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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

MIRPUR, BANGLADESH

JOINT PRECIS

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

PREFACE

1. This précis on research methodology is not an original work. The content of this
précis have been taken basically from three sources as mentioned below:

a. “An Introduction to Research Methods”- a book written by Professor M.

Nurul Islam. This book has been referred in many parts of this précis.

b. “Introduction to Social Research”- a book written by Professor Salahuddin

M. Aminuzzzaman.

c. “enquire guide to harvard apa style bibliographic referencing”-a

document retrieved from:

www.nottingham.ac.uk/...enquire/.../ENQUIREreferencingguide.pdf

2. This précis is designed to guide the students of Defence Services Command and
Staff College in the preparation of IRP. It elaborates the accepted methods of carrying out
research and writing the report of the findings. Though the methodology explained here is
primarily for writing academic research papers, it also applies to military research.

3. Research process involves many aspects that a student will have to consider.
Though this précis covers the major parts of research methodology, but for detailed
understanding on the subject students should read the books mentioned above.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CONTENTS

Chapter Annex Contents Page

(a) (b) (c) (e)
Preface i
Table of Contents ii to iv

1 Introduction to Research Methodology and Research 1-1 to 1-3

Methods
Definition of Research
Research-Aims and Features
Types of Research
Criteria of Good Research
Qualities of Good Researcher
2 Basic Concepts and Key Issues 2-1 to 2-6
General
Variables
Research Problem
Research Question
Research Hypothesis
Research Objective/Purpose
Ethics in Research
3 Research Process 3-1 to 3-8
Research Process
Identifying Research Problem
Identifying Research Question
Review of the Literature
Setting Objective/Purpose and Hypothesis

4 Research Design and Research Proposal 4-1 to 4-5

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What is a Research Design

Conceptual Framework
Research Proposal

5 Data Collection 5-1 to 5-9

General
Data Collection
Quantitative Data Collection
Personal Interview
Survey (Self-administered Questionnaire) Method
Telephone Interview
Qualitative Data Collection
Unstructured Interview
Focus Group Discussion
Observational Method of Data Collection
Document Study
Content Analysis

6 Data Analysis 6-1 to 6-3

General
Data Preparation
Data Analysis

7 Conclusions and Recommendations 7-1 to 7-3

General
Common Errors in Reasoning
Recommendations Should be Practical
Elements of Conclusions and Recommendations

8 Writing the Research Report 8-1 to 8-5

Revising the Outline
Continuity
Making a Beginning

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Style
Quotations
Illustrations
Editing
Abbreviations
Abstract

9 Format of Research Report 9-1 to 9-13

Preliminaries
Introduction
Main Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations
Bibliography and Referencing-Harvard APA Style
Plagiarism and Referencing
Miscellaneous Aspects

A Format Samples 9A-1 to 9A-

10
Sample Cover Sheet (Title Page)
Sample Abstract Page
Sample Table Of Contents
Sample List Of Tables
Sample List of Illustrations

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH METHODS

Definition of Research

1. From the time immemorial, mankind has always challenged unexplained,

uncertain and unknown matters. Human being by nature is curious and inquisitive. They
deliberately attempted to explore unknown world around them, questioned unexplained
workings and peculiar incidences. In doing so, men used different indigenous methods
of investigation. However, the advancement of science and civilization, logical
arguments and reasoning, and concept of ethics gave birth to a new process called
‘research’ to seek the answers of unknown questions in a systematic manner.
Research is, therefore, a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
special tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible by ordinary means. It starts with a
problem, collects data (facts, information, evidence, experience and observations), and
reaches at conclusion based on the actual evidence.

2. Research in the military makes no distinction with the research that has been
explained above. The only notable point is that the purely military problems relating to
operation and tactics are solved by other deliberate processes: these are ‘Appreciation’,
‘Intelligence Preparation of Battlefield’ and ‘Decision Making Process’. In the day to day
activities of Armed Forces, we encounter continuously different types of problems. Many
of these problems are complicated and have far reaching effects on the advancement of
our Armed Forces. These problems can be identified properly and solved accordingly by
research process.

Research-Aims and Features

3. Fundamental concern of research is to find the truth. Research also attempts to

scrutinize and test the extent of validity of the previously drawn conclusions, explore
new facts, and draws generalizations or new conclusions. We can identify the following
aims of any research pursuits. Functionally, research attempts to:

a. Find out new dimensions and generalizations (a conclusion derived from

and equally applies to a number of cases) with old data.

b. Examine old conclusions with new data.

c. Put forward an entirely original theory or idea, or discover unexplored

horizon of knowledge.

d. Find or resolve contradictions existing in the area of study.

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4. Features of Research. Research process has six distinct features:

a. As an investigative process it originates with a question. It attempts to

satisfy an unanswered question in the mind of a researcher.

b. Research demands a clear articulation of a goal. A clear statement of the

problem is a precondition to any research.

c. In its’ due course of inquiry, research subdivides the principal problem into
appropriate and more manageable sub-problems. Each sub-problem seeks
answer through hypothesis. These hypotheses direct the researcher to collect
and examine data.

d. Research looks for data directed by the hypothesis and guided by the
problem. The data are collected, organized and processed in a systematic
approach.

e. In its analysis, research endorses only solid and measurable data in

attempting to resolve the problem that initiates the research.

f. Research, by its nature, is a circular process. It interprets the meaning of

the data which leads to a resolution of the problem: thus confirming or rejecting
the hypothesis and proving answer to the question which began the research
cycle.

Types of Research

5. In our professional life, three main types of research we may be engaged in are:

a. Exploratory. Exploratory research is aimed at examining a new

phenomenon or area unexplored by others for the purpose of giving a better
understanding of, insight into, or familiarity with its occurrence or its nature.

b. Descriptive Study. A descriptive study portrays as accurately as possible

the characteristics of a phenomenon or to determine the frequency with which
some thing occurs.

c. Causal Study. A causal study is one which tries to determine the casual
relationship or linkage between variables. A causal relationship asserts that a
particular occurrence or variable X is one of the factors which determine another
occurrence or variable Y. Examples of causal studies are:

(1) Relationship between training and professional competency.

(2) Does television viewing lead to child violence?

(3) Does smoking lead to lung cancer?

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Criteria of Good Research

6. These are:

a. The purpose of the research or the problem involved should be clearly

defined and sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible.

b. The research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to

permit another researcher to repeat the research.

c. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield

results that are as objective as possible.

d. The researcher should report with complete frankness flaws in procedural

design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

e. Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance, and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

f. Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the

research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

Qualities of Good Researcher

7. Whatever is the type of research or types of methods used in research, a

researcher in order to be successful needs following qualities:

a. Open and Critical Mind. A true researcher should have an open mind
so that he can explore beyond his perceived limit. On the other hand, he should
also be critical so that a data, idea or theory is accurately examined.

b. Creativity. A researcher’s mind must always be intellectually alert to

comprehend various challenges in the arduous work of research. Research is all
about overcoming the challenge of solving a problem, and problem solving
demands new idea, concept and theory. New idea, concept and theory come so
easily from a creative mind.

c. Professional Education. A researcher must have meticulous

understanding and thorough knowledge of his area of study. He should also have
practical experiences and training to understand, analyze and tackle the problem.

d. Patience and Perseverance. Research is a tiresome continuous

process. It is a unique combination of success and failure. As an intellectual
exercise, therefore, a researcher requires perseverance, tenacity and patience.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER - 2

BASIC CONCEPTS AND KEY ISSUES

Ref:
A. Basic Concepts and Issues in Research, Chapter-2, ‘An Introduction to Research
Methods’ by M. Nurul Islam.
General
1. This chapter discusses few basic concepts and issues that are essential in
research. This will help a researcher in grasping the whole process of research.
Variables

2. In all types of research works, a researcher must carefully identify the facts that
are assumed to cause the problem. In order to do this, he must select variables.
Therefore we should know what a variable is.
Variable: A variable is a characteristic of a person, an object or a phenomenon that
can take on different values in a delineated domain or range.
A simple example of a variable is a person’s age. The age can take on any different
value because a person can be 20 years old, 35 years old and so on.

3. In many research work, researcher attempt to identify the relationship between

the independent variable and the dependent variable. Therefore, it is important to
understand what these are.
Independent variable: the variable or factor that is assumed to cause or at least
influence the problem is called independent variable
Dependent variable: the variable that is used to describe or measure the problem
understudy is called dependent variable

Example-1:
Problem: To investigate the possible impacts of the Jamuna Bridge on the
development of North Bengal area.

Independent variable: Jamuna Bridge

Dependent variable: Development of North Bengal
‘Jamuna bridge’ an independent variable is believed to have some impact/influence on
the ‘development of North Bengal’ which is a dependent variable

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Example-2:

Problem: Is low intake of food a cause for underweight?

Independent variable: low intake of food

Dependent variable: underweight

Here, ‘low intake of food’ is believed to have caused the ‘underweight’ problem.
Therefore, ‘low intake of food’ is an independent variable while ‘underweight’ is a
dependent variable

Keep things as simple as possible. Many students think that they need to have many
independent variables in a research paper to make the paper worth. This is not the
case. It's much better to test only one variable than to test many at once.

4. It is also important that the variables should be measurable. However, in the

example-1, independent variable is clearly measurable but the dependant variable is
not. Because meaning of the term ‘development’ is too wide, and can create
considerable confusion. Therefore, a good researcher will attempt to make it more
measurable. This can be done in different ways:

Example: To investigate the possible impacts of the Jamuna Bridge on the economic
development of North Bengal area.

By adding the word economic the variable is now more measurable, and provides very
specific direction of research.

Example: To investigate the possible impacts of the Jamuna Bridge on the

development of road communication of North Bengal area.

Similarly, development of road communication is more measurable and provides a

different direction of research.

A few types of variables have been discussed here. But there are more types of
variables which a researcher may like to learn. For additional study, please read ref A.

Research Problem
5. A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel
apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a
certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of
the problem situation.
6. There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources
usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others
may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You
may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This
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could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in

theories could be researched.
7. Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at
clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the
inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions,
or at solving existing practical problems.

Research Question

8. Formulating research question is the most critical and perhaps the most difficult
part of any research. A research question best describes the objective or purpose of the
research study. The way a particular research question is worded can have a significant
influence on how much and what kind of research activity will be required. Social
researchers have regarded research question as the bridge between the research topic
and research hypothesis.

9. By selecting questions, and paying attention to their wording, it is possible to

determine what is to be studied, why it is to be studied, and how it is to be studied.
Therefore, research questions can be grouped in three main types; ‘what questions’,
‘why questions’ and ‘how questions’. What questions require descriptive answer;
they are directed towards discovering and describing of and patterns in some
phenomenon. Why questions ask for either the cause or the reasons for the existence
of the characteristics in particular phenomenon. They are directed towards
understanding and explaining the relationship between the events. How questions are
concerned with bringing about changes in practical outcomes and interventions. Follow
this example below:

Example:

Research Problem: “It is noticed with great concern that in recent times, most young
people have become prone to drug addiction in the country, which is unprecedented.”

The ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions can be formed as follows:

• What is the socio-economic background of the people involved in the incidence?

