CIRCULAR

HUMAN FACTORS DIGEST

No. 3

TRAINING OF OPERATIONAL PERSONNEL

IN HUMAN FACTORS

Approved by the Secretary General

and published under his authority

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 Foreword
1. Flight safety is the major objective of the International Civil Aviation Organization.
Considerable progress has been made, but additional improvements are needed and can be
achieved. It has long been known that some three out of four accidents result from less than
optimum human performance, indicating that any advance in this field can be expected to have
a significant influence on the improvement of flight safety.

2. This was recognized by the ICAO Assembly, which in 1986 adopted Resolution A26-9 on
Flight Safety and Human Factors. As a follow-up to the Assembly Resolution, the Air Navigation
Commission formulated the following objective for the task:

"To improve safety in aviation by making States more aware and responsive to the
importance of human factors in civil aviation operations through the provision of
practical human factors material and measures developed on the basis of
experience in States."

3. One of the methods chosen to implement Assembly Resolution A26-9 is the publication
of a series of digests which will address various aspects of Human Factors and their impact on
flight safety. These digests are intended primarily for use by States, to increase the awareness
of their personnel of the influence of human performance on safety. The ICAO Secretariat will
endeavour to assist States requesting additional information on the documentation available
from various sources, on research undertaken by other States and on any assistance available
from institutions or individuals.

4. The digests are aimed at the managers of both civil aviation administrations and the
airline industry, including airline operational and training managers. Regulatory bodies, safety
and investigation agencies and training establishments should also find them useful, as will
senior and middle non-operational airline management, in their quest for effectiveness.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
 Table of Contents

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1. Human Factors Training for Operational Personnel .

An introduction and overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Background and justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The situation prior to the Eighth Edition of Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Human Factors highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The SHEL model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The implications of the Eighth Edition of Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 2. Human Factors Training Curriculum -- An ICAO Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Theknowledge requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The skill requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chapter 3. Considerations in Training Implementation and

Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Determination of target audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Selection of the trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Training philosophy and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Skill development. pilot assessment and training course evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Appendix 1. KLM Human Factors Awareness Course (KHUFAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Appendix 2. Draft Syllabus on Human Performance and Limitations -
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
.
Appendix 3 The University of Newcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Appendix 4. Human Factors Training Curriculum for Airline
Transport Pilot Licence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Appendix 5. Pilot Training in Human Factors -
Considerations in
Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Appendix 6. Sample Questionnaire to Test Annex 1 Human Factors
Knowledge Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
 Introduction
1. Although human failure is the predominant factor contributing to aviation accidents and
incidents, it has never been clear what aspects of human capabilities and limitations should -
or could - be addressed by training. On the other hand, it has been equally clear for some years
that Human Factors education and training within the aviation system could be improved. The
purpose of this digest is to introduce and review the design and content of training courses in
aviation Human Factors. It is directed to those having responsibility for the development and
implementation of Human Factors training courses for operational personnel, and includes the
foilowing:

a) an outline ICAO training syllabus for Human Factors training;

b) a brief commentary on various problems associated with initiating aviation Human

Factors (HF) training;

c) information for States, training establishments and instructors to assist in the devel-
opment of suitable training syllabi and materials;

d) a discussion of issues which arise when considering the content and presentation of
Human Factors training; and

e) samples of Human Factors training courses already in use, or under development.

2. The production of this digest, and much of its content, have been influenced by changes
to ICAO Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing which became effective in November 1989. These
changes relate to Human Factors training requirements in respect of pilot licensing; their
importance is discussed in Chapter 1. However, the approach taken in this digest anticipates
continuing development in Human Factors training during coming years; it therefore addresses
the subject in a manr,er which goes beyond a narrow interpretation of the training needs dictated
by the Annex 1 revision.

3. The ICAO approach to Human Factors has been outlined in Digest No. 1 - Fundamental
Human Factors Concepts (ICAO Circular 216). This present digest, which builds upon the
contents of Digest No. 1, has pilot training as its primary focus but should be equally helpful when
considering the needs of other operational personnel, including air traffic controllers. Additional
information relevant to applied skills training in some specific aspects of Human Factors is
contained in Digest No. 2 - Flight Crew Tra~nirig:Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) and Line-
Oriented Flight Training (LOFT} (ICAO Circular 217). Digest No. 3 is mainly directed towards
meeting Human Factors knowledge requirements, including those specified in Annex 1.

4. The contents of this digest are as follows:

- Chapter 1 introduces the subject of Human Factors in the context of the pilot training
rec;uirements of Annex 1.
1
 ICAO Circular 227-ANl136

- Chapter 2 provides a sample Human Factors curriculum which States and training
establishments may wish to consult when designing their own training courses. The
training discussed in this chapter is not intended as a substitute for training aimed a t
improving operational Human Factors skills, such as pilot decision making (PDM) and
crew resource management (CRM) training. Rather, the ICAO syllabus supplements such
skills-based training and, since it particularly addresses basic knowledge, preferably
should precede it.

- Chapter 3 provides the rationale and basic information which interested States might take
into account when selecting instructors and developing and implementing their own
training courses.

- Appendices 1 to 3 provide examples of syllabi currently in use, or under development.

- Appendices 4 and 5 provide a simplified, condensed version of Chapters 2 and 3 respect-

ively. They are intended for use as quick reference checklists.

- Appendix 6 provides one way of verifying knowledge of Human Factors, through a sample
questionnaire.

5. As a result of the changes to Annex 1, Human Factors training for operational personnel
is presently undergoing rapid development. There appears t o be widespread consensus on the
content of appropriate training courses, with a steady evolution in training substance and
methods anticipated. In particular, it is envisaged that various innovations, especially with
respect to the teaching of Human Factors skills, will also evolve. ICAO will closely monitor such
developments and requests States t o forward information on Human Factors training courses to
ICAO Headquarters in Montreal. If appropriate, a timely review of this digest will be considered
in the light of such information.

6. This digest is written in a manner intended to offer the maximum possible assistance t o
all those having responsibility for Human Factors training, regardless of their positions. Because
the needs of administrations, operators, training establishments and individual instructors may
vary widely within a State or from State to State, however, the digest's contents should be
interpreted accordingly.

7. This digest was produced with the assistance of the ICAO Flight Safety and Human
Factors Study Group, based on an original proposal by Study Group advisor Captain
Neil Johnston.
 CHAPTER 1

Human Factors Training

for Operational Personnel
An Introduction and Overview

BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION

1.1 Apart from the notable impact of shortcomings in human performance upon aviation
safety, an important reason for the development of this particular Human Factors digest was the
publication of the Eighth Edition of Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing, which became applicable
in November 1989. This Annex contains a new Human Factors knowledge requirement for each
category of flight crew licence holder, namely:

". . . human performance and limitations relevant to [the licence being issued]"

This knowledge requirement has the same status as knowledge required in respect of meteor-
ology, navigation, principles of flight, or any other part of the traditional pilot training syllabus.
It therefore necessitates the production of an appropriate training syllabus and the integration
of new training concepts into the pilot training syllabus.

1.2 Furthermore, Annex 1 requirements for the demonstration of skill have been augmented
in a manner which dictates increased attention to certain elements of human performance. An
example of these changes is the requirement that the holder of an airline transport pilot licence:

". . . shall have demonstrated the ability to . . .:

(c) exercise good judgement and airmanship;

(f) understand and apply crew co-ordination and incapacitation procedures; and

(g) communicate effectively with the other flight crew members."

Each of these Annex 1 provisions bears upon some element of Human Factors; they dictate a
need for education and background knowledge, as well as development of the necessary skills
for implementation.

1.3 In addition to the changes mandated in Annex 1, additional impetus for change has come
from Human Factors experts within the aviation industry. The participation of such experts in
research and accidentlincident investigation has been steadily growing. In addition to the
immediate effect of their published findings, such experts have played an important role in
identifying potential solutions to various Human Factors safety and training deficiencies.
4 ICA 0 Circular 227-ANl136

1.4 The publication of the Eighth Edition of Annex 1 confirms a growing international
consensus that training in aviation Human Factors is a necessity. This digest is an early response
to the consequent need for training materials.

THE SITUATION PRIOR TO THE EIGHTH EDITION OF ANNEX 1

1.5 As long as human beings are part of the aviation system, human capabilities and
limitations will influence safety. Given the predominant role of human beings in the accident
record, it comes as no surprise that the consequences of some human deficiencies have been
well identified in accident reports and other publications. International licensing requirements
and the design of equipment, training and operational procedures are amongst those elements
of the aviation system which have changed steadily as a result of such experience.

1.6 However, change has been both slow and piecemeal. There are disparate understandings
of Human Factors within the aviation community. The limitations in our current state of
knowledge about the nature of human capabilities and limitations in aviation have resulted in a
somewhat incoherent and incomplete approach t o Human Factors training in the past.

1.7 With respect to pilot training, there is a similar diversity of strategies responding to
Human Factors problems. These strategies range from dedicated training courses in Human
Factors aimed exclusively at factual knowledge, through to training focused exclusively on
the development of specific skills, such as communications, crew co-ordination, resource
management and decision-making.

1.8 These solutions are limited by being only partially implemented, as well as by a lack of
both national and international co-ordination. Recent developments within the United States have
led to the publication of an FAA Advisory Circular on the subject of cockpit resource manage-
ment. Similarly,-in Canada national programmes on pilot decision making and risk management
have also been instituted. These are among the few national safety initiatives which have
addressed the need for a uniform response to an identified aspect of human performance within
the aviation system.

HUMAN FACTORS HIGHLIGHTS

1.9 The following paragraphs highlight a number of general Human Factors considerations,
intended essentially as an introduction to Human Factors for those readers who do not have
available Digest No. 1 - Fundamental Human Factors Concepts (Circular 216) which, ideally,
should be read before any training courses are developed.

