temperate answers. This article will focus on the
partnership of equals in the Church from the Feminist perspective.

1. Context and Perspective

To comprehend partnership of equals from the Feminist perspective it is foremost to know the on-
going19 women liberation movement in the world and Asia that refutes against the use of scriptural
authority, religious traditions and culture that legitimize gender injustice to women in religion and
society.20 The continuing effort is to provide alternative use of the tools with liberation as its goal. But
the specific locus of this article is limited to that of the Northeast India Naga society.

2. Women’s Roles in the Bible

The Bible as a whole is androcentric, or male-centered in its subject matter. Its focus is on the public
and communal life of the people which was mainly dominated by male, prophets, kings, priests, sages,
etc. The more private or domestic arena of life received very little attention. Nevertheless, it can be
 44

affirmed that women held significant roles in both public and domestic realms which were in principle
reserved for men.21

2.1. Leadership in the Old and New Testament

In the OT women are pictured in various ways that it is difficult to formulate their image in a single and
coherent statement. Women in many ways were considered as chattel than a person. During this period
women might not have occupied a prominent role. But in some cases they rose in some recognizable
way as one speaking with divine authority or wisdom and sometimes taking up even significant leading
roles in the society. However the general picture of women’s role and status in the society and religion
in the Old Testament times is not praise worthy. 22 Though there were no priestesses women offered
sacrifices and gifts along with men (Lev 12:6). The laws for ceremonial cleansing in connections with
bodily emissions were essentially the same for both sexes (Lev 15). Women as well as men consecrated
themselves to God as Nazirites (Num 6: 2). Priesthood was strictly reserved for men but not all Israelite
men were priests too; however in the prophetic vocation both women and men were used as
mouthpiece of God.23

Several women who played an important roles in the early church were erased through the centuries are
Phoebe (Rom 16), a deacon in the church commended by Paul, and several whose work probably
included hosting house churches such as Mary, the mother of John Mark (Acts 12), Lydia (Acts 16),
Euodias and Syntyche (Phil. 4), Chloe (1 Cor. 1), Rufus’ mother (Rom 16), Junia (who even had her
name changed to the masculine by later translators!- Rom.16). Other female workers (unusual for their
day) include Apphia (Philemon), Cloudia (2 Tim 4), Dorcas (Acts 9), Eunice and Lois (2 Tim 1),
Joanna (Lk 8:24), Mary, the mother of Jesus (Acts 1) Rhoda (Rom 16), Salome (Mk 16), Susanna (Lk
8), etc. For many of these women, all we know about them and their work is that their names and that
they worked for God. It is evident that God has work for each one of us to do. 24 In the Bible we can see
how these women had played vital roles despite of the patriarchal structured society yet the least
discussed in our churches today.

2.2. Theological Education

Today the only encouraging forward movement visible seems to be in the area of theological education.
Theological graduates are increasing, but unfortunately opportunity is not fully opened to them in the
church. There are no more than 1000 women theological graduates in Nagaland alone. F. S. Downs
made a serious observation which still rings true, “At the United Theological College in Bangalore
there are very few women students. But all those who have been sent by the Church of South India
 45

(CSI) are being prepared for ordination. While ETC has many more women students most of them will
never become pastors, let alone be ordained.” But this should not be taken as a discouragement, but
rather be seen as women trying to come out of the traditional stereotyping roles imposed on them. 25
Many Naga women going for theological studies do not solve women’s leadership in the Church in
Nagaland. Women cannot fully involve in the existing church ministry due to the rigidity of the
structure. The placement of theologically trained women has become a serious problem in NEI. Most of
the women graduates become women leaders in the women department of the church (but churches can
accommodate only a few), Sunday school teachers, mission school teachers, lecturers in seminaries,
missionaries, counselors in different rehab centres, etc. so, the question before us is, for what purpose
do women undergo theological studies if the churches cannot give sufficient space for ministry and
leadership? On the whole, we can say that churches in NEI have rigid hierarchical structures and
policies flavored with patriarchal ideologies, which leads to women being discriminated against in
ecclesial leadership.26

3. Factors limiting the Ministry of Women

3.1. Misinterpretation of the Scripture

Whenever the question of the ministry of women is discussed, scripture is often used to justify their
exclusion from leadership roles. Arguments for and against the ordination of women are taken from the
Bible. There is always a tendency to take a few verses out of the context. Those cited frequently are 1
Cor. 11:3ff, 14:33ff, Ephesians 5:21-22, and 1 Tim. 2:11-15. However at present even the Biblical
arguments are not used as frequently in justifying a secondary role for women.27

Feminist biblical scholars pointed to the existence of alternative presentation of Eve in the Bible itself
which has been often neglected by selective interpretation. The first creation narrative states that both
male and female are created and shared the image and likeness of God (Gen. 1:26-27; repeated in 5:1-
2). The argument for women subordination on the basis of their being created second to man (Gen.
2:21-22) crumbles when the same logic of temporal priority is applied to Gen. 1:1-25 that states God
created animals and plants before the creation of humans. 28 The term ‘helper’ in relation to woman does
not connotes her inferiority to man for out of the 21 times the word ezer ‘helper’ used in the Old
Testament, 7 times refers to God (Psalm 46:1; 63:1-8).29 Elisabeth S. Fiorenza reminds that even in
those negative passages about women there is something significant to be drawn. Those passages that
seems to prohibit women not to talk in public church gathering are seen by her as evidence to indicate
that women in the biblical period were in fact actively playing public role and had they not such
prohibition could not have been warranted. 30 Hence, we can understand that there is so much of human
 46

involvement in making the Bible a tool against women. So in such a context we need another human
involvement to transform it into a tool for liberation and for women existence.

3.2. Traditional Attitude

Feminist theology sees patriarchy at work in the Christian sources, including scriptures, and in
everyday Christian life.31 The Feminist project is aimed at “the liberation of Christology from
patriarchy.”32 Some feminists are of the view that patriarchy is so ingrained in Christian tradition and
practice, that, Christian sources cannot be of help to women. In this context, they raise also the
question, as how a male savior could really redeem women. 33 On the other hand, there are other
feminist Christian thinkers who are of the view, that there is a wealth of great resources in Christianity
which could serve the emancipation of women, and this is true also of Jesus Christ, provided he is
interpreted through the experience and concerns of women. 34 Traditional attitudes are almost certainly
more important in determining male (and female) attitudes towards the appropriate role of women than
a concern for biblical models. Traditionally men dominated the public decision making process in the
village. This attitude continues even in the churches, making women participation in the Deacon’s
Board a very less chance.35 For example, from an assumption that God took on male form in Jesus, it
was concluded that only men can represent Jesus, and not women. Such a view has a lot of practical
consequences in different areas, including ministries in the churches. 36 There is a clear distinction
between the private and the public sphere regarding the leadership role. This rigid tradition still exists,
and people are unwilling to change the structure due to strong patriarchal attitudes. As a result, women
are denied leadership roles both in the church and society.37

Rosemary Radford Ruether explains:

Feminist theology engaged in recovering alternative traditions for women in theology do not intend
merely to supplement the present male tradition. They are constructing a new norm for
interpretation of what is ‘true’ and ‘false’ in the tradition. Justification of women’s subordination
in scripture and theology are no longer regarded as normative expressions of the gospel. 38 For this
to happen, however, there needs to be a critical deconstruction of the Christian origins.

3.3. Cultural Context

The traditional subordinating of women in leadership roles is justified on the grounds that such a
position reflects the authentic cultures of the society. Giving women non-traditional roles would
 47

subvert that culture. Many men, and even some women say, we have nothing against women’s
participation in the top levels of decision making, but our culture will not accept a woman as leader of
the whole church and association.39 Most of the churches in Northeast India a patriarchal
institutionalized church with rigid structures. Men dominate the leadership positions though women
comprise half the population in the church. Therefore, the present church structures and working
systems are not conducive for women to participate fully and freely in ecclesial leadership like men
folk even though both men and women receive theological education equally.40

3.4. Impact of an Inferiority Complex

One of the consequences of a patriarchal culture is that it not only convinces men they are superior, but
also convinces women themselves that they are inferior. It seems that most women of NEI are so
accustomed to a socio-cultural set up in which they are assigned as inferior position that they simply
accept it as right and feel comfortable with it. Thus, the women themselves seem unwilling to take up
roles that they did not have traditionally. 41 It is a fact that churches in NEI have inherited from
missionaries a colonial and a patriarchal church with exclusively male leadership. Patriarchy and
exclusive male theology blended well, and it got reflected in the ministry and mission of the churches.
Because of this understanding and attitude, appointing or electing women as senior Pastor, General
Secretary/Executive Secretary etc., is still unthinkable in people’s way of thinking. In general, people’s
attitude towards leadership sharing with women has not changed at all. Nevertheless, women are there
in the church/ association/convention/synod, mainly in the women’s chambers. In reality, women
experience injustices and discrimination in the leadership arena though the degree of injustices may
differ from context to context and church to church.42

3.5. The Women’s “Place”

When it is very true that, many of the male ministers shares the woes of women in many ways, it is also
true that women have a particular set of problems to overcome just because they are a women. Most of
the problems center around the issue of one’s proper role, or what is usually called “keeping in your
place.”43

A woman who had worked in the churches states, “All the time that I served in churches I had conflicts
over the exact nature of my ‘place’.” The first problem a women faces is the inability to fit into the kind
of well-defined role which the church has traditionally assigned to the male sex. The work of women
pastors today is often hampered by woman’s traditional second-class citizenship in the institutional
church. Although the church has long since gotten over debating about whether or not women have
 48

souls, there still appears to be considerable confusion as to whether or not they possess minds- or skills
other than the relatively menial. Another objectionable matter is the view of many Christians even now
is that, one or two “showcase” women are graciously permitted to sit on the official boards- but are not
expected to become vigorous advocates, with some exceptions. Two implicit reasons can be seen in this
case: First is that the real work of the church must be done by men, with women taking the lesser tasks.
Second assumption is that, if women are permitted to move into the power structure of the church they
would “take over” and completely feminize the institution. This kind of role confusion in the total
church lays the ground work for many of the problems which women pastors’ experience.44

Women have suffered long under the social and theological stereotyping of their life. Feminist rejects
all negative concepts and teaching about women, their life and their activities. 45 It may be surmised that
feminist theology born out of women’s experience is a critical theology of liberation. It is a response to
the traditional male-oriented structure of the society, Church and theology. It is a response and
challenge to the way Christian theology was developed and taught.46

3.6. The Challenges

Being ordained with a religious license is no means feat for these women. These women have been
religiously serving the church for years and have accomplished a lot in their careers. The criteria to
become a licensed minister include a minimum of seven years in service of the church; possess good
and able leadership qualities. So, obviously the responsibilities that come along with the job are quite
challenging. The patriarchal mindset of Naga culture is deeply rooted even in the church, Jimomi says
and that women find it difficult to breath in such spaces.47

4. The Bible, Why a revisit?

Among Christian the Bible as scriptures and as the “word” of God hold a central place. It is an
authority over them regulating their church life and behavior, their idea of being male and female,
relationships, positions and roles in individual and church life. The implication this had for issues of
women leadership in the church is vital. Biblical authority is drawn to legitimize the subordination and
low status of women. The Bible is the ‘word’ of God in human language and language in which it is
written and transmitted is the ‘word of men.’ Authored, collected, edited, canonized and interpreted by
men it also was born in a culture and language where father’s and men’s rule (patriarchy) is the norm.
Women in biblical society and period were always under the authority of men lived their life as
designed by the patriarchal order.
 49

Until then the normative biblical interpretation has been that of the patriarchal and male-centric
interpretation inherited from the west. This male dominant interpretation determined the normative
meaning of the text for church doctrine and practice. This is bad for women since by such norm they
are to be playing subordinated roles in the church hierarchy and never as equal partners in ministry.
Thus, the Bible is used to keep women in stereotyped roles. The culture, gender and biblical
interpretation are intertwined in producing meaning especially in relation to women. 48 Therefore, there
is a need to revisit the Bible, the history and nature of interpretive traditions operating in the life of the
church in the Northeast India Naga society from the perspective of women and for their liberation over
equal partners in the church ministry.

5. Understanding ‘partnership of equals’ by Asian Women

Many Asian women think God has both female and male qualities in God-self. They believe that an
inclusive image of God who has both male and female sides promotes equality and harmony
between men and women as “partnership of equals.” They also view God as a community and not
as an individual.49 For Asian women ‘to be human is to be created in God’s image.’ However for
Asian good news from the Bible is not a free gift to accept without suspicion. Since, the Bible
carries some oppressive messages for women. Asian women use most frequently the teachings
from Genesis which contains the message that men and women are created equally in God’s image
(Gen 1: 27, 28). ‘In God’s image’ is an important biblical phrase Asian women have adopted to
define their perspective on humanity.50 This new rereading of the Bible provides a platform to
deconstruct and reconstruct what previously had been interpreted in a patriarchal manner. It can
also be use as an important tool in understanding the context of the church settings in the local
churches.

6. Women’s Participation in the Church Ministry

The role of women in the church has always been defined in large measure by the traditional role of
women in tribal society. The subordinate role is applied even in the church. But the issue of women is
no longer a new issue in today’s world. R. L. Hnuni says that, the new theological awareness coupled
with a changing world in which new models for women began to be available made it increasingly
difficult for most educated women to accept the traditional roles assigned to them in both society and
church.51

6.1. Women in the Local Church

 50

The traditional attitudes towards women in such roles have been maintained in the church to a greater
extent than in the society. The role of women in the churches has been limited due to the male control
of its administrative structure. These males seek to limit the role of women to child bearing and rearing
and other domestic responsibilities.52Women plays an active and very important role in the local
churches. Especially in the women department which is entirely for women. In some churches women
take leadership roles in the youth department, Christian education, teaching the Sunday school kids and
many other programs of the church. Apart from these exceptions, the pastorship is mostly denied to
them. But there are at least few women who are enabled to play the role of pastor of a local church.
Nochie A. Sangma, Balading Baptist Church Tura, Breveditha R. Marak, Dakopgu Baptist Church
Tura, Priscalitha D. Sangma, Williamnagar Town Baptist Church, Jaksil A. Sangma, Hawakhana
Baptist Church Tura, Juliet Yeptho, DimapurSumi Baptist Church are some worth
mentioning.53HokheliSumi, Zunheboto.54

6.2. Women in the Associations/Conventions:

As in the local churches, women are not given leadership roles or in the higher level decision-making
bodies. This may be seen in the various elements of the structure. The post of the Executive Secretary
of Associations or the posts of General Secretary of conventions are reserved for men. However,
gradually this trend seems to be changing. For the first time the Thangal Baptist Association in
Manipur has appointed a woman- ApilaSangtam, as the Executive secretary. The Garos are trend setters
in the field of women ministry. There are two women serving as Executive Secretaries. They are
Exwilline A. Marak in Association No. VII. The other is Piljelatha A. Sangma in Association No.I.
Further, women do play important role in their own women departments as heads.55

6.3. Ordination of Women

The movement for the ordination is not new to many churches. Some churches in different parts of the
world had been ordaining women for more than a hundred years. But in some churches it is still hotly
debated, and yet in others the question is yet to be raised. As Erika Reichle says, for it is still like a red
rag to a bull, for others it is already old hat-the issue of ordination of women to the ministry. 56 While
discussing the role and status of women, we should be able to differentiate between ‘role’ and ‘status.’
The roles women play in society do not always give them the status.57
In the North East India these issues were raised only few decades back. For a long time the people did
not even give thought to the idea of women in ordained ministry. Their thinking was controlled by the
traditional socio-cultural system in which women never played leading roles outside the household. The
first woman to be ordained in NEI was Noksangchila, who was ordained on May 31, 1992. She belongs
 51

to the Ao Naga tribe of Nagaland. Even among them, the issue was raised only in the 1980’s. Slowly a
breakthrough was made and some churches began to come forward to accept the ordination of women.

It is now learned that there are eleven (11) ordained ministers among the Ao’s, three (3) in the Garo
Baptist Churches, one in the Chakesang Nagas, and one among the Kukis. 58 Through study and
discussions, it is obvious that there have been a number of ways in which women’s status has improved
and they have assumed leadership roles. However, the patriarchal nature of most society in NEI
continues to have its influence in preventing them from achieving full equality with men. 59

Women are indispensable assets to the church in terms of their support and contributions in the mission
and evangelical fields. Unfortunately, it is rare to see women serving in senior leadership positions in
the church. The church in Nagaland has come a long way. From the Orthodox ways of functioning to a
more liberal style, the church is slowly evolving and embracing changes that are taking place across
other parts of the world; including gender equality. Women have been teaching, preaching and doing
mission work for decades but it is only recently that some churches in Nagaland are beginning to
accord more rights to women.60

After fighting over two decades for more rights and privileges, the Western Sumi Baptist Akukhuhou
Kukhakulu (WSBAK) or the association of Western Sumi churches has set a benchmark in conferring
women with ministry license. Thirty (30) women workers under the WSBAK are currently licensed
ministers. Kakheli Inato Jimomi, Secretary Women Ministry, WSBAK, who holds a license since 2019
says that it is a big breakthrough and a giant leap for all Naga Women. “WSBAK has set a very good
example,” she says, adding that this is by far the highest number in any church in Nagaland.61

The ordination of women is allowed in few churches in NEI. A very few churches appoint women to
the board of deacons, the highest decision-making body in the Baptist tradition. Here, women are trying
hard to be included in the board of deacons, an important organ of the local church in the context of
Baptist churches.62 The license gives these women the right to conduct all religious ceremonies like
marriages, funerals, the Lord’s Supper, christening and conducting baptism. Till a few years back, such
privileges were accorded only to men.

7. Partnership of Equals in the Church from the Feminist Perspective

Feminist theology searches for alternative traditions which recognize the presence of a large traditions
and reality about women; for women are the larger reality which remains hidden. Thus, feminist
theology aims at discovering alternative historical traditions which are supportive of the full
personhood of women and her inclusion in the leadership roles in the church and society.63
 52

7.1. Creating a Participatory Leadership Structure Church

Denial of women’s participation in church leadership is injustice. This calls for a critical look at the
church’s administrative structure, mission, and ministry to bring justice to women and men’s leadership
sharing.64 To make the church as participatory, church structures need to be liberated from anti-
Christian cultural values and reshaped by values of the Gospel. 65 The Church as ‘the people of God’
must be demonstrated in people’s participation in its life. It is the Church just as Jesus shared his power
and authority with his disciples; Church leaders are expected to promote culture of shared responsibility
by creating participatory structures.66 In a context were injustice of participation of leadership prevails
it should be change into a community-centred leadership. Thus giving the right space for the women to
participate and become a voice for the rest of the women who are in the same struggle for liberation
over equal participation in the Church today.

7.2. Collaborative Leadership in Church Ministry

Church women have shown an adaptive attitude to the transmission of the ministry on the paternal line.
It is not surprising that this existing teaching consciously or unconsciously influences the laity in the
local congregation in everyday life. All women irrespective of their “state in life” whether married,
single or religious, poor or rich, literate or illiterate-experience, exclusion in the present institutional
Church is being continued. This is against the biblical mandate of the Church and leadership. 67 A
collaborative leadership among the church leaders can be a better approach towards building a Christ
like Church. The Church should be a participatory church breaking all gender stereotyped attitudes
towards women’s participation in Church ministry.

7.3. Awareness Program in the Local Churches

The discussion on equal partnership should not be confined to academic institutions, but more
conscientization programmes should be conducted at the grassroots level to understand the issues.
Unless awareness education is given to the mass, there will be no effect on women’s leadership in the
ecclesial ministry. The changes must start from the people, from the local congregations through proper
teachings.68 Every woman in the church ministry should fight against sexism towards women and also
becoming a voice in bringing justice over equal partnership in church participation.

7.4. Changing the Frame of Mind

Ironically, Jimomi feels that church is the best platform to address gender bias issues and change
peoples’ mindset. She points out that there are many well qualified and educated women who are
 53

yearning for more prominent roles in the church and opportunities should be given to them. She feels
that change must begin somewhere and that the church can play a vital role in it to take effect. She also
emphasizes on the role of parents in shaping the minds of their children. “There is need to rethink
parenting. We cannot differentiate the roles of boys and girls inside our homes and think that our
children will grow up to become liberal thinkers.” “Change must begin at home,” she says. 69 The
growth of gender biasness in our home, society and Church can become a greater obstruct in reaching
out to gender equality.

Concluding Remarks

With the passage of time and experiences the contributions towards feminist interpretation continue to
grow in volume and maturity. It is interesting to note that they have shed a new light in reading the
Bible and the Biblical stories. In order to project an alternate future for women, it is important for them
to discover their roots and history. Their new vision is to place women at the center. By looking at how
they read the Bible, a book full of androcentric aspects, it is convincing that it gives new ideas to the
modern readers. Feminist hermeneutics of the Bible continues to enhance and develop towards the
liberation of women in many aspects. If we see the clear picture behind all these, than we can recognize
that, women are demanding for their right to define and the right to decide.

Many women today suffer silently in resignation to their fate. The Church is silent on these issues of
women except to reinforce the old attitudes and oppressive roles of women. So it is very important to
create awareness among the opinion makers in the society such as the public and church leaders. The
church is the most powerful opinion maker today for tribal Christians. The clergy need to be taught
how to contextually interpret the Bible. It is these leaders who have the power to conscientize the
common people both men and women. It helps greatly to have men speaking on behalf of women on
gender equality. Looking at all the issues and problems women are facing today, it seems like there has
been little achievement so far in spite of all the deliberations done on this article. But it is not that it has
failed. It is true that every changes and achievements does not happen at an instant, it takes time. We
should continue to talk and spread this issue, because a little discouragement at this stage may hinder
the whole process for the fight of equal share for the women. Women in the Church should also take
advantage of the opportunities that are open to them instead of shying away from responsibilities.
Women should work hard and take the initiatives in creating new roles for themselves.
Social Media and Children’s Mental Health Risk: Model for Churches in Nagaland

LipoknenlaOzukum

Introduction

In today’s digital spectrum,social media play a vital role in the lives of children. Digital tools such as
tablets and smartphones shape their lives and hence, they are called digital natives. Social media
consumers are no longer just an audience but are now users- heralding a new era of active consumption.
The use of social media platforms has the power to influence the psychological mental health and
behaviour of children either positively or negatively. Children exposed to intensive and irrational use of
social media are only aware of the advantages it offers and are unaware of the mental health risk they
may suffer as a consequence. The consequences of not addressing mental health conditions can result in
risk taking behaviour.

Hence, this article attempts to understand social media and children’s mental health risk 70 in the light of
media psychology methodology. Based on the findings and theological principles, this article will
discuss model for churches in Nagaland to counter children’s mental health risk.

1.Children and Mental Health

Mental health is a term that falls under the general umbrella of behavioural health. Mental health
condition in children is generally defined as delays or disruptions in developing age-appropriate
thinking, beliefs, emotions, identity, relationship, behaviour and social skills. These problems are
distressing to children and disrupt their ability to function well at home, school, church or in other
social situations. The World health organization states, there is no health without mental health. 71 It is
estimated that 50% of all mental health disorders are established by the age of 14. 72 In India, nearly 50
million Indian children suffer from mental health issues; 80-90% have not sought support. 73 Mental
health risk such as anxiety, depression and behavioral disorders are major causes of mental illness
among children. Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death in 15- 19 years old.74

In one of the programs on mental health issues in Little Flower school, Kohima, Veronica Nriame a
psychiatric stated that “mental health illness was rising rampantly in the Naga society especially
amongst children.”75

AmenlaLongkumer a clinical psychologist in an awareness program on mental health risk in Wokha

stressed on the need to have a school counsellor for students as well as to start mental health courses
 57

and awareness among children as onset of mental health was common and often developed during
childhood and adolescence.76

In the light of the aforementioned statements, it is vital to understand the cause of mental health risk
factor in children.