• Why have this habit developed?
• How can this habit be changed?

Research Hypothesis

10. Hypothesis is a projected statement subject to empirical test. It is an educated

guess or a probable solution of the problem on which the research is being carried out.
Therefore, validity of the hypothesis must be tested. A hypothesis is made in order to
find its correctness with valid explanation. A valid hypothesis provides the basis of the
research.
11. Functions of Hypothesis.
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a. It indicates the major independent variables to be included in the study.

b. It explains all the facts connected with the hypothesis.

c. It enables us to direct inquiry along the right line. It suggests experiments

and observations. It helps researcher to collect necessary data.

d. It limits the scope of research to a manageable area. Instead of random

collection of data, it enables us to search only for relevant facts and evidence.

e. It leads to conclusion which is very significant for the advancement of

knowledge.

12. Formulation of Hypothesis. The formulation of hypothesis presumes some

problem for which inquiry is necessary. If there is no problem, no research is necessary,
and there is no necessity of a hypothesis. A satisfactory solution of a problem requires
the irrelevant facts be eliminated from the relevant facts. The hypothesis is the focal
point of any research and must be so formulated that it can be tested. Following
guidelines are suggested for the formulation of hypothesis:

a. Simple and Clear Concept. Concepts used in the hypothesis should

be clearly defined and easily communicated. If a concept contains vague and
complex elements, people will have different meanings from it. For example,
consider this hypothesis “Modern warfare demonstrated that there is no
alternative to combined arms operation”. What is the definition of “Modern
Warfare”? Unless a time line is mentioned, it can create confusion in the mind of
reader. Therefore, a researcher should bear in mind the following while
formulating a simple and clear hypothesis:

(1) Researcher should have absolute and complete understanding of

the concepts that is being proposed.

(2) Researcher should understand the connotation and significance of

the concept clearly, precisely and fully in the context of their usage.

(3) If concepts are ambiguous, they must be illustrated.

(4) Vague and highly generalized concepts, such as ‘function’, ‘modern

warfare’, ‘ancient warfare’ etc are to be translated into more concrete
terms.

b. Specific and Testable. Often the hypothesis is expressed in very

general terms that it cannot be tested. A too general hypothesis can be divided
into numbers of sub-hypothesis.

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c. In Line With Research Method. Hypothesis should be formulated

according to the availability of research methods. If a hypothesis cannot be
tested by available methods, it will be a waste of time.
d. The Hypothesis Must be Related to Existing Theory. A tested
hypothesis should question, qualify or confirm one or more existing theories.
e. Empirically Verifiable. The most important condition of valid
hypothesis is that it should be empirically verifiable. A hypothesis should be
compared with the facts of experience directly or indirectly. A hypothesis, if not
confirmed, will be recognized as a mere supposition.

Research Objective/Purpose

13. The way you attack your problems will be determined by the purpose of your
study. For example, in trying to decide how to state the problem, you must ask yourself
certain questions. What is the purpose of my research? Why do I want to investigate
the problem? The answers to these questions will tell you the purpose of your study.

14. Do not confuse the purpose with the problem statement. These two elements are
entirely different. Also, keep in mind that there can be only one purpose of your study.
Perhaps these hypothetical examples will help you see the difference between the
various elements of a special study.

Example:

Problem Statement: To investigate the possible impacts of the Jamuna Bridge on the
economic development of North Bengal area.

Purpose: To recommend various measures by which the economic condition of

North Bengal can be improved by constructing the bridge.

Ethics in Research

15. Ethics are the norms or codes of behaviour that guide moral choices about our
behaviour and relationship with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that
no one is harmed from research activities. In most research settings, three parties are
involved; the researcher, the client (user) and the respondent (subject). The researcher
believe that he has right to seek any information from the respondent, while the
respondent believe he has right to privacy. On the other hand, the user also preserves
some rights. His primary right is to expect objective and data from the researcher.

16. To make a study ethically acceptable, the following points must be adhered
during data collection:

a. Do not deceive a respondent about the true purpose of the research.

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b. Do not ask embarrassing question to respondent.

c. Do not ask respondent a question that can cause emotional turmoil.
d. Do not ask question that can invade his privacy.
e. Do not threat or compel the respondent to participate.
f. Do not violate a promise of confidentiality.

17. A researcher can also act unethically when analyzing data. These are:

a. By revealing only a part of the fact.

b. Presenting fact out of the context.
c. Falsifying findings to please the client.
d. Offering misleading presentations.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER -3

RESEARCH PROCESS

Research Process

1. There are number of ways available to conduct a research. However, despite

variation all researchers generally follow few distinct steps in research process. These
steps are as follows:

a. Identifying research problem and question/s.

b. Review of the literature.
c. Setting objectives/purpose and hypothesis.
d. Choosing research design and approving research proposal.
e. Data collection.
f. Data analysis.
g. Formulating conclusions.
h. Writing research report.

1. Identifying
Research Problem
8. Writing Research and Question/s
2. Literature Review
Report

7. Formulating 3. Setting
Conclusions Objective/Purpose
and Hypothesis

6. Data Analysis 5. Data Collection 4. Research Design

and Research
Proposal

Diagram-1: A schematic diagram showing full cycle of a research process.

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Identifying Research Problem

2. Identifying a problem can be an extremely difficult mental task. Students of

previous courses have invariably reported this to be the most difficult phase of research.
A mechanical method for locating a research problem cannot be outlined. However,
there are certain things you can do. First, decide tentatively upon a topic area, and then
think about it. Put your mind to work imaginatively. Jot down on a piece of paper as
many aspects and ramifications of the area as you can imagine. Try then to picture
which of these aspects seem to contain barriers to efficient and effective functioning of
Armed Forces, or to the attainment of national objectives. These barriers may well be
likely topics for your research.

3. Next, with these tentative ideas in mind, go to the library and read. Read
selectively in an attempt to determine if your ideas represent actual problems. Locate
other special studies, theses or reports written in your selected area. Take advantage of
the thought and effort they put into their investigations.

4. Talk to your fellow officers and to your Directing Staff about the area and
problems you have selected tentatively. Use them as sounding boards for your ideas.
Ask them to suggest aspects of the area which may not have occurred to you. Try the
'brainstorming' technique with your group members (in a group project) during lunch
hour - let them help you find a research problem.

5. Criteria in Evaluating a Problem. Assuming that you recognize some

unsolved theme/topic and decide upon a research problem, how can you be sure it is
suitable? The following criteria may help you in evaluating your selection:

a. Is the Problem of Interest to Me? Nothing is more deadening than to

select a problem in which you have no real interest and then try to force yourself
to investigate and report upon it. If possible, pick a problem which sparks your
interest and enthusiasm, one which you will sincerely like to solve.

b. Is the Problem Unsolved? Your study cannot make a real contribution to

knowledge if the problem or important elements of it have already been
solved.

c. Is the Problem Worthwhile? Will it repay you for the efforts you expend,
or is it only a chance to collect data? Will your knowledge be increased as a
result of having investigated the problem? Will the problem stimulate imaginative
and original thinking? Keep in mind that research should produce something
new which did not exist before the research was undertaken.

d. Is the Scope Satisfactory? If you choose a problem which is too broad,

you will never be able to complete it in the time allotted. On the other hand, if you
choose too narrow a problem, you will not profit from your investigation. You are
the best judge of your capabilities and know whether you can handle your

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problem intelligently. Give your problem careful consideration to decide if the

scope is suitable. Review of the literature help you decide.

e. Does the Problem Have Emotional Content for Me? Do not attack your
study with the idea of 'proving a point'. Far too many officers hold a strong
conviction on some point and regard their study as simply a convenient vehicle
which they can use to convince others. You must be absolutely impartial in
working on your study.

f. Are Adequate Data Available? You must make sure that sufficient data
exists or can be made available to permit you to do a comprehensive job on your
study. If you have selected a research problem which you believe will contain
classified information, check with the librarian and the Directing Staff to see
whether classified documents in the general category of your study can be made
available to you. Check first, If you cannot locate enough information, select
another topic.

5. Formulating a Problem. It is very important to understand the essential

contents of a problem statement. Following information should ideally be included in
problem statement:

a. A brief description of the socio-economic and cultural characteristics and

an overview of the issue at the macro level.

b. A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy

between what is and what it should be), and of its size, distribution, and severity
(who is affected, where, when, how etc).

c. An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a
convincing argument that the available knowledge is insufficient to solve it.

d. A brief description of any attempt in the past to solve the problem,

outcome thereof, and why further research is needed.
e. A description of the type of information expected to result from the study
and how this information will be used to help solve the problem.

Few examples are given below:

Example-1:
Previous research has found that racially diverse educational
environments are associated with positive intellectual and social outcomes for
college students (Astin, 1993; Chang, 1999; Gurin, 1999; Smith & Associates,
1997). Racial diversity in the student body is linked to the likelihood that a
student will interact with someone of a different race or ethnicity and engage in
discussions of racial or ethnic issues. Frequent interaction across racial lines
and discussion of racial and ethnic issues positively predicts student retention,

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intellectual and social self-concept, and overall satisfaction with college (Gurin,
1999; Smith & Associates, 1997). The existing evidence, however, is based
largely on quasi-experimental or correlation designs using self-report data.
Therefore, an examination will be conducted to ascertain the cognitive
outcomes when students are exposed to conditions of racial diversity.

Example-2:
While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages
have female school attendance rate as high as 75% while some have as low as
10% although all villages should have nearly equal rate of attendance. What
factors are associated with this discrepancy?

Identifying Research Question

6. Please see Chapter-2.

Review of the Literature

7. You have made a tentative decision as to the problem you will investigate, and
have written down a problem statement. Still you may not be sure how to begin the
investigation even though you already have some knowledge of the problem. This is
why the review of literature is so necessary and helpful. Remember that, others have
had experience with problems similar to yours. Consult their works to find the best
techniques to use in attacking your problem and to suggest solutions.

8. Efforts should be made to acquire a wide and deep understanding of the nature
of the problem to be studied. This knowledge can be gained by reading the available
literature on the topic, interviewing persons knowledgeable about it, and conducting
exploratory studies. Review of the literature generates several benefits:

a. It reveals investigations similar to the proposed study and shows how the
other researchers handled the research problem.

b. It suggests a method of dealing with a problematic situation that may also

suggest avenue of approach to the solution of similar difficulties.

c. It reveals to the researcher the sources of data that the researcher may
not have known existed.

d. It can help the researcher to see his study in historical and associational
perspective, and in relation to earlier and more primitive attacks on the same
problem.

e. It provides the researcher with new ideas and approaches that may not
have occurred to him.

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Examples of a Review of the Literature

Topic: LANGUAGE AND GENDER

1st Part - List of Literatures Consulted

1. Fol literatures were consulted for this review:

a. Cameron, D., F. McAlinden and K. O'Leary (1988). "Lakoff in context:

the social and linguistic function of tag questions." In J. Coates and D.
Cameron (op. cit.). pp. 74-93.

b. Coates, J. and D. Cameron (Eds.) (1988) Women in their speech

communities. Harlow: Longman.

c. Coates, J. (1988). Chapter 6: "Introduction." In J. Coates and D.