Human Factors: an overview

1.10 Human Factors is about people: it is about people in their working and living environ-
ments, and it is about their relationship with equipment procedures and the environment. Just as
importantly, it is about their relationships with other people. Human Factors involves the over-all
performance of human beings within the aviation system; it seeks to optimize people's perform-
ance through the systematic application of the human sciences, often integrated within the
framework of system engineering. Its twin objectives can be seen as safety and efficiency.
 ICA 0 Circular 22 7-A N/136 5

Disciplines and applications

1.11 Human Factors is essentially a multidisciplinary field, including but not limited to:
psychology, engineering, physiology, medicine, sociology and anthropometry (see Figure 1).
Indeed, it is this multidisciplinary nature and the overlapping of the constituent disciplines that
make a comprehensive definition of Human Factors difficult.

1.12 Human Factors has come to be concerned with diverse elements in the aviation system.
These include human behaviour and performance; decision-making and other cognitive pro-
cesses; the design of controls and displays; flight deck and cabin layout; communication and
software aspects of computers; maps, charts and documentation; and the refinement of staff
selection and training. Each of these aspects demands skilled and effective human performance.

1.13 Given the contemporary emphasis upon the social sciences within Human Factors, it
should be remembered that physiology is among the many other important sources of Human
Factors knowledge. Thus, for example, anthropometry and biomechanics - involving measure-
ments and movements of the human body - are relevant to the design of the workplace and to
the equipment therein; similarly, biology and its subdiscipline, chronobiology, are necessary for
an understanding of those bodily rhythms which influence human performance.

1.14 In spite of the academic sources of information on the various Human Factors disciplines,
aviation Human Factors is primarily oriented towards solving practical problems in the real world.
As a concept, its relationship to the human sciences might well be likened to that of engineering
to the physical sciences. And, just as technology links the physical sciences to various
engineering applications, there are a growing number of integrated Human Factors techniques
or methods; these varied and developing techniques can be applied to problems as diverse as
accident investigation and the optimization of pilot training.

Accidents and incidents

1.15 Human error is, by far, the most pervasive cause of accidents and incidents in techno-
logically complex systems such as air transportation, with studies indicating that between 80 and
90 per cent of all aviation accidents are attributable to human error in one form or another. One
major data base of jet transport accidents world-wide indicates that 65 per cent of all such
accidents have been attributed to flight crew error. It also indicates that for the approach and
landing phases of flight, which account for 4 per cent of total flight exposure time and 49 per cent
of all accidents, flight crew error is cited in 80 per cent as a causal factor. Other sources of human
error, including maintenance, dispatch and, importantly, air traffic control, account for another
significant proportion of accidents.

1.16 In tragic terms, these accidents have been responsible for many deaths. It must also be
kept in mind that accidents involving commercial jet transport are only the tip of the iceberg; in
one major aviation State there are nearly 3 000 accidents and 1 000 fatalities each year in general
aviation alone. Studies have shown that human performance is involved as a cause in nearly
90 per cent of these accidents, making it abundantly clear that human performance is the critical
and enduring issue facing those who have responsibility for the design, operation and supervision
of our aviation system. The solution of these long-standing and perplexing Human Factors
problems is therefore essential.
Discipline Definition Specific area of interest Typical area of application

Psychology The science of mind and behaviour. Sensory characteristics, perceptual laws, Display requirements and design, control
learning principles, information systems design, allocation of function,
processing, motivation, emotion, research training system requirements and
methods, psychomotor skills, human methods, selection methods, effects of
errors. emotional and environmental stress on
performance, simulation requirements.

Engineering Applying the properties of matter and the Hydraulics, mechanical, structural, Design of displays, design of controls,
sources of energy in nature to the uses of electrical, electronic, and aerodynamics design of control systems, design of
man. design, systems analysis, simulation, complex systems, design of optical
optics. systems, simulator design.

Human physiology Deals with the processes, activities and Cell structure and chemistry, organ Environmental systems, diet and nutrition,
phenomena characteristic of living matter, structure and chemistry, interaction of the effects of environmental factors (heat,
particularly appropriate to healthy or various body constituents to promote cold, hypoxia), establishment of
normal functioning. health and function, functions and environmental requirements.
requirements of body systems.

Medicine The science and art of preventing, Effects of various forces, radiation, Toxicology of smoke, chemicals, impact
alleviating or curing disease and injuries. chemical and disease agents; appropriate protection, maintenance of health.
preventive methods of protecting health
and well-being.

Sociology The study of the development, structure Small and large groups or "teams"; crew Crew selection, passenger safety.
and function of human groups. composition; behaviour of passengers in
emergency situations.

Anthropometry Study of human body sizes and muscle Anatomy, biodynamics, kinesiology. Ground support equipment, access door
strength. size for maintenance, work station layout
(reach, range of adjustment of seats, etc.)

Figure 1. Disciplines frequently involved in Human Factors activities*

' Other disciplines with representatives actively engaged i n Human Factors activities include education, physics, biochemistry, mathematics, biology, industrial design
and operations research.
 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136 7

Human error

1.17 It is most important that all concerned with the operation and administration of the
aviation system recognize that, no matter how determined the effort to prevent it may be, human
error will have an impact on the system. No person, whether designer, engineer, manager,
controller or pilot, can perform perfectly at all times. Also, what could be considered perfect
performance in one set of circumstances might well be unacceptable in another. Thus, people
need to be seen as they really are; to wish that they be intrinsically "better" or "different" is futile,
unless such a wish is backed by a recommendation for remedial action, which itself must be
further supplemented by the provision of means to achieve better design, training, education,
experience, motivation, etc., with the objective of positively influencing relevant aspects of
human performance.

1.18 It is therefore intended that ICAO Human Factors digests will become a source of both
information and practical measures to be used in the effort to improve education, training and
remedial measures in Human Factors. The brief review above sets the context for the detailed
consideration of Human Factors. It represents the consensus view of the ICAO Flight Safety and
Human Factors Study Group.

THE SHEL MODEL

1.19 No discussion of constituents can capture the essence of the various processes and
interactions that characterize an operational system. One objective of the introductory ICAO
Human Factors digest was to identify the many and varied topics in Human Factors so as to
describe their different operational implications. It was also necessary to find a way of describing
the various processes of control, information exchange, etc., which occur in practice. To achieve
these objectives, ICAO's Human Factors Digest No. 1 introduced the "SHEL" model (see
Figure 2).

1.20 The SHEL model provides a conceptual framework to help understand Human Factors. It
illustrates the various constituents and the interfaces - or points of interaction - which
comprise the subject. Human Factors elements can be divided into four basic conceptual
categories:

Software: documentation, procedures, symbols, etc.

Hardware: machinery, equipment, etc.
Environment: both internal and external to the workplace
Liveware: the human element.

Interactions between human beings and the other elements of the SHEL model are at the heart
of Human Factors, which involves the interfaces between:

- humans and machines - "Liveware-Hardware"

- humans and materials - "Liveware-Software''
- humans and their colleagues - "Liveware-Liveware"

- humans and the operating environment - "Liveware-Environment".

8 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

Software (procedures, symbology, etc.) In this model the match or mismatch of the
Hardware (machine) blocks (interface) is just as important as the
Environment characteristics of the blockrs themselves. A
Liveware (human) mismatch can be a source of human error.

Figure 2. The SHEL model

The SHEL model provides the structure around which the syllabus in Chapter 2 was developed
and written. With use, the advantages of this model in guiding instruction on Human Factors
should also become clear.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE EIGHTH EDITION OF ANNEX 1

1.21 The ICAO licensingltraining Human Factors requirements may present some problems for
training institutions, airlines and licensing authorities. In the case of pilot technical training, for
instance, there is a wide international consensus as to training requirements, methods,
objectives and course content. Guidance material is readily available, syllabi are easy to develop,
and training methods are well established. However, there is no similar consensus as to the
appropriate focus for training in aviation Human Factors. This partly reflects the uncertainty
which characterizes our current state of knowledge about the nature of human capabilities and
limitations in aviation. However, it also reflects different beliefs as to the practicality and
effectiveness of dedicated Human Factors training.
 ICAO Circular 227-A N/136

1.22 There are different and legitimate perspectives in this matter. A central problem for many
States is the difference in international practices regarding the application to such training of
medicine, ergonomics, and the sociallbehaviourial sciences. Further differences relate to the
relative importance accorded to knowledge and skills training. Perspectives on training content
and strategies can be strongly influenced by different cultural and social practices.

1.23 While ICAO regulations serve to promote common international Standards and
Recommended Practices, considerable international differences remain in the practical
achievement of various ICAO requirements. For instance, in some countries the predominant pilot
training and licensing emphasis is directed at the individual licence holder, while in others the
maintenance of standards is primarily addressed through the airline operator. In the former
States, much thought tends to be given to the training and checking of individual pilots, while in
the latter it is the industry operating practices and procedures which receive greater attention.

1.24 Associated with these contrasting perspectives are different approaches t o aviation
safety problems. Some specialists favour a broad, industry-wide systems approach t o analysis
and remedial action, while others prefer to focus on specific problem areas. Some authorities
believe that the most effective action takes place at the point of aircraft and procedural design,
and thus feel that any action at the level of the individual pilot is misplaced. Others see line
management within the aviation industry as providing an appropriate focus for implementation
of change. Thus, airline operators vary considerably in the practical emphasis they allocate to
operational aspects of Human Factors.

1.25 In many countries further problems derive from a lack of suitable resources, including
appropriately trained physiologists, psychologists, ergonomists, aviation specialists, managers
and legislators (see also 3.5 regarding instructor qualification and selection). Furthermore, some
national authorities are proactive in pursuit of their regulatory activities, while others are not.