2. Social Media and Children’s Mental Health

The term “social media” refers to the various internet- based networks that enable users to interact with
others, verbally and visually.77 Children have a wide range of social media platforms to choose from.
They may have accounts on sites such as facebook, instagram, tiktok, snapchat, youtube, pinterest etc.
However, the emphasize of this article is on facebook and instagram.78

Research has also indicated a link between social media (facebook and instagram) use and associated
psychological problems in children. A systematic review of 11 studies measuring social media use and
depressive symptoms in children showed a statistically significant relationship 79 other systematic
reviews have also found a meaningful relationship between social media use and children’s mental
health risk.80 Social media has also caused children to become addicted to it, capturing their attention
and often manifests their emotions and behavioural problems. 81 Hence, it is imperative to understand
children’s mental health risk from the lens of social media.

After thoroughly analyzing the connection between social media and children’s mental health risk, I 82
take into consideration of Jean Piaget formal operational stage (13-17 years). 83 Formal operational stage
(FOS) is the period of personal and social identity formation and much of this development is now
reliant on social media. According to the Pew Research Centre 2015 at least 92% of FOS are active on
social media.84Social media affects the FOS more than the other age group since they are at a stage in
which their curiosity drives them to easily explore the things that entices them. Due to their
vulnerability to peer pressure, FOS may not evade the potentially adverse effects of social media use,
and consequently there are greater risk of developing mental health risk and ultimately behavioural
problems. Therefore, it is imperative that we understand how FOS process media content and peers
feedback provided on facebook and instagram.

3. Methodology

The Media Psychology Research Centre views media psychology as the human interaction with
media.85Pamela Rutledge stated thatit is important to recognize the interactive and dynamic relationship
between humans and media because it gives a more accurate and useful understanding of the human
 58

and media experience.86Media psychology is a media effect study. It helps individuals in understanding
to what level it can influence or affect them once this knowledge is developed; the negative impacts of
media can be controlled.
The purpose of using Media psychology as the methodology is based on the logic that it is impossible
to limit the present study to only one approach because the accountability and controllability of media
processes are nullified by the intangibility and polyvalence of psychological processes, and
psychological phenomena make complex causative links with the medium. Therefore, social media and
children’s mental health risk demand an expertise that amalgamates an understanding of children’s
mental health risk and its related behaviour with an equal understanding of media systems and context.

Thus, an attempt to examine social media and children’s mental health risk through the lens of media
psychology theory is an imperative one. Hence, I havestudied the problem under the theoretical
framework of stimulus organism response theory (SOR)

Woodworth proposed SOR as an expansion of Pavlov classic theory of the Stimulus response
model.87 The SOR theory consists of 3 structures namely stimulus, organism and response which
determine the behavioural outcome of an event. The SOR theory in psychology states that there is a
stimulus that triggers a response based on the internal feelings or behaviour of an organism (person).

Although SOR theory was developed from a psychological perspective, this theory has served as an
important framework for communication researchers to understand how various media affect the user
mental health and behaviour.SOR theory describes the connection between stimulus such as external
factors (Facebook and Instagram) that will affect organism (cognition and emotion of children) and the
response (children have to the stimulus such as behaviour)

3.1.S- Stimulus Stimulus is defined as influencing the individual and is the external force that affects
the mental state of an individual. 88 In this study, facebook and instagram are used as an external
stimulus.

3.1.1. External stimulus of facebook and Instagram

There are many external stimuli of facebook and Instagram. However, I would like to
highlight some pertinent ones.

3.1.1.1. Creating, Updating and sharing: Facebook and instagram allow user to Create and
update personal profile, upload photos, videos, status etc. Content sharing can include the ability to post
and send photos and videos as well as allow users to comment on what is shared.
 59

3.1.1.2. Likes and comments: This interactive feature/functionality on facebook and

instagram plays a key role in optimizing the user account (generate more followers)

3.1.1.3 Emojis: it is a way of adding more visual emotion to your Instagram audiences. Like
hashtags, emojis on Instagram are searchable. Users can even look for posts containing certain emojis
to help them find more relevant content.89

3.1.1.4. Boomerang: Boomerang is a great Instagram feature that enables user to create and
share their own animated GIFS. Boomerang images add more visual interest to user instagram page
with a touch of animation.

3.1.1.5. Image: People are highly responsive to imagery. On instagram the image takes center
stage. In fact, captions are cut off in the main feed after a certain word count, rendering them secondary
to the photographs displayed. This is why both free and paid for photo editing apps have risen in
popularity among instagram users. These beauty apps include filters and modification apps and
aesthetic benchmarking apps.90 It’s not only celebrities who look perfect- its everyone.

3.2. O- Organism will respond to stimuli which includes emotions, feelings to these stimuli. Here the
organism is children internal state process that comes in various forms, ranging from conscious to the
subconscious and internal to external.91

3.2.1. Dopamine: Thedopaminesystem is activated by external stimuli offacebook and instagram.

it drives surges of dopamine to the brain to keep user coming back over and over again. Dopamine 92 is
stimulated by reward cues of facebook and instagram such as the shares, likes and comments.
Dopamine triggers a user to seek a reward, and once he/she is rewarded, it further triggers the user to
seek the next reward.

3.2.2. Feeling and Emotion: The positive and negative feeling a user get from self- presentation
on facebook and Instagram offer emotion regulation.

3.3. R- Response refers to reactions and actions children have to external and internal stimulus. It is
stated that human behaviour (response) is influenced by the environment (facebook and instagram
external stimulus whereas the emotional state of an individual mindmediates the relationship between
the environment and human behaviour.93 After the subject is stimulated, some inner activities result in a
series of responses such as adopting or avoiding, accepting and rejecting. The outcome behaviour is the
response.
 60

4. Method: A systematic literature review and in-depth interview with 41 children between 13-17 years
old were conducted in Mokokchung, Kohima and Dimapur.

In order to understand children’s mental health risk in the light of social media, the interview
questionnaire includes questions pertaining consumption, body image representation and
relationship on facebook and Instagram platforms.

4.1 Social Media Consumption

FOS brings about spectacular changes in the human body and brain. These changes have a huge
influence on children behaviour and their interest in media. For this reason, the interviewer formulated
a question based on media consumption. On being asked by the interviewer, how often they visit social
media sites?

One of the female interviewees said, “a day not wired is a day not lived.” This statement was
supplemented by 39 interviewees with 3 different reasons.

4.1.1. 7 respondents said, to monitor their peer status, check peers’ feedback- rejection and
acceptance message.

4.1.2. 15 respondents said, for self-presentation and relationship

4.1.3. 17 respondents said, the need to belong

A follow up question was asked on how you feel while you are in offline world? In response to the
question 34 interviewees gave two different reasons.

4.1.4. 16 respondents said, feeling an uncontrollable urge to scroll through facebook and instagram.

4.1.5. 18 respondents said, feeling irritable, restless or anxious when not using facebook and instagram.

4.2. Social Media Consumption (Analysis and interpretation): The interviewer found out a
correlation between the time spent and the reason of visiting social media sites. The need to belong
drives social media use because platforms such as facebook and instagram offer plenty of opportunities
for social media engagement and subsequent satisfaction of the need to belong 94 and apparently the
need to belong drives social media usage. The need to belong has been validated as a fundamental
human motivation that shapes cognition and emotion and directs behaviour 95 the fulfillment of the need
96
to belong is associated with a broad range of positive emotions and overall wellbeing failure to
 61

maintain it often results in negative emotions 97 research indicates that the threat of social exclusion is
often marked by feelings of anxiety, depression and loneliness, and it influences attention, a pivotal
building block in many complex cognitive processes.98

The need to belong emerged as the best predictor of fear of missing out (FOMO). It is an all-consuming
feeling that is associated with mental and emotional stress. It has been defined as a pervasive
apprehension that others might be having rewarding social experiences from which one is deprived of. 99
FOMO is frequently discussed as a social media byproduct inducing mental and emotional strain as
individuals scroll through social media feeds featuring social events.100

Feeling an uncontrollable urge to scroll through facebook and instagram and feeling irritable,
restless or anxious when not using facebook and instagram speaks volume on the connection between
FOMO and Nomophobia. FOMO is contagious to Nomophobia 101 as FOMO syndrome need is to be
continuously connected, and aware of everything that happens on the network. Nomophobia presents a
direct and significant link with social network dependency and anxiety. It is considered as a digital
mental disease, whose risk factor of suffering is increased in the younger population, between 12 and
18 years old.102 There is no denying the fact that the most critical stage suffering from nomophobia are
children in FOS. Nomophobia promotes the development of dependent mental disorders, personality
disorder as well as problems in people’s self-esteem, loneliness and happiness especially in the younger
population.103 All of this has a great impact on health with negative repercussions on other aspects of
life such as study and work.

4.2. Body Image Representation

Body Image is the domain of physical appearance, which represents a key facet of self- esteem and
self-concept in FOS. To understand the association between social media and body image issues, the
researcher asks a question on their feelings about their body image on facebook and Instagram. The
interviewer got the following answers.

4.2.1. 32 respondents said, they post the picture on facebook and instagram for self-expression and
self-identity purpose. Hence, once the picture is posted, they are distracted by thoughts and questions
about likes and comments such as “Did I get as many likes as someone else? Why didn’t that person
like my post, but this other person did?” And if their post isn’t getting enough likes and comments
compared to their peers, they feel sad, inadequate and anxious and leads to thoughts of not being good
enough.
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4.2.2. “I would quickly find myself playing the comparison game with friends who seems prettier,
popular or happier than I was. I eventually realize how much it has become a problem, all I knew was
that my mind is consumed with negativity and eventually self-hatred but I didn’t know how to stop.” 12
respondents echoed her struggle.

4.2.3. “Every time I am on facebook and instagram, I have to tell myself that the shape and size of
my body does matter my worth. I stop practicing self-care and I wallow in those negative thoughts that
makes me sad and discourage.” This statement was echoed by 17 respondents.

Social Media and Body Image (Analysis and interpretation): Many studies have evaluated the
association between social media exposure and the presence of body dissatisfaction and body image
disorder. According to Fardouly, social media has had a major impact on the perceptual, affective,
cognitive and behavioural aspects of body image.104 Body Image has always been central to children of
FOSdue to their increased biological sensitivity to peer evaluation and acceptance during this time
period.

The effects of body image (self- image, self-esteem, self-concept) are probably the most widely
documented area concerning social media and mental health risks. Issueswith one’s own body
imagedon’t start and end with physical appearance. The mental aspect of having poor body image can
create a toxic environment. Having negative thoughts about one’s own body image can create a whole
host of problems, including the following feelings and actions such as anxiety, body dysmorphia,
depression, anorexia, bulimia, negative self-talk, poor low self-esteem etc.Cyberpsychologist Igor
Pantic stated that as children compare their lives with many others on facebook and instagram their
mental health will continue to deteriorate. 105 S. Choukas- Bradley stated that social media is a unique
context in which photos of one’s self can be and are shared at all hours of the day and are immediately
subject to others’ feedback. This emphasis on appearance may transform children offline experiences
with appearance related behaviours.106 The unspoken rules of social media can be challenging to keep
up with, and children can experience high level of anxiety and depression as a result.

4.3. Social Media and Romantic Relationship

Being accepted or rejected by peers is highly salient in FOS. Therefore, it is imperative that we
understand how FOS process media content and peers feedback provided on facebook and instagram.
To understand the association between social media and romantic relationship issues, the
interviewerasks a question on how does social media affect romantic relationship? The interviewer got
the following answers.
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4.3.1. In the light of social media and romantic relationships, 9 male and 3 female respondents said,
“Iusefacebook and instagram platform to communicate with multiple girlfriends/boyfriends. And yes,
when I want to end a relationship, I block him/her.” Furthermore, 7 respondents shared their
experiences of being dumped by their so-called online boyfriend and girlfriend and the feeling of being
rejected increased their anger, anxiety and sadness. 4 male respondents said, alcohol is a coping
mechanism for them whereas 3 female respondents said, self-injury is their coping mechanism.

Social Media and Romantic Relationship (Analysis and Interpretation): The romantic relationships
have become integral part of children daily lives, and dating is the primary topic of children
conversations. Having romantic feelings and attempting to engage in romantic relationships are
significant indicators of children in FOS. On one hand, the romantic feelings of the opposite sex in
children are the natural result of physiological development. On the other hand, children romance is
like a dangerous game. Experiencing acceptance or rejection when communicating via social media is
an impactful social experience. Extensive research, including large meta-analyses has demonstrated that
social rejection in an internet environment can be experienced similarly as face-to-face rejection and
bullying.107 Such pressure can increase the risk of negative emotions and ultimately engage them in
risk-taking behaviour.

From the aforementioned analysis and interpretation of the findings, it is evident that facebook and
instagram dependencies occur in children because it offers plenty of exposure to children for self-
presentation, relationship experiences that potentially act as rewards triggered by external stimuli.
FOMO- the need to belong would predict smart phone addiction which in turn may predict
nomophobia. The excessive use of facebook and instagram impact children’s mental health in areas of
social media consumption, body image, relationship and consequently engage in risk-taking behaviour.
For this reason, it is apt to understand social media and children’s mental health issues in the light of
theological principles.

5. THEOLOGICAL IMPLICATION

God is not just a God who only cares about theological merits, religious performances, and scriptural
doctrines but God is also concerned about the state of human minds.Mental health is, no doubt, related
to spiritual health because a troubling thought is often brought in by an unforgiving spirit, hatred,
grudges, resentment, bitterness, doubtful attitude, risk-taking behaviour and a wrongful spirit.
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Hence, a proper understanding of the theology of Imago Dei (Functional, relationship, reflection) is an
essential groundwork in formulating and understanding a proper Christian response to children’s
mental health risk such as anxiety, depression, nomophobia and risky behaviour.

5.1. Interpreting Imago Dei in Social Media Context

Imago Dei is the Latin translation of “Image of God.” This Christian doctrine stems from Genesis
1:27. “Hebrew references to image” (tselem) and likeness (demut) convey the idea of an object similar
to or representative of something else. 108 The premise of this theology is that we are made in God’s
image. God created the humans in God’s image (representation) and likeness (reflection). 109 Further,
the word “image” and likeness should not be understood as referring to two different things but rather
as an interchangeable form of synonymous parallelism. 110 The image of God is a foundational concept
for understanding how the way we are made in God’s image helps us to see the basis for the dignity and
purpose of our lives. Basically, every human is a person created by God. This applies to children, and
therefore, full human beings.111 They are also bearers of God’s image and likeness.

5.2. Imago Dei and children can be view from three perspectives

5.2.1. Functional View: This view asserts that the Imago Dei finds its expression in the agency
of human being. It is the human function itself that is created in the image of God. In the light of
functional view based on Gen 1: 26-28; Gen 2: 18-20; Eugene H. Merrill explains that, “humanity does
not so much share with God His essential reality but rather is a representative of that reality. That is
humankind has a functional role to play.”112The functional view focuses on what humansdo.Primary
emphasis has been placed on the exercise of dominion over creation. The concept of dominion over
creation is about good stewards that recognize their role and responsibility.

5.2.1.1. Freedom with Responsibility

Thepoint where the functional interpretation of Imago Dei becomes more significant is when it is read
in the context of a techno- cultural milieu. Brian Brock says, “technologiesproblematise our ability to
rely on an ordinary set of ethics because of how it transforms to various degrees depending on the
technologies in question the environment around it.”113In regard to this, it is clear that social media has
started to control children’s time, imagination and are manipulating their free will. Social media
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platforms give freedom to users to express themselves but not of unguided chaos. In Biblical worldview
freedom is guided and bounded in several ways.

In Gen 2: 16-17, “And the Lord God commanded the man, you may freely eat of every tree of the
garden; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of
it you shall die.” God said to “Adam you are free but the point here is, you must not cross the limit.”
Freedom, limits and responsibility go together. Hence, freedom will not flourish without limits and
responsibility. The “fall” occurs when man and woman misuse their freedom, breach the boundary and
responsibility.

Freedom is the power, rooted in reason and will to act or not to act. By free will one shapes one’s own
thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Nomophobia is an abuse of freedom and leads to slavery of smart
phone idol. Most Children are convinced that social media is neutral and what matters is how they use
it. McLuhan conventional response to all media namely that it is how they are used that counts, is the
“numb stance of the technological idiot.”114 Every child created in the image of God has the natural
right to be recognised as a free and responsible being. Human freedom attains its perfection when
directed towards God.

5.3. Relational View: God who lives in perfect unity and relationship as a triune God (one nature
and three persons) creates humans to have relationship. Relationship is at the heart of who we are as
God’s creation. We are relationship beings. For this reason, relationship is core to human connection.
No matter what the nature of relationship is, all of us crave and need connection and love from family,
friends, lovers etc. Of all these kinds of relationships romantic relationships are often the most fulfilling
and challenging.

Today children live in a culture where romantic relationship is often defined by social media posts.
Watching other’s relationship from the windows of social media give false perspectives of relationship.
In this light, we should encourage them to see God’s purpose and design for relationship.

5.3.1. Love as a Feeling versus Love as an Action: Understanding definition of love is an apt one.
Many children dating goes straight to orchestrate a relationship on the whim of feelings. Love is more
than a feeling. It’s an intimate relationship bond that strengthens overtime through a series of
vulnerable and supportive actions. Love is placing someone else before yourself, Jesus expressed the
highest form of love for us by laying down His life for us (John 15:13) we do not literally die for the
people we love, but we do need to die to self for the people we love (Philippians 2:3-5) Love does not
hurry the other person, it does not forcefully seek for selfish ambition (1 Corinthians 13:4-8) Dumping
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someone, rejecting someone, jealousy, envy, self-interest, risk-taking behaviour does not find a home
within love as an action.

5.3.2. Standing Relationship with God: As believers, it is important to have a standing

relationship with God before one goes into a relationship with another person. As C.S. Lewis wisely
stated, “to love you as I should, I must worship God as creator. When I have learned to love God better
than my earthly dearest, I shall love my earthly dearest better than I do now. When first things are put
first, second things are not suppressed but increased.” 115

To glorify God in relationship, we have to reveal the character of God in that relationship.

5.4. Reflection View: This view emphasizes to mirror God’s image. To mirror God’s image means to
reflect Him; to magnify, exalt and glorify Him through our bodies. However, the image in the mirror
can be affected by external stimuli surrounding the mirror.

The concept of Imago Dei (from reflection view) has been lost to social media body image and
culture. The allure or the external stimuli of social media is the desire to be seen and the motive is self-
glorification. Furthermore, the development of egocentric thinking has a significant impact on children
in FOS self-image and self-esteem. For children in FOS, social media is a tool to help them explore
themselves. They are on a journey to find their identity by comparing themselves to others. Children in
FOS often expresses its discomfort with his/her body image by disfiguring, altering, enhancing
augmenting and pretending that they are not who they really are-the fame, beauty, wit, status and
identity of other online friends and celebrity become the yard stick by which they judge their value.

It is helpful in this context to distinguish between creational identities and constructed identities.
Creational identities are the fundamental truths of how God has made us fearfully and wonderfully to
be His creatures (Psalm 139:14) for His greater glory. whereas constructed identities are human efforts,
fleeting and malleable, to make sense of our personal identities for self-glorification. One of the reasons
that embraces constructed identities is the fear of others (proverbs 29: 25) that fear manifests as
perfectionism, insecurity and peer pressure. For Christians, the former need to condition the latter with
the larger picture of creational identity reflection view so that when children look in the mirror, they
will see their real self and they will see Jesus reflected in their lives.

Imago Dei in the light of social media and children’s mental health risk are distorted and disfigured. If
we want to restore Imago Dei (Functional, relationship, reflection) in children, the churches in
Nagaland need to have a model to counter the mental health risk.
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6. Model for Churches in Nagaland

The church today lives in a world which is moulded by social media and their influence touches and
determines in the ways children think and behave.In this light, Pope Paul strongly stated that “it is
necessary to integrate Christian message of resistance into the “new culture.” 116 Children as the
members of the church are victims of the external and internal conditioning of social media. There is no
denying the fact that certain harmful experiences in childhood can be detrimental to children’s
development.However, sometimes these events can go unnoticed and what may seem trivial can result
in hidden trauma that later leads to serious physical and mental health disorderand ultimately risk-
taking behaviour.The problem concerning the churches in Nagaland is that mental health is seen as
minority concern, peripheral to the real mission of the church within the views of things. For this
reason, I would like to see our bubble burst so that the church will educate its members to become
critical in finding meaning in the internalisation of the social media content. Helen Berry believes that
the church has a responsibility to come alongside those struggling with their mental health. She claims
that Christians potentially have the ability to provide awareness and comfort to young people, in body,
mind and spirit.117Therefore, there is a need of model for churches in Nagaland to counter mental health
risk based on the theology of Imago Dei.

6.1. Model

To comprehensively unpack the social media and children’s mental health risk discussed above, a
closer look into preventative measure needs to be taken. Hence, TEACH- model 118 is propose to counter
mental health risk.

6.1.1. T- Teach and Train

An integral component of children in FOS is identity development, wherein an individual

develops the ability to think about abstract concepts and the capacity to think about the consequences of
decisions that they make. These changes that occur in FOS affect their view about religion and its
accompanying beliefs and practices. In their quest to develop their identity, they start searching for
life’s meaning and become critical of ideologies being taught in religion. 119 This is why a combination
of sound biblical teaching, psychology and media education in the light of social media and children’s
mental health risk is the need of the hour. Hence, the church should take up the responsibilities to
educate its members by leveraging the school, Sunday school and home.

6.1.1.1. Sound Biblical Teaching on Mental Health: A solid basis should be drawn from the
bible to deal with children’s mental health risk. The Bible serves as a corrective force to balance the
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whims of mental health risk. For this reason, Imago Dei should be taken as a foundation to deal with
children’s mental health risk. Furthermore, no one with a mental health issue should feel like he or she
doesn’t belong in the body of Christ. As members of that body, we have a responsibility to one another-
to suffer with those who suffer, and to rejoice with them in their victories (1 Corinthians 12:20, 26)

6.1.1.2. Understanding Mental Health from Psychological Perspective: The need of a child
today is completely different from those of the child some decades ago. Human’s priority changes
according to the change of time. One of the issues grappling the attention of the psychologist and
educationist is to understand the child’s psychology. Understanding and interpreting clearly the
contents of the child’s mind becomes the very core of psychology. Athriba reiterated that “the need to
draw insights from psychology to enhance the task of understanding children is indispensable.” 120
Children that are experiencing mental health issue should believe he or she is a certain kind of person,
that belief guides his or her behaviour. Having the knowledge of such information and applying it
accordingly will help save a child to a great extent.

6.1.1.3. Social Media Education: social media has become an integral part of children existence.
We will not be able to stop children from use of social media. What we can do is to provide a clear
awareness through media education about the external stimulus in social media and how to use it
cautiously. Some important guidelines are as follows:

i) To understand the links between social media and mental health.

ii) Problems associated with the external stimulus of social media.
iii) To educate children about the use of social media while also developing their social media
resilience.

6.2. T- Training for Teachers/Counsellors/Christian educators/ School Personnel

Teachers, counsellors, Christian educators and school personnel should work closely with mental health
professionals in Nagaland. Mental health professionals also need to hasten their contribution by
reaching out to form connection with church/faith community.