Cameron (op. cit.) pp. 63-73.

d. Lakoff, R. (1975) Language and Woman's Place. New York: Harper and
Row.

e. Maltz, D.N. and R.A. Borker (1982). "A cultural approach to male-female
miscommunication." in J. Gumperz (Ed.), Language and social identity.
Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.

f. Tannen, D. (1987). That's not what I meant. London: Dent.

2nd Part - Disc on Findings of Review of the Literature

2. With the general growth of feminist work in many academic fields, it is hardly
surprising that the relationship between language and gender has attracted
considerable attention in recent years. In an attempt to go beyond "folk linguistic"
assumptions about how men and women use language (the assumption that women
are "talkative", for example), studies have focused on anything from different
syntactical, phonological or lexical uses of language to aspects of conversation
analysis, such as topic nomination and control, interruptions and other interactional
features. While some research has focused only on the description of differences,
other work has sought to show how linguistic differences both reflect and reproduce
social difference. Accordingly, Coates (1988) suggests that research on language and
gender can be divided into studies that focus on dominance and those that focus on
difference.

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3. Much of the earlier work emphasized dominance. Lakoff's (1975) pioneering

work suggested that women's speech typically displayed a range of features, such as
tag questions, which marked it as inferior and weak. Thus, she argued that the type of
subordinate speech learned by a young girl "will later be an excuse others use to keep
her in a demeaning position, to refuse to treat her seriously as a human being" (1975,
p.5). While there are clearly some problems with Lakoff's work - her analysis was not
based on empirical research, for example, and the automatic equation of subordinate
with `weak' is problematic - the emphasis on dominance has understandably
remained at the Centre of much of this work. Research has shown how men
nominated topics more, interrupted more often, held the floor for longer, and so on
(see, for example, Zimmerman and West, 1975). The chief focus of this approach,
then, has been to show how patterns of interaction between men and women reflect
the dominant position of men in society.
4. Some studies, however, have taken a different approach by looking not so
much at power in mixed-sex interactions as at how same-sex groups produce certain
types of interaction. In a typical study of this type, Maltz and Borker (1982) developed
lists of what they described as men's and women's features of language. They argued
that these norms of interaction were acquired in same-sex groups rather than mixed-
sex groups and that the issue is therefore one of (sub-)cultural miscommunication
rather than social inequality. Much of this research has focused on comparisons
between, for example, the competitive conversational style of men and the
cooperative conversational style of women.
5. While some of the more popular work of this type, such as Tannen (1987),
lacks a critical dimension, the emphasis on difference has nevertheless been valuable
in fostering research into gender subgroup interactions and in emphasizing the need
to see women's language use not only as ‘subordinate’ but also as a significant sub
cultural domain.
6. Although Coates' (1988) distinction is clearly a useful one, it also seems
evident that these two approaches are by no means mutually exclusive. While it is
important on the one hand, therefore, not to operate with a simplistic version of power
and to consider language and gender only in mixed-group dynamics, it is also
important not to treat women's linguistic behaviour as if it existed outside social
relations of power. As Cameron, McAlinden and O'Leary (1988) ask, "Can it be
coincidence that men are aggressive and hierarchically-organized conversationalists,
whereas women are expected to provide conversational support?"

3rd Part - Comments

7. Clearly, there is scope here for a great deal for more research that:

a. Is based on empirical data of men's and women's speech.

b. Operates with a complex understanding of power and gender

relationships (so that women's silence, for example, can be seen both as a site
of oppression and as a site of possible resistance).

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c. Looks specifically at the contexts of language use, rather than assuming

broad gendered differences.

d. Involves more work by men on language and gender, since attempts to

understand male uses of language in terms of difference have been few (thus
running the danger of constructing men's speech as the ‘norm’ and women's
speech as ‘different’).

e. Aims not only to describe and explain but also to change language and
social relationships.

Topic: POWER AND GENDER RELATIONSHIP

1. With the general growth of feminist work in many academic fields, it is hardly
surprising that the relationship between language and gender has attracted
considerable attention in recent years. In an attempt to go beyond "folk linguistic"
assumptions about how men and women use language (the assumption that women
are "talkative", for example), studies have focused on uses of language to aspects of
conversation analysis, such as topic nomination and control, interruptions and other
interactional features. While some research has focused only on the description of
differences, other work has sought to show how linguistic differences both reflect and
reproduce social difference. Accordingly, Coates (1988) suggests that research on
language and gender can be divided into studies that focus on dominance and those
that focus on difference.
2. Much of the earlier work emphasized dominance. Lakoff's (1975) pioneering
work suggested that women's speech typically displayed a range of features, such as
tag questions, which marked it as inferior and weak. Thus, she argued that the type of
subordinate speech learned by a young girl "will later be an excuse others use to keep
her in a demeaning position, to refuse to treat her seriously as a human being" (1975,
p.5). While there are clearly some problems with Lakoff's work - her analysis was not
based on empirical research, for example, and the automatic equation of subordinate
with `weak' is problematic - the emphasis on dominance has understandably
remained at the Centre of much of this work. Research has shown how men
nominated topics more, interrupted more often, held the floor for longer, and so on
(see, for example, Zimmerman and West, 1975). The chief focus of this approach,
then, has been to show how patterns of interaction between men and women reflect
the dominant position of men in society.
3. Some studies, however, have taken a different approach by looking not so
much at power in mixed-sex interactions as at how same-sex groups produce certain
types of interaction. In a typical study of this type, Maltz and Borker (1982) developed
lists of what they described as men's and women's features of language. They argued
that these norms of interaction were acquired in same-sex groups rather than mixed-
sex groups and that the issue is therefore one of (sub-) cultural miscommunication
rather than social inequality. Much of this research has focused on comparisons
between, for example, the competitive conversational style of men and the
cooperative conversational style of women.
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4. While some of the more popular work of this type, such as Tannen (1987),
lacks a critical dimension, the emphasis on difference has nevertheless been valuable
in fostering research into gender subgroup interactions and in emphasizing the need
to see women's language use not only as ‘subordinate’ but also as a significant sub
cultural domain.
5. Although Coates' (1988) distinction is clearly a useful one, it also seems
evident that these two approaches are by no means mutually exclusive. While it is
important on the one hand, therefore, not to operate with a simplistic version of power
and to consider language and gender only in mixed-group dynamics, it is also
important not to treat women's linguistic behaviour as if it existed outside social
relations of power. As Cameron, McAlinden and O'Leary (1988) ask, "Can it be
coincidence that men are aggressive and hierarchically-organized conversationalists,
whereas women are expected to provide conversational support?"

6. Clearly, there is scope here for a great deal more research that
a. Is based on empirical data of men's and women's speech.
b. Operates with a complex understanding of power and gender
relationships (so that women's silence, for example, can be seen both as a site
of oppression and as a site of possible resistance).
c. Looks specifically at the contexts of language use, rather than assuming
broad gendered differences.
d. Involves more work by men on language and gender, since attempts to
understand male uses of language in terms of difference have been few (thus
running the danger of constructing men's speech as the ‘norm’ and women's
speech as ‘different’).
e. Aims not only to describe and explain but also to change language and
social relationships.

Setting Objective/Purpose and Hypothesis

9. As explained in Chapter-2.

Other steps of research have been discussed in chapters 5-8.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER - 4

RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL

What is a Research Design

1. Research design precisely means drawing systematic approach and establishing

a plan of action to carry out the research. A research design is based more or less on a
well defined methodology. The research design should be developed only when the
topic and problem are selected or identified, objectives are set and hypothesis is
framed. A research design answers to the following questions:

a. What the study is all about?

b. What type of data is required and what are the sources of data?
c. What is the purpose of research?
d. What should be the place or area of study?
e. What should be the amount of resources needed for the study?
f. How much time is actually required?
g. Which method of data collection should be appropriate?
h. How should the data be analyzed?
j. What would be the methodology of the study?

2. A research design is a tentative plan. It may change as the study progresses,

and as new facts, new ideas and condition appear. Research design is not a highly
specific plan to be followed without deviation, rather a series of guide posts to keep one
headed in the right direction.

Conceptual Framework

3. Now is the time to draw up a conceptual framework for your research using the
data available to you and the hypothesis which has grown logically from your knowledge
of the problem. This framework represents your initial concept of the problem and the
manner in which you may develop it. It serves as a road map of the research work and
your plan for additional data gathering. The original framework will undoubtedly have
gaps in it indicating a need for research in certain areas. As you gather material, you
can fill in these gaps, revise and change the conceptual framework as you proceed with
your investigation. For example, new material may indicate that your original conceptual
framework was incomplete, and that you had overlooked an important aspect of the
problem. Be flexible and revise the framework as you find it necessary to do so.

Few examples are given here:

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Note: Individual researcher can always modify the initial framework with the progress of
the research. That means the initially conceived framework is not a rigid one. However,
subsequent research work is usually guided by this framework.

Example 1: This conceptual framework was conceived by Prof Aminuzzaman on “Use

of mobile phone for empowerment of rural people”. As evident in the framework, he was
trying to prove a hypothesis that ‘more use of mobile phone will empower the rural
people’.

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Example 2: The Conceptual Framework used to produce National Strategy for

adaptation to climate change of Finland.

Example 3: This conceptual framework consists of five stages for tracking a conflict,
with the potential role of the international community at each stage indicated at the
bottom.

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Example 4: Conceptual framework for authentic Leadership Process.

Research Proposal

4. When a research design is submitted in a form of proposal either to an academic

institution or a sponsor, following format is generally used:

a. Problem Statement:

b. Research Question/s:

c. Review of the literature:

d. Objectives/purpose and Hypothesis:

e. Illustration of conceptual framework:

f. Research Methods:

- What methods are to be used?

- Rational of such methods.
- How data will be collected?

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g. Analysis Plan:

- How the data will be analyzed?

- What quantitative/qualitative tools will be used?
- Will there be any expert consultation-if so, who are they?
- What will be the nature of consultation?

h. Resource and time schedule:

- How much material resources are needed?

- How much intellectual support is wanted?
- What time schedule will be followed?

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER - 5

DATA COLLECTION
Ref:
A. Data Collection: Tools and Technique, Chapter-6, ‘An Introduction to Research
Methods’ by M. Nurul Islam.

General

1. Data are the raw materials for research. This chapter discusses the various
methods of data collection. While collecting data, a researcher must remember following:

a. What information we want to collect to answer our research question? This

refers to selection of variables.

b. What approach we should follow to collect this information?

c. What techniques and tools will be used for data collection?

d. Where you want to collect the data?

In this chapter, mainly the techniques and tools will be discussed. For additional study,
please read ref A.

Data Collection

3. Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information of the

objects of the study like people, phenomenon etc. There are mainly two types of data
collection techniques: quantitative data collection and qualitative data collection
techniques. However, few methods of Data Collection are – Interview Method, Survey
Method, Focused Group Discussion, Observation Method, Content Analysis, Case Study,
etc.