1.26 This short review of possible sources of difficulty underlines the potential for confusion
and misunderstanding, at both national and international levels. The resulting uncertainty and
lack of definition have sustained inaction in this field over many years. However, given the need
to respond to ICAO's call for pilot education in human performance and limitations, perhaps the
industry can now move forward, while bearing these difficulties in mind. While there are
undoubtedly some significant and difficult decisions to be made, the development of appropriate
training courses can now proceed.
 CHAPTER 2

Human Factors Training Curriculum

An ICAO Proposal

GENERAL

2.1 This chapter identifies specific areas of knowledge to be included in the design of Human
Factors training programmes. Annex 1 provides that the licence holder shall demonstrate
knowledge on human performance and limitations commensurate with the level of the licence
(PPL, CPL, ATPL, etc.). In order t o comply with this requirement, specific programmes should be
designed for each level of licence. For the purpose of this document, however, and in order not
to make this proposal too binding, a single programme is proposed as a baseline, with differences
in its applicability to different levels of licence to be made as appropriate.

THE KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENT

2.2 The outline curriculum provided below meets the training requirements for the airline
transport pilot licence (ATPL) holder; with minor adjustments i t can easily be made applicable to
the commercial pilot licence (CPL), to the instructorlinstrument ratings and to the private pilot
licence (PPL). For instance, the curriculum for the PPL holder might explicitly address pilot
judgement and decision-making. On the other hand, the curriculum for the ATPL and
instructorlinstrument ratings should address crew co-ordination, communication with other crew
memberslpersonnel, small group dynamics and crew management. Currently, skills in these areas
are covered by cockpit resource management training programmes (see Circular 217).

2.3 A general survey within the industry indicates that approximately 35 hours is the time
required to properly present Human Factors training similar to that in the proposed syllabus. The
minimum is estimated to be 20 hours. In order t o provide an indication of the relative importance
of each topic, the following indicates the percentages of total time to be given to each subject:

Module Title Time

Introduction t o Human Factors in Aviatior; 5% (1.75 hrs)

The Human Element (Aviation Physiology) 20% (7.00 hrs)
The Human Element (Aviation Psychology) 30% (10.50 hrs)
The Human Element (Fitness for Duty) 5% (1.75 hrs)
Liveware-Hardware: Pilot-equipment Relationship 5% (1.75 hrs)
Liveware-Software: Pilot-software Relationship 1O0/0 (3.50 hrs)
Liveware-Liveware: Interpersonal Relations 15% (5.25 hrs)
Liveware-Environment: The Operating Environment 10% (3.50 hrs)

Total: 35 hours
 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

2.4 Whatever the total amount of hours allocated to any given programme, a balanced
introduction to Human Factors training should be achieved if these relative percentages are
applied. Given this general guidance, any aviation Human Factors specialists involved in course
development should be able to provide advice on appropriate course content. The following
outline is therefore not intended to be exhaustive, but it will provide guidance to the specialist
in the development of a satisfactory course.

Module 1: Introduction to Human Factors in Aviation

In this module, the rationale for Human Factors training should be explained. A good point of
departure is the fact that since 1940, three out of four accidents have had at least one contribu-
tory factor relating to human performance.

The introduction has to be carefully prepared in order to capture the pilot's interest. It is desirable
that training directed at meeting any examination or test requirement associated with the revised
Annex 1 be kept relevant to operational aspects of flight. A practical orientation is therefore
essential to effective training. The relevance of the programme must be made quite clear to pilots
- this is not intended as an academic exercise. Therefore, only that information which relates
to pilot performance should be included. Training personnel should present the information
according to their particular operational needs and may wish to take specific aspects of their
local accidentlincident experience into account.

The SHEL model might be usefully introduced in this module as one of the possible aids to
understanding the interactions between the different components of the system, as well as the
potential for conflict and error arising from the various mismatches which can occur in practice.

Module 2: The Human Element (Aviation Physiology)

Breathing; recognizing and coping with:

- hypoxia
- hyperventilation

Pressure effects; effects on ears, sinuses and closed cavities of:

- trapped or evolved gases
- decompression
- underwater diving

Limitations of the senses

- visual
- aural
- vestibular
- proprioceptive
- tactile
12 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

Acceleration effects; positive and negative "G's"

- aggravating conditions

Disorientation
- visual illusions
- vestibular illusions
- coping mechanisms
Fatiguelalertness
- acute
- chronic
- the effects on skill and performance
Sleep disturbances and deficits

Circadian dysrhythmialjet lag

Module 3: The Human Element (Aviation Psychology)

Human errors and reliability

Workload (attention and information processing)

- perceptual
- cognitive

Information processing
- mind set and habit patterns
- attention and vigilance
- perceptual limitations
- memory

Attitudinal factors
- personality
- motivation
- boredom and complacency
- culture

Perceptual and situational awareness

Judgement and decision-making

Stress
- symptoms and effects
- coping mechanisms

Skillslexperiencelcurrency vs. proficiency

 ICA 0 Circular 227-AN/136

Module 4: The Human Element (Fitness for Duty)

Personal health

Effects of:
- dietlnutrition
- alcohol
- drugs (including nicotinelcaffeine)
- medications (prescribed; over-the-counter)
- blood donations
- aging

Psychological fitnesslstress management

Pregnancy

Module 5: Liveware-Hardware: Pilot-equipment Relationship

Controls and displays

- design ( movement, size, scales, colour, illumination, etc.)
- common errors in interpretation and control
- "glass" cockpits; information selection
- habit patterns interferenceldesign standardization

Alerting and warning systems

- appropriate selection and set-up
- false indications
- distractions and response

Personal comfort
- temperature, illumination, etc.
- adjustment of seat position and controls

Cockpit visibility and eye-reference position

Motor workload

Module 6: Liveware-Software: Pilot-software Relationship

Standard operating procedures

- rationale
- benefits
- derivation from human limitations and the accidentlincident record
Written materialslsoftware
- errors in the interpretation and use of mapslcharts
- design principles and correct use of checklists and manuals
14 ICAO Circular 227-A Nl736 -

Operational aspects of automation

- overloadlunderload and phase of flight; complacency and boredom
- staying in the looplsituational awareness
- automated in-flight equipment; appropriate use, effective task allocation, maintenance o f
basic flying skills

Module 7: Liveware-Liveware: Interpersonal Relations

Note.- Liveware-Liveware deals with interpersonal contacts happening at the present time
(here and now), as opposed to the interpersonal contacts involving people outside of the current
operating situation (the latter are considered in Module 8).

Factors influencing verbal and non-verbal communication between and with:

- flight deck crew

- cabin crew
- maintenance personnel
- company managementlflight operations control
- air traffic services
- passengers
How verbal and non-verbal communication affects information transfer and thus safety and
efficiency of flight

Crew problem solving and decision-making

Introduction to small group dynamicslcrew management (see also Circular 217 for further
information on this topic).

Module 8: Liveware-Environment: The Operating Environment

The physical environment (internal)

-temperature, pressure, humidity
-noise, vibration
-lighting
-radiation
-pollutantslcontaminantslcarbon monoxide poisoning

The physical environment (external)

- terrain: mountains, water, desert, "white-out", "black hole"
- weather: turbulence, wind shear, icing
- other air traffic
- time of day
- take-off and landing conditions: density altitude, runway conditions
 ICAO Circular 227-AN1136 15

The socioeconomic environment

- legal and regulatory
- company organizational structure and economic climate
- employer operating pressures
- employerlemployee relationslunions
- family relationships
- peer groups and professionalism
- pairing of inexperienced crews (experience in the operational context)

THE SKILL REQUIREMENT

2.5 While the initial emphasis in Human Factors training should be upon knowledge and
comprehension of basic Human Factors, instructors must also bear in mind the need to develop
appropriate operational behaviour and skills. In other words, to make this academic knowledge
useful, pilots must develop those skills and attitudes necessary to maximize their operational
performance. For example, a pilot with proper knowledge of physiology should be able to identify
an unfit condition with potentially dangerous and undesirable consequences and elect not to fly,
thus exercising what can be considered as a judgement skill. Obviously, training activities
directed towards the development of suitable attitudes and skills should always be given the
highest possible priority.

2.6 Human Factors skill identification and training applications remain a relatively unde-
veloped field in pilot training and can be expected to undergo considerable development in years
to come. For many skills, the major training requirement will be to identify and specify suitable
training materials and techniques, and to successfully integrate these into the ground and
airborne training syllabi. In one major training school, for instance, the heading "pilot judgement"
and supplementary notes have been included in all briefing and instructional materials, including
those used during ground instruction. This serves as a trigger for instructors to discuss relevant
pilot judgement skills.

2.7 The following is a list of Human Factors skills areas identified using the SHEL model
(some skills are of necessity included in more than one interface). This guidance material may
assist trainers with the identification of the required Human Factors skills, and should help to
fill the void between the written word and its practical application. Possible skills areas for
training development are:

Liveware-Liveware (L-L)
Communication skills
Listening skills
Observation skills
Operational management skills; leadership and followership
Problem solving
Decision-making

Liveware-Hardware (L-H)
Scanning
Detection
Decision-making
16
- ICAO Circular 227-A N/136

Cockpit adjustment
Instrument interpretationlsituational awareness
Manual dexterity
Selection of alternative procedures
Reaction to breakdowns/failures/defects
Emergency warnings
Workload; physical, allocation of tasks
Vigilance

~iveware-Environment(L-E)
Adaptation
Observation
Situational awareness
Stress management
Risk management
Prioritization and attention management
Copinglemotional control
Decision-making

Liveware-Software (L-S)
Computer literacy
Self-discipline and procedural behaviour
Interpretation
Time management
Self-motivation
Task allocation

The proposed ICAO curriculum detailed above includes an interface not considered as such in
the SHEL model, namely the Human Element. Human Factors skills under this heading include
those relating to the psychological state and well-being of operational personnel themselves (this
should not be confused with the "Liveware-Liveware" interface, which deals with interpersonal
contacts):

The Human Element

Recognitionlcoping: disorientation (motion systems), stress
Fatigue
Pressure effects
Self-disciplinelcontrol
Perception
Attitudes and the application of knowledge and exercise of judgement

2.8 It will.be readily-appreciated from the foregoing that the development of skills for practical
application during flight operations is an important evolution from theoretical Human Factors
knowledge to actual operational settings. While the emphasis in this digest is necessarily
directed mainly toward pure knowledge requirements, it is important to reiterate that, where
possible, practical Human Factors considerations should be built into all relevant aspects of
instructional activity. This should apply throughout all stages of pilot and instructor training.
Instruction directed at the acquisition of Human Factors skills is the activity which is expected
to yield the greatest benefits in the future.
 ICA O Circular 227.A #/I36 17

2,9 It is anticipated that specialist training directed towards the acquisition of suitable skills
will be further developed in the coming years and that suitable trainlng techniques will be fully
integrated into all pilot training activities. It is especially undesirable that, after meeting the
Annex 1 knowledge requirement, trainees come to see Human Factors training as an academic
exercise lacking in operational relevance.
 CHAPTER 3

Considerat ions in Training

Implementation and Curriculum Development

OVERVIEW

3.1 To assist in making courseware design decisions and in planning training implemen-
tation, the following paragraphs identify essential elements of the Human Factors training and
educational tasks. An attempt has been made to respond to needs across the training spectrum,
from those of the individual instructor to those of major training establishments. The discussion
therefore avoids too restrictive a view as to how actual training courses might be conducted in
practice. A concise version of this section is repeated as Appendix 5, thus providing a checklist
for interested parties.