Some of the ways in a joint effort of Christian educators, teachers, counsellors, school personnel and
medical health professionals coming together to counter mental health risk are as follows:

i)Education about religion, social media and mental health must also occur in programs which train
persons to be mental health practitioners of various types (psychologist, psychiatrists, clinical
counsellor, social workers etc)
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ii) Teachers, counsellors, Christian educators and school personnel should be trained by mental health
professionals to recognize the early warnings signs of mental health, treatment options and recovery,
de-stigmatization etc.121and to know the appropriate actions to take in notifying parents or guardians
and in protecting the rights and privacy of children.

6.3. E-The Emphasis on School, Church and Home

To work on the prevention of mental health issues, it is important to raise awareness about the problem.
Schools are one of the best places to start mental health awareness. Schools in Nagaland should
utilize a church-based platform for mental health interventions. Above all, the church and home should
work together. Parents expect the church to do all the Bible teaching but this is not enough. What
children learn in the church should be followed up by home. Lawrence suggests a different curriculum
and approach for teaching children as a joint effort of church, Sunday school and parents together. 122 In
the light of aforementioned lines, there is a need to upgrade Sunday school curriculum, concepts like
values, feelings, emotions, perception and behaviour lesson should be added in Sunday school
curriculum. When children come home parents should have some questions as part of their curriculum,
to discuss and continue the discussion at home during family prayer and so on. This is what we make
concepts part of the character of children.

6.4. A-Adapt Healthy Social Media Habits

Children in FOS needs a balanced self-concept to increase their self-worth, self-belief, self-esteem and
confidence. Hence,keeping the functional view of Imago Dei in mind, parents, teachers, counsellors
and Christian educators should teach the children to avoid degrading mental diet.Some of the degrading
mental diet found in this paper are FOMO, low self-esteem, low self-worth, low self-confidence etc. It
is best to adapt healthy social media habits that balance social media and mental health. Some of them
are as follows:

i)Be intentional when you use social media

ii) Use social media for inspiration not comparison

iii) Don’t always believe what you see

iv) Get connected-in real life

6.5. C- Counselling and Therapy

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The focus on mental health counselling and therapy can be a good way for children to learn
about their feelings and the reasons behind their actions. Children may feel confused by their emotions
they are experiencing and want to understand themselves better in the light of representation and
relationship issues. In such cases, mental health counselling and therapy for children can play a pivotal
role.

Christian counselors can work alongside with other types of medical providers- including psychiatrists
or primary care doctorto provide holistic treatment. One of the relevant therapies in the light of
children’s mental health issue is cognitive behavioural therapy.

6.5.1. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): To deal with the children relational, self-
presentation issues, CBT123 can be of great assist to promote the theological principles of Imago Dei to
renew the client’s mind. Part of renewing the client own mind is challenging their thoughts, confronting
their emotions and transforming their behaviour. CBTinvolves efforts to change behavioural patterns.
CBT depicts the connection between one’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour. It may help children to
recognize destructive thinking patterns, understand how that influences their behaviour and how to
adopt healthier behaviour.

6.6. H- Healthy Coping Skills

FOS isan important developmental phase during which neuro developmental processes are highly
active, and the formation of self-concept and personality occurs. Parents, Christian educators, teachers
should learn how to deal with their emotions and behaviour in a healthy way by modeling coping skills.

6.6.1. Religious Coping Skills

Pargament described religious coping as a form of coping skill “which utilizes religion in dealing with
life adversities.”124 Religious coping encompasses religious framed cognitive, emotional and
behavioural responses to stress, anxiety, depression etc. 125 Social relationships are also important
factors in regards to the mental health of FOS. For proper social development, religious coping skills
may serve many purposes, including achieving meaning in life, closeness to God, hope, peace and
personal restrain during their identity crisis.

6.6.2. Mutual Support Group Coping Skills

Sharing and listening to one another’s stories has been very much a part of the Naga
society.126 This happens in the most natural way and therapeutic in nature as well as in times of crises.
Therefore, forming such support group can surely meet their social, emotional needs for hope and needs
 71

for support. Information and knowledge can be exchanged and effective or successful coping can be
learned from each other. It can become a place of catharsis for those who pent up their emotions and
thereby healing of emotions and change of behaviour may take place.

The expected outcomes of TEACH-model are to help children develop healthier response to social
media external conditioned stimuli through the internalization of the three views of Imago Dei
(functional, relationship and reflection)

Conclusion

Social media have come to occupy a central place in children’s world. Despite the fact that, children
have been benefited from the social media however the downside part of social media is that it has a
conditioned stimulus that persuades the children to respond to it uncritically. FOS is a critical stage for
mental health risk. Many potential risks of social media impact on children’s mental health are
overlooked by parents, teachers, Christian educators, school personnel and the children themselves in
Nagaland. The social media culture therefore demands the church to be a place that raises children to be
responsible citizens/netizens. Therefore, the church needs reliable model to help the children
understand the mental health risk involves in excessive use of social media in the light of theological
principles, so that children can navigate better in the social media platforms. One of the most sensible
arguments is for balanced use of social media through TEACH- model so that we’ll bring our children
up to the manhood and womanhood with full fruition and holistic development of a child.
UNDERSTANDING THE PRINCIPLES OF ZAKAT WITH RELEVANCE TO THE
ADVERSE EFFECT OF CAPITALISM IN INDIA

OTOKA S

Introduction

Capitalism has helped India’s economy grow, create jobs, and raise the living standards of
millions of people. But the capitalist system has also caused several problems in India society
such as child labour, economic inequality and environmental degradation. Contribution of
capitalism for the growth of human society cannot be ignored, but it has taken more from human
society to make that contribution. Many things have been sacrificed at the behest of capitalism. It
is imperative to address the ideologies or concepts that bring more harm than its contribution.
Therefore, this article attempts to understand the principleS of Zakat and bring out its relevance
in the light of the negative impact of Capitalism in India.

Definition of Zakat

Zakat is anArabic word derives from the verb zakah, which means ‘to purify’ (also with the
connotation of growth or increase). Zakat has been defined by a majority of Islamic jurists as ‘a
duty that was tasked by God for economic and social efficiency’. 127 The definition here conveys
the belief that zakat is mandated by God, and that it has efficient functions towards the economic
and society.128

Zakat or alms giving is the third pillar of Islam. A religious obligation and it is considered an
expression of devotion to God. It represents the attempt to provide for the poorer sectors of
society, and it offers a means for a Muslim to purify his or her wealth and attain salvation. The
Quran, together with other Islamic traditions, strongly encourages charity and constantly reminds
Muslims of their moral obligation to the poor, orphans, and widows; however, it distinguishes
between general, voluntary charity (Sadaqa) and Zakat, the latter being an obligatory charge on
the money or produce of Muslims.129

Historical Background
 73

During the pre-Islamic era, the poor were badly oppressed by the rich and by traders. Heads of
the Quraysh tribes were merciless with the poor and needy. There was no policy to resolve the
problem of poverty, and no attention to charitable activities.130

When Prophet Muhammad began to preach about Islam in public, he expressed concern about
many issues that affected human rights, such as equality, fair trade and charity. 131Prophet
Muhammad called for charitable activities in line with the Quran: ‘So give to the kindred his
due, to the poor and to the wayfarer. That is best for those who seek God’s Countenance; and it
is they who will be successful.’132

Leaders of the Quraysh regarded Muhammad’s preaching with contempt, continuing to prevent
charitable activity in Mecca. They also blockaded Muhammad and his followers economically,
prohibiting the sale of goods to Muslims and the purchase of goods produced by Muslims. 133 The
reason for this was that they did not want to implement charity, or witness the effects of wealth
re-distribution to the poorest in society. They were afraid of losing their dominance over unpaid
employees and slave, and saw alms as a threat to their superiority. 134 As a result of this tyranny,
in 622 A.D. Muhammad and many of his followers left Mecca, and migrated to Madina.

The development of Zakat enforcement began in Madina after the immigration of the Prophet
Muhammad from Mecca. The first enactment of ‘obligatory zakat’ was not in Mecca but in
Madina. At the beginning of Islam, and when in Mecca, the notion of Zakat was a solely
religious duty. Its performance was left to individual Muslims’ consciences. 135Zakat in Mecca
was voluntary. In Madina, the Quran imposed on Muslims as a compulsory tax: ‘Take Zakat
from their wealth…’136Zakat has been considered the third pillar of Islam ever since.

Zakat in the Quran

In the Quran Zakat is mentioned eighty two times in association with Salat137, which is a clear
indication that after Salat, Zakat is one of the most important pillarin Islam. 138Surah 2: 43 is
outright in its address, ‘Give Zakat’. In the same Surah it is repeated more explicitly in
ayat139110, this verse commanded Muslims to pay zakat because the good things that one send
forth for themselves will surely find their reward in Allah. There are other similar passages
which lucidly promise Allah’s ‘great reward’ to those who give Zakat.Zakat is also seen as a sure
 74

sign of friendliness, it expounds that ‘your real friends are those who…pay Zakat’.140 Thus the
underline principle of Zakat in the Quran can be seen as; every material gift enjoyed by humans
comes out of the bounty of God. Sweat of one’s brow will not bring wealth and prosperity unless
the lord wills. Every recipient of God’s bountiful blessings has a responsibility to redistribute the
wealth received by the grace of God. This principle helps to reduce the gap between the haves
and have-nots.141Zakat as it is seen in the Quranic passages clearly indicates that giving Zakat is
for the good of one’s own self.

Principles of Zakat

Every Muslim is expected to take stock of his/her savings once a year, and has to give 2.5% as
Charity. Charity takes two different forms in Islam. One sort is optional (Sadaqa) and the other
compulsory (Zakat).142

Of the five pillars, zakat is regarded as the third most important act of piety after shahada and
salat. Zakat is unlike the other four pillars,143 in that its practice is not entirely left up to the
individual’s conscience. Governmental intervention is required to manage both zakat collection
and disbursement. The authorities have the power to force an individual to pay zakat. For this
reason, Islamic juristscategorizezakat as ‘fiscal worship,’ reflecting the fact that it must be
performed by individuals in accordance with governmental or fiscal mechanisms.144

The primary aim of zakat is the equitable re-distribution of wealth. The financially capable must
pay zakat, so that the government can then distribute it to the financially incapable. The zakat
fund is collected by the authorities, must be distributed to eight specific categories of
beneficiaries as laid down in the Quran:

The alms are only for the poor and the needy, and for those employed in
connection therewith, and for those whose hearts are to be reconciled, and for the
freeing of slaves, and for those in debt, and for the cause of Allah, and for the
wayfarer – an ordinance from Allah. And Allah is All-knowing, wise.145

Taxes are commonly collected for governmental spending on public services such as health,
transport, infrastructure, war, etc. By contrast, zakat requires re-distribution of wealth according
 75

to a more individualist approach,146 as its proceeds must be delivered to eligible persons, to allow
them to spend the proceeds according to need.

Understanding the system by which zakat is implemented is important for Muslims, since they
have a religious duty to pay it. Muslims should understand zakat principles and rules, as
ultimately they will be involved in zakat in some way, whether as payers or beneficiaries.
Without understanding the principles and rules of zakat an individual can confront unfairness or
lack of consideration in the presence of the zakat authority.147

Definition of Capitalism

Oxford English Dictionary defines capitalism as ‘a system in which a country’s trade and
industry are controlled by private owners for profit.’ 148 This is the similar definition found in
almost all the dictionaries.

Capitalism is generally stated as an economic system characterized by freedom of the market,

along with private ownership of the means of production and distribution and the pursuit of
profit as the primary driving force behind economic activity. In a capitalist system, resources and
businesses are owned and operated by Individuals or private entities rather than being controlled
by the state. The central feature of capitalism include free market competition, supply and
demand determining prices, profit maximization, and the accumulation of wealth as measure of
success.149Under capitalism, individuals are free to engage in economic activities and make
choices based on their self-interest. The market forces of supply and demand determine the
prices of goods and services, and individuals are motivated by the pursuit of profit to produce
and exchange these goods and services. Capitalism relies on the principal of voluntary exchange,
where transactions occur through mutual consent between buyers and sellers.150

Capitalism andthe Concept of Laissez-faire

Capitalism is often associated with the concept of laissez-faire economics, which advocates for
limited government intervention in economic affairs. The role of the government in a capitalist
system is typically to enforce property rights, ensure the rule of law, and maintain a framework
of regulations that promote competition and prevent anti-competitive practices. 151
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Critics of capitalism argue that it can lead to economic inequality, exploitation of labor, and
environmental degradation. Proponents on the other hand, argue that capitalism fosters
innovation, economic growth, and individual freedom. It is quite true that capitalism comes with
both negative and positive impact as listed above. But today it is clearly visible that the negative
impact far out-weights the positive impact, not only in one aspect but in many ways, such as
economic inequality, environmental degradation, and exploitation of labor.Various forms of
capitalism exist around the world, with different degrees of government regulation and social
nets.

Adverse effect of Capitalism in India

Capitalism gets blamed for many things in today’s context: poverty, inequality, unemployment,
even global warming. Pope Francis remarked that; ‘This system is by now intolerable: farm
workers finds it intolerable, laborers find it intolerable, communities find it intolerable, people
find it intolerable, the earth itself finds it intolerable.’ 152 This statement is quitetrue even in our
Indian context today.There are many negative impact of Capitalism in India however, this article
will focus only on three important issues; Economic inequality, Child Labour and Environmental
degradation particularly because the concept of Zakat seems more relatable to this issues in
bringing out the relevance.

Child Labour

Child labour refers to the employment of children in work that is harmful to their physical or
mental development and deprives them of their childhood. It is a violation of their fundamental
rights and compromises their access to education and a healthy upbringing. Child labour is a
significant social issue in India, despite efforts made by the government and various
organizations to address it.

India has one of the highest numbers of child labourers in the world. According to International
Labour Organization (ILO) estimate, there were approximately 10.1 million child labourers aged
5-14 in India.153 Child labour in India is found in various sectors, including agriculture,
manufacturing, construction, domestic work, and informal sectors such as street vending and
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small-scale industries. Children often work long hours in hazardous conditions, performing tasks
that are physically demanding and detrimental to their well-being.154

There are several factors that contribute to the persistence of child labour in India. Poverty is one
of the main underlying causes, as families living in poverty often rely on their children’s income
to meet their basic needs. Lack of access to quality education, social inequalities, inadequate
enforcement of labour laws, and the existence of a large informal economy also contribute to the
problem in India.155

India has a comprehensive legal framework to address child labour, including the Child Labour
(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, and the Right to Education Act, 2009. These laws aim to
prohibit the employment of Children in certain hazardous industries and ensure free and
compulsory education for all children age 6-14. 156 However, implementation and enforcement of
these laws remain a challenge.

The Indian government has undertaken various initiatives to combat child labour, such as the
National Child Labour Project (NCLP), which aims to rehabilitate child labourers and
providethem with education and skills training. The government has also launched campaigns
like the National Policy on Child Labour to create awareness and mobilize efforts against child
labour.157

However eliminating child labour in India is a complex task due to the country’s vast population,
socio-economic diversity, and deep-rooted societal issues. While progress has been made in
recent years, there are still significant challenges in terms of enforcement, monitoring, and
coordination between government agencies and civil society organization.

Economic Inequality

Even though India’s economy is growing quickly, there is still a big problem with income
inequality. The benefits of capitalism have not trickled down evenly, leading to a growing divide
between the rich and the poor. Economic inequality is a significant issue in India. While the
country has experienced rapid economic growth and development over the past few decades, the
benefits of this growth have not been evenly distributed among the population.
 78

Economic inequality in India can be examined with two different data sources: the World
Inequality Database (WID) and the All-India Debt and Investment Survey (AIDIS) report. The
WID provides important time-series data on the evolution of inequality, while the AIDIS
provides micro-level data for examining the changes in economic inequality in India. 158 Based on
the WID data, since 1981 the share of the wealth of the top 10% and top 1% has consistently
increased, while the share of the bottom 50% has consistently declined. For the most recent
decade, the top 10% group has taken up more than 60% of the total wealth in India. This is in
sharp contrast with the mere 6% of the total wealth shared by the bottom 50% of the population,
suggesting a significant increase of wealth inequality in India over the past 40 years.159

Several factors contribute to economic inequality in India. One of the main factors is the unequal
distribution of wealth and income. A significant portion of the population still lives in poverty,
while a small percentage of the population controls a large share of the country’s wealth. This
inequality is evident in the disparities between urban and rural areas, as well as across different
social groups and castes.160

Another factor contributing to economic inequality is the lack of access to quality education and
employment opportunities. Many disadvantaged groups, particularly those in rural areas, face
barriers to accessing education and acquiring the skills needed for better job prospects. This
further perpetuates the cycle of poverty and inequality.161

Additionally, the agricultural sector, which employs a substantial portion of the population, faces
various challenges such as low productivity, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of access to
credit and markets. These factors contribute to income disparities between agricultural workers
and those in other sectors of the economy.162

Environmental Degradation

Capitalism’s emphasis on rapid economic growth has often come at the cost of the environment.
The use of natural resources and the rise of industry have led to pollution, deforestation, and
other environmental problems that threaten India’s ability to keep going.

India, like many other countries, has experienced environmental degradation as a result of its
capitalist economic system. Capitalism, which is characterized by private ownership of resources
 79

and the pursuit of profit, had driven industrialization and economic growth in India. However,
the unregulated pursuit of profit has often come at the expense of the environment.163

One of the key issues related to capitalism and environmental degradation in India is the
overexploitation of natural resources.164 As industries expand and demand for resources increase,
there has been a significant depletion of forests, minerals, and water bodies. Deforestation,
particularly for agricultural purpose and industrial activities, has led to loss of biodiversity and
habitat destruction.165 This has resulted in the displacement of indigenous communities and the
loss of valuable ecosystems.

Industrial pollution is another major consequence of capitalism in India. Many industries,

especially in sectors like manufacturing, chemicals, and mining, have not adhered to strict
environmental regulations. As a result, air and water pollution levels have risen significantly in
many regions, posing serious health risk to population. Additionally, improper waste
management and disposal practices have further polluted the environment, particularly in urban
areas.166

Inadequate regulation and enforcement have also contributed to environmental degradation.

Although India has various environmental laws and regulations in place, 167 the enforcement
mechanisms are often weak. This allows industries to flout environmental norms and continue
harmful practices without facing significant consequences. The lack of accountability and
transparency in the regulatory framework has made it difficult to address environmental issues
effectively.

Principles of Zakat with Relevance to the adverse effect of Capitalism in India

Child Labour, Economic Inequality, and Environmental Degradation have all been the victims of
capitalism. Zakat can play an important role in promoting greater social and economic justice.
Zakat is seen as a form of redistribution of wealth that requires Muslims to give a portion of their
wealth to those in need. This can help to reduce economic inequality by providing support to the
poor and vulnerable members in society. Zakat is also seen as a way to purify one’s wealth and
to remind Muslims of their social and moral responsibilities. By giving Zakat, Muslims are
encouraged to develop a greater sense of empathy and compassion for those who are less
 80

fortunate than themselves, and to work towards greater social harmony and equality.In addition
to Zakat, Islam also emphasizes other forms of charity and social responsibility, such as
voluntary giving (Sadaqah) and acts of kindness towards others. These practices can help build a
more just and compassionate society, where wealth and resources are shared more equitably and
everyone has the opportunity to thrive and reach their full potential.

Zakat can be used to help children who are forced to work to support themselves or their
families. Child labouris a serious issue, where poverty and lack of access to education can
contribute to children being forced into labour. Zakat fund can be used to provide education and
vocational training for children, which can help them escape the cycle of poverty and find more
fulfilling and sustainable sources in the future. Zakat can also be used to support programs that
provide healthcare and other basic needs for children who are working in difficult and dangerous
conditions.

Zakat can also play a role in addressing environmental depletionby supporting initiatives that
promote sustainability and environmental protection. It can also support organizations that work
to promote sustainable development, such as those that provide clean energy, promote
sustainable agriculture, or engage in reforestation efforts. This type of initiative can help reduce
the environmental impact of human activities and promote long-term environmental
sustainability.Zakat can be an important tool for promoting environmental sustainability and
protecting the natural world. By supporting initiatives that promote sustainable development and
address environmental depletion, Zakat can help to create a more just and equitable society for
all.

It is important to note that Zakat alone cannot solve the issue of economic inequality, child
labour or environmental degradation. It requires a multifaceted approach that involves addressing
the root causes of poverty, improving access to education and healthcare, and creating more
opportunities for decent work for adults.It can play an important role in promoting greater social
and economic justice. By encouraging Muslims to give generously to those in needs, Zakat helps
to create a culture of giving and generosity that can have a positive impact on the wider
community. It can play an important role by funding those organizations that seek to promote a
sustainable environment.
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Looking at concept of zakat and its relevance on the negative effects of capitalism, the teachings
of Jesus Christ in Bible can also be invoked in addressing thoseissues.Jesus had not brought for
his followers an elaborate law corresponding to that of Moses. Jesus strove to impart a touch of
reality to outward forms and ceremonials as compared to the exaggerated ritualism of the Jews. 168
Jesus did not prescribe a permanent law or system for charity also as one finds in the Torah and
the commandments of Moses. What he attempted was only to revive the elements of truth,
earnestness, philanthropy and God fearing in the framework of Mosaic teachings. No precise law
or design is, thus, found in the Christian religious literature or canonical decrees.

For an idea of the conception of charity in the New Testament and the personal views of Jesus
concerning it, as also of the extent to which the duty was fulfilled later during the period of the
ascendency of the Church, and in the Christian world, as a whole, there are certain passages in
the New Testament. Christ in his Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere in his teachings enforces,
at least as earnestly as the Jewish Rabbis, the duty of alms-giving. It is assumed that his
followers are to do alms-giving, their alms-giving must be done out of pure charity, and not from
any desire for display, or praise, or self-aggrandizement. 169 In the parallel sermon recorded in
Luke the injunctions are even more numerous and express; Jesus here, encourages his followers
to live by the principal of love and to treat others with kindness and generosity. He advised them
to give freely to those in need without expecting anything in return. Jesus emphasizes that by
giving, they will receive blessings from God in return.170

In the teachings of Jesus Christ and his immediate followers alms-giving, or the relief of the
poor, was recognized as one of the primary duties of the Christian life, one which grows
immediately out of the relations in which men stand through Christ to God, and which is the
immediate result and outcome of the recognition of the relation.

CONCLUSION

Zakat is an Islamic concept of obligatory charity and one of the five pillars of Islam. It involves
giving a portion of one’s wealth to those in need, with the aim of achieving social justice and
alleviating poverty. While the primary focus of Zakat is typically on addressing poverty and
socioeconomic disparities, it can also be applied to address other societal issues, including child
labor, economic inequality and environmental degradation.
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Child labor is a violation of children’s rights and often associated with poverty and limited
access to education. Zakat can be employed to combat child labor by funding projects and
programs that focus on providing education, vocational training, and support for families living
in poverty. By enabling access to education and offering sustainable livelihood options, Zakatcan
contribute to reducing child labor and ensuring children have a chance to grow and develop in a
safe and nurturing environment.

Economic inequality is a pressing issue in many societies. Zakat plays a vital role in
redistributing wealth and resources to those who are less fortunate, helping to reduce the wealth
gap and alleviate poverty. By directing Zakat funds towards education, vocational training, and
entrepreneurship programs, it is possible to empower individuals and communities to overcome
poverty, break the cycle of inequality, and improve their economic conditions.

Zakat can be utilized to support initiatives that aim to preserve and protect the environment. For
instance, funds collected through Zakat can be directed towards projects related to reforestation,
water conservation, renewable energy, or initiatives that promote sustainable agricultural
practices. By investing in these areas, Zakat can contribute to mitigating environmental
degradation and promoting ecological balance.