Quantitative Data Collection

4. Personal Interview.

a. A personal Interview is one that employs a standard structured questionnaire

(or interview schedule) to ensure that all respondents are asked exactly the same
set of questions in the same sequence. It is a two-way conversation initiated by an
interviewer to obtain information from a respondent. The questions, the wording,
and their sequence define the structure of the interview and the interview is
conducted face-to face. Studies that obtain data by interviewing people are called
surveys. If the people interviewed are a representative sample of a larger
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population, such studies are called sample surveys. Thus, a sample survey is
defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication with a
representative sample of individuals. The number of questions and the exact
wording of each question incorporated in a questionnaire is identical to all
respondents and is specified in advance. The interviewer merely reads each
question to the respondent and usually restrains from providing explanations of the
questions if the respondent asks for clarification.

b. Interviewing Techniques.

(1) Research interviewing is not so an easy task as it might appear at the

beginning. Respondents often react more to their feelings about the
interviewer than to the content of the questions. It is also very important for
the interviewer to ask the question properly, record the responses accurately,
probe meaningfully and motivate unbiased. To achieve these aims
interviewer must be trained to carry out those procedures that foster a good
relationship.

(a) The goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship

with the respondent. Three factors help in motivating the respondents
to cooperate:

(b) The respondents must believe that their interaction with the
interviewer will be pleasant and satisfying. Whether the interaction will
be pleasant and satisfying largely depends on the interpersonal skills
of the interviewer.

(c) The respondents must think that answering the survey is an

important and worthwhile use of their time. To ensure this, some
explanation of the study's purpose is necessary. It is the interviewer's
responsibility to ascertain what explanation is needed and to supply it.

(d) The respondents must have any mental reservation satisfied.

This arises when respondents have misconceptions and thus have
reservations about being interviewed. The interviewer needs to
remove these misconceptions.

(2) The interviewer should approach a respondent in the following way:

(a) Tell the respondent who you are and whom you represent
(show your identification card, if needed).

(b) Check if the respondent is busy or away. If it is obvious that the

respondent is busy, give a general introduction and try to stimulate
enough interest to arrange an interview at another time. If the
respondent is not at home, keep provision for revisit.

(c) Tell the respondent what you are doing in a way that will
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stimulate his or her interest.

(d) Tell the respondent how he or she was chosen, emphasizing

that he or she was chosen in an impersonal way merely because a
cross-section of the population is needed.

(e) Adapt your positive approach to the situation. Assume that the
respondent will not be too busy for interview. Approach him or her as
follows:

I would like to come in and talk with you about this "rather than saying
"May I come in?" "Should I come later?" or "Do you have time now?"
or any other approach that gives the respondent a chance to say "no".

(f) Try to establish a good relationship. This is what we call rapport

building, meaning a relationship of .confidence and understanding
between interviewer and respondent.

(g) Adopt probing whenever necessary. The technique of

stimulating respondents more fully and relevantly is termed probing:
The chief function of a probe is to lead the respondent to answer more
fully and accurately, or at least to provide minimally acceptable
answer. A second function is to structure the respondent's answer and
make sure that all topics of interest to the interviewer are covered and
the amount of irrelevant information reduced. Since a probe presents
a great potential for bias, a probe should be neutral and appear as a
neutral part of the conversation. Appropriate probes should be
specified by the designer of the data collection instruments.

5. Survey (Self-administered Questionnaire) Method. A self-administered

questionnaire (also referred to as mailed questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which
written questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written
form. A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, for example:

a. Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer

the questions and requesting for mailed responses.

b. Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving
oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires.

c. Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.

d. Computer-delivered self-administered questionnaires use organizational
intranets, the Internet or on-line services to reach their respondents.

6. Telephone Interview. Telephone interviewing may be regarded as a semi-

personal method of information collection. It has become much more popular in recent
years because of the diffusion of telephone services worldwide. The increase in the use of
telephone y interviewing in the last few years has been so dramatic that it has prompted
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wide applications in survey research during the past few years. The chief reasons are the
rapid increase in the number of households having telephones, and the widespread use of
computer aided technologies all over the world. Many people are hesitant to admit
strangers especially at night for face to face interview. Same is the case with the
interviewer who also remain hesitant to approach an unknown person. All these factors
plus others have helped the telephone survey to make inroads on the dominance of the
face-to-face interview and mailed questionnaire.

Qualitative Data Collection

7. Unstructured Interviews.

a. In contrast to structured interviews, unstructured interviews permit open-

ended responses to questions. Such interviews are often called in-depth interviews.
Instead of reading formal questions from a structured interview schedule, the
interviewer in an unstructured, interviewer has an outline of topics or a set of
general questions to serve as a guide to the kind of information required. By nature,
the unstructured interview differs from traditional structured interviewing in several
ways:

(1) In unstructured interview, there is no formal structured instrument.

(2) The interviewer is free to move or change the conversation in any

direction of interest that may come up during the interview. This is not the
case in a structured interview.

(3) Details that are not brought out initially are sought through follow-up
questions, called probes.

(4) It is particularly useful for exploratory studies.

b. The chief drawbacks of unstructured interviews are:

(1) The responses are difficult to quantity.
(2) The interviews require highly skilled and experienced interviewers.
(3) The analysis is exceedingly time-consuming.

8. Focus Group Discussion.

a. A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a discussion of a group of persons

guided by a facilitator, also called moderator, during which group members talk
freely and spontaneously about a certain topic fixed in advance in a group
environment. Focus group generally includes 6-12 persons selected by the
researcher, who are knowledgeable about a specific subject. The focus group
strategy is often used as a starting point for developing a survey. The researcher is
able to get a better idea of how respondents talk and think about topics. Focus
group also helps when a researcher needs to get background information on a
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topic. Such group interviews can stimulate new ideas and concepts, reveal potential
problems in a research design, and help interpret evidence generated from a
quantitative study.

b. There are several advantages to using focus groups. These include, among
others, the following:

(1) They provide quick and inexpensive sources of information from a

diverse range of respondents.

(2) The researcher has the opportunity to talk directly to the respondents
in order to clarify and understand ideas and views.

(3) Respondents have the chance to develop their reactions to, and build
upon the responses of other participants in the group.

(4) Successful focus groups can be carried out through teleconferencing

even when the individuals in the group cannot be physically drawn together
in a specific place.

9. Observational Method of Data Collection

a. Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching,

listening, reading, touching, and recording behavior and characteristics of living
beings, objects or phenomena. The technique qualifies as a scientific method of
data collection when it is specially designed to answer a research question and is
systematically planned and executed with proper control. The versatility of the
method makes it an indispensable primary source of data, and a supplement to
other methods. Look at the following example:

An NGO conducted a study to evaluate the performance of clinic personnel in

delivering their services to the clients in rural Bangladesh. In addition to conducting
a sample survey, one component of the study was to conduct an observational
study alongside. One observer was posted in each clinic whose responsibility was
to observe among others the following activities:

• Environment around the clinic.

• Opening and closing time of the clinic.
• Employees' regularity in attendance.
• Patients' satisfaction in receiving services.
• Physicians' behavioral aspect.
• Others.

b. Advantages of Observation Method.

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(1) Directness. The main advantage of observation is its directness. We

can collect data at the time they occur. The observer does not have to ask
people about their own behavior and the reports from others. He or she can
simply watch as individuals act and speak. While the survey respondents
may have a hazy or lapse memory about events that occurred in the distant
past, the observer is studying events as they occur.

(2) Natural Environment. Whereas other data collection techniques

introduce artificiality into the research environment, data collected in an
observation study describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their
natural settings. Observation is neither restrictive nor artificial.

(3) Longitudinal Analysis. Sine the observation is possible to be

conducted in a natural setting, the observer is able to conduct his or her
study over a much longer time period.

(4) Non-verbal Behavior. Observation is decidedly superior to survey

research, experimentation, or document study for collecting data on non-
verbal behavior. Some studies focus on individuals who are unable to give
verbal reports, or to articulate themselves meaningfully. For these subjects,
observational method is indispensable.

c. Disadvantages of Observation Method.

(1) Lack of Control. Despite the advantage as achieved from the

natural environment, the observation study, however, has little control over
extraneous variables that may affect the data. The presence of a stranger
(the observer) and the error involved in human observation and the recording
of data, which may remain out of control of the observer, are likely to bias the
observations to a great extent.

(2) Difficulties in Quantification. Measurement in observational

studies generally takes the form of observer's un-quantified perceptions
rather than the quantitative measures often used in survey and experimental
studies.

(3) No opportunity to Learn Past. In an observational study, there is

no way to know about the past. It is also difficult to gather information on
such topics like intention, opinion, attitude, or preference.

10. Document Study.

a. Among the non-survey data collection methods, document study occupies a

central position owing to its several advantages. By document we mean any written
materials that contain information about the phenomena we are interested to study.
These documents are available generally in two forms: primary documents and
secondary documents. Primary documents are the eye witness accounts written
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by people who experienced the particular event or behavior. Secondary documents

are those compiled by people who were not present on the spot but received the
information necessary to compile the document by questioning eyewitnesses or by
examining primary documents.

b. Most documents are written primarily for some purpose other than research.
Primary documents are generally written for personal reasons. These include
diaries, letters to friends or relatives, autobiographies and letters of confession. In
addition to personal writing and business records, a third major area of documents
is printed mass media, specifically newspapers, journals, magazines, newsletters,
books and periodicals.

d. Advantages and Disadvantages of Document Study.

(1) One of the basic advantages of a document study is that it allows

research on subjects to which researcher does not have easy physical
access. It is also free from reactivity, particularly when the document is
written for some other purposes. The documents incorporated in a diary, for
example, are in most cases spontaneous and thus reflect the author's instant
feeling and observation. A document is more likely to record the confession
of the author. A person is more likely to confess in a document, particularly
one to be read only, after his or death, than in an interview or mailed
questionnaire study.

(2) Among the disadvantages are the bias stemming from the fact that the
document was written for some other purposes (primarily for making money)
rather than social research. Thus the documents tend to be exaggerated and
often fabricated to make good story. Some documents are generally written
on papers; they do not withstand the elements well unless care is taken to
preserve them. Many documents are incomplete, un-standardized, and thus
researchers encounter difficulties in coding and analysis.

11. Content Analysis.

a. As defined by Berelson, content analysis is a research technique for the

objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication. Others view content analysis as any technique for making
references by systematically and objectively identifying specific characteristics
within text. It includes observation as well as analysis. The unit of analysis may be
words (different words, or types of words in the message), characters (individuals or
objects), themes (proportions), a space and time measures (length and duration of
the message). ln business research, one can content analyze the messages in
advertisements, newspaper articles, television, or radio programs. For example, the
frequency of appearance of tribal women and members of other minority groups in
mass media may be studies using content analysis.

b. The primary goal of content analysis is to take a verbal, non-quantitative

document and transform it into quantitative data. The results of content analysis can
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generally be presented in tables containing frequencies of percentages. Thus it

appears that content analysis is a marvelous approach that can turn words into
numbers.

c. Content analysis is the same sort of structured analysis applied to

documents rather than to observation of nonverbal behavior. In other words, it is a
structured document-analysis technique in which the researcher first constructs a
set of mutually exclusive categories that can be used to analyze documents and
then record with which each of these categories is observed in this document
studied. Suppose, for example, we wish to perform a content analysis of three
definitions of content analysis of three authors as below:

Definition 1: Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic,

and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.