DETERMINATION OF TARGET AUDIENCE

3.2 The curriculum, training objectives and training effort will vary for different categories of
aviation personnel. Obviously, all personnel do not need the same knowledge or skills.

3.3 Among operational personnel - the prime focus of the ICAO initiative - it will be
important to differentiate among the specific requirements of the different pilot categories
included in Annex 1 (private, commercial. ATPL, etc.). When developing training courses, the pilot
categories to be considered include a b initio, general aviation, commercial, air carrier,
managementlsupervisory and instructor pilots. Some States or organizations may also wish to
develop training for other operational categories such as aircraft maintenance personnel, air
traffic controllers and flight operations officers.

3.4 Although only limited knowledge of Human Factors may be required for senior manage-
ment, appropriate background information is widely considered to be essential. Supervisory and
other personnel will need specialist knowledge by virtue of their particular function. Thus, for
instance, there will clearly be different knowledge and competency requirements for senior
management, accident preventionlair safety officers, accident investigators, flight operations
managementlsupervisory personnel, and supervisory flight instructors (for instance, suitable
introductory information for supervisory staff is included in paragraphs 1.9 to 1.18).

SELECTION OF THE TRAINERS

3.5 The selection and education of those who will administer training programmes in Human
Factors have been a matter of concern in some States, perhaps because of the understandable
idea that m l y a trained psychologist can deal with subjects related to human behaviour. In their
18
 ICA 0 Circular 227-A N/136 19

daily activities, however, pilots and instructors deal with and teach subjects related to aero-
dynamics without being aeronautical engineers, to meteorology without being meteorologists, to
powerplants without being mechanics, and so on. There is no reason why this line of reasoning
cannot be applied to the teaching of Human Factors.

3.6 Within the aviation community, flight and ground instructors are among the obvious
individuals capable of teaching Human Factors. If flight and ground instructors are thoroughly
familiar with the contents of the proposed programme - whether thorough formal training or self-
education - they will be able to fulfil the training objectives. Digest No. 1 is one useful starting
point for instructors since it includes an extensive bibliography. Alternatively, specialists in the
subject will be in a good position to teach Human Factors. However, it will then be important to
ensure that these specialists are themselves able to relate their knowledge in a practical manner
to the operational environment.

TRAINING PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES

Introduction

3.7 General issues for attention during course design and development are discussed in this
section. It is intended that consideration of these issues will help to clarify desirable training
goals and techniques.

Training philosophy

3.8 Among the more important topics requiring attention here are:

a) the roles to be given to theoretical and practical, or experiential, learning activities. This
will prove to be a most important dichotomy in practice, so clarity is essential;

b) the integration of knowledge-based training into briefing, debriefing and practical

exercises conducted during flight training; and

c) the role of training activities which promote experiential learning (e.g. role-playing, line-
oriented flight training, etc.)

Training objectives

3.9 Once the philosophical direction of the training has been established, the training
objectives must be specified. These will influence the design of the training courseware and the
priority accorded to Human Factors in briefing, debriefing and performance appraisal.

3.10 When determining training objectives, and instructor training activities, it is often useful
to divide the learning task into appropriate sub-categories such as "memorizing", "under-
standing", "doing", and "attitudinal aspects" and to identify the post-training competency, or
command of the subject matter, expected of the trainees within each category. These four
categories or domains of trainee competence may be characterized as follows:
20 ICAO Circular 227-ANl136

- knowledge-based (memorization)
- comprehension-based (understanding)
- skillltechnique-based (doing)
- attitude-based

3.11 Knowledge covers factual knowledge, and may include memorizing appropriate
procedural information. Suitable teaching and assessment techniques are currently used in the
theoretical and procedural training of pilots.

3.12 Comprehension of relevant general principles and theory is often essential in order to
achieve competency. This category will sometimes overlap with other categories.

3.13 Pilots are expected to acquire and display certain practical skills and techniques. Skills
in any domain must be exercised in a suitable fashion, in the appropriate context and at the
correct time. In aviation, psychomotor and procedural skills have traditionally received most
attention; in the case of Human Factors training, some additional skills are necessary, such as
the development of appropriate communicationslcrew skills.

3.14 Attitudes play an important part i n determining over-all pilot performance. Philosophical
aspects relating to piloting practice, desirable professional attributes and dispositions conducive
to good airmanship can be considered under this heading. The process of corporate/professional
induction and socialization can also be considered under this heading for those operators
involved in the ab initio training of pilots. Attitudes have been strongly emphasized by a number
of Human Factors specialists, who have noted the role of appropriate attitudes in sustaining and
implementing safe and effective operational practices.

Subject content

3.15 The outline syllabus contained in Chapter 2 of this digest should provide an overview of
essential subject matter, as well as a suitable point of departure for detailed syllabus
development.

Training materials, techniques and

educational technologies

3.16 A division can be made here between training hardware, training strategiesltechniques
and the actual training courseware. It is anticipated that the better Human Factors training
courses will make creative and imaginative use of the available resources. Optimal training will
address the Annex 1 requirement whilst giving appropriate emphasis to training the essential
Human Factors skills.

Training hardware

3.17 While simulators come immediately to mind, there are many other potentially useful
training devices, such as part-task trainers, computer-based training equipment, as well as video
cameraslrecorders, interactive video and other developing hardware.
 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

Training strategies and techniques

3.18 Associated with the new training hardware is an increasing differentiation of training
methods, many of which utilize modern instructional technology. Thus, for instance, the merits
of interactive media and the effectiveness of video feedback in training are now widely
recognized.

3.19 At the other extreme, valuable learning experiences can arise from the use of suitable role-
playing exercises, case studies or simulation gaming. While such activities depend on careful and
time-consuming preparation, they are cheap and can be highly effective.

3.20 Recent changes in educational practice reflect a growing trend towards open and
experiential learning, which address both individual and crew skill development and training
needs. For pilot training in Human Factors, some such learning is seen by most specialists as
highly desirable, notably in areas as communications and crew co-ordination skills. Indeed, it is
the acquisition of necessary skills, rather than the mere demonstration of theoretical under-
standing, that is the desired objective of such training.

3.21 In achieving training objectives the value of multi-method training should be noted. This
is a means of integrating individual training techniques into multi-method "integrated training
technologies". Notable examples in current use are optimal LOFT programmes and fully
developed CRM training. These "integrated training technologies" comprise carefully designed
training programmes which facilitate both individual and crew-centred learning. Operationally
relevant experiential learning is promoted by the provision of extensive feedback, often using
video recordings and other means to facilitate reflection and student-lead debriefing.

Training courseware

3.22 The content of fully developed training courseware will clearly depend on training
objectives, time, equipment and the available resources. It should, desirably, integrate ground
and airborne training activities. Courseware should be prepared so as to explicitly include Human
Factors points for consideration during briefing and debriefing. While the essential focus of the
latest Annex 1 amendment is upon the provision of Human Factors knowledge, the training of
preference will best achieve this when operational skills are also addressed during instructional
design and development. The choices made at the courseware design stage will help to define
the relevant instructorltrainee learning activities.

SKILL DEVELOPMENT, PILOT ASSESSMENT

AND TRAINING COURSE EVALUATION

3.23 Regular assessment is very much a part of aviation industry practice and provides one
means of meeting standards and determining training effectiveness. Decisions as to suitable and
productive means of pilot assessment will be an important influence in Human Factors
courseware design. While traditional methods of assessment have unquestioned value in
measuring factual knowledge and various aspects of comprehension, an alternative form of
performance appraisal is generally considered essential when judging the efficacy of experiential
 ICAO Circular 227-ANl136

learning activities. Experiential learning, such as that seen in the best LOFTICRM programmes,
cannot be optimized if formal assessment is conducted simultaneously with the training.

3.24 Furthermore, the general difficulty of evaluating the effectiveness of communications

skills, CRM and similar training is well known. Indeed, the difficult issues addressed here arise
regularly in discussion, both in terms of justifying the training effort and in evaluating the
effectiveness of all such training courses.

3.25 On the other hand, skill acquisition in aviation has traditionally been achieved on the job
or in the course of high-fidelity simulation. Skill assessment and associated operational
techniques have traditionally been conducted in the same environment. However, notwith-
standing the influence of current practice, the desire for format assessment of Human Factors
skills must always be counterbalanced by full consideration of any negative learning conse-
quences which may arise from that very assessment.

3.26 In this context, it should be noted that training activities such as role-playing and LOFT
are considered to be especially good training techniques because they explicitly concentrate on
the skill development needs of trainees, while avoiding the negative learning connotations
associated with the checkingltesting environment. While there may be no international
consensus as to the best means of addressing the difficult issue of Human Factors training
evaluation (and trainee performance appraisal), it is clearly important that the general issues
discussed above are fully understood by trainers and instructional designers. Such an under-
standing will help prevent premature moves to assessment and testing in circumstances where
they could prove counterproductive to longer term learning needs.