Zakat can be seen as a way of balancing the inequalities of market economy and promoting
social justice. It provides a framework for charitable giving and can play a significant role in
addressing various issues as discussed above, thereby promoting greater equality within society.
Liberative elements for the Poor in the Gospel according to Luke

N. Zubenthung Erui

Introduction

Luke’s gospel is known for its greater emphasis on the poor than that of the other Gospels. He uses the
word ptochos, “poor,” (which may also mean to have literally nothing) ten times, five times more than
Matthew and Mark.171 One of the questions often being asked is, “Why so much is said about the poor
in the Bible and less about the rich? But, the understanding of the poor as lacking something, being the
weak and the frail ones are simply a crushing experiences the poor people go through. The poor are
different from the rich because they are hungry, they weep, and they are hated, excluded reviled and
defamed.172

I see the gospel according to Luke as holding something special in deriving some liberative elements
for the poor and the oppressed. And in doing so, the researcher will take into consideration the
sociological criticism in reading the Lukan concern for the poor. Scholars examine the NT with
perspectives and tools derived from the social sciences, including the field of sociology. They are
attentive to a number of matters that characterized the social world of the Roman Empire during the NT
era: the phenomenon of the Pax Romana; the Diaspora migrations of Jewish people; the military
occupation of Palestine; and an economic system that virtually eliminated the middle class, leaving a
few people rich and almost everyone else poor. NT scholars who are trained in sociology examine the
NT writings to see how the effects of these social phenomena are addressed.173

1. The Social Situation of the first century Palestine in brief

The social situation of the first century Palestine was unusually complex. Power and wealth were in the
hands of a religious aristocracy comprising the families of priests and secular aristocracy which
included the merchant princes and land owners in Jerusalem. There were also artisans, small peasants
and others who formed the middle class. A large number became unemployed and economically
marginalised. The cultural dominance of the pure Israelites over those of mixed ancestry (Samaritans
and Gentiles) created caste conflict. Jesus’ response to such a situation of economic exploitation and
social oppression as part of his good news is important for us. They provide direction for our mission
and also of the churches.174

1.1. The Situation of the Poor

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The situation of the urban poor in the first century Palestine in the time of Jesus is understood by many
scholars to be quite deplorable. They had, as anywhere else and at any point of time in history, two
basic needs: food and shelter. For the merchants and artisans they did not have much trouble in finding
their sustenance, since their profession is a static one. But for the unskilled labourers who depend
merely on their physical strength alone, they were hired out on a day to day basis. Therefore, for them
the question of survival was an ever-threatening reality. If they fail to find work on any particular day,
automatically it will result in the poor man and his family going hungry the next day. In the Greco-
Roman world “charity in the modern sense was virtually unknown. This was primarily the situation of
the unskilled labourers. But for the other groups of the poor, as Esler mentions, “such as the blind, the
crippled or the mentally disturbed, the only means of livelihood was begging or support by relatives. In
spite of their deplorable condition, as it can be inferred from their passivity, in silence and defense they
accepted their lot.175

2. The “Poor” in the Bible

Jesus’ ministry was to bring “good news to the poor” (Luke 4:18). In the Bible, the term, poor means
what it means in English- the economically and socially disadvantaged. When John the Baptist sends
messengers to Jesus to find if he is the one to come or whether they should look for someone else, Jesus
answered, “Go and tell John what you have seen and heard: the blind receive their sight, the lame walk,
the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor have good news brought to them.”
(Luke 7:22).176

An international biblical study concluded, “The poor (in scripture) refers to the manual worker who
struggles to survive on a day to day basis, the destitute cowering as a beggar, the one reduced to
meekness, the one brought low... those weak and tired from carrying heavy burdens, and very often the
common people.”177 The “poor” in the spirit” refers to those who, because of their condition in this
world, are dependent on or have turned to God. The term does not refer to spiritual deadness, atheism
or humility. For many poor people the good news of Jesus has been that in societies where they are
marginalized and treated as an outcast “nobodies”, they have an identity as daughters and sons of God
through the free grace of God in Jesus.178

3. The Poor in the Gospel according to Luke

When reading any part of the Bible, there is a danger of reading our culture, our way of seeing the
world, back into the story we are looking at. This is especially true when trying to answer the question
‘Who are the poor?’ in Luke’s Gospel. Traditionally people have interpreted ‘poor’ to mean ‘poor in
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the spirit’ (Matt 5:3), that is to say humble. More recently people have suggested that the word should
be taken at its contemporary face value and interpreted to mean those who are economically not very
well off. Both these understanding are insufficiently rooted in the culture of the first-century Palestine.
The term ‘poor’ not only refer to people’s economic class, material well-being or spiritual state, but to
their status in the community. Recent studies have shown that status was a crucial indicator of social
position and acceptance by the community in which one lived in the ancient world.179

The key to understanding Luke’s use of the term poor is found in his first use, which was a text from
Isaiah selected by Jesus at Nazareth. He presents himself as anointed by the spirit ‘to bring good news
to the poor’ (4:18). At first there is Zechariah and Elizabeth who are among the poor. Elizabeth suffers
humiliation (1:25) of being unable to have a child (1:7). However she and her husband placed their trust
in God. Then there is Mary, she too is among the poor, ‘servant of the Lord’ (1:38). The shepherds too
are among the poor. They are the reciepeints of the ‘good news of great joy for all the people’ (2:10).
Simeon is ‘poor.’ He has spent his life longing to see ‘the Lord’s Messiah’ (2:26). John the Baptist is
among the poor, for he longed for everyone to ‘see the salvation of God’ (3:6). Most significant of all is
Jesus himself, the poor man, the man of prayer (3:21), humble seeking Baptism of repentance. Jesus
knew hunger, but it was God’s will that he hungered and he looked to God to be satisfied (4:3-4; 6:20).
He knew powerlessness, and it was to his Father whom he looked for protection (4:5-8). He placed all
his hope in God (4:9-12).180

We also have seen the good news coming to the poor broken man troubled by the spirit of an unclean
demon (4:33). It came also to Simon, who recognizes his sinfulness in the presence of Jesus (5:8) and
to a man covered with leprosy (5:12), a paralyzed man (5:18), a tax collector (5:27) and a man with a
withered hand (6:6).181So the poor in Luke’s Gospel are those on the margins of society, those left on
the edge of the community, disregarded by the elite, excluded by the religious, but loved by God and
special recipients of his grace.

The “poor” are the head of an apparent category that includes others at the margins of society. Two
sample lists are the poor, crippled, lame, and blind of Luke 14:13 and the blind, lame, lepers, deaf,
dead, and poor of Luke 7:22. However it is clear that Jesus does not simply equate the poor with all
who lack material goods. The “poor” are only those who depend on God and are part of his kingdom, in
addition to being economically deficient (e.g., 6:20; 12:34; 14:21).182

4. Concern for the Poor and Lowly in Luke’s Gospel

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One notable characteristic of the Gospel according to Luke is his concern for the poor and the lowly.
Here we will see some few instances in the Gospel, where Lukan concern for the poor are being
stressed.

4.1. Poor in the Infancy Narrative

The beginning of the Gospel according to Luke is interesting. It sketches the lives of two couples, who
were not significant of rich. When Zechariah was an old priest, Joseph was an unknown carpenter.
Their lives came closer because of the execution of God’s will in establishing the kingdom of God. The
Messiah and the fore-runner of the Messiah are born to these insignificant, poor peasants. The Lukan
portrayal became noteworthy because in his plot no king or palace or wise men are mentioned, unlike
in the book of Matthew in which they figure prominently. The powerful are replaced with peasant
shepherds, who were taking care of the sheep in the fields. 183 This is evident at the beginning, for the
offering made at the birth of the baby Jesus was that prescribed for poor people (2:24; see Lev. 12:8),
which indicates that the family at Nazareth was poor. 184 Therefore, in Lukan infancy narratives, it is not
the wealthy and powerful who take prominence but the poor and needy. Some scholars even claims
that, Luke is not just advocating for the poor in his infancy narrative; he is even correcting Matthew and
rewriting history to show that the shepherds, not the powerful visited Jesus. Even during his infancy
Jesus was surrounded by the poor and not by the powerful, in the book of Luke. Jesus’ association with
the poor and lowly begins from his inception on Earth.185

4.2. Poor in the Magnificat: Luke 1: 46-55

Mary’s song, the Magnificat also displays Luke’s concern for the poor. Mary identifies that, God “has
looked on the humble estate of his servant,” (1:48). From 1:51b-53, she shares the status of reversal of
the rich and the poor, the same way Jesus shares his view of the poor in the Beatitudes in 6:20-26.
When the reversal of the rich and poor happens, the proud will not be proud anymore because they will
be scattered (1:51). The proud are then forced to be humble in the coming of the Messiah. In 1:53,
hungry people are also compared with rich people. While, “the hungry people are filled with good
things the rich people are sent away empty” (1:53). The opposite of rich is poor. However Luke uses
the word ‘hungry’, similar to the word he uses in 6:21, to show the seriousness of poverty. These poor
people Luke is talking about are not the ones who are relatively poor to the richer people but they are so
poor that they even lack necessities and are hungry.186

4.3. Poor in the Nazareth Manifesto: Luke 4:18-19

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At the beginning of his ministry in his programmatic sermon at Nazareth, Jesus quotes the prophecy of
Isaiah to show that he was sent “to preach good news to the poor” (4:18; there are of course, other
facets of his ministry). The message to John the Baptist outlining his ministry includes the clause “the
good news is preached to the poor” (7:22; for other references to the poor, see 1:53; 6:30; 14:11-13, 21;
16:19-31).187

Luke 4:18-19 shows Jesus’ first few words uttered in Luke apart from Jesus speeches in the Temple
Narrative (4:1-13). Moreover, this is Jesus first sermon in the book of Luke. He gives a very short
sermon using OT quotation (Isa 61:1-2). This sermon is short, succinct and it is loaded with meaning,
so this could be considered as Jesus’ mission statement.Jesus coming to Nazareth after his baptism and
temptation, as was his custom went to the synagogue on the Sabbath day (4: 16). This was his first
synagogue participation after his anointing through Baptism (Luke 3:21-22).188

Three times in verse 18 the pronoun ‘me’ is in an emphatic position in the Greek text: Jesus succeeds in
riveting everyone’s attention on him (verse 20b). 189 First he shows his identity by saying, “The Spirit of
the Lord is upon me because he has anointed me...” (18a & b). For Jesus, the Holy Spirit has anointed
him “to proclaim good news to the poor” (4:18c). This messianic anointing is given primarily to declare
the good news to the poor and needy. Apart from this, four other purposes are also added: to proclaim
liberty to captives; for the recovery of the sight of the blind; to set at liberty those who are oppressed; to
proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour (4:18-19). The four groups who will be benefitted by the Lord’s
coming are the poor, the captives, the blind and the oppressed. If captives and oppressed are considered
poor, then almost all the groups directly or indirectly indicate Messiah’s intended ministry for the poor.
As most blind people are left to beg it is possible to see blind people also are poor. Therefore, in Luke,
Jesus’ Messianic imagination primarily concerns itself with his ministry to the poor.190

Jesus declaration of the ‘Year of the Lord’s favour’ surely takes into consideration the economic
redistribution which is clear with his encounter with Zacchaeus (19:1-10). And in addition he continue
to highlight the fact that through his ministry God is calling the outcasts, those on the margins of the
society, even those beyond the bounds of Israel to enjoy all the benefits of being his people.191

4.4. Poor in the Sermon on the Plain: Luke 6:20-26

After his first sermon in Nazareth, Jesus heals people with unclean spirits and other diseases (4:31-
6:11). After he chose the twelve (6:13-16), he gathered them, and he began to teach them. To Jesus, the
poor are so important that he had to teach about them in the first equipping message of the new
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disciples in the Sermon on the Plain. The Messiah envisions the blessedness of the poor. He imagines
the “alternative consciousness”, that the disciples who are poor at present are the ones who will inherit
the kingdom of God (6:20b).192

The status reversals of the poor and the lowly which are repeatedly seen in the book of Luke, are also
seen here in the beatitudes. The poor will inherit the kingdom of God, the hungry will be satisfied, the
weeping ones will laugh, the persecuted will have great reward in heaven, because their status is now
reversed in the coming of the Messiah. The Messianic imagination has seen the alternative reality,
which is their blessedness, while the world only saw their present condition of poverty.193

4.5. Jesus concern for the lowly or outcasts of society

The lowly and the outcaste can also be included in Lukan concern for the poor. The poor and the
oppressed are the one and the same, for in this Gospel, poverty is viewed as a consequence of injustice:
the poor have too little because others have too much. 194 Jesus is constantly seen interacting with those
on the margins of Jewish society: the poor (eg., 1:46-55; 4:18;6:20-23; 10:21-22; 16:19-31; 21:1-4),
“sinners” (eg., those who do not abide by all the pharisaic rituals-5:27-32; 7:28,30,36-50; 15:1-2), and
women (7:36-50; 10:38-42; 13:10-17; 24:1-12). Luke often pictures these outcasts as particularly
responsive to the message of Jesus. Jesus wants everyone to put aside the entanglements of this world
and embrace freely and wholeheartedly the message of the Kingdom.195

A notable feature of Luke’s gospel is its interest in those who were generally held as of no account in
the first century: women, children, the poor and the disreputable. The rabbis regarded it as a sin to
touch a woman, but Jesus taught women as freely as he taught men. He brings out something of the
importance of womankind with his infancy stories and his references of Martha and Mary (10: 38-42),
Mary Magdalene, Joanna, and Susanna (8:2-3). There are also women he does not name, such as the
widow of Nain, to whom he restored her own dead son (7:11-12), the crippled lady whom he healed
(13:11), the sinner who anointed Jesus feet (7:37-50) and others (he refers to ten women others do not
mention and has another three in parables). Luke does not engage in overt propaganda as though he was
presenting some great new insight; he simply takes it for granted that women will feature largely in
God’s plan, and that attitude is striking, so with children. This is seen in the infancy stories and also in
references to “the only son” or “the only daughter” in some of his stories (7:12; 8:42; 9:38). He also
tells us that when Jesus wanted to rebuke pride in the disciples, he “took a little child” and taught them
to welcome little ones. He spoke of children a number of times as he taught the people (10:21;17:2;
18:16).196
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5. Socio-economic relevance of the Theology of the poor and outcaste

This message has been seized by certain theologians, especially liberation theologians, to argue that the
poor and the oppressed are specially favoured by God, while the rich and the powerful are rejected.
Passages such as, Jesus’ blessing on the poor and his corresponding “woe” on the rich (6: 20, 24) could
suggest just such a view. But we must recall that Jesus uses the language of “poor” and “rich” against
the background of the OT, where these terms not only hold economic but social and spiritual
significance. The “poor” are those who not only do not have much money but who also depend on God,
and the “rich” are those who not only have money, but who use their money and wealth and power to
oppress the poor. Translation of Luke’s categories of “poor” and “rich” into our cultural categories
must take into account of these nuances.197

Another feature of Luke’s interest in socio-economic issues is his strong teaching about the needs of
disciples to reveal their sincerity in following Jesus by the way they handle their money. Many scholars
and theologians and movements pay a good deal of attention on Luke’s teaching on the poor. This is as
it should be, but we must exercise with care. Jesus surely is concerned for the poor because of their
greater need and their general helplessness, not because there is any particular virtue in poverty.
Normally nobody chooses to be poor; poverty is a condition forced on people against their will. It is
impossible to hold that Jesus pronounces as blessed those in a socioeconomic situation not of their own
choosing and from which they could escape if they could. But there is no doubting that the poor were
generally despised in antiquity or that Luke shows a great interest in them and a deep compassion for
them.198

6. Jubilee as Good news to the Poor

Jesus read from Isaiah 61:1-2 and then claimed that he was the fulfillment of this influential text. Isaiah
61 is a Jubilee text. The jubilee was the fiftieth-year cancellation of debts, freeing of slaves and return
of land to its original owners spelled out in Leviticus 25. In declaring that his ministry was one of
bringing good news to the poor, Jesus is taking up applying Jubilee themes very widely. 199 In Acts, the
gospel and the church relate to the poor: the Christian community “distributed the proceeds to all, as
any had need” (Acts 2:45) and appointed deacons to give specific care and attention to poor Greek
widows in Jerusalem Acts 6:1. Jesus focus was on the poor. He himself became poor (2 Cor. 8:9). Jesus
started his ministry in Galilee (a place of the dispossessed and outcast), not in Jerusalem, as a judgment
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on the powerful of Jerusalem; his ministry was with the sick, the Samaritans, those branded as
“sinners” and the socially rejected. It was not confined to such, but he identified its nature with
reference to them; his proclamation and demonstration were good news to the poor (Lk. 4:18).200

In Jesus’ parable of the great feast the servants are called to go and call the maimed (who cannot
marry), the lame (who cannot plough) and the blind (who cannot look over a new field and make the
excuses made by wealthier invitees (Lk. 14:15-24).The parable of the Pharisee and Tax collector relates
how a socially poor and marginalized tax collector experienced forgiveness was to determine how the
Pharisee ought to experience forgiveness (Lk. 18:9-14).The self-righteous Pharisees would only learn
the true nature of the gospel only as they ate with sinners, and learnt what the Gospel meant to them.
The New testament as a whole and Luke’s gospel in particular, the poor replace Israel as the focus of
the gospel. As the poor experience the good news of the kingdom, the real nature of the gospel becomes
evident to others. So, the NT gives special attention to what that means in terms of children, women,
Samaritans, social outcasts, the sick, the “lost sheep of the house of Israel.” 201 Some liberative elements
as good news can be drawn in the light of the above discussion:

6.1. Release from economic oppression

The first good news I would like to draw is on releasing of debts, as Jubilee also carries with it an
economic sense of releasing debts. Part of the good news to the poor is economic liberation envisaged
in jubilee legislation here and now in salvation history. The Nazareth proclamation involves releasing
of captives and the oppressed (Lk. 4:18). The poor who have fallen prey to debts have become captives
of this social evil and they were oppressed by the rich to whom they might owe money. Luke therefore
beautifully brings out the story of the money lender who was willing to cancel the debts owed to him
by two men: one a hundred denarii and the other a fifty denarii (7: 41-43). A similar story is also found
in Matthew 18:23-24, but the main theme is on the servant’s ungratefulness and his subsequent
punishment (Matt. 18:34). But in Luke the emphasis is on the graciousness of the moneylender. 202 As
Fitzmyer points out, “the motive of the gracious cancellation of the debts, large and small, was the
inability of the debtors to pay, a procedure rather unheard of, which drives home the point of the
parable.”203

Another exclusive Lukan parable (16: 1-15) of the debtors and shrewd manager also suggest the
cancellation of debts in the light of the advice given to the rich to use earthly wealth in making friends
on earth. Also the indebted status of the slaves, brought out at 17:10 and 14:12-14, also emphasizes the
fact of the inability of the poor, the crippled, the lame, the blind to repay for any kind of deeds done to
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them. Blessing and repayment for helping such people is assured at te resurrection of the righteous (Lk.
14:15).204

Economic oppression and depression in terms of inability of debts repayment and inability to provide
ones’ own subsistence characterizes many section of the society. In the contexts of the plight of the
Food Producing Tribals, Women and Dalits, the entire peasantry is under the power of debt. It seems
only the big farmers and middle farmers are able to furnish the documents for availing a bank loan loan.
As the Hindu undivided compound families keep their property undivided, the tenant cultivators are
also unable to avail the bank loan as the title of the land is not in their name. As a result the majority of
the food producers get loans from money lenders only for increased interest. Some get loans from
money lenders by pledging their lands, and sell their produce for a throw away price. These debts get
settled only though a distress sale of the land. When God made heaven and earth, Sabbath and Jubilee
were created as operating principles for the community (Lev 25:1-28). Capitalism obliterates all the
democratic institutions in the society and perpetuates acute inequality. Globalization, an incarnation of
capitalism, makes these effects very severe. When a multinational company offers increased price for
their land, the farmers with the burden of debts are tempted to dispose the lands. Who will blow the
trumpet of Jubilee? How will these farmers return of their fields? How can cancellation of debts be
achieved? How long do the cries of the farmers (Neh. 5:1-12) go unheard?205

And what about the practices of the churches in North East India especially Nagaland where many
churches have become powerhouse for money lending? How do we respond to this issue keeping in
mind the particular significance of the cancellation of debts for the poor in the year of jubilee. The
church is called to accumulate its interest spiritually by saving souls, and not to increase the burden of
her people by accumulating interest in wealth. The mission of the church becomes questionable when it
becomes money oriented and not Christ oriented.

6.2. Table of Sharing

The second good news is that of sharing. The “Table of Sharing” is a principle extracted after going
through the book Jesus and the Prodigal Son: The God of Radical Mercy by Brian J. Pierce. The
author has used several phrases like, the table of mercy, table of blessings, table of challenge and table
of mission.206 In line with that I have also come up with the phrase table of sharing to dive into the
Lukan concept of sharing in establishing an egalitarian society within and outside the church.

Luke’s treatment of the poor and wealthy is particularly interesting. Luke made it clear that wealth can
be dangerous to one’s spiritual life (12:13-21; cf. 6:24-26; 8:14; 16:13-15). Jesus spent time with the
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wealthy, and they could become believers (7:1-10; 19:1-10); but he obviously held the poor and
ministry to them in high regard (6:20; 14:13-14; 21:1-4).Luke made it clear that a person standing with
God cannot be measured by mere financial status (18:18-30; 22:1-6). For Luke sharing is a proper use
of wealth (3:10-14; 6:27-38; 16:1-13; 19:1-10), and in fact, sacrificial sharing is important (5:11, 28;
12:33-34; 18:18-30; 21:1-4).207

Luke 18:18-25, we see the case of the rich ruler. Unlike Matthew and Mark Luke changes the identity
of the man to a ruler (arcwn). This way Luke portrays him as a person from a higher class of society,
i.e., a rich man.208 The ruler has always considered himself perfect (v. 21) but when Jesus makes a
radical demand he finds himself lost. In Luke, Jesus demanded the rich ruler allegiance to God and to
build up social relationship with the poor by act of selling and distributing his possessions.209

Luke also shares another story in chapter 19:1-10, the story of Zacchaeus. Jesus holding up at the house
of Zacchaeus, a chief tax collector led to the crowd of Jericho grumbling. Luke inserted this unique
material (19:1-10), found only in Luke at the end of his journey narrative marking the end of Jesus’
public ministry to highlight the idea of right use of possession once again. 210 Unlike the rich man in
Luke 18: 18-23, here we see Zacchaeus standing up before Jesus and telling him that he will give half
of his goods to the poor (19:8). Zacchaeus also added that if he had defrauded anyone, he would restore
it fourfold (19:8). And by giving of his possessions he became the son of Abraham. 211 His table
fellowship with the tax collectors and sinners vividly expresses his solidarity with the victims of
established powers.212

The consistency of Luke for sharing is good news to the poor. When someone asked John how they
could repent, that Baptist said that if they had two tunics they must give one to the one who has none
(Luke 13:11). Similarly when the rich man came and asked about receiving eternal life, Jesus said that
he must sell all his possession and give to the poor to attain eternal life (18:18-30). And again here
when Zacchaeus announced his plans to give half of his possessions, Jesus declared that he had
received his salvation and had become the son of Abraham. Jesus messianic imagination of the society
is this: the rich should share their blessings with the poor so that they may enter the kingdom of God.
This is a unique contribution of the Luke Gospel.213

Sharing is a means to extend the kingdom of God. It was on the table that Jesus shared his body and
blood, and on this table the church should also call upon the rich and the poor for sharing. The
celebration of Jubilee surely calls on the church to extend this ministry of sharing towards the poor and
economically downtrodden people.
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6.3. Jubilee as social reversal

The third good news in the dealings of the poor in Lukan gospel is envisioning of the reversal of
fortune. In Luke 6:24-26, the writer reverses the things he mentioned in the beatitudes. Similar to the
beatitudes (6:20b; 21a; 21b; and 22) there are four woes (6:24; 25a; 25b; and 26). While the beatitudes
mentioned four groups namely, poor, hungry people, weeping ones, hated ones, the woes include four
opposite groups such as the rich, full or satisfied ones, laughing ones, and the ones who are spoken well
of. It is obvious that the woes reverse the groups mentioned in the beatitudes.214

Jesus’ words are not a benediction on poverty as such. They are words of encouragement to those who
have given up all to follow him. Luke was unusually interested in the poor, we can observe this in some
parables; the host at the great supper sending his servants to bring in the poor of the city (14:21) and the
rich man ignoring the poor Lazarus (the only person in Jesus’ parables to be given a name). At the
banquet Jesus advised his host not to invite rich people to a meal “lest they invite you in turn and you
be repaid” (14:12). Rather he should invite the poor-they cannot repay him, and he will be recompensed
at the resurrection. We should also notice that the rich do not come out well in the parables. Luke also
records Jesus’ warning to the rich: “Woe to you who are rich, for you have received your comfort”
(Luke 6:24)215

The churches today in celebration of Jubilee can entail or envision this reversal of fortune giving hope
to the poor and economically disadvantaged groups of people. The church can extend its ministry to the
excluded or the disadvantaged group. In addition to the economic aspects of the poor they are also a
group of people who lacks honor, prestige or power. In proclamation of the good news, the church
should pioneer in bringing the poor and the oppressed in the forefront in the light of establishing a just
and caring community in Christ.