Definition 2: Content analysis is a research technique for making references by

systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics within text.

Definition 3: We propose to use the term ‘content analyses’ and 'coding'

interchangeably to refer to the objective, systematic and quantitative description of
any symbolic behavior.

d. Suppose, we want to analyze the contents of the above three definitions with
respect to three chief components as follows:

Whether the definition includes the term 'quantitative' or 'qualitative'

Whether the definition includes the term 'systematic' or 'non-systematic'
Whether the definition includes the term 'objective' or 'subjective'

The definitions when analyzed keeping in view the above objective result in the
following distribution:

Definition Qualitative Quantitative Systematic Non- Objective Subjective

systematic
1 - 1 1 - 1 -
2 - - 1 - 1 -
3 - 1 1 - 1 -

In percentage terms the word 'quantitative' appears in 67% of the documents while
the word 'systematic' appears 100% of the documents and so on.

e. Limitations.
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(1) Difficult to gain access to the records or reports required.

(2) Information may be incomplete.
(3) Information may be out of date.
(4) Definitions and methodologies may vary.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER-6

DATA ANALYSIS

Ref:
A. Data Analysis, Chapter-11, ‘An Introduction to Research Methods’ by M. Nurul
Islam.
General

1. This chapter introduces very shortly the process of data analysis. For detailed
study, please consult ref A.

Introduction.

2. The researcher of any discipline is confronted with the problem as to what do

with the data after those have been collected. The quantity of data may be so great that
the researcher cannot put all of it in his report. The much of the data must be reduced to
some suitable form for analysis so that a succinct set of conclusions or findings can be
reported. In an attempt to analyze the data, we must first decide:

a. Whether the tabulation of data will be performed by hand or by computer.

b. How the information can be converted into a form that will allow it to be
processed efficiently?
c. What statistcal tools or methods will be employed?
Data Preparation

3. Editing.

a. The customary first step in analysis is to edit the raw data. Editing detects
errors and omissions, corrects them whenever possible, and certifies that
minimum data quality standards are achieved. The editing should guarantee that
data are (l) accurate, (2) uniformly entered, (3) complete, and (4) arranged to
simplify coding and tabulation.

b. Editing of data may be accomplished in two ways: field editing and in-
house also called central editing. Field-editing is preliminary editing to data by a
field supervisor on the same day. Its purpose is to identify technical omissions,
check legibility, and clarify responses that are logically or conceptually
inconsistent. In central or in-house editing, all the questionnaires undergo
thorough editing. It is a rigorous job performed by the researcher and his staff.

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4. Coding Coding is the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to

answers so that the responses can be grouped into a limited number of categories.
Coding helps the researcher to reduce thousand replies to a few categories containing
the critical information intended for the question asked.
5. Data Entry. After coding is over, the next step is to enter the coded
information into a file, which can be stored on a computer disc, diskette or tape.
Data Analysis
6. Data analysis is particularly necessary for testing hypotheses. Needless to say
that the data may be interpreted and presented in entirely verbal terms, particularly in
observational studies and document studies. However, when dealing with quantitative
data, we prefer to employ statistical techniques to analyze our data.

7. The following paragraphs will provide a brief overview of the methods of data
analysis pertaining to univariate, bivariate, tri-variate, multivariate and SWOT
analyses.

a. Univariate Analysis.

(1) The first step in seeing what your data look like is to examine each
variable separately. This can be accomplished by getting the distribution
of each variable one by one. Such single-variable analysis is called
Univariate analysis, that is, analysis based on one variable.
(2) The accompanying table shows the level of education of a group
of women (considered here as a variable) as obtained in 1993-94 BDH
Survey:

Education Number of women Percent

None 5598 58.1
Primary incomplete 1681 17.4
Primary Complete 921 9.6
Secondary & above 1440 14.9
Total 9640 100.0

(3) A simple Univariate analysis of the above table can be made as

follows:

The majority (58.1 %) of women have never attended school. Only about
one tenth of the women have completed primary, and about 15 per cent
have secondary level of education.

b. Bivariate Analysis, Trivariate Analysis and Multivariate Analysis.

Please study ref A.

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c. SWOT Analysis. SWOT analysis is a framework for generating

strategic alternatives from a situation analysis. It serves as a simple but powerful
technique for understanding and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses and
for looking at the opportunities, and threats involved in a situation. SWOT
(sometimes referred to as TOWS) is an acronym for Strengths (S), Weaknesses
(W), Opportunities (0), and Threats (T). For detailed study, please read ref A.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

General

1. The end product of your research is a generalization or a series of

generalizations that sum up the results of your analysis of the research data. These are
your conclusions. You remember that you started your research with a hypothesis which
should have been believable, not contrary to known facts, capable of being
substantiated by deductive reasoning and stated simply. The same characteristics must
apply to your conclusions since these are the hypothesis supported by proven facts.
Check your conclusions against these characteristics:

a. Each Conclusion Should be Believable.

(1) The conclusions must agree with the facts discovered during the
investigation. This may seem obvious, but many research papers fail to
meet their aims simply because the conclusions are not drawn from the
data interpreted in the study. There are several reasons for this. A
researcher who has strong preconceived notions may go so far as to list a
generalization which is contrary to fact. To him, the collection of data
appears to be a formality; it has little influence in changing his
preconceived convictions.

(2) Another pitfall which must be avoided by the investigator is

assuming that a rule which applies under certain conditions is applicable
under all conditions. Consider, for example, a problem which involves the
operation of aircraft. Its fuel consumption is an important factor in the
problem and care must be taken not to generalize from data presented in
graphs that show consumption under certain limited conditions. If the
conditions of the problem are different from those shown in the graphs, the
consumption data must be modified or the generalization is likely to be
erroneous. This is a simplified example. It may not be easy to isolate the
relationship between facts and generalizations in a more complex
problem, but it is your job to do this.

(3) To be certain that your generalizations are believable, you must

constantly ask the questions: Are the data complete? Are they accurate?
Each generalization you make must be checked repeatedly to be certain
that it is logical, and is in accord with the data.

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b. Conclusions should be stated in simple terms.

(1) Your generalizations should be stated in the clearest and simplest

terms possible. In all your writing, the need for clear and direct statements
cannot be emphasized too much. But this need is more important in the
formulation of your conclusions than anywhere else. Carefully study the
statement of each conclusion to see that it is accurate, clear and simple.

(2) There is a need to limit the number of your conclusions. If you try to
reach too many conclusions, you are sure to exceed your evidence. List
only those conclusions that you have actually proved.

Common Errors in Reasoning

2. In stating your conclusions, be sure to avoid some of the common fallacies for
reasoning such as the following:

a. Generalizing from insufficient data.

b. Arguing from a single or limited number of instances.

c. Arguing from positive instances to the neglect of negative instances.

d. Omitting evidence contrary to one's own opinion.

e. Depending too much upon subjective judgement, estimates, and guesses.

f. Arguing from analogy.

Recommendations Should be Practical

3. The value of your conclusions can often be measured by their application to a

practical situation. Your study will probably not be so abstract that your conclusions
cannot be applied to practical experience. Thus, the next step in your research is to
suggest practical applications of your conclusions. You may recommend positive action
to change, modify, or replace concepts, methods of operation, tactics for strategies; or
you may suggest areas requiring further investigation. From those conclusions you have
supported fully, you can develop positive recommendations. From those which, for one
reason or another, you are unable to verify completely, you can make recommendations
for further research or experimentation.

4. In making your recommendations, you should ask yourself how well these
conform to current concepts. If these give way to contradictions or raise questions, you
may make a note of these possibilities in your recommendations. You should use as
much care in writing the recommendations as you do in formulating the statements of
your conclusions.

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Elements of the Conclusions and Recommendations

5. Finally, there are many ways in which conclusions and recommendations can be
stated. The nature of your study will determine the best for the purpose that you
decided. Whatever plan you follow, it should include these elements in some form or
other:

a. Concise answers to the questions posed in the statement of the problem.

(These are your conclusions).

b. Statements indicating the limitations of your conclusions due to incomplete

or unverifiable data (These are the qualifications of your conclusions).

c. Suggestions for applying your conclusions indicating a need for further

investigation (these are your recommendations).

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER- 8

WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

General

1. When you have satisfactorily completed your research and note taking, you are
ready to write the first draft of your paper. Follow the process mentioned in the
subsequent paragraphs.

Revising the Outline

2. Before beginning to write, check your outline once more. If your research
confirmed your original hypothesis, only minor revisions of the outline should be
needed. If research proved the original hypothesis to be incorrect, you must revise the
outline to fit the findings of your investigation.

3. Writing from an outline can do more than anything else to help you present a
scholarly study. It leads the reader in a logical sequence from the statement of the
problem to the conclusions and recommendations through the analysis and
interpretation of data. The final outline should be in sentence form, since this form helps
you think clearly and logically and thus simplifies the task of writing the report. The
main points of the outline are frequently the section headings of the report itself.

4. Once the outline is completed, the notes should be laid out to correspond to the
final outline. You probably find that you have taken some notes that you cannot use. On
the other hand, you will probably find that certain facts are missing and that you must go
back and look them up. The more thorough your research, the fewer will be the gaps
that you must fill in later.

5. If you have followed a systematic scheme in limiting your problem, collecting

information, outlining your paper and checking your findings against your conclusions,
you will find that your paper actually exists in your mind before you start to write.
However, the act of composing may in itself be laborious and exacting process. Many
experienced professional writers say that it is not easy for them. If you compose
laboriously, do not be discouraged and feel that you are a poor writer because you lack
some kind of magic touch. There is no magic touch. If you have done some writing and
have formed habits of work that are satisfactory, keep to your plan. That is the way you
write best. The suggestions in this chapter are offered for students who have not done
much writing.

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Continuity

6. The most important principle to remember in composing is to maintain a

continuity of thought. Arrange to set aside a large block of time free of any kind of
interruptions so that you can allow your ideas to flow along smoothly. If you divide your
paper into 3 to 5 parts, wherever the divisions come naturally, you can assemble your
outline and all the notes that you need for one part at a time and then complete writing it
at one sitting. In this way you can maintain continuity of thought. Then you can go on to
the next section and handle it as a unit in the same way.

7. Even with small manageable units of writing, you still will not be able to
concentrate on your ideas if you attempt to think of footnotes, grammatical construction
and other matters as well as the general clearness of what you are writing all at a time.
To give yourself a fair chance, it is absolutely necessary that you revise the first draft of
your paper and you will find that you really save time by doing this. As you write the first
draft, concentrate on ideas. Write out the draft in longhand, beat it out on the computer,
dictate it, or handle it in any way that is easiest for you, but get your ideas down on
paper. Compose as rapidly as you can and do not stop as long as you have a continuity
of thought. When the flow of thought is broken, go back and try to pick up your main
idea again. Once you have your ideas down on paper, you will have something tangible
to work with. Then you can revise for clarity and check on all matters of form.