3.27 Appendix 6 provides a sample questionnaire to illustrate one suggested approach to the
assessment of Human Factors factual knowledge.
 APPENDIX 1

KLM Human Factors Awareness Course

(KH UFAC)

LIST OF UNITS

Unit Title

The Meaning of Human Factors

The Nature of Human Error
Meeting the Challenge of Human Error
Fatigue, Body Rhythms and Sleep
Vision and Visual Illusions
Fitness and Performance
Motivation and Leadership
Communications; Language and Speech
Attitudes and Persuasion
Training and Training Devices
Displays and Controls
Space and Layout
Documentation
The Cabin and its Human Payload
Awareness and Application

UNIT 1 - THE MEANING OF HUMAN FACTORS

Definition
- ErgonomicslHuman Factors - twin objectives

Course preview
- Liveware; hardware; software; environment

Human Factor deficiencies

- Examples; displays; controls; seats; procedures; lighting; illusions; cabin deficiencies

- "Murphy's Law"

- Accident (CVR) Sequence simulated; analysis of errors

Staff involved
24 ICA 0 Circular 227-AN/136

Conceptual model of Human Factors

- Interfaces between liveware, software, hardware, environment; characteristics of man

Questions and misconceptions

- Ergonomics vs. medicine (operations management)
- Sleep and body rhythms; sleeping tablets; alcohol (stewardess)
- Line crew member interest and involvement (pilot)
- Ergonomics and common sense (central engineering)
- Disciplines used i n ergonomics
- Financial aspect of ergonomics (financial controller)

Recommended reading

Roscoe, Stanley N. Aviation Psychology.

Warr. Psychology at Work. Penguin Education.
Applied Ergonomics Handbook. IPC Science and Technology Press.
Murrell, Hywell. Men and Machines.

UNIT 2 - THE NATURE OF HUMAN ERROR

Introduction
- Historical background of error; increasing consequences of error

Occurrence
- Not confined to crews; crew responsibility as last in chain; normal error rates vs.
acceptable rates in aviation

Classification
- Mismatching between components of conceptual model (Unit 1); random, systematic,
sporadic errors; omission; commission; substitution; reversible and irreversible

Information processing
- Where errors occur in system; examples and location; capacity and overload
Variability of human performance
- Circadian rhythms of performance; attention

The false hypothesis

- Situations when likely to occur

Motivation
- Relation to error rates

Recommended reading

Fitts and Posner. Human Performance. Brooks and Coles.

Swain, A.D. Design Techniques for Improving Human Performance. In Corn. Tec.
 iCAO Circular 227-AN/136 25

UNlT 3 - MEETING THE CHALLENGE OF HUMAN ERROR

Introduction
- Need to take action on error
- Minimizing error; reducing the consequence of error
- ldentif ication of errors with serious consequences

System component interfaces

- Hardware; controls and displays; Murphy's Law; effect of stress
- Procedures; environment; temperature

Allocation of tasks between man and machines

- Examples; motivation
Arousal level
- Optimum; sleepiness; boredom; job stress
- Vigilance and monitoring tasks

Correction programmes
- ECR; ZDP; improved training; application of procedures
- Personnel selection; training; checking; self-pacing; workload distribution

Living with residual errors

- Reversible; monitoring; avoidance of critical situations; discussions of errors
Summary

Recommended reading

Fitts and Posner. Human Performance. Brooks and Coles.

Swain, A.D. Design Techniques for Improwing Human Performance. In Corn. Tec.

UNlT 4 - FATIGUE, BODY RHYTHMS AND SLEEP

Relevance to safety and efficiency
- Views of specialists
- Effects on attention; perception; motivation etc.

Categorization
- Three types of fatigue; sources of fatigue

Associated problems
- At work; at home

The nature of sleep

- Types; stages

The function of sleep and effect of sleep loss

- Amount of sleep required; effect of sleep loss on motivation and performance
26 lCAO Circular 227-AN/136

Body rhythms
- Examples ol rhythms; shifting rhythms; brain and performance rhythms

Operational consequences of sleep and body rhyt hrn disturbance

- Summary; variability in human performance

Minimizing affect of sleep loss

Avoiding sleep loss

- Sleeping drugs and performance; relaxation techniques; individual differences; optimizing
sleeping environments; diet; adapting lifestyle; crew scheduling

Recommended reading

Meares, Ainslle. Relief Without Drugs. Fontana.

Bensan. The Relaxation Response. Avon.
Selye, Hans. Stress Without Distress.
Carrington. Freedom in Mediation. Anchor.
Hartrnann. The Funcfions of Sleep. Yale University Press.
Sagal and Luce. Sleep. Arena Books.
Luce. Body Time. Bantam Books.
Hawkins. Sleep and Body Rhythm Disturbance In Long-Range Aviation. London: Churchill
Memorial Trust.

UNiT 5 - VISION AHO VISUAL ILLUSIONS

Introduction
- Ames room; importance of sense of vision

Light
- Light waves; colour detection and vision; description of light
The eye
- Description; adaptation; visual acuity
- Blind spot

Brain
- Attention; information processing; perception; distancelsize judgement
- Perspective; hypaxialsmoking
Optical illusions
- Geometric illusions
- Aviation illusions:
- general: autokinetic effect, rain on windshield
- taxiing: loading bridge, windshield discontinuity, drifting snow
- in flight: low visibility, XYZ position, black hole, sloping rlw, sloping terrain, wide rEw,
false horizon
 lCAO Circular 227-ANil36 27

Protection from illusion hazards

- Recognition of personal vulnerabi tity
- Support visual cues with other information
- Crew briefing
- Standard operating procedures
-
Smoking limitation

Recommended reading

Gregory, R.L. The Eye and the Brain.

Robinson, J.O. The Psychology of Visual Illusion.
Spatial Disorientatton in Flight. AGARD.

UNIT 6 - FITNESS AND PERFORMANCE

Fitness
- Ergonomics vs. medicine; arguments to support definition; fitness and performance

Exercise
-
Scientific programmes; modifying life-style; walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, ball
games; adrenalinelnoradrenaline

Smoking
- Tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide; association with cancer and cardiovascular disease and
performance; effect of filters; effect on non-smoker; pregnancy; statistical controversy

A tcohol
- Cost of alcoholism; effect on performance; absorption characteristics; relative alcohol
content of drinks; alcohol and drugs; sleep; detecting and treatment of alcoholism

Drugs
- Steeping drugs, tranquil izsts, antihistamines

Stress
- Correlation of life change events and performance; "human function curve"; avoid effect
of stress
Diet
- Hypoglycemia; balanced diet; incapacitation
Recommended reading

Carruthers and Murray. Fitness on 40 Minutes a Week.

Cooper, Kenneth H. The New Aerobics.
Cooper, Kenneth H. The Aerobics Way.
28 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

Smoking or Health. Royal College of Physicians.

Alcohol and Alcoholism. Royal College of Psychiatrists.
Manual of Nutrition. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Eating for Health. Health Department of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Looking after Yourself. Health Education Council.
lyengar, B.K.S. Light on Yoga.

UNIT 7 - MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP

Motivation

Accidents
- Inadequate human behaviour in accidents
- "What and why"

Definition
- Can and will; performance when unsupervised

Effort and performance

- Conceptual model
Kinds of motivation
- Hunger and sexual drives
- What motivates people; performance and supervision; achievement; affiliation

Influencing motivation
- Sticks and carrots; internalization of rewards and punishment; Maslow's hierarchy;
achievement and affiliation motivation

Job satisfaction
- Job enrichment; job enlargement; relation to performance; money as motivator; satisfiers
and dissatisfiers

Behaviour reinforcement
- Positive and negative reinforcement; cautions; feedback; magnitude; timing

Leadership
Dominator, leader, chief; nature of leadership; participation

Characteristics of leader
- Dependent on situation; common traits

Task of leader
- Motivation, modification, example; personal function; captain and purser; skills beyond
technical competence
 lCAO Circular 227-AN1136

Professionalism
- Definition; self-discipline and definition; appraisal of professional performance; role of
supervisor

Conciusion

Environment
- Changing technically and economically; behaviourial changes required; standard
operating procedures; need for broader training concept progress through understanding

Recommended reading

Vroom, Victor H., and Edward L. Deci. Management and Motivation.

Murrell, Hywell. Motivation at Work.

UNIT 8 -COMMUNICATION
Language and speech

Introduction
- Kinds of communications; SHEL interfaces; scope

Language of communication
- Intelligibility
- Frequency of use of words and phrases; word length; words in context; standardization;
repetition
- Non-verbal language; body and sign language

Speech
- Vocal system
- Characteristics of speech; intensity, frequency, harmonic composition
- Redundancy; false hypothesis
- Expectation
- Masking; source, solutions, information content of consonants and vowels, signallnoise
ratio
- Articulation index; speech interference level
- Noise; annoyance; effectiveness of speakers11isteners

Conclusion
- Communication equipment
- Communication breakdown
- Reference books; suggested reading

Recommended reading

Communication. England: Open University Press.

R/T Handbook. London: CAA.
Carpenter, A. Human Facfors in Speech Comrnunica tion.
30 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136

UNlT 9 - ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION

Introduction
- Examples, importance, definition

Nature
- Opinions, beliefs, components, attitudes vs. behaviour, stereotypes

Functions
- Satisfy needs, define individuality, ego-defensive, organization aid

Measurement
- Indirect measurement, ThurstonelLikert scales

Origins
- Early life; the media

Changing attitudes
- Resistance to change; communication function; optimizing communicator; message and
audience; "boomerang" effect

Conclusion
- Importance for safety and efficiency

Recommended reading

Attitudes and Beliefs. England: Open University Press.