It is to be sincerely accepted that, God’s kingdom brings a reversal of values and calls for a reversal of
commitments (16:13-15). In this life, those who are faithful to God will divest themselves of material
possessions (12:33; 14:33; 18:22) and will be generous in helping the poor (3:11; 14:13; 18:22; 19:8);
in the life to come, the poor are the ones who will be supremely blessed (6:20; 14:21; 16:22). 216 The
church is called to proclaim this alternative consciousness or reality even as they proclaim the year of
Jubilee or seek the blessings of Jubilee.

7. Relevance for today

Poverty is a familiar topic in the Bible, as the Bible is based on the experiences of the ordinary people.
The Hebrew word Shalom is inadequately translated as peace, actually suggest a vision for the Hebrew
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people, a good life. And it refers to a social reality which brings the whole common life to fruition. The
Bible speaks of positive and concrete measures to prevent poverty from becoming established among
the people of God. The proclamation of Amos to “Let justice roll down like water and righteousness
like an ever flowing stream,” (Amos 5:24), reverberates through all history as a passionate plea for
justice for the poor. The prophets were not against prosperity but they were concerned with the
irresponsible ways in which riches were being misused.217

The same proclamation rings through Jesus when he declared that, the Spirit has anointed Him to
proclaim the good news to the poor. Jesus’ declaration includes the full dimension of a truly human
life-physical and mental healing, bringing new life to the poor, a new stewardship of all resources of the
earth and the gifts of the grace of God for the flowering of human life and to enable the principalities
and powers to perform their true political function. The limits sets to all acts of mercy are broken by
God’s rule. The process of the kingdom of God entering into the lives of people by transforming human
relations includes all institution and structures. Thus Christian love expressed in solidarity with the
poor, by the acceptance of poverty, is a protest against poverty. The rejection of riches, and brotherly
love for one’s neighbour is a sign to the kingdom which is to come.218

Two major thrusts for us come from the dealings of “poor” in Luke. First, Jesus’ kingdom includes all
types of people, including the poor (Luke 4:18). Hence, the church should certainly seek to evangelize
the poor and appreciate the Christian poor gifts to the church. Second, possessions/money has special
temptations to inhibit one’s spiritual growth; therefore, we should be wise in using worldly goods. “For
where your treasure is, there will your heart be also” (12:24).219

Luke’s treatment of the poor, then, is a significant feature of his work. it underlines the importance of a
right attitude toward God and of the ease with which material prosperity can lead people away from
God.220

Conclusion

The purpose of stressing on poverty and the poor is not to idealize poverty. The New Testament surely
also does not consider it an ideal or a virtue. The focus here is in creating a better place for everyone for
which the church and every believer is called upon to do so. Jesus expressed his solidarity with the poor
and the oppressed and also the so called outcaste by associating with them. All four Gospels reflect
Jesus’ profound concern for the poor. Therefore, His compassion and sharing his life with the harassed
and the helpless cannot be ignored. Proclaiming the year of Jubilee should bring the fullness of life for
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the poor and the rejected in the society, in establishing a society that ensures protection and dignity to
every human being.
An Overview Eco- homiletic Reading of the Psalm 104

- Dr. T. NzanthungNgullie

Introduction:

The Psalm is a description about Yahweh’s mighty power and loving care for the whole cosmos. The
Psalmist starts with the wonder and exclamation of the greatness of God and moves toward the
expression of how wonderfully and majestically Yahweh sustains the world and His creation. So He is
not only the Creator but also the Sustainer of the cosmos. The psalmist puts forth how wonderfully
human being shares Yahweh’s world with the domestic animals, birds of the air, wild animals and the
whole natural world. The Psalmist develops narration by attributing God as the fatherly figure while
the whole cosmos as His extended family. Thus the entire family is at the mercy of His outstretched
arm and the power of life and death is at the mercy of Yahweh’s hand. Allen in his commentary
explains that the Psalmist “is able to combine divine transcendence and separateness from the natural
world with a strong sense of God’s direct involvement in its processes. He produces a sketch rather
than an analysis, but he does lay down guidelines to stimulate his fellow believers to devotion and
doubtless to further enquiry.”221 In this article, I wish to dwell on excavating the ecological
significance of the Psalm for ecological preaching.

1. Form, Setting and Structure of the Psalm 104

The theme of the Psalm is God’s incomprehensible strength in governing and nourishing His creation.
It is descriptive in form and nature.222Psalm 104 comes under the category of ‘Hymns or Song of
Praise’ in the various forms of the Psalms. Gunkel explains that the ‘Hymns or Song of Praise’ has a
brief invitation to Praise Yahweh followed by extensive explanation on the reason or motives for
praising Yahweh. Then it is concluded repeating the earlier brief invitation. This is the characteristic of
the ‘Hymns or Song of Praise’ even though the usage of words and images may vary. 223 In the Old
Testament there are three main types of creation namely ‘Creation by word, creation by act and creation
as a result of the conflict with the chaos waters.’ 224 Psalm 104 falls under the category of creation by
word and creation as a result of the conflict with the chaotic waters. The concept of creation theology is
very rare in the pre-exilic period and A. A. Anderson argues that the entire Psalm referring to creation
is thus post exilic. To this general understanding John Day argues that the autumnal festival of the
Israelite has an important element on creation motif. As such some of the creation Psalms must have
had its origin in the pre-exilic period. He further affirms that Psalm 104 has had its origin in the pre-
exilic period as this Psalm seem to have been used to a large extend by the priestly writers. 225Humbert
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was also in favor of this version linking the Psalm to the Babylonian New Year festival. The Psalm
reveals explicitly that creation is not just a static moment happened in the beginning of the
establishment of the earth but it is Yahweh’s continuing process of recreation and sustaining activity. 226

Craige suggested that the Psalm is linked with the settings of the dedication of Solomon’s temple, as
the psalm demonstrates an indigenous Hebrew poetic tradition. 227 He further suggested that the Psalm
has adopted “Ugaritic material concerning the palace or temple of Baal in order to express the cosmic
meaning of the temple built by Solomon (cf.1Kgs 8:13).” 228Craige insists that the Psalm is a
relationship concerning God and His temple. 229 The Psalm has similarities with psalm 103 in the
opening and closing invocations. Because of it close acquaintance to Psalm 103, it can be categorized
into the Davidic liturgical setting.230 As far as the division is concern, the Psalm 104 falls under the
division of ‘Book IV’ which is named as the Yahwistic Psalter.231

The Psalm according to Merrill F. Unger is part of the Davidic psalm of series from Psalm 101 till
105.232 It is a hymn yet a vibrant expression in poetic description about the wonderful universe
ascribing God as the Creator, Ruler and Sustainer. 233 Yahweh satisfies every creation as their life and
breath depends on Him. He creates life and renews the face of the earth so as to sustain His
creatures.234 The contents and description suggest that the author of Psalm 104 was most inspired by
the older Israelite tradition. As opined by RajendraBabu, the Psalmist was accustomed with the
creation faith of the Israelites.235 In the composition, the psalmist has drawn its creative features from
the world view of his contemporary Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek and Nordic mythology. One of such
features is seen in the well know hymn to the sun-god which was composed by the Egyptian king
Ikhnaton who reign from 1375-1358 B.C.236 Von Rad also opined to the inter-relation of the Psalm to
the teaching on the creation of the Ancient Near Eastern literature, especially to the creation hymn of
Atum.237 Elmer A. Leslie mention that the Psalmist was also well informed about the Babylonian myth
of creation in which the Babylonian god Marduk destroyed Tiamat a powerful dragon and brought
about a state of order in the world.238 The psalmist demonstrates in vs.1-9, an ‘ancient mythic
cosmogonic’ arrangement while describing the act of God’s creation. Such writing shows his influence
and knowledge about his culture and as such the psalmist praise and adoration of God is presented
within the knowledge of the Israelites perception about God. It also gives an account of the Israelite
239
general cultural understanding of how they comprehend the existence of the world. Even though the
influence of the Ancient Near Asian creation literature received an extensive treatment, there are
insufficient evidences of literary and cosmological structure to support such theory. 240 For G. Nagel the
Psalm has a very close similarity with the account of Genesis chapter one because of their common
origin of cultic tradition.241Buttricket al. thinks that the Psalmist was familiar with the creation stories
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which are known to the Israelite community. The viewpoint in Psalm 104 suggests a very close
connection with the compiler of Genesis 1:31. 242 As mentioned, in the composition, the psalm might
have the influence from the world view of his contemporary Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, Nordic
mythology and the ancient East Asian literature. However, to limit the space, I will bring out only the
similarities of Psalm 104 to the Genesis creation account for our deeper understanding.

1. Psalm 104 and the Genesis Creation Account

Franz Delitzsch called the Psalm as a hymn of tribute to the God Creator of the seven days in the
Genesis account.243 For Charles Augustus Briggs and Emilie Grace Briggs, “The Psalm is throughout a
poetic description of the creation of the world, based on Genesis 1, and retaining its order of six days’
work with a supplementary seventh of rejoicing in a finished creation.” 244 Thus in the light of the above
statement Charles and Emilie has made a critical commentary on Psalm 104 reflecting on the creation
account.245The Psalmist expression in the opening verse 1 ‘you clothed yourself in glory and majesty’ 246
is his implicit affirmation of God’s extraordinary work referring to His act of creation. 247Philip Schafran
affirms that once again, “Psalm 104 is an example of inner biblical exegesis where the writer is
reflecting on the original intent of Gen. 1 and 2 and giving a homiletical commentary on these
chapters.” 248 In poetic form Psalm 104 presented important themes described in the creation account of
Genesis 1.Kidner observes that Psalm is modeled fairly close to Genesis, yet the nature and boundary
of this relationship is not very clear. The Psalm is fashioned in lively style while the Genesis is
schematic and logical. Fullarton commented that the most outstanding structured noticed in the Psalm
is the sequence of the creative days while Craigie and Anderson draws the similarity in its common
cultic origin.249 The Psalmist inculcated simultaneously his current observation on creation and the
creation days of Genesis 1. The Psalm offers a broader elaborative description and communicates ideas
and information which is not developed in Genesis 1; God’s progressive plan and purpose of the
creation. The connection between psalm 104 and Genesis1 can be equated to the description on the
crossing of the Red Sea by the Israelites which are presented in Exodus 14 and 15. Exodus 14 presented
the event in historical narrative approach while Exodus 15 describes the same event in poetic
form.250Psalm 104 can be considered as commentary on the creation account of Genesis 1 and 2 where
the psalmist is reflecting on the original intent of Genesis 1 and 2. Most importantly Psalm 104 is a
rectification of misconception an individual can developed while reading the Old Testament account of
creation. The intrinsic relationship is also noticed from the usage of phrase and words in the Old
Testament like ‘for the season’ (Genesis 1:14 and Psalm 104:19) and ‘beast of the earth’ (Genesis 1:24
and Ps. 104:11-12, 20).251For Barker, “it is apparent that the psalm goes beyond the creation motif into
a more general motif of providential preservation of the world by God. This not only explains
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statements regarding God's general preservation of creation, but also explains references to the
destruction of his creation through the global catastrophe of the Noahic deluge, an integral part of
ancient Hebrew cosmology.”252This is how DerkKider relates Psalm104 to the creation account of
Genesis 1.253

i) Psalm 104:1-2a Light , Genesis 1:3-5 Light and darkness

ii) Psalm104:2b- 4 divides the water, Genesis 1:6-8 Heaven and earth
iii) Psalm 104:5-9 land and water distinct, Genesis 1:9-10 Land and Sea
iv) Psalm 104:14-18 Vegetation, trees, hills/rocks, Genesis 1:11-13
v) Psalm 104:19-23 Luminaries as time keeper, Genesis 1:14-19 vegetation
vi) Psalm104:24-26 Creatures of sea and air, Genesis 1:20-23 sea and sky, animal
vii) Psalm 104:21-24 Animals and man, Genesis 1:24-28 animals and people
viii) Psalm104:27-30 Food appointed for all, Genesis 1:29-31.

2. The Genre of the Psalm 104

As remarked by Arthur Walker – Jones, hymnic Psalms played an essential part in the closing
arrangements of the Psalter. He further indicated that there was a movement in the arrangement of the
Psalms from the initial laments to thanks giving and hymns in the later forms. 254 Generally scholars are
of the view that the Psalm is a hymn due to its content, expression and it invitation to the readers to
Praise God.255 Gerstenberger shows three characters of hymn present in the Psalm. The first part is the
call to praise God while the second part presents the attributes of God and the third a conclusion, a
petitions or affirmation of continues praising. 256 For Hossfeld and Eric Zenger, the shout of ‘hallelujah’
indicates the hymnic genre of composition.257 James L. Mays confirms the Psalm from vv.1-30 as a
hymn dividing the Psalm into three parts in accordance to the content; vv.1-9, 10-23,24-30. Mays
further elaborated that vv.31-35 are prayers and pledge to praise and so the form does not belong to
hymnic genre rather they belong to prayers and thanksgiving Psalms. 258 Leslie C. Allen shares the
opinion that the Psalm is an individual hymn presented during the temple worship. 259 The New Catholic
Commentary on Holy Scripture ascribes the Psalm as truly an arrangement of hymn in the form of
stanzas.260Unger citing Franz Delitzsch called the Psalm as a ‘hymn in honour of the God of the Seven
Days’.261 Thus the detail study on the views and opinion expressed by different Biblical scholars and
also meticulous observation of the text confirms that the Psalm is a hymn in form and nature.

3. Creation Theology in Psalm 104

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The Psalm does not describe on the origin of life yet he did presents YHWH as the fountain and source
of life. All life is dependent on YHWH. Light and water are symbols of life and as such there was a
significant association of YHWH with light and water (Psalm 104:2-3). The important aspect noticed in
the Psalm is not about the divine act of creation but on the present creative activity of YHWH. The
Psalmist was in awe of the wonderful and creative work of YHWH and this concept forms the basis of
the creation theology in this Psalm. The Psalm shows that there was no wars or struggles between God
and chaos in the creation unlike other ancient cosmological mythologies. In fact the creation of God
happened without any opposition from any chaotic forces or gods. The chaotic element continues to
exist in the structure of creation theology yet they are placed in proper order and limits. Hence, in spite
of the presence of the chaotic elements in the creation, the psalm presents the world as secured in the
hands of God. The presence of death (Psalm 104: 29) or the wicked sinners (Psalm 104:35) did not
even disturbs the process of God’s divine act of continues creation (Psalm 104:30). God has authority
over live and death and the entire creation exists under the divine power and providence of God. The
cosmos is well established, well ordered and well provided by God. God exercises sovereign rule over
the natural orders and the nations assuring them of God’s divine just and orderliness in the universe.
Through His sovereign authority and rule, God reveals that He is the One and only true God, the creator
and sustainer who is involve in the continues work of creation.

4. The Homiletic Directives for Ecological Preaching from Psalm 104

i) All the creations are equally dependent on God and as such creation including humans
cannot be exalted or deemed above the other. God participates and exhibits His direct
relationship with the entire creation.
ii) The psalmist displays that there is absolutely God’s justice in His governance and
provisions.
iii) All the creations are inter-related and inter-dependent. Mutuality in existence and lifestyle is
manifested.
iv) The egalitarian concept is clearly evident. Creations are seen as partners and co-creatures.
v) No individuals or groups including the humans are sanctioned to exercise any force of
dominion over the others.
vi) Creations are the manifestation of God’s wisdom and God delights and rejoices in His
creative art of wisdom.
vii) The psalmist teaches that all live and growth in the cosmos comes from God through His
‘Spirit’.
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viii) The psalmist invites the readers to celebrate and praise God for His creation.
ix) The psalmist illustrates a vision of ecological liberation which in fact is related to human
social justice and liberation.

5. Ecological Reading of the Psalm 104

Like many of the other psalms, the Psalm 104 does not reveal a clear historical context.. The main
interest and emphasis is on the natural world of creation rather than the description on Israel’s history.
The psalmist rejoices the world of wild asses, wild goats, coneys, lions, birds and sea monsters where
God’s governance and sustenance exists. Psalms 104 presents a comprehensive over view on creation
theologically, cosmologically, ecologically and biologically where all these areas are related by the
doxology.262 The Psalm is an expression of an act of religious obligation in praising and glorifying God
for His majestic handiwork of creation. The psalmist presented a concrete logic of God’s direct
involvement in the natural world. The Psalm is a sketch presentation on creation rather than an analysis
of the creation. For the Psalmist, the world is a community of diverse and complex creation, they exist
in different forms, habitats and life style and yet they are interdependent and interrelated. In this section
I will focus on unveiling the ecological concerns in Psalm 104, ascribing God as the ultimate source of
the functions and activities within the universe.

5.1. God’s Royal majesty over the natural phenomenon

The words inv. 1 ‘you are clothed with splendor and majesty’ exemplify God’s active participation in
the world and royal nature of rule upon the whole cosmos. The poet expresses in metaphorical language
in vv. 2-4, about God’s rule over the natural phenomena as God reveals Himself / Herself through the
visible orders of the creation. The Psalmist describes God as a camper pitching the tent for habitation
on the earth.263 In the cosmological understanding of the ancient Near Asia, water was a powerful force
or element. Yet the psalmist attributes God as sovereign over the powerful force. Indeed God’s
apartment is depicted figuratively as in the upper compartments on the waters. It is the Lord in the
divine authority has ordained a boundary for the waters into rivers and oceans beyond which they
cannot go.264 The Lord’s royal rule and complete involvement with the world of creation is seen in the
complete control and governance over the clouds, the wind and the flames of fire. Gianfranco Ravasi
summarized vs.5-9 as the divine victory of God’s creation over the chaotic waters. 265 The Psalmist re-
affirms in his poem especially in vs.9 the ancient understanding of how God tamed the primeval chaos.
Lawrence E. Toombs in his interpreter’s commentary describes that the Psalmist knowledge and
understanding on natural science is influenced by the Mesopotamia and the Canaanite model. In the
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ancient Near East cosmology, the centre of interest is not in the creation of matter or substance out of
nothing but the area of concern and importance was on bringing into proper order from the state of
266
chaos. The psalmist no doubt was unfolding such ordering of the cosmos in his poem and he pictures
all creation as ordained for serving God.267 The psalmist using the ancient Near East cosmological
understanding on nature has portrayed how God uses the natural phenomenon such as the clouds, wind,
fire and flame for the divine service. God is in complete control and in command over natural
phenomenon in the cosmos.

5.2. God as the Owner and Creator of the universe

In the beginning, the primeval sea envelopes the land and everything yet with the thundering voice of
God (vv.6-7), the waters flowed into the place where God assigned them; thus forming the mountains,
valleys and dry land. It was God who laid the solid foundation of the earth through the divine creation.
The psalmist portrays God as the Creator and Owner. The Chaotic world was brought into order and
this ordered world exists in harmony. However, this world is not autonomous; it has its perfect owner,
it is the property of the Creator.The psalmist description is not particularly on the diverse parts of
creation but the main consideration is on description and glory of God’s handiworks. 268As the Owner,
God has ordained a specific set of boundary for the varieties of the creation. God limits the power of
the water by assigning place where they cannot cross over. The Psalmist was very specific in v.9 “You
set a boundary that they may not pass, so that they might not again cover the earth.” The cosmos
constantly rest on the authority of God. The earth is secured only in the governance of God from the
chaotic elements and forces. In contrary to the ancient Near East cosmological epic discussed earlier,
the psalmist clearly pictures that behind the world of creation is a Creator who is personal, supreme and
in control of the entire cosmos. God the Creator did not consult any higher authorities or other forces
269
for creation. In fact, it was God’s sole decision and initiatives. The psalm indeed depicts the
attributes of God as the creator and incorporated proof that YHWH alone is the creator of the universe.
As the owner of the entire creation, the psalmist pointed out in v.9b that the Creator does not want the
divine handiwork to be disturbed or destroyed by any other natural calamities or as a result of any other
human activities. Since God created and owns the entire creation, no creation is licensed to dominate or
subjugate the cosmic created order. In other words the ownership is not transferred to any other beings,
God still own and care and look after the welfare of the wonderful creation. God did not transfer the
authority of dominance to humanity and as such humanity has to co-relate with other creation and live
in communion with the rest of the creation as co-creatures and partners.

5.3. God as the Provider and Sustainer of all creation

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God is the provider par excellence and to sustain, to love and care the creation is God’s passion. 270 The
entire creation continues to exist because of God’s sustaining grace. It is God who sustains by
providing sufficiently to all. The Lord provides the bountiful rain richly for the entire creation. Human
kinds, animals of all kind and birds of the air quenched their thirst; the earth is watered sufficiently and
the Lord richly blesses with ample of provision for the entire creation. It is the Lord’s programming to
give the creation what they need and what is good for their life. 271 Human kind appeared as any other
creature depended on God and sustained by bountiful produce from the earth. The psalmist portrays
that Human kinds are also a kind of creatures from the diverse creation that lives in the earth’s
environment where God provides and take care of them like any other creation (vs.15). As tenants of
God’s wonderful earthly mansion, all the creations are beneficiaries of God’s abundant blessings.
Humanity is recognized as part of the diverse creation with no first class honour. The day is assigned to
them and night for the wild animals to work out their rightful living. The psalmist does not attribute any
human dominance over the creation. God designed and ordained in such a way that human kind shares
the world with the domestic animals, birds of the air and also with the wild beast whose dwelling places
are mountainous landscape where human habitation are unfit. The psalmist does not project a selfish
view on natural world as object for human exploitation. Rather the psalmist marveled at the systematic
order he comprehends in the natural world. Artur Weiser describes that “the poet’s enthusiasm for
nature derives ultimately not from his joy in discovering the variegated wealth of its several beauties
but from the grandeur of his total religious view of the whole nature as a single all-embracing organism
based on a divine and meaningful world-order.”272 God take cares of all the creation and provides a
suitable habitation for all to dwell in. It is the Lord who causes the earth to grow grasses and plants
(v.14) for His varied creation. The psalmist’s idea in v.14 was not only on the ‘abundance’ but also of
the ‘variety’. The earth produces varieties of food necessary for the different orders of species placed
upon the face of the earth.