Making a Beginning

8. Usually the most difficult part of writing is to make the start. You, no doubt, have
at some time or other experienced difficulties in making a beginning. You jotted down
several sentences, surveyed each of them critically and then crossed them out and
waited before making another attempt. It is better to make a poor start than to sit and
wait too long for ideas. After you have written a paragraph or two, you will find that your
ideas are becoming better and you are composing with much more ease. You are
capitalizing on some of the outlining, checking and planning that you have done. Later,
when you have completed the paper, it will be a simple matter to go back and rewrite
the introductory passages that you had to struggle with at first. Some experienced
writers rewrite the introduction to a paper after they have completed the conclusions. By
doing this they also check to see that their conclusions apply directly to the problem.

Style

9. As you write the first draft do not be overly critical. Later you should certainly
check all doubtful spelling and look up questions of grammatical usage in a reliable
handbook if you plan to get full benefits from writing your paper. Such things can be
taken care of when you are revising. As you compose, put a question mark in the
margin opposite all doubtful matters and keep going. You are not likely to be seriously
ungrammatical if you allow yourself to write naturally.

10. If you try to be scrupulous about all details as you write, you will soon find that
you are the victim of frozen pencil, a condition which afflicts many inexperienced writers
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in the same manner that stage fright affects inexperienced actors. The victims of a
frozen pencil find that words simply will not come, and they are painfully self conscious
of every word they use. They do mistake and believe that since they are writing instead
of speaking, it is necessary to use only high-sounding 'literary' words. It goes without
saying that, since the tone of your paper should be dignified, matter-of-fact, and
impersonal, all jaunty language and slang of any kind is out of place. This does not
mean though that you should scorn the clear, expressive, and natural words you use in
conversation. Whenever you think of a natural comparison or figure of speech put it
down.

11. Research writing should be objective, impersonal, and done in the third person.
You should avoid using any remarks without any substantiation. It is necessary to make
this perfectly clear. You speak of yourself as 'the writer'. But writing in the third person
does not presuppose ambiguous phrasing. If you view your findings impersonally
throughout the whole investigation, you will find that it is only natural to phrase your
ideas in the third person.

12. Many self-conscious writers have been able to overcome their handicap by
imagining that they are addressing some one as they write. They 'talk through' their
explanations. This is a good system and may be kept in mind. If you address one reader
consistently as you write, you will be surprised to find out how easily you avoid
ambiguous explanations.

Quotations

13. When a quotation is needed to establish precise authority i.e. when it expresses
an idea much better than you can, you should use a direct quotation. Many authors use
quotations to inject flavour and variety into their writing. But quotations should not be
used too frequently. Since you are familiar with the precise point you want to make, you
can generally express it better in your own words.

Illustrations

14. As you write your first draft, illustrations may cause you more concern than
footnotes. If you can show some of your findings through charts, graphs and tables, it
certainly is to your advantage. They will help you immeasurably in your writing by doing
away with the need for long explanations. But do not include any illustrations without
some clear brief explanation. All illustrations and tables, as well as the legends that
explain them, should be noted in separate annexes.

Editing

15. Since you must allow yourself freedom in writing, you will find that you include in
your first draft much more than you want to keep. The best way to write is to get down
all the facts as you see them at the time and then later cut out everything that is
unnecessary. To write a short paper well, you must first write a long paper and then cut
it down ruthlessly. In your first draft you are apt to leave gaps in thought that will not be
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obvious to you until you read the paper over later. Editing is really a leveling-off process
during which you take out the humps of unnecessary material and fill in the valleys
where there are gaps in thought. When you prepare the final draft of your paper, you
edit the first draft as well as check on mechanical matters like spacing, minor SD etc.

16. If you have planned your whole investigation well and have kept a continuity of
thought in writing the first draft of your paper, you will probably be pleasantly surprised
to find out how well the draft reads. Exactly at this moment when you would like to
pause to enjoy the results of your efforts, you must again be an exacting critic so that
you can get your copy ready for the final draft.

17. To save time in making your revision, use paste and scissors. If there is one
paragraph on a page that needs reworking, paste the revised paragraph over the
original one. Do not waste time copying and recopying material that does not need
correction. Every time another copy is made there is a chance for errors to creep in.
Computers have of course solved the problem to a great extent is 'cut' & 'paste' is now
easy.

18. Between writing your draft and making the final revision, it is a good plan to let
some time elapse so that you can approach your work objectively. If you have all the
facts for the paper well in mind, you will probably want to complete the first draft of the
entire paper before you begin revising any one part. If you are having some difficulties
with writing, you may wish to revise one part before you begin to write the next one. If
the paper is revised part by part, it will be necessary to give it a final reading as a whole
to see that it has continuity and is consistent throughout.

19. In revising your paper, try to put yourself in another reader's place. It takes some
imagination to come back to your first draft of the study and read it as though you had
never seen it before, but that is exactly what you-must do. If you can get someone who
is qualified to read the paper, he can help you to be objective. Study the paper to see if
it really says what you intend to say. Remember that, you will not be on hand to explain
what is meant to the DS who evaluate your paper or to the students in future classes
who may consult it as a reference in the library. In revising the content, take out the
unnecessary words and fill in the gaps.

20. While you are checking on ideas, it is a good plan to rephrase ambiguous
sentences and check any points of grammar and construction that are tied up with the
meaning. You can check correct spelling and mechanical questions of usage in the final
step when you are going over the paper to study its form.

21. If you have particular difficulty with the wording of a section or part, it is a good
idea to read much of the paper aloud. By listening to the sound of the sentence, you are
often able to diagnose your difficulties.

22. In going over your paper for content, fit in any illustrations or tables you plan to
include and see that captions and legends make sense. You can review the form later.

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23. Careful editing requires only a small fraction of the total time devoted to the entire
research effort. Yet, it produces tangible results in improving the quality of your paper.
Many students fail to appreciate the value of even a quick revision. They submit
papers that have received little or no editing; something that is readily apparent to an
experienced reader.

Abbreviations

24. In general, you should avoid the use of abbreviations in the text. However, if
certain group of words appear frequently in the text, it may be abbreviated first and used
later throughout the text wherever needed e.g. 'low-intensity conflict (LIC)' used early
can be used as LIC in all later usage. Over and above this, if you feel that you must use
some abbreviations, you may include a list of abbreviations. Finally as far as possible,
use of full stops in all abbreviations will be avoided for consistency and convenience.

Abstract

25. When you have completed writing and editing your study, you have one
remaining task. This is to write the abstract, or summary of the study. Ordinarily an
abstract consists of 3 main parts: The first describes the problem; the second outlines
the procedures you used; the third describes your conclusions and recommendations.
You should be able to write the abstract in one brief, descriptive paragraph. Keep it
under 250 words.
(An example is given here. This example is of a history/social science research
work. The topic is: “The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their
Own Words”)

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known
about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic
of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the
literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor
fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military
perspective for an American audience through qualitative interviews with 40
RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three
of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An
analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that
complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about
the South Vietnamese military: first, RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top
ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; second, racial relations between the
South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and third,
the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The
stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in
the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-
American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of
Vietnamese history and oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants; this project
will contribute to future research on similar topics.

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER-9

FORMAT OF RESEARCH REPORT

General

1. A research study will be judged primarily by its content. Proper format, however,
or lack of it, can add to or detract from its readability. Each student should strive,
therefore, to make his report as nearly correct in format as possible. Annex A shows
samples of various parts of DSCSC recommended format.

Preliminaries

3. Title Page. The College will furnish front and back covers for your report. Put
the title of your report on the cover as shown at Annex A. The title should be written in
bold capital letter and underlined.

4. Preface or Acknowledgement. Its purpose is to permit you to address the

reader directly and explain your personal reasons for making the study. It also enables
you to acknowledge any special or non-routine assistance from persons or institutions.
The help given by your DS is part of his work and requires no acknowledgment.
Remember that the preface is not the formal introduction to your report.

5. Abstract. Brief consideration of the entire work. Abstract must mention the
hypothesis. No definite limit can be set. However, for staff course, it should be within
250 words in length.

6. Table of Contents. List of important parts of the paper. See sample in Annex A.

7. List of Tables.

a. If possible, tables should be inserted in the text. If insufficient room

remains on a page to accommodate an entire table, fill out the page with a
straight text and put the table on the next page. Long tables are generally put on
separate pages, inserted and numbered. If more than one table is used, number
each table with an Arabic numeral as 'Table 1' etcetera.

b. If you include tables, list them in the ‘List of Tables’ as shown in the
sample in Annex A. If a table is continued from one page to the next, number
only in the page where the table begins. Also enter in the ‘List of Tables’ any
tables placed in the annexs.

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8. List of Illustrations. If illustrations, charts, or maps are included in your

study, prepare a list of them in the same way as for the tables. See sample in Annex A.

9. Table of Abbreviations. As mentioned in paragraph 25 of Chapter-10.

Introduction

10. Problem Statement.

11. Research Question/s.

12. Definitions. Important definitions which have been used and on which common
understanding of the researcher and reader is required.

13. Limitations and Assumptions. Conditions and circumstances that prevented

the study from bring as perfect as desired. Mention the interrupting elements that
appeared which may have influenced the results as well as explained and unexplained
factors. Also mention assumptions those are considered during the research.

14. Research Objective (purpose) and Hypothesis. Describes the research

objective and hypothesis.

15. Review of the Literature. Reviews very briefly related research works on
the same topic. It should not be more than two pages.

16. Methods of Data Collection. Describes the methods used for data collection.

Main Discussion

17. While writing the main discussion, concentration should be given to one section
at a time. You may need to do some or all of the followings in each section:

a. State data obtained and indicate sources.

b. Analyze the data.
c. State the conclusions based on them.
d. Refer to or summarize matter fully presented in various tables, illustrations
and annexes.

Conclusions

18. This chapter is considered as the mirror of the report. The reader wants to get
everything in one go. Remember that you have already found out the conclusions
(findings) and mentioned those in various corners of your main discussion. It is now
time to gather all conclusions in single place. Conclusion should cover followings:

a. Summary of the main discussions as context for writing the summary of

conclusion. Remember that the focus here is the next point.

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b. Summary of all findings. Be specific in describing the findings.

c. No new findings can appear in the conclusion.

Recommendations

19. This part contains a statement of the future actions, which in your opinion, may
be worth pursuing. These are known as recommendations. Recommendations concern
future research, the development of theory or the practise of management in relation to
the problem. You should include suggestion for future research as well as the
applications of findings to any relevant matters. The conclusions and recommendations
may appear in the same chapter, or may be divided into two chapters.

Bibliography and Referencing-HARVARD APA Style

20. Bibliography. A bibliography is a list of sources that have been used in

writing a paper. It will include all books, chapters in edited books, journal articles,
magazine articles, newspaper articles, official publications, conference papers and
website materials that have been read in planning and writing a paper, regardless
whether or not a reference has been cited in the paper. The bibliography is always
presented at the end of the paper using single line-spacing. References should be
placed in alphabetical order by surname of author/s. If there are two or more references
to the same author, they should be presented in chronological order with the earliest
reference presented first; and if there are two or more references to the same author in
the same year, they should be distinguished by adding a, b, c etc. after the year of
publication. The style of presenting a bibliographic reference varies according to the
type of reference (e.g. book, edited book, journal article etc.). Below are details of how
to present books, chapters in edited books, journal articles, magazine articles,
newspaper articles, official publications, conference papers and website material as
bibliographic references.
Books:
Hoffmann, S. (1998). World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Kubálková, V., Onuf, N., &Kowert, P. (Eds.). (1998). International Relations in a
Constructed World. Armonk, NY: M E Sharpe.