Reich and Adcock. Values, Attitudes and Behaviourial Change.
Brown. Techniques of Persuasion.

UNlT 10 - TRAINING AND TRAINING DEVICES

Introduction
- Application to all skilled staff
- Scope of unit
- Definitions; training, education, instruction

Training principles
- Alternative solutions, apart from training
- Transfer of training
- Feedback, open and closed-loop system
- Guidance, cueing and prompting
- Pacing

Training, learning and memory

- Training and learning; student participation
- Learning processes; stages
- Memory; short and long-term; effects of coding information
 ICA 0 C ~ ~ C U I S ~ ~ 36
227-AN11 31

- Rehearsal, age, sleep

- Practise, overlearning
- Handicaps to learning; anxiety, motivation, reading skill communication
- Learning methods, individual preferences
Training systems
- Systems approach to training
- Model of training system
- Ptogrammed instruction

Training devices
- Aids vs. equipment
- Human Factors requirements
- Fidelity in simulation; need for, time deviations
- Fidelityltransferlcost
- Components of fidelity

Instructors
- Acceptability, cognitive typing
- Lecturing techniques, classroom optimization
Conclusion

Recommended reading

Stammers and Patrick. The Psychology of Training.

UNIT 11 -- DISPLAYS AND CONTROLS

Introduction
- Development history, electronics and ergonomics, responsibility for development

Djsplays
- Definition, function
- Information processing and display optimization
- Allocation to different senses
- Design principles
- Display classifications
- Alphanumerics
- Dials and scales
- CRT
- HUD
- Warning systems
Controls
- Design principles
- Controlldisplay ratio, direction of movement, control resistance, control coding,
prevention of inadvertent actuation
32 ICA 0 Circular 227-ANl136

Evaluation
- Exercise in panel evaluation

Conclusion
- Need for operator input
- Reference books and papers

UNIT 12 - SPACE AND LAYOUT

Introduction
- Size, shape movement
- Application to flight deck, cabin, maintenance, loading

Data collection
- Anthropometry, biomechanics
- Data collection
- Designing for extremes
- Distribution; mean + SD, percentiles
- Differences; ethnic, malelfemale

Flight deck geometry

- Constraints, aerodynamic, commercial
- Visibility
- General dimensions; column separation and pilotlinstrument alignment

Layou t
- Individual situation analysis
- Sight and reach, controls and displays
- Panel space
- Flight deck layout for three-crew, task distribution
General application
- Cabin, galley, toilet, hatracks, doors, stowage
- Safety aspects, escape, impact

Conclusion
- Compromises, penalties
Recommended reading

Reichmann, W.J. Use and abuse of statistics.

Moroney. Facts from Figures.
 lCAO Circular 227-AN/136 33

UNIT f 3 - DOCUMENTATION
Introduction
- Cost of documentation deficiencies

General principles
- Language; appropriate for readership
- Writing; wordlsentence length, syntax, telegraphese, abbreviations, simplicity, jargon,
ambiguity, negativelpositive, readability formulae
- Printing; typography, upperllower case
- Layout

Manuals, handbooks and papers

- Function, individual preferences, index and contents, paragraph and page numbering
colour coding
- Diagrams, charts, tables
- Illustrations, avoiding error, colour
- Technical papers, simple writing
- Need for testing

Questionnaires, forms
- Questionnaire surveys
- Survey design, elements
- Technical selection, openlclosed questions
- Checklists, inventories, rating scales
- Questionnaire preparation, ground rules
- Bias, leading questions, loaded words, layout

Conclusions
- Other documentation, navigation, passenger information
- Importance of awareness for writer and reader

Recommended reading

Oppenheim, A.N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement.

O'Connor, M ., and F.P. Woodford. Writing Scientific Papers in English.
 APPENDIX 2

Draft Syllabus on
Human Performance and Limitations
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC)

1. ALTITUDE FLYING: RESPIRATION AND BLOOD CIRCULATION

1.1 Basic concepts

- Metabolism
- Oxygen requirements of tissues
- Composition of the atmosphere
- The gas laws

1.2 The respiratory system and circulation of the blood

- Interrelationship of respiration and circulation

- Composition and function of the blood
- Blood pressure
- control of blood pressure
- hypo- and hypertension
- hemodynamic effects of acceleration
- Functional anatomy of the respiratory system
- Ventilation of the alveolar space, respiratory control
- Hypoxia
- definition and causes of hypoxia
- symptoms of oxygen deficiency and treatment
- time of useful consciousness
- Hyperventilation
- definition and causes of hyperventilation
- symptoms and treatment

1.3 The pressure cabin

- Rapid decompression, effects and countermeasures

- Entrapped gases, barotrauma
 lCAO Circular 227-AM136 35

2. HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

2.1 The general system

- Central and peripheral nervous system

- Sensory threshold, sensitivity, adaptation, habituation
- Reflexes and biological control systems
- Information processing by the central nervous system
- mental set, attention (selective, divided, failure)
- channel capacity, filtering
- mechanisms of perception, constancies, selective perception

2.2 The senses

- Vision
- functional anatomy of the eye
- physiology of the visual system
- visual acuity, refraction and refractive errors, presbyopia
- the visual field, scanning of the environment
- binocular vision
- the intraocular pressure, glaucoma
- hypoxia and vision
- night vision (dark adaptation)
- defective colour vision

- Hearing
- functional anatomy of the ear
- physiology of hearing
- hearing loss (perceptive, conductive)
- flight-related hazards to hearing; noise-related hearing loss, barotrauma
- Equilibrium
- functional anatomy and physiology
- detection of rotary and linear acceleration
- the subjective vertical
- motion sickness
2.3 Integration of sensory inputs: spatial disorientation and illusions

- Basic concepts and definitions

- Categories of disorientation
- flight circumstances
- vertigo, coriolis effect, pressure vertigo, flicker vertigo)
- visual illusions (the leans, approach and landing problems)
- prevent ion and handling of disorientation
36 lCA O Circular 227-AN/736

2.4 Memory

- Functional description
- Information storage and recall
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
- working memory
- effects of stress and time of day

3. HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

3.1 General concepts

- Personality
- characteristics
- individual differences in personality
- self concept
- attltude development
- cognitive dissonance
- Behaviour and skills
- drives
- learning
- motivation and performance
- Human error and reliability
- error model
- types of error
- prevention and countermeasures
- reliability of behaviour
- errors induced by external factors (ergonomics, organizations)
- Working in an automated cockpit
- advantages
- disadvantages
- coping behaviour
3.2 Cockpit management

- Crew cco-ordination
- distribution of responsibilities
- working with a crew concept
- Crew co-operation
- small group dynamics (norms, atmosphere, pressure, communication, structure)
management
- conflict management
- Leadership, style of management
- concern for performance
- concern for people
- democratic vs, autocratic style
- encouraging inputs and feedback
 ICA 0 Circular 227-AN/136 37
- optimizing of crew performance in flight
- correcting crew co-ordination deficiencies
- Communication
- verbal and non-verbal communication
- one- and two-way communication
- effects of different communication styles
- miscommunication (including cultural differences)
3.3 Jljdgement and decision-making

- Pilot judgement concepts

- types of judgement
- motor skills and human factors
- Aeronautical decisionmaking
- decision-making concepts
- pilot responsibilities
- behavioral aspects
- Identification of hazardous attitudes
- physical factors
- psychological factors
- social influences and interface between people
- Pilot judgement awareness
- risk assessment
- cockpit stress management
- Applying decision-making concepts
- practical application
- managing resources
- safety awareness

4. FLYING AND HEALTH

4.1 The high-altitude environment

- Ozone, radiation, humidity

4.2 Physiological and mental fitness

4.3 Incapacitation

- Main causes and symptoms

- gastroi niestinal
- card io-vascular
- side effects of drug and medication
- migraine
- epilepsy
- brain disorders
- Recognition; insidious and sudden incapacita tlon
- Procedures for dealing with incapacitation
38 ICA 0 Circular 227-AN/136

4.4 Intoxication

- Tobacco
- Alcohol
- Drugs and self-medication
- Various toxic materials

4.5 Body rhythm disturbances

- The biological clock

- Disturbances of circadian rhythms
- causes (shift work, time-zone crossing)
- symptoms
- treatment
- Sleep
- functions
- patterns
- effects of disturbances and treatment

4.6 Fatigue

- Definition
- Causes
- Types and symptoms
- Prevention and treatment

4.7 Stress and anxiety

- Definition of stress
- Stress components
- Causes, stressors
- Coping behaviour
- Identifying and reducing stress
- Life stress management
- Effects on performance
- Anxiety
- Defense mechanisms
- Effects of anxiety and defense mechanisms

4.8 General health aspects

- Common minor aliments (colds, influenza, gastrointestinal upsets)

- Tropical climates; risk, regulatory aspects
- Personal hygiene; oral, external, internal hygiene
- Diabetes
- Hyperlhypotension
- Obesitas, lack of exercise
- Epidemic diseases
 APPENDIX 3

The University of Newcastle

Course AVIAI 03: tnt roductwy Human Factors in Avimtlon

Professor Ross Tel fer

Credit point value: 6

Prerequisites: Nil
Corequisites: Nil
Hours: Six hours per week for semester one
Examination: Progressive assessment based on class texts, seminars, assignments and a two-
hour examination

Contenfs

Visionlvisual iltusions; balancelspatialillusions; memory; learning and skill acquisition; attention,

workload and fatigue

Texts

Wiener, E.L, and D.C. Nagel, eds. Human Factors in Aviation. London: Academic Press, 1988.

References

Dhenin, J., ed. 'Physiology and Human Factors', Aviation Medicine, Vol, 1 (1978).
Roscoe, S.N.Aviation Psychology. Iowa State Univarsity Press, 1980.