The psalmist very clearly elucidates that God is the sole source for human kind’s physical nourishment
as well as their delight and joy (vs.15). 273The psalmist considers the world of creation as a single
comprehensive organism based on the divine established order. 274The Lord waters the land and makes
the crops, food and herbs grow for the sustenance of the creation including human kind. The trees are
not planted by any human hands or other intervention but they are purely planted by God. The cedars of
Lebanon are thought to be high and bulky trees in the open forest. They require a great amount of water
for their growth from the earth. 275It is said that in the ancient Near East world, cedars of Lebanon were
commodity of high value. The Mesopotamian Armies from Mesopotamia rallies from the west
conquering territories to reach the cedars of Lebanon as the trees grew in dense forest. These trees were
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cut down and used as timbers for various buildings. However the primary focus of the Psalmist is not
on the value prize of the trees but on the splendid stature and their friendliness and openness especially
for the birds.276The trees are well watered so that the birds of the air make their nest and home and the
mountainous landscape a secured hideout for the wild goats.God has special interest in domestic
animals and wild goats, on the birds of the air. God is also interested with the trees, with the mountains
and the rocks and all the creation. God has created with each creature with purpose. 277Bauckham
pointed that the psalmist explanation on the direct dependence of the creation to God can mean
empowerment to all the creation for life.278

5.4. God Controls and regulates the created world

The rhythm of day and night displays that God’s creation is not monotonous but it is enriching. God
designed and gifted the creation a balance life of work during day light as well as rest at night. The
regulation of day and night and changes of seasons shows an intricate system of God in the cosmos in
which all the creation can live (vs.19-23). 279 The day is provided for the human kinds to labour and toil
for their living and the night for sufficient amount of rest so as to regain their strength. While Human
kinds take the opportunity to rest at night, the wild animals roar for their food. The psalmist very
specifically mentioned that even the roar of the wild animal was a prayer to God seeking their food.
The night in fact serves as safety cover or protection to the animals for finding their food. 280 As the sun
rises, the wild animals were sent back to their dens and the world becomes ready for human kinds to
toil. For the Israelites it is through the movements of the moon and the seasons, the festival days are
determined (cf.Ge.1:14, Lev.23:2, 4, 37, 44). 281 The Psalmist acknowledges that God’s creation is not
only limited to space but also to time. Even at night, the creation depends on God. All forms of life
belong to God; on the earth, or the sea, or the heavenly luminaries. The Psalm depicts a meaningful
order of God’s design among the creatures and natural things and also the time and space. YHWH
marked the season to ensure that all throughout the year the plants and the land produces food fitting
for the entire creation in different time and season to live. Seasons are ordained to rejuvenate the earth
and continued its bounty for the entire creation. The different season of the year in fact is a vital process
for the earth and the vegetation to go through a period of rest and renew their strength and freshness for
a new cycle of life.

5.5. Creation as the artifact of God’s wisdom

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The Psalmist was overwhelmed reflecting upon the wisdom of God’s creation. Gaebelein et al.,
explains that the entire universe is the revelation of God’s wisdom, power and artistic creativity. 282 The
poet explains that every living being however great and small, or strange and terrible are the artefacts of
God’s wisdom. God has a purpose for all the creation. The diversity and complexity of the natural
world is a wonderful exhibition of God’s wisdom. God in His unsearchable wisdom has created the
world perfectly suited for all forms of life and hence the earth is a perfect home for all the living beings.
God’s wisdom can be noticed in every fragment of the creation as He/She has touched every section of
the cosmos with the divine creativity. The Psalmist particularly in v.24 marvelled at the grand
exhibition of God’s wisdom through the creation. The artefact of God’s wisdom is revealed in the act of
creation as well as in the continued orderly maintenance of the created world. The uncountable and
complex number of heavenly galaxies, the varieties of plants and animals and beauties of diverse
landscape shows the creativity and the intellectual potentialities of God. The taming of the wild beast
and monstrous creatures clearly shows God’s surpassing power and wisdom. The Psalm teaches us to
comprehend the world through the lens of amazement at grand wisdom of God’s master piece and thus
celebrate the beauty of diversity and complexity rather than treating the creation as commodity.
Humanity has to acknowledge the ‘artifact of God’s wisdom’ with humility, love and care.

5.6. God as Giver, Controller, Dispenser and Renewer of all life

The world is well ordered, designed creatively and well established yet it cannot survive in its own. In
vs.27-30 the psalmist affirms the truth that God maintains all life in the universe. Life is a fundamental
gift from God yet it has limitation. It is God who determines to give and renews or take back as He
pleases.283God is not only the Creator but He is also the source where the continued existence of the
creation depends upon and they are renewed by His life-giving Spirit. 284Gaebelein et al., while citing
Bernard W. Anderson states that, “Creation is not just an event that occurred in the beginning, at the
foundation of the earth, but is God’s continuing activity of sustaining creatures and holding everything
in being.”285 The universe is not a kind of machine, but the Great Designer, Creator is ever working. 286
The Psalmist establishes the subject on divine sustenance most fully in vs. 27-30. He presents God as
the fatherly figure and His creation as the members of His extended family. The entire creation is at the
mercy of His unfolded hands and YHWH’s ‘breath’ is the source of life for the universe. Whenever,
YHWH withdraws His life-giving source the animate returns to the dust. Every germination and
development of new generation is an indication of YHWH’S replenishment, renewal and continuation
of the creative activity. Every change in the creation’s life and condition is brought about by God. He
is the fountain and the reservoir of all life. It is YHWH who renews the face of the earth so as to
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support the existence of the entire creation. All the creation looks upon YHWH for their living. Their
dependence, expectation and hope are in God alone as YHWH is the one who gives and renews.287

5.7.God Rejoices in His creation

The psalmist was very definite that only if the Lord sustains and continues to rejoice, the whole
creation will flourish and exist. 288 The delight of God is noticed in the manifestation of His/Her love,
care and satisfaction. The Lord continues the complacency in the outcome of His/Her wisdom and sees
everything good as it was well satisfied from the beginning of the creation (Gen.1:31).The psalmist
wishes that those who make the earth and the artistic work of God’s wisdom to groan, exploit, suffer,
imbalance and destroy be consumed and be no more (vs.35).William Brown pointed out that the
originality of the Psalm is in its assertion that creation is sustained not by the covenant with the People
yet by God’s unabashed joy. In the book of Genesis, God sadly pledged never to destroy the creation by
flood waters. However, Brown further insists and argues that possibly God in His/Her sovereign
freedom could choose to go out of the covenant and break the promise.If the Creator is to cease
enjoying the creation, the world could any time turn back to its primeval state of chaos. The psalmist
attributed the possible cosmic collapse when YHWH ceases to rejoice and take delight in the
creation.289 All things are created from the goodness of the Creator and thus every creature contributes
in one way or the other to the well-being of the entire creation. Creation irrespective of their size, shape
and appearance do exhibit the goodness of the Creator. 290 Creation is a wonderful display of God’s
wisdom and artistic ability as such God continues to see the creation as very good that pleases
Him/Her. God delights in His/her good works and does not want this marvelous creation to return to its
initial chaotic state by any force.

Conclusion:

In any discussion on ecology, one should always be reminded with the very fact that the whole earth
and its entire ecosystem belongs to one true God, the Creator. Thus a concern for ecology should
always centre on the divine element of this fact. It is important to consider the Creator’s plan and
purpose for the creation.291Psalm 104 can be chiefly operative in ecumenical response to the global
ecological crisis. It can stand as one of the pillars from the biblical teaching on creation and can be
brought in line with the existing natural science and ecological ethics. The psalmist was projecting that
God is constantly engaged in protecting His good work of the original creation from the chaotic forces.
A critical reading of Psalm 104 displays that the text contains some of the core elements of liberation
such as equality, justice, solidarity, love, care and harmony. These themes on liberation can be
addressed in homiletics through proper in-depth study taking into consideration the homiletic directives
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discussed earlier. The Biblical interpretation on ecology can perhaps consider the six eco-justice
principle proposed by the Earth Bible Project team292for deeper meaning.

i. The Principle of Intrinsic Worth: The Universe, Earth and all its components have
intrinsic worth/value.
ii. The Principle of Interconnectedness: Earth is a community of interconnected living
things that are mutually dependent on each other for life and survival.
iii. The Principle of Voice: Earth is a subject capable of raising its voice in celebration
and against injustice.
iv. The Principle of Purpose: The universe, Earth and all its components are part of a
dynamic cosmic design within which each piece has a place in the overall goal of that
design.
v. The Principle of Mutual Custodianship: Earth is a balanced and diverse domain in
which responsible custodians can function as partners, rather than rules, to sustain a
balanced and diverse Earth community.
vi. The Principle of Resistance: Earth and its components not only suffer from injustices
at the hands of humans, but actively resist them in their struggle for justice.
Topic: Significance of Jubilee in the Context of Market Capitalism
Dr. O. James Kithan

Introduction

The exploitative economic system of market capitalism creates conditions that justify oppression,
marginalization, and exclusion in the name of economic growth and development. The rapid expansion
of economies despite its flawed promises, prosper at the expense of people and environment through
the unregulated market system. In this trend, it is the vulnerable and smaller communities that bear the
onslaught of economic terror. The ideology of Jubilee is originated based on socio-economic-spiritual
vision of the tribes of Yahweh which is relevant in the context of market capitalism. The Jubilee is a
measure against unjust or reckless treatment of the earth and her resources that leads to an eco- crisis,
proclamation of liberty to Israelites who had become enslaved for debt Rest for the land, natural growth
of the plants, care for all creatures, livelihood, humankind and cattle and beasts all imply a just eco
system. This paper is a deliberate attempt toanalyze the significant of jubilee;whereinthe paper will deal
with the origin of the biblical jubilee, jubilee in Ancient West Asia and Liberative elements found in
the celebration of jubilee (Lev 25:1-46).These will then be analyzed the ideology of market capitalism.
Subsequently, the paper will advance to draw implications with land alienation: Indigenous perspective
andliberation from the slavery of debit and loan.

1. Biblical Meaning of Jubilee

Leviticus 25 details the biblical system of jubilee year. The Hebrew term at the center of this
system“jubilee” has an uncertain etymology. The most common view is that Jubilee means “ram” since
ram’s horn was used for trumpets.The year of jubilee was announced by the blowing of the trumpet on
the Day of Atonement. As K.C. Abraham states that, 50 th year to follow seven Sabbath years which can
be translated as the year of Ram’s horn. Ram’s horn is of unusual character used only on extraordinary
occasions for some particular purpose.The English word jubilee is derived from the Latin translation of
‘Jobel’, ‘Jubilism’ (Loud shout, Shepherd’s cry).293 The jubilee is a holiest day of the year, when the
expiation made for the sins by the priest. The Jubilee is like a super Sabbath year, coming after seven
Sabbath years or seven weeks of year.
2. Methodological Standpoint
The paper employs “Liberative Solidarity” as an ethical methodological framework to bring out the
liberative aspect of jubilee in the context of market capitalism. As a methodology proposed by the
notable Indian ethicist K. C. Abraham, he opined that LiberativeSolidarity means entering into the
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struggle for justice and liberation for the oppressed group. 294Liberative Solidarity finds its context in the
struggle for liberation for the poor and oppressed (the subalterns). Liberative Solidarity emerges from
the collective experience of the poor and marginalized. 295For Abraham, conflict and solidarity go hand
in hand, the refusal to accept the logic of power and injustice is to involve in conflict situation. 296
Liberative Solidarity promotes the vision of human wholeness which includes not only our relationship
with one another, but also our relationship with nature and the universe. It is committed to the struggle
for the transformation of the poor, the weak, and the disfigured and over-exploited nature. Both are
decisive for our faith, mission and spirituality. 297Celebration of jubilee becomes an active and a critical
engagement in solidarity with the people marginalized by the market capitalism.Any solidarity becomes
a channel of divine power it is expressed for the cause of liberating those who live a disempowered
life.298 Jubilee is a call for liberation against oppressive system and structures that disrupts the purpose
of God for humanity and the whole creation.

3. Origin of the Biblical Jubilee

Scholars have different opinions regarding the origin of the Jubilee Year in the history
Israelites.JacobMilgrom, quotes Levine’s argument that, to claim that the text Leviticus 25 was enacted
in the Persian period in order to prevent the loss of the land by Israelites and their families, only turns
one’s back on the early evidences of the ancient west Asian and the requisite social structure for a land
in the possession of kin groups.299Along with above argument Norman K. Gottwald states that, the
holding of the Israelites at the fall of Jerusalem in 586B.C.E. Were unevenly distributed, restoration of
the lands to their previous owners would incorporate gross inequities and ensure the vulnerability of
small land owners to indebtedness. The slow recovery of the economic status of Yehud community
would not have provided optional conditions for enforcing the jubilee, which depended so much on
high productivity.300

Conversely, RazouselieLasetso quotes, John E. Harelty, states that, the concept of Jubilee is originated
in the very early stage of Israel’s life. The terns yobel, (Jubilee), perek(ruthless), muke(below, become
poor) lsemtut(in perpetuity).This terms indicate the words come from very early stage of the Hebrew
language. The word jubilee originated in the early stage of Israel’s life seems more convincing than the
proposal for a late date, especially post-exilic, because the prophet quoting this hope to the returning
exiles when the exile was not completely over. 301 Raphael Jospe depicts that, The Sabbath was very
first commandment the Israelites received as a free nation after the exodus from, Egypt, even before its
inclusion in the Decalogue at Mount Sinai.302

4. Jubilee in Ancient West Asia

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The background of these laws is ancient and they are rooted in the reality of the Ancient West Asia.
The announcement of the liberation in Leviticus 25 is identical with the Mesopotamian misarum”
which means “to go straight ahead” and durarum, which means “to roll without restraint”,expect that
they have woven into a literary frame work and have thereby received a utopic coloring. 303 In
Mesopotamia a proclamation of misarumrelease is associated with the ceremony as like the Israelites:
they will raise golden troches as burning signals on the one hand and the blowing of a horn on the other
hand serves as an authentic means for the transmission of information to the community. 304 Jacob
Milgrom states that, the Mesopotamian misarum touches on all the aspects of its biblical counterpart:
lands and houses returning to the original owners, cancelation of the debts, and release from slavery. 305
In Akkadian the liberation word expression is associated with the word anduraruand in Sumerian in the
form of ama-ra-gi, whose literary meaning is return to the mother, and certainly this is identified with
the Leviticus 25:10.306

As per the above arguments it informs that, the idea of the Jubilee was emerged in the Ancient West
Asian countries, it usually occurred when a king acceded to the throne. However, it was greatly limited
to the king’s retainers and the subject to whim. But the biblical jubilee, in contrast was inexorably
periodic and incumbent on every Israelite.307

5. The Emergence of Jubilee

The ideology of Jubilee is originated based on Socio-Economic –Spiritual vision of the tribes of
Yahweh before the formation of the monarchy, is set in the context of the giving of the law at Mount
Sinai. The Moses group, in rejecting both the physical and psychic bondage of the Egyptian socio-
political and economic system, had also abandoned the religious ideology that legitimated and
reinforced that system. The Israelites claimed Yahweh as the God who stands by the poor and frees
those enslaved. The new social order was built through a process that has been called “retribalization”.
The urban elites have a predominate socio-economic system controlled and extracted the surrounding
agricultural areas and villages.308

So the aim of the tribes of Yahweh was to resist the Asiatic mode centered in the city states and to
create decentralized, egalitarian, tribal mode of life so that the clans and families might have enough.
By this mode no one will become wealthy and powerful and oppress and exploit rest, the surplus will
not be siphoned off through tributes. This ideology and important foundations for this alternative life is
grounded in the faith of Yahweh. 309Yahwism developed then, and considered as the religion of social
revolution and the liberation from the slavery in Egypt, takes the new meaning in the struggle of the
oppressed Canaanite peoples.
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6. Liberative elements found in the Celebration of Jubilee (Lev 25:1-46)

In this year there was a proclamation of liberty to Israelites who had become enslaved for debt, and a
restoration of land to families who had been obligated to sell it out of economic need in the previous 50
years.310Leviticus chapter25 concentrates on the liberation of the land and fellow men in the society and
mainly focuses on the egalitarian society. The Sabbath was to be announced by the blowing of the
trumpet on the Day of Atonement. This is inaugurated the great year of the liberty. As Harrison quotes
North that, the theological significance of this is readily apparent: the Day of Atonement was the day
which the people of Israel made a formal public acknowledgement of their dependence on the grace of
God.311

6.1. Liberation for the Land (Lev 25:1-24)

The land as considered as a Gift, Temptation, Task chiefly as the inheritance of the Lord. As
Brueggemann states that,the promise of the patriarchs was fulfilledby the Israelites entering into
Canaan. The land is a gift and it is from the Yahweh who promised to the patriarchs. In The memories
always it is reflects all the time in their confessions (Deut. 6:4, 8:3). The land which was given to
Israelites is the source of life as well it has the power to seduce the Israelites from the covenant life. To
resist the temptation, they have the source is memory. The leaders always mentioned not to forget the
lord Yahweh who brought them out of the land of Egypt (Deut. 6:12, 8:11-17. In the context of land
remembering and land management they instructed to remember the poor those who were not having
the land.312In the history of Israel the occupation of the land is presented as a divine gift as
nahalah.J.McKeown depicts that the term such as land grant or entitlement may convey the sense of the
Hebrew better than inheritance. The entire land of Canaan is a grant, a nahalah given to the Israelites
by Yahweh as their rightful possession (Deut. 4:21, 12:9).313

From the theological point of view the year of jubilee is holy (Lev: 25:12) or is a “Sabbath for the
Lord” (Lev 25:2, 4) because it proclaims the sovereignty of God over the time and nature, requiring
submission on the part of humankind to obey and observe this institution with fear, trust and confidence
that God provides all amenities for sustainable life. Ecologically, the Jubilee is a measure against unjust
or reckless treatment of the earth and her resources that leads to an eco- crisis, Rest for the land, natural
growth of the plants, care for all creatures, livelihood, humankind and cattle and beasts all imply a just
eco system.314

6.2. Liberation from the Slavery of Debit and Loan (25-45)

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The tribal society of Israelites has the instructions to maintain the egalitarian society will discuss below.
After entering into the land of Canaan every tribe has the right to posses the land (Num 26). Even if it is
sold, it can be reclaimed every fifth year that is in jubilee. In the ancient peasantry society impoverished
farmer takes out a loan for the purchase the seed. In the event of the crop failure,they would be forced
to sell part of their land to cover the previous loan and purchase the new seed. If they continuously
failed,they will become a tenant farmer in their own filed and the product of the land would be
amortizing the loan. If, as a tenant the debtor can’t repay their loan and otherwise cannot support their
family, theycan enter into slavery. But the fellow Israelites not to be treated as alien slaves“you shall
not rule over him with harshness” (Lev 25:43-46).315 The manumission of the slaves’ legislation lays
the idea that the Israelites are now slaves of God himself because they have freed from the slavery of
Egypt. Therefore no one should make a slave of a fellow Israelite because they already belong to God.
However, in the year of jubilee all Israelites who had sold themselves at the service of another they
must be free at the time of Jubilee.316

Jubilee year is declared as the year of Liberty (Lev.25:10)There has been a liberative element for the
people in the margins. Firstly, the emancipation of a Jew who had been enslaved to a fellow Jew for
one reason or another. They should be now freed. Secondly, the property which was acquired during
the last twenty-nine years should be returned to the owner. God is the owner and we are only the
trustees. Thirdly, helping those who cannot sustain themselves by providing them with interest-free
loans.

7. Market Capitalism

In India, market capitalism creates conditions that justify oppression, marginalization, and exclusion in
the name of economic growth and development. Capitalismis an economic system in which the means
of productions are privately owned and production is guided and income is distributed through the
operation of markets.317Further, it promotes on diverse levels of productivity. Marx and Engels argued
that the process of capitalism is a systematic development of various stages of economic
imperialism.318Mohan Razu argues that under capitalism, the unregulated market acts as the regulative
principle with which other rules revolve around. Capitalism accommodates and assimilates the modern
beliefs such as individualism and consumerism. 319Razu argues that without scheme or discipline,
capitalism has managed to survive with the help of market fundamentals of supply and demand. 320 It
operates best when it is free of governmental interventions and policies, or at least minimally controlled
by non-market factors. Under global capitalism, economic interest operates across national borders
under a ‘free trade’ market system.321
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8. Ideology of Market Capitalism

In the prevailing economic system, market capitalism has created hegemony of an empire.
WatiLongchar argues that in this system, it is the corporate players who wield power and exploit
people’s powerlessness to their influence. Further, the economically poor who represents margins are
treated as commodities to be used and exploited.322 Under market capitalism economic interest
outweight human concern. Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga argue that market capitalism has
brought a radical change in the value system which guides people’s behavior. What is once the less
important in traditional society have become virtues in a capitalist society. They argue that in present-
day consumerist society acquisitive behavior and the drive to get rich is accepted a part of life and
human behavior.323

In the market driven society, the desire of the economy is sexualized, radicalized and
commodified.Objectification and commoditization reflect distinct cognitive and social processes that
arise from desire, control and power. Jeremy Carratte argues that commoditization and
commodification should be seen as two different entities. The former dealing with the legitimate
process of objects becoming economic entities and latter referring to the process of making non-objects,
such as persons, into objects.324 In line with this ideas, utilitarian philosophers like Jermy Bentham
provided a good conscience for it by advocating that whatever serves the happiness of an individual
serves society as well.325 It is therefore, the success of the market capitalism lies not only in destroying
the ideas of alternatives, visions, and dreams but also in creating new attractive religions (mammon) to
be followed. According to Miguel A. De La Torre calls for the re-imagination of global market systems
according to human values and virtues.326

9.Towards the Significance of Jubilee in the Context of Market Capitalism

There are three significant procedures were associated with the year of jubilee. First, the Sabbath rest
for the land was observed. While this procedure was in continuity with the normal seventh year rest,
properly speaking, it is a part of the jubilee so it must be considered along with it. Second, the proper
distribution of land among the tribes, clans and families are to be re-established. Third, Israelites were
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to be freed from servitude they may have been forced to submit into the previous cycle of 49 years.
Thus the economy is “reset” to avoid endemic oppression.327

9.1. Jubilee as Liberty from Land Alienation in the context of Market Capitalism

In the present market capitalism land has emerged as a key source of conflict. Today barbaric atrocities,
human rights violations, violence, poverty, injustice, alienation from earth-centered life and spirituality,
oppression and marginalization has only accelerated for the indigenous people as a result of global
capitalism. The land for indigenious peoples is more than just a habitat or a political boundary; it is the
basis of their social organization, economic system and cultural identification. 328In India, especially in
the Northeast India, the indigenious people have become the victims of big reservoirs, mega projects,
wild life sanctuaries, mines, industries, etc. They are forcefully evicted from their ancestral land and
abode often without proper compensation. Although the government of India has been failing to protect
the rights of the indigenous people’s rights to their lands. It is all about a one-size-fits-all approach to
development that ignores India’s rich diversity and gives no stake to those who stand to lose in the
bargain.329 Today, with the coming of the market capitalism in indigenious society, there has been a
serious concern on the marginalization of indigenous land and its natural recourses.