Name of author/s or editor/s (Ed/s.). (Year of publication). Title of Book. Place of

publication: Publisher.
Chapters in Edited Books:

Evans, T. (1997). Democratization and human rights. In A. McGrew (Ed.), The

Transformation of Democracy? Cambridge: Polity Press.

Name of author. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In Name of editor/s (Ed/s.), Title
of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
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Journal Articles:

Foster, C. D. (2001). The civil service under stress: the fall in civil service power and
authority. Public Administration, 79(3), 725-749.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume number
(issue number), Page-numbers of article.

Magazine Articles:

Hobsbawm, E. (1998, November/December). The death of neo-liberalism. Marxism

Today, 4-8.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication). Title of article. Title of

Magazine, Page-number/s of article.

Newspaper Articles:

Cowan, R. (2001, October 23). Adams asks IRA to disarm. The Guardian, p. 1.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication). Title of article. Title of

Newspaper, Page-number/s of article.

Official Publications:

Prime Minister’s Office & Cabinet Office. (1999). Modernizing Government. London: The
Stationery Office.

Select Committee on Defense. (1996). Fourth Report, Westland plc: The Government’s
Decision-Making. London: HMSO.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of Official Publication (Official publications

reference number). Place of publication: Publisher.

Conference Papers:

Newman, J. (2001, September). New Labour and the Politics of Governance. Paper
presented at the Annual Conference of the European Group of Public Administration,
Vaasa, Finland.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Month of conference). Title of Conference

Paper. Paper presented at the Title of Conference of the Name of Organization Holding
the Conference, Location of conference.

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Website Material:

Commission of the European Communities. (2001).Governance in the European Union:

a White Paper. Retrieved August 21, 2001, from
http://europa.eu.int/governance/white_paper/index_en.htm

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of website-based article. Retrieved date

accessed, from World Wide Web address.

Very occasionally the names of the author/s, the year of publication and other
referencing details may not be evident from the material read. If no author is named in
the book, the title of the book should be moved into the author position of the reference;
if no year or date of publication is cited, (n.d.) should be recorded; and if other
referencing details are missing, (not known) should be recorded in the bibliographic
reference.

21. Referencing a Paper. It is very important that references are provided in a

paper to indicate the sources of arguments, data, ideas, information, quotations etc.
Failure to provide references may constitute plagiarism, which is a serious
academic offence. Referencing should be used to cite and credit all sources of
material (and not only quotations). There are several ways in which references can be
presented, but DSCSC recommends to use a Harvard APA-style of referencing, where
the reference (in parentheses) appears in the text of the paper, as opposed to the more
traditional numeric system, where the reference appears as a footnote or endnote to the
paper. With Harvard-style referencing, the reference appears at the end of the relevant
sentence/s within the paper or, if not, at the end of the relevant clause within a
sentence. It is important that authors consistently comply with the guidelines of
whatever style of referencing is adopted. Below are nine examples of Harvard APA-
style of referencing: (APA – American Psychological Association)

Example 1: quoting and paraphrasing

Fairclough (2000) stated that language ‘has always been important in politics and
in government’ (2000, p. 3).

Or this quotation can be paraphrased as follows:

Fairclough (2000) argued that language plays a significant role within government
and politics (2000, p. 3).

Education ‘is permanently near the top of the political agenda in France’ (Cole,
2001, p. 707).
Or paraphrased:
Cole (2001) argued that education is a constant issue on the French political
agenda (2001, p.707).

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The same reference is cited regardless of whether quoted or paraphrased. The

surname of the author/s need not appear in the cited reference if the surname/s appear
in the text preceding the cited reference. It is important when paraphrasing that your
words are sufficiently different from the original words you have read, while conveying
the same point of the author/s you have read. However, if quoting, it is important that
you place the quoted words within “double-quotation marks” to distinguish the quoted
words from your own words; ‘single-quotation marks’ should be used for your words,
and not someone else’s.

Example 2: quoting long passages

About the Islamic renaissance in Spain, Karen Armstrong wrote (2000, p.83):

Cordova also experienced a cultural florescence, even though the Umayyad

caliphate in Spain had eventually collapsed in 1010 and disintegrated into a
number of rivals independent courts. The Spanish renaissance was particularly
famous for its poetry, which resembled that of the French troubadour courtly
tradition. The muslim poet Ibn Hazam developed a simpler piety, which relied
solely on ahadith, fiqh and metaphysical philosophy. (2000, p.83).

Quotations of a sentence or more should be separated from but introduced in the

preceding text of the paper and should be-indented. Single-line spacing should be used
in presenting quotations of a sentence or more, as opposed to one-and-a-half-line
spacing or double-line spacing used for the main text of the paper. The above quotation
does not have to be presented in full if parts of it are irrelevant to the point being made
in the paper. By inserting three full-stops this signifies to the reader that some of the
original text has been omitted from the quotation. Furthermore, it is possible to insert
own words into the quotation by using the parentheses, [...], as a way of shortening a
long quotation.

The quotation presented above can be re-presented as follows:

About the Islamic renaissance in Spain, Karen Armstrong wrote (2000, p.83):

Cordova also experienced a cultural florescence…[and]…The muslim poet

Ibn Hazam developed a simpler piety, which relied solely on ahadith, fiqh and
metaphysical philosophy. (2000, p.83).

Example 3: quoting non-English language passages

When quoting (or paraphrasing) from a publication written in a language other than
English, the quotation should be faithfully translated into the English language, but the
reference appearing in the bibliography should appear in the language that it was
written.

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To quote the following sentence taken from a book written in the Bengali language –
“িবjােনর িবিভn শাখায় েযমন েজয্ািতিবর্jান, গিনত eবং িচিকrসািবjােন মুসিলম মনীিষেদর aবদান পৃিথবীর িবখয্াত িবjানীেদর aবদােনর সে
তু লনীয়”, it needs to be translated into the English language (if the research paper is written
in English). However, the reference to this book in the bibliography needs to be
presented in the Bengali language.

Mofijullah Kabir observed (2001, p. 140):

‘that the contribution of Muslim scholars in the various fields of science for
example Astrology, Mathematics and Medical Science is comparable to the
contribution made by the famous scientists of the world.’

Example 4: primary and secondary sources

When referencing it is important to cite the source of the material used in writing the
paper. It may be that the source of the quotation is not the primary source (that is, the
original text) but a secondary source (another text citing from the original text). If so, you
must cite the secondary source of the material, and may cite the primary source only if
significant, as follows:

Hayek (1994) believed that ‘the intellectual foundations of socialism have all
collapsed’ (taken from Gamble, 1994, p. 34).

Fox and Miller (1997) argued that there are no agreed criteria for ascertaining
claims of truth (taken from Rhodes, 1997, p. 185).

Example 5: citing from the internet

You must cite sources gleaned from the internet in your paper, as follows:

The period after Bakhtiar Khilji's death in 1206 devolved into infighting among the
Khiljis - representative of a pattern of succession struggles and intra-empire
intrigues during later Turkic regimes. (Wikipedia, n.d.).

Even if the material used is available in another format, such as a newspaper article or
report, the reference should still cite it as an internet-based source if that is where the
material was found. When citing from internet-based sources, you should download and
keep a copy of the material used for the paper to protect against any charges of
plagiarism. If the date is not mentioned, write n.d.

Example 6: Citing Page-numbers in References

The key rule in referencing is to state precisely the sources of material used in writing
papers. For example, you must specify the precise page-number/s of your sources in
your references, unless you are either referring to a general argument contained in a
book, chapter in an edited book, journal article, magazine article, newspaper article,

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official publication or conference paper, or referring to an internet-based source. Four

relevant examples are shown below:

It has been calculated that the Labour Party spent £7.4million in the general
election campaign of 1997 (Russell, 2000, p. 20).

Harris (1999) charted the Nazi roots of many extreme right political organizations
in Europe (1999, pp. 8-9).

Globalization is having significant domestic effects upon Britain under New

Labour (Oxford, 2000; Krieger, 1999).

The first two examples above of a figure and a specific point being taken from a source
require page numbers in their references; whereas the third example of a general point
taken from a source does not require any page-numbers in its reference as it is referring
to the argument outlined in the whole book. The third example also cites two sources; in
cases where more than one source is cited, each reference is presented in alphabetical
order and separated by a semi-colon.

From the above, it can be seen that the abbreviation, p. (meaning ‘page’), denotes a
single page (e.g. p. 89); whereas the abbreviation, pp. (meaning ‘pages’), denotes more
than one page of a book, etc. referred to in the paper (e.g. pp. 23-25, 148).

Example 7: Referencing and Latin terms

You should not use Latin terms such as etc. (meaning ‘and so on’), ibid. (‘the same as
cited immediately beforehand’), op. cit. (‘as previously cited beforehand’), and passim
(‘mentioned throughout the cited reference’) in bibliographic references. However, you
can use the term, et al. (meaning ‘and others’), in references, although not in the
bibliography in which the names of all authors need to be cited. This term is used when
there are three or more authors, as follows:

It has been argued that the reform of public services in the United Kingdom over
the last twenty years ‘involved the development of processes designed to
scrutinize, evaluate and regulate the performance of agencies involved in service
provision’ (Clarke et al., 2000, p. 250).

When quoting, it is vital to quote word-for-word from the sources. Sometimes this
reproduction of someone else’s words may mean replicating grammatical errors,
spelling mistakes and clumsy phrases. You cannot correct the text by substituting it with
what you thought the original author meant to write or ought to have written. However,
you can insert the term sic (meaning ‘thus used or spelt’), after the offending piece of
quoted text, as follows:

Parsons (1995) noted that ‘Bower’s [sic] study of environmental pollution

compares and contrasts two models used in the analysis of environmental

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decision-making: the pluralist view and the political economy/Marxist view’ (1995,
p. 271).

The term, sic, indicates to the reader that you know the academic cited has been spelt
wrongly in Parsons’ book; it should read ‘Blowers’. It is vital that you faithfully record
what the author of the passage quoted actually wrote. The term, sic, allows you to
disassociate yourself from any problematic text written by others.

This format gives examples of references and citations for just three common source
types.