Course AVIAt07: Aviation Psychology and Medicine

Credit point value: 6

Prerequisites: AVIAt03
Corequisites: Nil
Hours: Six hours per week for semester two
Examination: Progressive assessment based on class texts, assignments, tutorials and a twe-
hour examination
40 ICA 0 Circular 227-ANl136

Contents

- Stress, anxiety and arousal; judgement and decision-making; personality, attitudes;

intelligence; leadership; emotion; flight phobia; displays and controls; communication

- Hypoxia, decompression, hyperventilation; trapped gases and effects; acceleration and

effects; circadian dysrhythmia; vision; hypothermialhyperthermia; toxic substances and
performance

Texts

Hawkins, Frank H. Human Factors in Flight. U.K. Gower Technical Press, 1987.

References

Dhenin, J., ed. 'Physiology and Human Factors'. Aviation Medicine, Vol. 1 (1978).
Roscoe, S.N. Aviation Psychology. lowa State University Press, 1980.

Course AVIA203: Aviation Psychology and Medicine

Credit point value: 6

Prerequisites: AVIA107
Corequisites: Nil
Hours: Six hours per week for semester one
Examination: Progressive assessment plus a two-hour examination

Contents

Personality and attitudes; judgement and decision-making; cockpit design; workload, fatigue and
vigilance; leadership; accident investigation and safety; recruitment and pilot selection;
simulation.

Texts

Jensen, R.S., ed. Aviation Psychology. USA: Gower Publishing Co., 1989.

References

Dhenin, J., ed. 'Physiology and Human Factors'. Aviation Medicine, Vol. 1 (1978).
Roscoe, S.N. Aviation Psychology. lowa State University Press, 1980.
-. .. . ...... . .
ICAQ Circular 227-AN/136 41

Course AVIA2W: Aviation Instruction

Credit point value: 6

Prerequisites: AVIA203
Corequisites: Nil
Hours: Two hours per week for semester two
Examination: Progressive assessment based on seminars, exercises (including demonstrated
instruction), assignments and a one-hour examination

Con tents

Psychology of learning; evaluating instruction and learning; Instructional methods; instructional

designs; computers and instruction; simulation.

Texts

Telfer, R., and J. Biggs. The Psychology of Flight Training. Iowa State University Press, 1988.
 APPENDIX 4

Human Factors Training Curriculum for

Airline Transport Pilot Licence

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION

Rationale for Human Factors training (accident analysis information, "80% argument")
SHEL Model introduced as one of many possible models

MODULE 2: THE HUMAN ELEMENT (AVIATION PHYSIOLOGY)

Breathing; recognizing and coping with:

- Hypoxia
- Hyperventilation
Pressure effects; effects on ears, sinuses and closed cavities of:
- Trapped or evolved gases
- Decompression
- Underwater diving
Limitations of the senses
- Visual
- Aural
- Vestibular
- Proprioceptive
- Tactile

Acceleration effects; positive and negative "G's"

- Aggravating conditions

Disorientation
- Visual illusions
- Vestibular illusions
- Coping mechanisms

Fatiguelalertness
- Acute
- Chronic
- The effects on skill and performance

Sleep disturbances

Circadian dysrhythmia
 lCA 0 Circular 227-AMY36 43

MODULE 3: THE HUMAN ELEMENT {AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY)

Human errors and reliability

Workload (attention and information processing)

- Perceptual
- Cognitive

lnformatiofi processing
- Mind set and habit patterns
- Attention and vigilance
- Perceptual limitations
- Memory

Attitudinal factors
- Personality
- Motivation
- Boredom and complacency
- Culture

Perceptual and situational awareness

Judgement and decision-making

Stress
- Symptoms and effects
- Coping mechanisms

Skillslexperiencelcurrency vs. proficiency

MODULE 4: THE HUMAN ELEMENT (FITNESS FOR DUTY)

Personal health

Effects of:
- Diatlnutrition
- Alcohol
- Drugs
- Medications (prescribed; over-the-counter)
- Blood donations
- Aging

Psychological fitnesslstress management

Pregnancy
44 ICA 0 Circular 227-AN/136

MODULE 5: LIVEWARE-HARDWARE: PILOT-EQUIPMENT RELATIONSHIP

Controls and displays

- Design ( movement, size, scales, colour, illumination, etc.)
- Common errors in interpretation and control
- "Glass" cockpits; information selection
- Habit patterns interferenceldesign standardization

Alerting and warning systems

- Appropriate selection and set-up
- False indications
- Distractions and response

Personal comfort
- Temperature, illumination, etc.
- Adjustment of seat position and controls

Cockpit visibility

Motor workload

MODULE 6: LIVEWARE-SOFTWARE: PILOT-SOFTWARE RELATIONSHIP

Standard operating procedures

- Rationale
- Benefits
- Derivation from human limitations and the accidentlincident record

Written materialslsoftware
- Errors in the interpretation and use of mapslcharts
- Design principles and correct use of checklists and manuals

Operational aspects of automation

- Overloadlunderload and phase of flight; boredom
- Staying in the looplsituational awareness
- Automated in-flight equipment; appropriate use, effective task allocation, maintenance of
basic flying skills

MODULE 7: LIVEWARE-LIVEWARE: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Liveware-Liveware(L-L)deals with interpersonal contacts happening at the present time (here and
now), as opposed to the interpersonal contacts which may exist in the liveware-environment
interface, which deal with people outside of the current operating situation.
 iCAO Circular 227-A N/136 45

Factors influencing verbal and non-verbal communication between and with:

- Flight deck crew

- Cabin crew
- Maintenance
- Company managementlflight operations control
- Air traffic services
- Passengers

How verbal and non-verbal communication affects information transfer and thus safety and
efficiency of flight

Crew problem solving and decision-making

Introduction to small group dynamicstcrew management

MODULE 8: LIVEWARE-ENVIRONMENT:THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

The physical environment (internal)

- Temperature, pressure, humidity
- Noise, vibration
- Lighting
- Radiation
- Pollutantslcontaminants

f he physical environment (external)

- Terrain: mountains, water, desert, "white-out", "black hole"
- Weather: turbulence, wind shear, icing
- Other air traffic
- Time of day
- Take-off and landing conditions: density altitude, runway conditions

The secioeconornic environment

- Legal and regulatory
- Company organizational structure and economic climate
- Employer operating pressures
- Ernployerlernployee relationslunions
- Family relationships
- Peer groups and professionalism
- Pairing of inexperienced crews (experience in the aperat ional context)
 APPENDIX 5

Pilot Training in Human Factors

Considerations in Curriculum Development

TARGET AUDIENCE

1. Possible pilot categories: ab initio, general aviation, commercial, air carrier and instructor
pilots.

2. Identify non-pilotlsupervisor specialist training needs according to occupational function.

TRAINING DIRECTION AND OBJECTIVES

1. Identify the role of theoretical and experiential learning. Determine the role of Open
Learning, development of reflective practice, and activities promoting experiential learning.

2. Review the approach to briefing, debriefing and assessment practices.

3. Curriculumlcourse content categorization under "Memorizing", "Understanding",

"Doing" and "Attitudinal aspects".

4. Suggested curriculum categorizations or "domains" of trainee competence:

a) Knowledge-based ("memorizing"): didactic or factual knowledge and appropriate

procedural or contextual information.

b) Comprehension-based ("understanding"): understanding of relevant theory, etc.

c) Skillltechnique-based ("doing"): acquire and demonstrate required practical skills.

d) Attitudes ("attitudinal aspectsJ'): application and understanding of appropriate pro-

fessional practices and dispositions.

5. Determine the different types of post-training competency, or subject mastery, expected

of trainees.

Training materials, techniques and educational technologies

Division by training hardware, training strategiesltechniques, training courseware and

assessmentlevaluatory practices.

a) Training hardware: identify training hardware relevant to training needs and objectives.
46
 ICAO Circular 227-AN/136 47

b) Training strategies and techniques:

1) identify training strategiesltechniques made possible by the available training

technology;

2) determine the need for performance feedback; identify the quality of feedback
required and the means of achieving this;

3) determine if psychological testinglevaluation should play a part;

4) identify the means by which individual as well as crew training needs can be
successfully addressed;

5) assess the role of multi-method training;

6) determine the potential value of role play, case-studies, simulation gaming, written
simulations, etc.;

7) select those methods to best achieve the contrasting training needs outlined in the
section above;

8) identify training needs of specialist course instructors.

c) Training courseware:

1) identify resource constraints and training objectives;

2) courseware development as part as a dedicated Human Factors course, as part of

recurrent training or for integration into current training practice;

3) identify associated training needs of relevant instructors.

Pilot assessment and training course evaluation

1. Determine i f there is a desire for concurrent course evaluation andlor formal pilot
assessment. Review available alternatives.

2. Identify appropriate means of assessment for "knowledge", "comprehension",

"skillltechnique" and "attitudinal" categories (see section above).

3. Address the tension between learning and assessment practiceslconsequences for

skillltechnique and experiential learning.

4. Determine the role of crew-based vs. individual performance appraisal.

5. Identify the training needs of those involved in evaluation andlor performance

assessment.
 APPENDIX 6

Sample Questionnaire
to Test Annex 1 Human Factors
Knowledge Requirements
1. Name four important disciplines from which information is drawn in understanding human
performance and behaviour.

2. What four major interfaces must be optimized on the flight deck to provide the basis of
safe and efficient flight operations?

3. About what proportion of civil air accidents result from inadequate human performance?

4. a) What is meant by the authority gradient between pilots?

b) Why is this important for flight safety?
c) Name three different potentially unsafe gradients.

5. a) Give two important safety advantages in the development of standard, habitual behaviour
in flight deck tasks.
b) What is meant by behaviour reversion? Give an example of this related to flight deck
activities which can prejudice flight safety.

6. a) What general aspect of human performance is illustrated by the Yerkes-Dodson curve?

b) How can the incidence of human error be related t o this curve?
c) Where would you place complacency, boredom and excitement on the curve?
d) What does this curve suggest about performance of critical tasks?