The celebration of jubilee upholds the sanctity and liberation of the earth-resources in the hands of the
greedy people. It is a call for the people to manage and regulate economic activity which is people-
oriented and environmentally sensitive. Jubilee affirms pro-people and pro-life celebration, it
denounces any political and economic activities that endanger the environment, subjugate people and
their aspiration and rights. In the eyes of market capitalism, Land becomes a commodity, however, the
most important aspect of jubilee and the Sabbath is rest for the land. It is due to the over-cultivation of
land by the use of artificial fertilizersand commercial-based cash crop (coffee, tea etc) turned the soil
into barren and unfit for cultivation. In the Exodus passage we see another reason for allowing the land
to rest (Ex. 28:11) “But in the seventh year let it rest, and the poor harvest anything that grows on it.
The poor may eat what grows there, and the wild animals can have what is left.” However, the present
system of cultivation among the Lotha Naga is influence by the commercial-based cash crop where
rubber plantations, coffee, tea, and betel nuts where there is no rest for the land and no space for the
poor people to harvest wild products

9.2. Jubilee as Cancellation of all Debts and Loanin the context of Market Capitalism
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Indebtedness is rampant among the common people in the context of Nagaland and therefore they fall
into the clutches of the Bank and money-lenders for availing of loans at exorbitant interest. Often their
lives are threatened as goondas and their house were locked up. The money lenders extract the interest
from the poor people with high interest even to the extent of 10% interest rate per month. In many
cases, the interest rate reaches the actual amount and that remains perpetually unpaid loan. Interest-
based money lending becomes a common business in Nagaland. Lending money at high interest
enables a person togain value without foregoing valuable in exchange. This makes receiving interest
unethical. Since the interest is very high, many borrowers leads to indebtedness and they are forced to
repay their borrowings. In case borrowers are unable to repay, lenders will repossess the assets, land,
house, property or deduct from their salary or wages. There has been a mushrooming of interest-based
loan through Self Help Group, NGOs, Village Level Office and individuals. These lead to the rise in
the percentage of people indebtedness.

The cancellation of all debts is another radical form of response to the call of Jubilee. K. C. Abraham
states that the practice of bonding labor to pay back the loan was prevalent in Jewish society. However,
all bounded laborers were to be freed and their debts cancelled in the Jubilee year. 330 The Jubilee years
is mainly economic in character in that primarily deal with the protection of an Israelite family from
falling into perpetual indebtedness and aliens from the land. Jubilee is a measure against reckless
accumulation of land and its natural resources by the wealthy few at the expense of the poor. In the
context of the indigenous people church, should proclaim the good news of by proclaiming liberty to
the captives and freedom to those who are bound.

Conclusion

The context of market capitalism today is something that represents this crisis of legitimating. The
powerless of the people in the margins is leverage for market expansion and a necessary tool for
exploitation. The Land, the rivers, forests which are inextricably linked to the survival of the margins is
merely exploits of profit for the market. Liberative Solidarity promotes the vision of human wholeness
which includes not only our relationship with one another, but also our relationship with nature and the
universe.Jubilee is a call for liberation against oppressive system and structures that disrupts the
purpose of God for humanity and the whole creation. the Jubilee is a measure against unjust or reckless
treatment of the earth and her resources that leads to an eco- crisis, Rest for the land, natural growth of
the plants, care for all creatures, livelihood, humankind and cattle and beasts all imply a just eco
system.
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Jubilee has been a liberativeevent for the people in the margins in the context of market capitalism.
Firstly, they should be now freed from enslavement of market capitalism. Secondly, the property and
land which was acquired during the last twenty-nine years through need to returned to the owner.
Thirdly, helping those who cannot sustain themselves by providing them with interest-free loans rather
than interest-based loan. And announcement of burden from the bondage of debts and loan in the name
of Jubilee.
God as Covenant Partner with Creation: From Stewardship to a Covenantal Ecology

INTRODUCTION

The Old Testament establishes the God of Israel as the God of covenantal relationships. It also describe
God’s covenantal demands fidelity towards, not only Israel, but all of God’s creation, thus bringing into
view new facets of the relationships between Creator and creation, and between human and nonhuman
creation. Throughout the law, or torah, covenantal concern for animals and the land is exhibited. e.g.,
not taking the life of a nesting mother bird (Dt. 22:6-7), not cutting down fruit-bearing trees during a
siege (Dt. 20:19-20).331 While there are various number of commandments, statutes, and ordinances that
could be included in a covenantal ecology, however, the paper will limit down to the Noahic Covenant
(Gen.6- 9, specially 9:8-17), a text often overlooked due to its unique description of God’s covenant
with creation, and which defies more common understandings of God’s covenant. Reading this
covenant not only expands the understanding of Old Testament covenant, but given their relationship to
creation, fleshes out a covenantal ecology. This covenant aimed at establishing and maintaining proper
relationships between God, humanity, and nonhuman creation, and as such, are significant parts of a
covenantal ecology. More specific articulations of a covenantal ecology can be found in the Noahic
Covenant.

The paper sets forth a new theological framework for the Christian church that aims to compel more
environmentally conscious living. For decades, the church has promoted creation care by urging
congregations and individuals to live as better “stewards” of creation. To this the presenter would
suggest that stewardship’s dependence upon an anthropocentric cosmic imaginary make it a poor
choice for a Christian environmental ethic. In its place the paper presents for a covenantal ecology, i.e.,
a framework that establishes God, humanity, and nonhuman creation as partners within a covenantally
established and maintained relationship.332 As a corrective to the deficiencies of the stewardship
environmental ethic and the earth-denigrating effects of the modern cosmic imaginary upon which it is
founded, the paper offer an alternative scriptural and theological account of the relationship between
God, humanity and nonhuman creation upon which the church can build a robust response to the
contemporary environmental situation.

STEWARDSHIP333
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“Stewardship” is developed and communicated through the interpretation of both Old and New
Testament texts. Calvin DeWitt, one of its strongest proponents concisely defines stewardship as “our
use and caring for the household on behalf of the Creator, whose stewards we are.” 334Although
stewardship seeks a distinctly Christian and robust environmental ethic and despite its widespread use
and influential proponents, the stewardship environmental ethic is open to a number of criticisms. It
leaves us with an absent God, a human manager in God’s stead. The God who creates becomes an
“absentee landlord,” no longer involved in the management of his “house.335

1.1 THE INADEQUACY OF STEWARDSHIP

The most consistent criticism of stewardship ethics is directed at the exegesis its proponents pursue to
establish its biblical basis.336For stewardship’s proponents, the Bible need not explicitly refer to human
beings as stewards of creation; using Scripture to interpret Scripture, they argue that the concept of
stewardship, i.e., the call to care for God’s creation as stewards, “is everywhere present in biblical
thought.”337 With this assumption as their basis, stewardship proponents draw upon a variety of biblical
texts to describe humanity’s call to creation care.

The first creation account (Gen. 1:1-2:3) is the interpretive foundation for stewardship environmental
ethics. This account portrays God as creating all things from a distance through speech acts (Gen. 1:1-
25) and thereby engenders a portrayal of God in stewardship as a distant but powerful king. Bruce R.
Reichenbach and V. Elving Anderson, for example, argue that the portrayal of God in the first account
as a “most powerful monarch” is not only theologically accurate for Christians today, but reflects
Ancient West Asia understandings of monarchy.338 In that context, kings would mark their territory by
erecting statues that bore their likeness and entrust their vast wealth to trustworthy servants. The first
creation account, argue, reveals that God pursues a similar strategy in administering his creation:
Like other people with wealth, monarchs entrusted their households and property to their
stewards, so that they could attend to other important matters… As oriental kings placed statues
of themselves throughout their territory, signifying their claim to that land, God placed those
created in his image in the land to represent his interests.339

If humans are to image and serve their master faithfully, they must obey his commands and “have
dominion” (radah) over creatures and “subdue” (kabas; Gen. 1:26) the earth, in a manner that reflects
the monarch’s power.340
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Willis Jenkins points out, in placing humans in this role, stewardship proponents create an
“ontologically distinct boundary between God and creation.” 341 After the initial act of creation, which
includes establishing humans as his representatives on earth, stewardship proponents place God outside
of the created realm. God can therefore only act in creation indirectly, insofar as his representatives,
doing his will, interact with nonhuman creation.

Although developed centuries later, stewardship’s portrayal of God “sustains a strongly deistic account
of the earth as mechanism and God as external to the cosmos.” 342 In the place of an ever-present God,
stewardship sets forth the human manager to manipulate nonhuman creation. Critics argue that this
understanding is anthropocentric and fails to take into account human limitation. One can see the
expression of this managerial mindset in J.C. Chakanza’s five-point summary of stewardship343:
1) The human being has a higher value than nature.
2) The human being has the right to rule over nature.
3) Nature is a resource for humankind.
4) Humankind has responsibility for nature.
5) Nature should be managed carefully by humankind.

Chakanza is unabashed in his separation of humanity from, and elevation over, the rest of creation, and
he is not alone in his assertions. 344 Despite their existence as creatures, i.e., like nonhuman creation,
dependent upon God for their existence, stewardship portrays humans as having a “hierarchically
superior place in creation”345 and as “intended to control” creation346. Reichenbach and Anderson, for
example, argue that stewardship is “not leisure, not recreation, but an employment” fulfilled by “God”
with creation.347 The stewardship motif erroneously transforms the God of the Bible into an absentee
landlord, human beings into managers of creation. Thus, there are considerable hermeneutical and
theological deficiencies with this trajectory.

COVENANTAL ECOLOGY
As a corrective to stewardship environmental ethics, the paper moves to a covenantal ecology in which
God, humanity, and nonhuman creation stand in a relationship to one another initiated and sustained by
God’s covenantal initiative.348 In opposition to the stewardship environmental ethic, a covenantal
ecology situates God in intimate relationship with creation, humans and nonhuman creation as partners
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(with each other and God).349 Specifically, a covenantal ecology posits God as one who binds creation
to himself, humanity as one partner in this covenant, and nonhuman creation as another.

A covenantal ecology is a covenantally established and maintained relationship between God,

humanity, and nonhuman creation. In addition to overcoming some of the theological distortions of
stewardship, a covenantal ecology promotes a deepening of commitment to nonhuman creation. It is
premised on three theological and scriptural assertions350:
(i) God is ever-present and active in covenant relationship with creation.
(ii) Human beings are not managers of, but participants within, this relationship, or ecology, called to
be faithful to God and neighbour (human and nonhuman).
(iii) Non-human creation, as a partner within this ecology, is an object of concern for both God and
humanity aside from its benefit for humanity.

2.1. COVENANT AND CREATION

Creation in the image of God points to human’s position as an intermediary between God and nature.
As the bearer of God’s image, human are God’s representative in the world. They are to subdue nature,
to exercise dominion over it. They are permitted to use nature to fulfil their own life, but in so doing
they are not to exhaust his/her relation to nature. They are also to respect and care for it – even one
might say, as a guest respects the house of the host.”351

In Richard A. Baer’s interpretation, humans stand in a position of privilege as representatives of God to

nonhuman creation and are called to subdue and exercise dominion over nature for their own
flourishing. However, Baer cautions that humans must never forget that they did not make and do not
own the created world.352 If humans were to thrive, it would only be because they respected God’s
creation as if it were the very dwelling place of God. Therefore, humans can only exercise dominion
insofar as they commit themselves to taking care of God’s creation and their fellow creatures.

Karl Barth’s description of the connection between covenant and creation informs the construction of a
covenantal ecology. Barth describes covenant and creation as having an “indissoluble connexion and
mutual relationship” and an “inner and real connexion”. 353Connected, but not synonymous. The two
must be separated and distinguished if the connection is to fully understood and appreciated. Creation is
“the external basis of this covenant,” which means that creation makes the covenant possible by
bringing into existence creatures with which they might be covenanted. Kevin Hector points out,
creation is not a general or neutral category for Barth, but exists as “creation-for-covenant.” 354
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Covenant is the “internal basis of creation” that establishes the foundation, nature and teleology of
creation. As Kenneth Oakes argues, this means that covenant “is not something later layered upon a
self-enclosed creation;” covenant is determinative for creation.” 355 As the work of God in which God
creates and then establishes relationship with something other than Godself, it is a “covenant of grace”
that establishes the goodness of creation. Its existence is not primarily for human usage, but as an
expression of God’s grace, is “created for its own sake,” having its own “dignity” apart from humanity.
Barth does not equate creation’s “perfection” with its fulfillment or “future glorification.” Creation’s
current perfection is no more in doubt its existence; its existence leads Barth to claim that creation is, in
fact, “infinitely better and more beautiful than we can possibly view and suspect”.356

God’s first creative act is the result of God’s desire to live in a covenant of grace with something other
than Godself. Therefore, Barth is insistent that creation, as the product of God’s first creative act, is
inseparable from God’s covenant. For Barth, this means that creation exhibits beauty and goodness not
dependent upon human valuation.357 For a covenantal ecology, creation’s foundation in God’s covenant
of grace means that care for a good and beautiful creation is an expression of fidelity to the preservation
of that covenant.

THE NOAHIC COVENANT: GOD AS COVENANT PARTNER WITH CREATION

The Flood story and the establishment of the Noahic covenant in Gen. 6-9, with its profound
description of the corruption, near-total destruction, and covenantal reconstitution of creation, provides
a significant starting point for a covenantal ecology.358 Gen. 6:18 marks the first scriptural occurrence
of the term covenant (berit) in the Old Testament, and the Noahic covenant set ups foundational aspects
of the relationships between God, humans, and nonhuman creation. After the Flood, there is no part of
creation that stands outside of this covenantal relationship with God. We shall look into four ways in
which this covenant places God, humanity, and nonhuman creatures in relationship as partners. Further,
we shall see that God even includes the earth (ʾereṣ) itself as a partner in this covenant.

3.1. GOD AND CREATURES BOUND TOGETHER IN COVENANT

Gen. 6 portrays a chaotic, dire situation in which human injustice has so degraded creation it is almost
unrecognizable from its original state of goodness. The use of the Hebrew term saḥat(corrupt) in v.11
to describe the ʾereṣ(earth) indicates that something is so corrupted, that it is incapable of fulfilling its
original purpose. Therefore, the earth can no longer function as “a source of life, habitat for, and
sustainer of, land creatures.”359 Bernard Anderson writes: The language suggests that violence is a
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disease, as it were, that contaminates all those things, human and nonhuman, that live in the same
earthly oikos(household). A lifestyle based on violence, as we well know today, cannot be contained or
confined. Violence affects human beings, it permeates the nonhuman realm of animals, birds, and fish;
it pollutes the earthly environment. 360Just as disease can spread through an organism, violence and sin,
though beginning with just humanity, have permeated the entire created order. The situation becomes
so bleak that God sets in motion a plan that will result in near-total destruction of creation.

In Gen. 6:18, God tells Noah that he will destroy everything on the earth except the occupants of the
ark. God’s initial covenant with Noah alone in 6:18 is then expanded in 9:9-16. In the latter text, God’s
eternal covenant (beritʿolam) never again to “cut off all flesh by the waters of a flood” is made not only
with Noah and his descendants, but with “every living creature” housed in the ark.361

Robert Murray argues this covenantal inclusion of non-human creatures along with human beings
displays God’s concern and care for all creatures and binds them together as “the Creator’s partners.”
Murray pushes this covenantal bond further, asking, “If both are God’s covenant partners, how can they
not be in some sense covenantally bound to each other?”362

Four features of the flood narrative support Murray’s assertion of a covenantal “binding” between God,
humanity, and nonhuman creation.

The first example is the ark, a vessel built by human hands at God’s command that was not only meant
to preserve humans, but animals – both clean and unclean – as well. God charges Noah to keep all of
the creatures aboard the ark alive, and even specifies that Noah is to take a variety of food with him, not
only for use by him and his family, but by all the creatures aboard the ark (Gen. 6:19-7:9). The flood
threatens the survival of humanity, but Noah and his family are charged not only with their own
survival, but the survival of the creatures. The image of the ark is compelling, as human beings and
animals literally ride out the flood together, the former charged with the care of the latter. The flood
narrative further indicates God’s concern for all of the ark’s occupants by stating that after God
remembers Noah, his family and the nonhuman creatures, God caused the waters to subside (Gen.
8:1).363 All creatures on the ark, not just human, are present in God’s thoughts and recipients of God’s
sustaining action. God’s concern for the survival of all these creatures brings them together in the ark,
and bound together by God’s covenant, they survive.
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Second, the covenantal bond between God, humanity, and nonhuman creatures is also displayed by the
representative sacrifice of every clean bird and animal (8:20) that Noah offers to the Lord upon the
survivor’s egress from the ark. The odour of these sacrifices pleases the Lord and prompts him to
pledge the cessation of destruction; in this way animals provide the means for the establishment of the
covenant with their lives. After the flood, the relationship between human and nonhuman creatures is
dramatically different. Admittedly, the sacrifice of these creatures creates a “growing anxiety as to
whether the Flood story is a good story to think about and use. . . ” for those searching for biblical texts
that promote creation care.364 However, animal sacrifice is a powerful example of the relationship
between creation and covenant, and it remains a constitutive aspect of covenantal establishment and
maintenance throughout the biblical narrative.

Given the care for nonhuman creatures exhibited by God throughout the flood narrative, animal
sacrifice should not be understood as an indication of human primacy or the expendability of
nonhuman creatures, but as indication of the enormity of human sin. As evinced at the beginning of the
flood narrative, human wickedness not only causes strife between humans and alienates humanity from
God, but also corrupts creation. Animal sacrifice then becomes the bloody reminder of the far-reaching,
polluting effects of human sin God so decisively condemns and washes away in the flood.

Third, the covenantal bond between God, humanity and nonhuman creatures is expressed in God’s
desire that all of the creatures on the ark continues to be “fruitful and multiply” (Gen. 8:17, 9:1, 9:7).
Ann Gardner notes, these commands are an allusion to the first creation account found in Gen. 1:1-2:4.
The command to be fruitful and multiply is identical to God’s commands to both human and non-
human creatures in Gen. 1: 22, 28. However, the charges in the Flood narrative omit the command to
„subdue‟ the earth and “have dominion” over other creatures found in Gen. 1:28. Similarly, the
command to “fill” the earth found in Gen.1:18 is replaced by the command to sarṣ, or “abound on the
earth” (9:7). Sarṣcan be construed as a command to increase in population (e.g., Exo. 1:7), but when it
is interpreted in the context of Noah’s planting of a vineyard after the waters recede (9:20) it is best
understood as a command to enable creation to flourish (e.g., Gen. 1:20-21). After the flood, the
cultivation of the now ravaged earth provides the means for creaturely multiplication. 365

Given the devastation to both flora and fauna caused by the flood, fruitfulness, multiplication, and
filling the earth will be a short-lived process if Noah and his family do not work for the well-being of
other creatures or at least allow them to re-establish themselves and thrive. All creatures are called live
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within these divinely proscribed boundaries so that all might flourish. As a constitutive part of the
Noahic covenant, all creatures are commanded to live with an ark-like respect for the lives of others.

The fourth example of the covenantal bond between God, humanity and nonhuman creatures is made
explicit in God’s command that human beings and animals respect the “lifeblood” of every living thing
(9:4). The sacrifice of clean animals has already been enacted, and now the mutual killing of one
another is foreseen as animals are filled with the “fear and dread” of human beings (Gen. 9:1-3). 366
However, despite this enmity God still demands, as a part of the eternal covenant he establishes with
both human and non-human creatures, that the life he has given to each creature must be respected;
God will require a “reckoning” from every animal and human beings should the blood of another be
spilled. While the text emphasizes the ramifications of taking human life, the command to respect
lifeblood of all creatures reveals that the “life of any nefeshhayya(living creature) is precious, not
because it has value in itself but because of its relation to the Creator.” 367It is not the blood of the
creature per se, which demands this respect, but the fact that this blood, both animal and human, has
been created by the same God, and in this sense, “it is in the same blood which runs in our veins.” 368
The postdiluvian relationship between human and nonhuman creatures is not idyllic, but the demand to
respect lifeblood serves as a reminder that both human and nonhuman creatures are held accountable
for the blood of one another.

3.2. THE INCLUSION OF EARTH (ʾereṣ) IN THE COVENANT

One final aspect of this covenant merits our attention. While much of the foregoing discussion centers
on the covenantal bonds between the Creator and living creatures, God covenants with the earth ( ʾereṣ),
as well. In Gen. 9:13, God declares “I have set my bow in the clouds, and it shall be a sign of the
covenant between me and the earth.” Some understand this as a summary statement, i.e., shorthand for
God’s pledge never to destroy “all flesh” with another flood. 369 Such an interpretation, however, would
not be consistent with the narrative’s use of ʾereṣ, which is repeatedly used throughout to indicate the
non-creaturely aspect of God’s creation in distinction from its inhabitants. Therefore, as Dumbrell
contends, “the parameters of covenant must be drawn even more widely…In that verse the arrangement
is said to stand between God and the fullest and final sphere in which human, around whom the
covenant has been structured, will move.”370

While we might wish to challenge the anthropocentrism of Dumbrell’s claim, he rightly notes that the
“covenant circle” has widened as the Flood narrative progresses, from Noah, to his descendants, to
nonhuman creatures, and finally to the earth itself. The covenant between God and the earth, ʾereṣ,
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refers to just that, a covenant between the Creator and the non-creaturely aspects of his creation, from
the base of the olive tree upon which the dove alighted to the very “tops of the mountains” (8:5). All of
creation has suffered because of humanity’s wickedness and the subsequent flood, but now all of
creation, including the once-submerged- earth, receives “divine assurances of „never again.” 371 As von
Rad points out, God’s covenant with the earth (ʾereṣ) is a final, “solemn guarantee of the cosmic
orders.”372 In this final declaration, God includes the earth in the covenant with Noah, his family, and
all living creatures.

4. MOVING FORWARD: THE IMPLICATIONS OF A COVENANTAL ECOLOGY FOR THE

CHURCH
The development of a covenantal ecology not only has implications for environmental ethics, but for
the broader discussion and implementation of creation care within the church. The church must allow
the breadth of the Christian Scriptures to inform the current environmental discussion. The commitment
by stewardship proponents to discussing environmental ethics through scriptural imagery and
vocabulary allows for its relatively easy incorporation within the ecclesial context. 373 While the
“dominion” of the first Genesis creation account is one way in which Scripture describes humanity’s
relationship to nonhuman creation, stewardship proponents neglect an even richer description of that
relationship.

A covenantal ecology, or relationship in which God, humanity and nonhuman creation are bound
together through God’s covenantal initiative, provides a theologically robust response with which the
church might confront the threat of looming environmental perils and continually refine its
understanding of the Creator’s relationship to creation. Unlike the stewardship environmental ethic, it
refutes a modern cosmic imaginary that establishes humans as lords “responsible” for a godless
creation and, in its place, reclaims a world in which humans and nonhuman creation are bound together
as partners in covenant with their ever-present Creator.

Any environmental theology or ethics the church pursues must not try to solve environmental
degradation with simple (or even complex) technological solutions. As David W. Orr states, there is
“no clever shortcut…no magic bullets, and no such thing as cheap grace” in dealing with environmental
degradation.374 If the church is to vigorously address environmental degradation, it must address the
larger spiritual decay that causes societies to consume resources at an unprecedented pace. As the
Noahic Covenant demonstrates, human existence is such that all of our decisions and actions have
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consequences not only for our relationships with one another, but for our relationships and nonhuman
creation. Humans are not lords commissioned by God to control creation, but participants
simultaneously responsible to God and nonhuman creation and dependent upon “the patterns and
processes of interdependence of life in the world.” 375 Therefore, if the church is to significantly
contribute to the healing and wholeness of creation, it must, integrally, advocate for healing and
wholeness in human relationships with God and in the individual Christian.

For too long, churches have failed to take account of our destruction of the environment and recognize
it as the profound issue of faith that it is. However, many churches now recognize environmental
degradation as but one symptom of a greater spiritual malaise. Faith communities are recognizing that,
even more than a problem for public health, public policy, a sustainable economy, or even ethics, the
state of our planet reflects a crisis of spirit. 376Yet the church has been slow to implement, and advocate
for the care of creation.