Type of
Reference structure Citation example
source
Dryden, G. & Vos, J. (1999). It has been claimed that belief that
The learning revolution. one is a poor learner can become
Torrance, CA: The Learning a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ (Dryden
Web. & Vos, 1999, pp. 231 – 233).
Kennedy, A. (2000). The Rough …indeed the Internet has even
th
Books Guide to the Internet (6 ed.). been described as a “real bag of
tricks” (Kennedy, 2000, p. 3).
London: Rough Guides.
Muir, J. (2000). Excel 2000: An Muir (2000, p. 56) makes the point
advanced course for students. that it is sometimes convenient
Exeter: Learning Matters. to…

Type of
Reference structure Citation example
source
Bush, J. (2001). Ladylike lives? Julia Bush (2001, p. 52) comments
Upper class women’s that Cecil Rhodes was the subject
autobiographies and the politics of “widespread upper class female
of late Victorian and Edwardian hero-worship” and this is reflected
Britain. Literature and History, in the letters of…
10(2), 42 – 61.
Delle Fave, A., Bassi, M., & A recent study into climbers’
Massimini, F. (2003). Quality of motivation and risk perception
Journal experience and risk perception found that ‘I wanted to do it’ was
Articles in high-altitude rock climbing. the most common reason given for
Journal of Applied Sport undertaking activities perceived as
Psychology, 15(1), 82 – 98. ‘risky’ (Delle Fave, Bassi &
Massimini, 2003, p. 92).
Hucklesby, A. (2001). Police bail Hucklesby (2001, pp. 444 – 445)
and the use of conditions identifies a number of potential
2
[Electronic version] . Criminal ‘abuses’ of this new power,
including…
Justice, 1(4), 441 – 463.

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Type of
Reference structure Citation example
source
Eating disorders in males. (n.d.). …and it follows that research into
Retrieved December 10, 2003, eating disorders in men is
from the National Centre for therefore much rarer (“Eating
Eating Disorders Web site: disorders”, n.d., para. 4).
http://www.eating-
disorders.org.uk/docs/
males.doc
Komaitis, K. (2003). ICANN: It has been argued that ICANN
Guilty as charged? The journal of was also, in some cases,
Internet information, law and technology, contravening United States
Documents 2003(1). Retrieved February 9, antitrust laws (Komaitis, 2003).
2004, from
http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/jilt/
3
03-1/komaitis.htm
Logan, T. (2004). TV-style New video advertisements were to
adverts arrive on web. Retrieved be tested on fifteen “high profile”
February 9, 2004, from Web sites in February 2004
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ (Logan, 2004, para. 1). This
technology/3453663.stm development may…

22. References and Bibliographies. The Harvard APA-style of referencing detailed

above allows the reader of a paper to search for the full details of each cited reference
in a paper from the bibliography that is presented in alphabetical order at the end of a
paper using single line-spacing. For example, the references cited in the seven
examples (paragraph 21) should appear in the bibliography (along with other material
not referenced but read for a paper), as follows:

Bibliography:

Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Ashley, J. (2001, October 8). History and social democracy start again. New Statesman,
10-12.

Axford, B. (2000). Globalisation: is it good or bad for Britain? In L. Robins, & B. Jones
(Eds.), Debates in British Politics Today (pp. 192-205). Manchester: Manchester
University Press.

Clarke, J., Gewirtz, S., Hughes, G., & Humphrey, J. (2000). Guarding the public
interest? Auditing public services. In J. Clarke, S. Gewirtz & E. McLaughlin (Eds.), New
Managerialism, New Welfare? (pp. 250-266). London: Sage.

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Cole, A. (2001). The new governance of French education? Public Administration,

79(3), 707-724.

Fairclough, N. (2000). New Labour, New Language? London: Routledge.

Gamble, A. (1994). The Free Economy and the Strong State: The Politics of
Thatcherism. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press.

Harris, G. (1999). The extreme right in contemporary Europe. Politics Review, 8(3), 8-
10.

Hobsbawm, E. (1997). On History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Krieger, J. (1999). British Politics in the Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Mofijullah, K. (2001). মুসিলম সভয্তার sণর্যগু .Dhaka: The Haque Printing Press.

Monbiot, G. (2001, October 23). America’s pipe dream. The Guardian, p. 19.

Nodia, G. (2001). The impact of nationalism. Journal of Democracy, 12(4), 27-34.

Parsons, W. (1995). Public Policy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Policy
Analysis. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.

Rhodes, R. A.W. (1997). Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance,

Reflexivity and Accountability. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Russell, A. (2000). New Labour and the electorate. In D. Coates, & P. Lawler (Eds.),
New Labour in Power (pp. 16-33). Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Wikipedia, (n.d). History of Bangladesh. Retrieved 10 March 2010 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh#Turkic_rule

Plagiarism and Referencing

23. The key principle of referencing is that you must inform the reader of the exact
source of information which were used in writing a paper, whether it is an argument,
numerical data, an idea or a quotation. Incorrect referencing may lead to charges of
plagiarism leveled at authors of the paper. Plagiarism is academic theft, in that
authors are passing off someone else’s words as their own. It is a serious
academic offence. Plagiarism is not condoned. Anti-plagiarism software and
search engines can be and are used to detect plagiarism. The following examples
provide some guidance on what is and what is not plagiarism:

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Hobsbawm argued that ‘history is the raw material for nationalist or ethnic or
fundamentalist ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction’
(1997, p. 5).

This is correctly referenced and not plagiarized.

Hobsbawm argued that ‘history is the raw material for nationalist or ethnic or
fundamentalist ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction’
(1997).

This is incorrectly referenced because of the missing page-number, though not

plagiarized as the quotation marks signify that the words quoted are not those of the
author writing the paper.

History is the raw material for nationalist ideologies like poppies are for heroin
addiction (Hobsbawm, 1997, p. 5).

This is plagiarized, despite the source being correctly referenced, as many of the key
words used are Hobsbawm’s words that are not presented within quotation marks.

History is the raw material for nationalist ideologies as poppies are for heroin addiction.

This is plagiarized as many of the key words used are Hobsbawm’s words that are not
presented within quotation marks, and as there is no reference cited attributing the
source of Hobsbawm’s view.

Plagiarism is a serious disciplinary offence. It is important that authors do not cheat by

plagiarizing, whether it is intended or not. It is vital that authors, when making notes
from material, such as books and journal articles, record accurately the precise
reference of material they have read. Also it is vital that they distinguish any quoted text,
by using quotation-marks, from their own words in their notes to be used in writing
papers.

Miscellaneous Aspects

24. Annexes.

a. The use of an annex and appendix is optional. They may be very useful to
incorporate important documents, not generally available to support essential
points of the study; to include charts, illustrations or similar materials which do
not fit into the text; and to discuss - some problem related to your study which
may be of interest to the reader, but which does not properly belong in the text of
the report.

b. The rules for annexes are the same as those given in JSSDM 2003
(Service Writing).

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25. Paragraph Numbering. Continous paragraph number should be used

form beginning to end. A paragraph should be of desired length so that sufficient
discussion can be done.

26. Page Numbering. Roman numerals in lower case are used in numbering the
pages of whatever appears before Chapter-1. The Title Page is numbered 'i', but the
number is never placed on it. Arabic numerals are used to number the other pages.
Chapter number should precede the page number. For placing page number, follow
the details as shown in JSSDM 2003.

27. Headings. Each chapter heading should begin on a new page. Heading
should be typed 2 inches below from the top of the page at the centre and typed in
capitals.

28. Margins and Indentation. Normal rules as laid down in JSSDM 2003 apply.

Classification

29. Care should be taken to comply with Armed Forces Security Instruction. A report
containing classified material will, in addition to the classification markings normally
required, have a classification statement on the title page indicating the basis for the
classification. Follow the general rules for classification as specified in JSSDM 2003,
Chapter I.

Annexes:

A. Format Samples.

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ANNEX A TO
CHAPTER-9 TO
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

FORMAT SAMPLES

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SAMPLE COVER SHEET (TITLE PAGE)

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DEFENCE SERVICES COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE

IMPACTS OF PADMA BRIDGE

ON
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH WESTERN BANGLADESH

by

Major Sakib Al Hasan, BIR

Army Staff Course 2012-2013

December 2012

DIRECTING STAFF GUIDE

Lieutenant Colonel Raja Osmany, psc, AC

A dissertation submitted to the Defence Services Command and Staff College in partial
fulfilment of the curriculum of Master of Science in Military Studies under the
Bangladesh University of Professionals

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SAMPLE ABSTRACT PAGE

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ABSTRACT
(An example is given here which is not related to the topic mentioned in title page. This
example is of a history/social science research work. The topic is: “The Perspective of
the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words”)

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known
about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic
of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the
literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor
fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military
perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40
RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three
of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An
analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that
complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about
the South Vietnamese military: first, RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top
ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; second, racial relations between the
South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and third,
the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The
stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in
the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-
American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of
Vietnamese history and oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants; this project
will contribute to future research on similar topics.

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SAMPLE TABLE OF CONTENTS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………… ii

Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………….. ii

List of Table (if tables are included). . . . ………………………. v

List of Illustrations (if included). . . . . …………………………… vi

Table of Abbreviations (if included). . . . . ……………………… vii

CHAPTER – I: INTRODUCTION

1. Problem Statement………………………………………...... 1
2. Research Questions.......................................................... 1
3. Definitions……………………………………………………. 2
4. Limitations and Assumption……………………………….. 4
5. Review of the Literature……………………………………. 5
6. Objective/Purpose............................................................. 7
7. Hypothesis....................................................................... 7
8. Methods of Data Collection…………………………………. 8

CHAPTER – II: EFFECT OF PADMA MULTI-PURPOSE BRIDGE ON ROAD

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

9. ...................................……………………………………… 9

CHAPTER – III: ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND ITS DEPENDENCY ON ROAD

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

10. ..................................…….…………………………………. 15

CHAPTER – IV: IMPACT OF PADMA BRIDGE ON ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

SOUTH WESTERN BANGLADESH

11. ……………………………………………………………………... 21

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CHAPTER – V: CONCLUSIONS

12. .................…………………………………………………………….... 27

CHAPTER – VI: RECOMMENDATIONS

13. …………………......................................................................... 31

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………. 32

Annexes:

A. (if annexes are included). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………….. A-1

B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ………………………………… B-1

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SAMPLE LIST OF TABLES

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LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

1. Statistics of Roads and Tracks – 2010. . . …………………… 4

2. Major Products of South Western Area. . . . . ………………. 9

3. Economic Development South Western Area

District Wise Population – 2010. . . . . . . . . . ………………………… 12

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SAMPLE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Map of Road Communication - South Western Area. . …. 19

2. Major Routes of River Communication . . . . . . . ……….. 27

3. Major Economic/Trading Centres . . . . . . . . . . ………… 30

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SAMPLE PAGE OF MAIN DISCUSSION

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CHAPTER II: EFFECT OF PADMA MULTI-PURPOSE BRIDGE ON ROAD

COMMUNICATIONSYSTEM

1. Padma multipurpose bridge project is the largest and most expensive project that
Bangladesh government is undertaking……………………………………………….........
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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SAMPLE PAGE OF MAIN DISCUSSION

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CHAPTER III: ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND ITS DEPENDENCY ON ROAD

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

12. The economy of South Western Bangladesh is a mix of ...…………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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SAMPLE PAGE OF MAIN DISCUSSION

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CHAPTER IV: IMPACT OF PADMA BRIDGE ON ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

SOUTH WESTERN BANGLADESH

20. The dependency of the economy of South Western Bangladesh on road

communication system shows that the impact of Padma Bridge will be multi-
dimensional. The transportation time from the various communication centres to other
major consumer cities of Bangladesh was studied by taking data from various NGOs,
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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