7. a) What pattern of performance can be expected in tasks requiring continuous vigilance?

b) Name one flight deck task which could illustrate this.

8. The false hypothesis is a dangerous form of human error. Name five different situations
in which this is most likely to occur.

9. Give three examples of zeitgebers or entraining agents related to circadian rhythms.

10. Human performance varies with a circadian rhythm.

a) What does this mean?
b) Related to this phenomenon, what is meant by the terms:
task-dependent,
post-lunch dip,
motivation effect, and
acrophase?
c) Give four factors, excluding zeitgebers, which may be associated with the rate of
resynchronization of biological rhythms after they have been disturbed on a long flight,
48
11. a) What is the name given to the group of drugs (hypnotics) most commonly used to facilitate
sleep?
b) In this connexion, what is meant by half-life and how does this relate to the drug's effect
on performance?
c) State the general precautions (approximately six) that a pilot is recommended to take
before deciding to use a hypnotic (sleeping drug).

12. a) What is meant by the sleep inertia effect?

b) What relevance does this have for flight safety an the flight deck?
c) Is performance likely to deteriorate steadily with increasing sleep loss? Explain.

13. a) Cigarette smoke contains carbon monoxide. What effect does this have on human altitude
tolerance and how does this occur?
b) What other effect on performance related to safety may carbon monoxide have?

14. a) Give four factors which affect the rate at which alcohol is absorbed by the body.
b) At about what rate does the blood alcohol content (BAC) fall after stopping drinking and
is this rather constant between individuals?
c) From about what BAG have experiments demonstrated a measurable deterioration in
brain and body functions?

15. a) What is meant by:

the Mandelbaum effect,
empty field, and
dark focus?
b) Why are these important for safety in visual Collision avoidance?

16. a) What is meant by the blind spot?

b) How can this influence safety in visual look-out from the flight deck?
C) How are the risks form this source reduced?

17. a) What is meant by the design eye position?

b) Why should the pilot assure that his eye is in this position and how can this affect safety?
c) Can all pilots physically assume this point?

18. a) What visual illusions or reactions in aircraft are related to:

the autokinetic effecf,
the stroboscopic effect,
blowing snow,
acceleration,
fog,
sloping terrain,
sloping runway, and
the black hole?
b) What are the general basic stages (give three) in providing protection against the effect
of illusions?

19. With respect to vision:

a) What is meant by accommodation, dark adaptation, visual acuity?
b) How are these related to safety?
50 lCAO Circular 227-AN1136

20. What principle related to human performance modification is known as the Hawthorne
Effect?

21. a) What is meant by behaviour reinforcement?

b) Give two examples each of positive and negative reinforcement.
C) What precautions should b e observed when the use of negative reinforcement i s indicated
(give four)?

22, a) What is meant by achievement motivation?

b) Why is this relevant to the pilot's job and flight safety?
C) Can this be readily developed?

23. Boredom is often associated with low performance.

a) Give four basic conditions which tend to be associated with boredom.
b) Is boredom necessarily created by a given task? Explain.

24, a) What personal characteristics (give five) are often associated with leadership?
b) Are leaders born or made? Explain.

25. Explain the meaning of and difference between:

a) leadsrsh ip
b) authority
C) domination

26. Speech communication has been the source of many errors, incidents and accidents.
a) What dangerous rote can expectation play in verbal communication in aircraft?
b) Give an example from radiotelephony communication.
c) What means (give four) can be used to provide protection against this danger?

27. a) Explain, with particular relevance to safety aspects, the difference between personality,
attitudes, beliefs and opinions.
b) Suggest one way each that a personality and an attitude characteristic can adversely
affect operational safety.
c) To what extant is it possible to modify in airline service personality and attitudes of pilots
by training?

28. Attitudes may be said to have three components.

a) Name three components.
b) Relate these to attitudes towards cockpit checklist use.

29. In what manner may individual judgement be influenced by membership of a group or

team with regard to:
a) risk-taking
b) inhibition
cj conformity
3Q. Education and training are two aspects of the teaching process.
a) Explain the difference and how they relate to each olher.
b) Which of these covers learning of flying shills, basic Human Factors knowledge, flight
planning, aircraft systems, physics, aircraft emergency procedures?
c) Give an example to illustrate the difference between knowledge and skill.
 ICA 0 Circular 227-AMI36 51

31. a) What is meant by negative training transfer?

b) Give an example of this which can jeopardize flight safety.
c) What is meant by fidelity in training devices and is this necessary for training effective-
ness? Explain.

32. Memory can have an important impact on flight safety. In this connexion:
a) What is mean by overlearning?
b) What is meant by chunking?
c) What is the difference between the effectiveness of memory of continuous and serial
activities?

33. a) What Is meant by feedback in training?

b) What is meant by open- and closed-loop systems?
c) What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback, and why is it important
for flight training effectiveness that flight instructors and pilot students recognize this
difference?

34. Colour coding is a useful means of distinguishing between different sections of a manual,
which can be critical when information must be found quickly, as in emergencies. Name two basic
limitations in connexion with reliance on the use of colour coding for this purpose.

35. Evaluation of flight deck and safety equipment is often done by questionnaires completed
by pilots. The validity of the assessment of the equipment depends on the validity of the
questions and responses. In this respect, what is meant by:
a) prestige bias,
b) open-ended and closed questions,
c) order effect,
d) middle option, and
e) acquiescence, multiplicity and expectation in questions.

36. a) What are the three sensory channels used to obtain information from flight deck displays
In large transport aircraft?
b) Give two fundamental operational differences between auditory and visual displays?

37, a) Instrument reading difficultylerror can arise from two basic causes when most
conventional, round-dial, electromechanicaI instruments are viewed from an angle. What
are these?
b) Give two operational reasons each why an analogue and a digital display may be
preferred.

38. a) Name three basic functions of a flight deck alerting system.

bj What is meant by a nuisance warning and how does it differ from a false warning? What
behavioural consequences affecting safety can arise from them?
c) Haw can an alerting system generate negative training transfer and what risk to flight
safety may result?

39. a) What is meant by and what are the operating implications of cofitrol-display ratio and
Confrol resjstance?
b) Give four methods of control coding to reduce operating errors.
52 lCA 0 Circular 227-A N/136

c) Give five methods of protection against the adverse consequences of inadvertent switch
operation.
d) What is meant by the forward-on and sweep-on switch concept and what are the
operational and safety consequences of relocating cockpit panels with each concept?

40. a) Name two possible behavioural consequences of automation of flight deck tasks which
may adversely affect safety.
b) Give three broad justifications for the automation of flight deck tasks.

41. a) In what cabin conditions can inconsistency in emergency equipment location within the
fleet be particularly hazardous?
b) Why should cabin crew be familiar with the operating controls of pilot seats?

42. a) What is meant by the sterlie cockpif?

b) Does this have any legal or mandatory backing? Explain.
c) Name two cabin and two flight deck activities which would come within the scope of this
restriction.

43. a) What basic limitation exists in the use of coiour-coding and placarding to optimize
emergency equipment use? How can this influence training?
b) Name two important basic problems associated with passenger cabin safety briefing
which can prejudice survival in emergency, and suggest two ways in which these
problems can be reduced.
c) Name 15 different aspects of cabin interior design which require Human Factors input to
optimize safety and explain the relevance to survival in emergencies.
 ECAO TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

The following summary gives the status, and also regarded as not yet having attained a sufficient degree
describes in general rerms the conrents of ihe vurious of maturity for adoption as International Standards and
series of lechnicd public~!ions issued by the Inter- Recommended Practices, as well as material of a more
national Civil A viation Orgnnimtion. It does not permanent character which is considered too detailed
include speciaf i z d publtcarions [hot do not Jail spectfi- far incorporation in an Annex, or is susceptible to
colly within one oJ !he series. such us the Aeronautical frequent amendment, fur which the processes of the
Chart Catalogue or the Meteorological Tables For Convention would be too cumbersome.
International Air Navigation.
Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUPPS) have a
International Standards and Recommended Prmc- status similar to that of PANS in that they are approved
tires are adopted by the Council in accordance with by the Council, but only for application in the respective
Articles 54, 37 and 90 o f the Convention on Inter- regions. They are prepared in consolidated form. since
national Civil Aviation and are designated, for certain of the procedures apply to overlapping regions
convenience, as Annexes to the Convention. The or are common to two or more regions.
uniform application by Conrracting States o f the speci-
fications contained in the International Standards is
recognized as necessary for the safety Or regularity of
international air navigation while the uniform appli- Thefollo wing publications are prepared by authority
cation of the specifications in the Recommended 01 the Secretary General in occordunce with the
Practices is regarded as desirable in the interest of principles and policies approved by the Council.
safety, regutarity or efficiency of international air
navigation. Knowledge of any differences between the Technical Manuals provide guidance and infor-
national regulations ar practices of a State and those mation in amplification of the lnternational Standards,
established by an International Standard is essential to Recommended Practices and PANS, the implemen-
the safety or regularity of international air navigation. tation of which they are designed to facilitate.
In the event of non-compliance with an International
Standard, a State has, in fact, an obkgation, under Air Navigmiim Plans detail ~equiremenlsfor facili-
Article 38 of the Convention, to notify the Council of ties and services for international air navigation in the
any differences. Knowledge of differences from respective ICAO Air Navigation Regions. They are
Recomnicnded Practices may also be important for the prepared on the authority o l the Secretary Genera1 on
safety o f air navigation and, art hough the Convention the basis of reammendatbns of regional air navigation
does not impose any obligation with regard thereto, the meetings and a l the CounciI action thereon. The plans
Council has invited Contracting States to notify such are amended periodically to reflect changes in require-
differences in addition to those relating to International ments and in the status of implementation of the
Standards. recommended facilities and services.

Pruredlrres for Air Navigation Services (PANS) are ICAO Circulars make available specialized infor-
approved by the Council for world-wide application. mation of interest to Contracting States. This includes
They contain, for the most part, operating procedures studies on technical subjects.
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