The church must move beyond the metaphor of stewardship and its theological deficiencies. The paper
proposed an alternative metaphor rooted in a scriptural and theological account of covenant so called a
covenantal ecology - i.e., a relationship, rooted in covenant, in which God, humanity, and nonhuman
creation stand in proper relationship to one another - as a corrective to four of stewardship’s theological
deficiencies.

In a Covenantal ecology, God is ever-present and active in his creation. In the Noahic covenant, for
example, God both establishes and maintains a covenantal relationship with humans, nonhuman
creatures, and the earth itself. The God at work in a covenantal ecology is not the distant Owner of
stewardship, but the God of Scripture who initiates and maintains the covenant with creation.

Covenantal ecology situates human beings, not as lords over, but as participants within, the created
order. Human beings are intricately bound up within their natural contexts and can thus have a dramatic
influence upon the natural world even when their behaviour is not directly or intentionally directed at
nonhuman creation. In a covenantal ecology, humans are called not to flawless management of
nonhuman creation, but to faithfulness in their relationships with God and neighbour, partners within
this same covenantal ecology.

Covenantal ecology establishes all of creation as a participant in God’s cosmic covenant. As a covenant
partner in a covenantal ecology, nonhuman creation is not dependent upon human beings to assign
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value to nonhuman creation based on its usefulness to human flourishing. The Noahic covenant is the
clearest example of this inclusion with the covenant being extended to all living creatures and the earth.
While a stewardship environmental ethics depends on human managers to assign an arbitrary value to
creation, a covenantal ecology understands God’s inclusion of creation in the covenant as the indication
of its true import.

CONCLUSION
The Noahic covenant provides a scriptural foundation for a covenantal ecology. Like the Noahic
covenant, a covenantal ecology is founded upon a covenantal relationship between God, humanity, and
nonhuman creation. The Flood narrative begins with creation-wide suffering caused by human
corruption and ends with a stabilization and revitalization of creation through an ever-active and ever-
present God. In addition to the oft-recognized covenantal relationship between God and humanity, there
is a “third party” in the covenant: nonhuman creation. 377 God covenants with Noah, his descendants, all
living creatures and the earth never again to send a flood. Within the covenant, God also sets
boundaries for the relationship between human and nonhuman creatures; these boundaries are also
important to a covenantal ecology, for they provide for the flourishing of all creatures. Nonhuman
creation is included in this covenant not only because animal sacrifice initiates God’s post-diluvian
covenantal actions or because of the predator relationships regulated in the covenant, but because
nonhuman creation is a partner with God and humanity in a covenantal relationship that establishes not
only its survival, but flourishing. As James A. Nash describes it, “The Noahic Covenant is a symbol of
the unbreakable bonds among all the creatures and with their Creator.” 378 Thus, covenantal ecology
corrects stewardship’s theological distortions by positing human beings not as stewards, but as active
participants within this covenantal ecology. God as the one who establishes and maintains this ecology
and nonhuman creation, as a participant in this covenant, an object of care for both God and humans.
 1
Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word (Oratio de incarnation verbi), 54, 3, The Faith of the Early Fathers,
selected & translated by W.A. Jurgens (Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 1984), Vol.1, 322.
2
In his concluding remark, the point of view of John can best be understood as a mystērion, a “mystery” to be
grasped and understood as one passes through a process of change and a renewal of consciousness that amounts to
something like a transformation into the likeness of God. This is the “deification” or “divinisation” that we have noted
in many passages in the Gospel.
3
Cf. John Sanford, Mystical Christianity: A Psychological Commentary on the Gospel of John (New York:
The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1996), 321-331.
4
The Eucharist, in which we partake mystically of the body and blood of Christ, is seen as an example of the
mystery of the cross experienced sacramentally in ritual.
5
See J. HaroldEllens, “The Bible and Psychology: An Interdisciplinary Pilgrimage” in Psychology and the
Bible: A New Way to Read the Scriptures, v.1, eds. J. Harold Ellens& Wayne G. Rollins (Westport: Praeger Publishers,
2004), 284.
6
The rhythm is more apparent in the original Greek than in English translations, for in the Greek the
concluding word of a sentence or phrase regularly becomes the opening word of the next sentence or phrase. While the
best English translations try to duplicate this rhythm, it is not always possible to do so.
7
In John 1: 24-28, in addition to reinforcing the emphasis that John the Baptist is subordinate in importance to
Jesus, refers to Elijah and “the prophet”: “Why are you baptizing if you are not the Christ, and not Elijah, and not the
prophet?” The question the men sent by the Pharisees are asking refers to two quotations in the Old Testament about the
coming of the Messiah: Malachi 4: 5-6 and Deuteronomy 18:15 & 18.
8
The Greek word sarx, translated as “flesh,” has several distinguishable meanings in the New Testament (For
five distinguishable meanings of Sarx, see John A. Sanford, Mystical Christianity, 14-15).
9
Of course there are sins that have to do with our physical nature and bodily passions. St. Paul refers to some
of them in Galatians 5: 19-20. But the origin of sin is not the body as such; rather, it stems from a certain inclination of
the will toward evil. Thus the long list of sins that Paul cites in Galatians not only refers to physical passions and lust
but also to hatred, envy, wrath, and many other purely psychological ills.
10
Methodius, The Discourse on the Resurrection 3. 5.
11
See Origen, Commentary on John 1. 42.
12
The dimension of Anthropological aspect being the unconscious guilt, which is the human action before
God, and the theocentric aspect being the unconscious norm, which sums up God’s demand on human beings. See
Figure 7 in GerdTheissen, Psychological Aspects of Pauline Theology, trans. by J.P. Galvin (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1987), 344.
13
C.f. Martin Winter, Pneumatiker und Psychiker, 275-76.
14
This article is supported by the fact that the author links the Logos discourse to the “pneumatic” (3: 5-8).
The limitation to a particular circle in the community would not have been possible in the letter, since the letter was
read to all in the liturgy, at which both outsiders and unbelievers could be present (20:30-31; 21:24-25). The
announcement in 19:35 is meaningful only in the situation of oral discourse, where the speaker can know all the
addressees and where his speech occurs only once; through being fixed in a letter it becomes potentially accessible to
all.
15
From the root wordlambano– which is used for “received,” “take,” “take hold of,” “get,” “obtain”
16
They did, after all, know important parts of the passion tradition, as the author himself attests (19:36-37).
They probably knew more about the circumstances of the crucifixion than the fact that Jesus was betrayed and handed
over, for a tradition of this sort would necessarily have awakened questions about who betrayed Jesus, handed him over
and crucified him.
17
In fact, Jesus’ opponents who claim to be the children of Abraham (of God) have been called children of the
Devil based on their works (8:44f.).
18
WatiLongchar, Contextual Theologies: Methods and Perspectives (Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 201.
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Lyngdoh, “Revisiting the Bible for Women Liberation: Khasi Matrilineal Women Liberationist Perspective”…, 85.
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JekheliKibami, “Biblical Model of Transforming Leaders: Old Testament Perspective,” in Weaving New Patterns of
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RazouselieLasteso, “Women in the Ministry of Jesus and its Significance for Women in Ministry in North East India,”
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Kibami, “Biblical Model of Transforming Leaders,” 111.
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Wilfred, Margins: Site of Asian Theologies…, 220.
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Longkumer, “Women in Ecclesial Leadership: A Justice Issue” in Feminist Theology: Emerging Concerns in South
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Imchen, “Ordination of Women in North East India,” in Weaving New Patterns of Ministry for Women in North East
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Wati
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Y. MerinaChishi, “Nagaland: Towards making space for Women leadership in Churches,” The Morung Express, 30
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Chung Hyun Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian Women’s theology (New York: Orbis Books,
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Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian Women’s theology…, 47.
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NarolaImchen, Women in the History of Christianity (Jorhat: TDCC, 2010), 181-185.
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Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity…, 188-189.
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Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity…, 188-189.
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Longkumer, “Women in Ecclesial Leadership: A Justice Issue” in Feminist Theology: Emerging Concerns in South
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Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theolgical Survey, second edition
(Bengaluru: Theological Publications in India, 2018), 66-67.
174
K. C. Abraham, Transforming Vision: Theological-Methodological Paradigm Shifts (Tiruvalla:
ChristavaSahityaSamithi, 2006), 146.
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RazouselieLasetso, TheNazareth Manifesto: The Theology of Jubilee and Its Trajectories in Luke-Acts (Delhi:
ISPCK, 2005), 149-150.
176
Chris Sungden, “Christian Ministry in the context of Poverty,” in Towards an Integral Theology, eds, Samuel
Jayakumar, J. A. David Onesimus (Chennai: Madras Theological Seminary and College, 2018), 210.
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Christian Witness to the Urban Poor published by the Laussane Committee for world Evangelisation from their
Consultation in Thailand in 1980: reproduced in Evangelism and the Poor, edited by Vinay Samuel and Chris Sugden
(Paternoster, Exeter, 1982).
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Chris Sugden, “Christian Ministry in the context of Poverty,” 210.
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Simon Jones, Luke: Crossway Bible Guide (Leicester: Crossway Books, 1999), 67-68.
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Michael Fallon, The Gospel according to Saint Luke: An Introductory Commentary, 129-130.
181
Michael Fallon, The Gospel according to Saint Luke: An Introductory Commentary, 130.
182
Michael J. Kruger, ed., A Biblical-Theological Introduction to the New Testament (Hyderabad: GS Books, 2016),
105-107.
183
ArrenBenet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” in Towards an Integral Theology,
eds, Samuel Jayakumar, J. A. David Onesimu (Chennai: Madras Theological Seminary and College, 2018), 17.
184
D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Zondervan, 1992), 130.
185
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 17-18.
186
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 18-19.
187
D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Zondervan, 1992), 130.
188
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 20.
189
Simon Jones, Luke: Crossway Bible Guide, 50.
190
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 20-22.
191
Simon Jones, Luke: Crossway Bible Guide, 50.
192
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 23.
193
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 27.
194
Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Histoical, Literary, and Theological Survey, Second edition
(Bengaluru: Theological Publications in India, 2018), 175.
195
D. A. Carson, & Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, second edition(Michigan: Zondervan,
2005), 221.
196
D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Zondervan, 1992), 129-130.
197
D. A. Carson, & Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament , second edition(Michigan: Zondervan,
2005), 221.
198
D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Zondervan, 1992), 130.
199
Simon Jones, Luke: Crossway Bible Guide, 50.
200
Chris Sugden, “Christian Ministry in the context of Poverty,” 210-211.
201
Chris Sugden, “Christian Ministry in the context of Poverty,” 211-212.
202
RazouselieLazetso, TheNazareth Manifesto, 180.
203
J. A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX: A New Translation With Introduction and Cmmentary. AB 28.
First ed (Farden City, New York:Doubleday& Company Inc, 1981), 690.
204
RazouselieLazetso, TheNazareth Manifesto, 180-181.
205
S. Samuel rajadurai, “The Plight of the Food Producing Tribals, Women and Dalits: An Agrarian Approach to
Christian Theology,” in Building Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and
Tribal/Adivasi Theologies, edited by HrangthanChhungi, Raj BharathPatta, P. Mohan Larbeer (BTESSC: 2012), 144.
206
Brian J. Pierce, Jesus and the Prodigal Son: The God of Radical mercy (Bangalore: Theological Publications in
India, 2017), 98-118.
207
Kenneth Berding& Matt Williams, eds, What the New Testament Authors really cared about, second edition (Grand
Rapids, 2015), 95.
208
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 33.
209
RzaouselieLasetso, TheNazareth Manifesto, 158-159.
210
RazouslieLasetso,TheNazareth Manifesto, 159.
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Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” 35.
212
K.C. Abraham, Transforming Vision: Theological-Methodological Paradigm Shifts, 147.
213
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,” , 35.
214
Arren Benet Lawrence, “Messianic Imagination of the Poor in the Gospel of Luke,”, 27.
215
Leon Morris, New Testament Theology, 208-209.
216
Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Histoical, Literary, and Theological Survey, Second edition
(Bengaluru: Theological Publications in India, 2018), 175.
217
K. C. Abraham, Transforming Vision: Theological-Methodological Paradigm Shifts, 140-142.
218
K.C. Abraham, Transforming Vision: Theological-Methodological Paradigm Shifts, 143-145.
219
Michael J. Kruger, ed., A Biblical-Theological Introduction to the New Testament, 107.
220
Leon Morris, New Testament Theology (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986), 210.
221
Leslie C.Allen, “Psalm 101-105,” World Biblical Commentary,vol.21 (Waco: Word Book,
Publisher,1983),34-35.
222
Frank E.Gaebelein et al., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary,vol.5 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing
House,1991), 657.
223
Anthony R.Ceresko, The Old Testament: A Liberation perspectives (Mumbai: St Pauls, 2009), 349-350.
224
Anderson, “Psalms,” It is Written…, 62.
225
Anderson, “Psalms,” It is Written ..., 63.
226
Gaebelein at al., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary…, 664.
227
Barker, “The Waters of the Earth….
228
Allen, “Psalm 101-105,” World Biblical Commentary…, 28.
229
Allen, “Psalm 101-105,” World Biblical Commentary…, 28.
230
Barker, “The Waters of the Earth….
231
Ceresko, The Old Testament…, 345.
232
Merrill F.Unger, Unger’s Commentary on the Old Testament,vol.I (Chicago: Moody Press,1981),900.
233
Leopold Sabourin,S.J., The Psalms : Their Origin and Meaning (New York : Alba House,1970),184.
234
Unger, Unger’s Commentary…,902.
235
P.RajendraBabu, Exile and theology of Creation: A Socio-Historical Study of the Creation motif in Isaiah
40-55 (Delhi: ISPCK,2011),4.
236
Artur Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press,1962), 666. See also
Leopold Sabourin,S.J., The Psalms : Their Origin and Meaning (New York : Alba House,1970),184-185.
237
Gaebelein et al., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary…, 657.
238
Elmer A.Leslie, Psalms: Translated and interpreted in the Light of Hebrew Life and Worship (New York:
Abingdon Press,)n.p.,141.
239
James Luther Mays, “Psalms,” Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, James
Luther Mays et.al. (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1994),332.
240
Gaebelein et al., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary…,657.
241
Sabourin,S.J., The Psalms : Their Origin and Meaning (New York : Alba House,1970),186.
242
George Arthur Buttrick et al., The Interpreter’s Bible, vol.iv (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1955), 550.Genesis
1:31 “God saw everything that he had made, and indeed, it was very good. And there was evening and there was
morning, the sixth day.” NRSV, Holy Bible.
243
Unger, Unger’s Commentary…,900.
244
Charles Augustus Briggs and Emilie Grace Briggs, The International Critical Commentary: A Critical and
Exegetical Commentary on The Book of Psalms,vol.II (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,1986),331.
245
See Charles Augustus Briggs and Emilie Grace Briggs, The International Critical Commentary: A Critical
and Exegetical Commentary on The Book of Psalms,vol.II (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,1986),329-343.
246
The Holy Bible, NRSV (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,1989),483.
247
Sephardic Institute “On the Linkage of Psalm 104 and Genesis 1” http://www.judaic
seminar.orgbiblebersheet2.pdf.
248
Philip Schafran,“Is Mankind the Measure?: Old Testament Perspectives on Mankind's Place in the Natural
World,” http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1995/PSCF6-95Schafran.html.
249
Barker, “The Waters of the Earth….
250
“Psalm 104,”http:// www.reasons.org/blogs/reflections/psalm-104-a-poetic-view-of-creation(Aug.12, 2014)
251
Schafran,“Is Mankind the Measure?: Old Testament….
252
Barker, “The Waters of the Earth….
253
“Psalm 104 and Genesis 1 in Graphic Display,”https://www.viaemmaus.wordpress.com/.../psalm-104-and-
genesis-1-in-graphi.(Feb. 05, 2015).
254
Arthur Walker-Jones, The Green Psalter: Resources for an Ecological Spirituality (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press,2009),88.
255
Hermann Gunkel, Introduction to Psalms: the Genres of the Religious Lyric of Israel (Macon: Mercer
University Press, 1998), 22.
256
Erhard Gerstenberger, “Psalms,”Old Testament Form Criticism, ed. John Haralson Hayes (San
Antonio: Trinity University Press, 1974), 209.
257
Frank LotharHossfeld and Eric Zenger. “A Commentary on Psalms 101-150,” A Critical and Historical
Commentary on the Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011),45.
258
Mays, “Psalms,” Interpretation: A Bible…,332.
259
Allen, “Psalm 101-150,” Word Biblical…,32.
 260
Sebastian Bullough O.P. “The Psalms,” A New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture, Reginald C. Fuller
D.D. et al. (New Jersey: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1969), 480.
261
Merrill F.Unger, Unger’s Commentary on the Old Testament, vol I: Genesis – Song of Solomon (Chicago:
Moody Press, 1981), 900.
262
William P. Brown, The Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology
of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010),145.
263
Van Gemeren, “Psalms,” The Expositor’s Bible …, 658.
264
Allen P.Ross, “Psalms,” The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, ed., John F.Walvoord and Roy
B.Zuck (U.S.A:DavidC.Cook, 1983), 868.
265
Gianfranco Ravasi, “Psalms 90-150,” The International Bible Commentary:An Ecumenical Commentary For
the Twenty-First Century, William R.Farmer et al.(Bangalore: Theological Publications in India,2004),903.
266
Lawrence E. Toombs, “The Psalms,” The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible,ed., Charles
M.Laymon (Nashville: Abingdon Press,1971),291.
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Bullough O.P. “ The Psalms,” A New Catholic Commentary…,480.
268
RavElchananSamet, “You Have made them all in Wisdom.” Psalm 104 according to Meir Weiss,
http://www.etzion.org.il/.../shiur-47-you-have-madethem-all-wisdom-psalm-10.
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Joseph Lam, “The Biblical Creation in its Ancient Near Eastern
Context,”http://www.BioLogos.org/projects/scholar-essays. (Feb. 15, 2015)
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Brown, The Seven Pillars of Creation…,147.
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Mays, “Psalms,” Interpretation: A Bible…,334.
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Artur Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1962), 668.
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Stuhlmueller, “Psalm,” Harper’s Bible Commentary…,480.
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James H. Waltner, Believers Church Bible Commentary: Psalms, ed., Elmer A.Martens and Willard M.
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Henry, “An Exposition with Practical Observation …,630.
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Johnston, “Wisdom Literature and …, 71.
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Richard Bauckham, The Bible and Ecology: Rediscovering the Community of Creation (Texas: Baylor
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Stott, The Canticles and Selected Psalms…,126.
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282
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Brown, The Seven Pillars of Creation…, 147-148.
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SijoChungath, Art of Being in the World: A Meditative Way of Life Through Nature (Kashmere Gate:
ISPCK, 2009), 34.
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Paulson Pulikottil, “God, Creation and humankind old Testament themes in ecological perspective,”
Ecological Challenges and Christian Mission, ed., KrickwinC.Marak&AtulY.Aghamkar(Kashmere Gate, Delhi :
CMS/ISPCK, 1998), 57.
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Norman C.Habeled.,The earth Story in the Psalms and the Prophets (London: Sheffield Academic Press,
2001),22. For elaborative discussion of these principles see Earth Bible team, 2000, 38-53.
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K.C.Abrahram, “Eco-Socialism and Jubilee,”inReligion and Society, vol. 43 No.4, (Dec.1996), 93..
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K. C. Abraham, Liberative Solidarity: Contemporary Perspective on Mission (Thiruvalla: ChristavaSahityaSamithy,
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K. C. Abraham, “Witnessing in a Globalized World,” in Witnessing n Context: Essays in Honour of EardleyMendis,
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Raphael Jospe, “Sabbath, Sabbatical and jubilee: Jewish ethical Perspectives,”The Jubilee Challenge Utopia or
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2004), 298.
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Ross Kinsler and Gloria Kinsler, The Biblical Jubilee and The Struggle For Life, (New York: Orbis Books, 2000),
34.
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50-56.
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I.S.P.C.K. 2005), 66-67.
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2004), 300-301.
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I.S.P.C.K. 2005), 54.
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Michael Amaladoss, ed., Globalization and its Victims as Seen by its Victims (Delhi: ISPCK, 1999), 140.
318
For Marx and Engels, the present situation of capitalism was not an accident events, but the result of clear laws of
historical development. The key of the various stages was the nature and organization of production. From the ancient
slavery through feudalism to capitalism, the stages were marked by the gradual development of wage labour. Marx
proposed the final stage of this development when labour and ownership would be fused into single entity and al
property would be held in common-what came to be known as socialism. Michael Leeling, The Foundations of
Christian Ethics (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990), 172-173.
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Indukuri John Mohan Razu, Global Capitalism as Hydra: A New Look at Market, Money and MNCs (Delhi: ISPCK,
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321
The main aim of the capitalist market is the maximization of profit, I,e. the accumulation of capital. The globalization
of market means that the nation-state has less and less power to intervent in economic policy. Ulrich Duchrow and
Franz J. Hinkelammert, Property for People and not for Profit: Alternatives to the Global Tyranny of Capital (Geneva:
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Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga, Towards Understanding Indian Society (Triuvalla: ChristavaSahityaSamithi,
2003), 101.
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Jeremy Carraette, “The Objectified People and the Objectified god of Tourism,” in Deconstructing Tourism Who
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Geoff Thompson, “Remaining Loyal to the Earth: Humanity, God’s other Creatures and the Bible in Karl Barth”, in
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332
Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Global Stewardship: Toward an Ethic of Limitation,” in The Challenge of Global Stewardship:
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Over the last several decades, a growing number of Christians have attempted to counter the environmentally
harmful distortions of the modern cosmic imaginary. The irony is that the primary metaphor adopted to combat
environmental exploitation, i.e., stewardship is deeply enmeshed in this creation denying and denigrating modern
cosmic imaginary. Stewardship perpetuates significant aspects of the modern cosmic imagery: a distant God, a human
manager placed over creation, and a nonhuman creation only valued insofar as it benefits those manager. Stewardship
leaves the church with an absent God, a natural world created to be manipulated and exploited by a human master.
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John Arthur Passmore, Man’s Responsibility for Nature: Ecological Problems and Western Traditions (New York:
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Creation,” Expository Times 122, no. 3 ( December 1, 2010): 123.
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What You Have Been Given, eds. FulataMoyo and Martin ( Blantyre, Malawi: Christian Literature Association, 2002),
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William J Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation: An Old Testament Covenantal Theology, (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
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Grand Rapids, MI; Eerdmans, 2011), 336.
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1980), 159-60.
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Robert Murray, The Cosmic Covenant: Biblical Themes of Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation, (Tigris,
2007), 102.
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S.van den Eynde, “The Missing Link: in the Flood Narrative: Meaning and Pecularities of a Hebrew Key Word” in
Studies in The Book of Genesis: Literature, Redaction and History, edt., by Andre Wenin, ( Belgium: Leuven
University Press, 2001), 476.
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R.W.L. Moberly, The Theology of the Book of Genesis, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 106-7.
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Anne Gardner, “Ecojustice: A Study of Genesis 6:11-13,” in The Earth Story in Genesis;: The Earth Bible Volume 2
eds. Norman C. Habel and Shirley Wurst ( Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000), 126.
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John Olley, “Mixed Blessings for Animals: the contrasts of Genesis 9,” in The Earth Story in Genesis: The Earth
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Rosemary Radford Ruether, “Theological Resources for Earth-Healing: Covenant and Sacrament,” in The Challenge
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Clark International, 2008), 85.
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William J. Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation: An Old Testament Covenantal Theology, (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Baker Book House, 1993), 28-29.
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