Many people in Canada East were opposed to the idea of Confederation.

WHAT WERE THE CHALLENGES TO But their political leader, George-Étienne Cartier, believed the union would

CONFEDERATION?
deliver greater protections, more independence, and a better future for
How does the French. Cartier may have been persuaded in this belief by the support
Cartier’s vision
compare with McGee’s
Macdonald had shown in protecting French-Catholic rights in the Province
vision in Figure 2.2? of Canada. Read the quote in Figure 2.13. What is Cartier’s vision for the
new, unified country?

By the mid-1860s, British North America was facing various threats from the FIGURE 2.13 This is a translated
United States. Each colony was also dealing with challenges within its own excerpt from a speech given by “[I]f union is attained, we shall form a political nationality with
What alternatives Canada East’s Premier Cartier which neither the national origin, nor the religion of any individual, will
borders. In the Province of Canada, the French-Catholic majority in during a Parliamentary debate on
to Confederation interfere. It was lamented by some that we had this diversity of races,
Canada East and the English-Protestant majority in Canada West were Confederation, February 7, 1865.
might have resolved Analyze: What concerns of the and hopes were expressed that this distinctive feature would cease. The
locked in conflict. The Atlantic colonies needed ways to boost their the problems in people of Canada East does Cartier idea of unity of races is utopian—it is impossible.… In our own Federation
economic development after the Reciprocity Treaty was cancelled. On the the colonies? address in this statement?
we will have Catholic and Protestant, English, French, Irish and Scotch,
Pacific Coast, the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia were
and each by his efforts and his success will increase the prosperity and
facing financial problems after the end of the gold rush.
glory of the new Confederacy.”

CONFLICTS IN THE PROVINCE OF CANADA — George-Étienne Cartier, Father of Confederation

In the Province of Canada, ruling two very different groups with one
government was challenging, especially as the population grew. The
government grew politically unstable. In Canada West, Conservative Party THE GREAT COALITION
leader John A. Macdonald and Liberal Party leader George Brown were bitter Macdonald, Brown, and Cartier formed an unlikely alliance in June 1864,
rivals. They were divided over many issues, in particular those concerning known as the Great Coalition. The three leaders began working toward
French rights. Brown wanted to diminish creating a federal system for the Canadas. But the goal was to expand the
French political power in the Province of arrangement to include other colonies in British North America, as well as
Canada and assimilate French Canadians. legislative union power to Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory. A legislative union would
Macdonald wanted to uphold the rights of the govern and make laws is give more power to the central government for making laws and running
held by a strong, central
French and protect their equal representation government the country. A federal union would give power to the central government,
in the government. Both leaders eventually as well as to the provinces to run their own affairs.
agreed that unifying colonies through federal union power to Officials in Britain supported the idea of a union. But there were groups
govern and make laws is
Confederation offered a better chance divided between the central in every region of British North America that did not support the idea. They
of resolving the political conflict over and regional governments believed that uniting the colonies under one central government would
Canada East. This is because Confederation cause more problems than it would solve.
would mean that Canada West and
Canada East would each have its own local CONCERNS IN CANADA EAST
government but would also work together Read the excerpt from a speech by Jean-Baptiste-Éric (J.B.E.) Dorion, a
under one federal, or centralized, government. journalist and politician from Canada East, in Figure 2.14. What is Dorion’s
Examine Figure 2.12, which depicts the primary concern about Confederation?
moment at which Brown and Macdonald
decided to work together. Why might this
FIGURE 2.14 This is an English
decision be considered a turning point on translation of part of a speech “I oppose Confederation because I foresee innumerable
the path to Confederation? delivered in Parliament by
difficulties with the joint powers given to the local and general
J.B.E. Dorion on March 5, 1866.
Analyze: What reasons could governments in several areas. These conflicts will always be resolved
FIGURE 2.12 This undated artwork by C.W. Jefferys is
entitled George Brown and John A. Macdonald Meet to Dorion have to believe that in favour of the general government and to the detriment of the often
Inaugurate Confederation. The term inaugurate means conflicts will always be resolved in legitimate [lawful] claims of the Provinces.”
to begin or introduce. Analyze: What details in the favour of the general government?
painting suggest that this meeting between the two — J.B.E. Dorion, anti-Confederationist from Canada East
leaders was significant?

58 UNIT 1: Creating Canada: 1850–1890 NEL NEL CHAPTER 2: The Path to Confederation: 1860–1867 59
 CONCERNS IN THE ATLANTIC COLONIES PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND
The Atlantic colonies had resource-based economies. They benefited The people in Prince Edward Island had
developed strong trading ties with Britain “We would submit our rights and our
from strong trade relationships with Britain, the United States, and
and the United States. Their main industries prosperity … into the hands of the general government
beyond. Examine the population graph in Figure 2.15. Why do you think
were timber, farming, and shipbuilding. Read and our voice in the united Parliament would be
there was limited support for Confederation among those living in the
Edward Palmer’s remarks in Figure 2.17. very insignificant.”
Atlantic colonies?
Palmer was premier of Prince Edward Island — Edward Palmer, Father of Confederation
from 1859 to 1863. How do his concerns
Population in Eastern British North America, 1860–1861 FIGURE 2.15 Population statistics about Confederation compare with FIGURE 2.17 Palmer delivered these remarks in April 1864. Analyze: What
Population in Eastern British North America, 1860–1861 based on an 1861 census (official J.B.E. Dorion’s statement in Figure 2.14? is Palmer’s main concern regarding Confederation?
1 400 000 count of the population), only a

1 200 000
few years before Confederation
talks began. Analyze: Based on
NOVA SCOTIA What impact
population alone, which region Nova Scotia’s former premier Joseph Howe actively opposed Confederation. do you think the
1 000 000 would have the greatest influence He wrote a series of 12 letters, called the Botheration Letters, that were perspective of former
Population

in a union of the colonies? premiers had on

800 000 published in the Halifax Morning Chronicle in early 1865. What is Howe
the discussions of
arguing for in the letter excerpt in Figure 2.18? Confederation?
600 000

400 000
FIGURE 2.18 Excerpt from a
200 000 “Nova Scotia, secure of self-government … has been blessed Botheration Letter by Howe
with a good crop, an abundant fishery, a healthy season; her mining dated January 11, 1865. Analyze:
0 What does Howe imply
Prince Newfoundland Nova New Canada Canada interests are extending; her shipyards have been busy all the year; her Nova Scotia might lose by
Edward Scotia Brunswick East West railroads are beginning to pay, and her treasury is overflowing.… We have joining Confederation?
Island not a question to create angry discussion with the mother country, with
our neighbours in the United States, or with the Governments of the
Atlantic colonies Province of Canada
surrounding colonies.… Who says, then, that something should be done?”

— Joseph Howe, Nova Scotia’s former premier

NEWFOUNDLAND
Newfoundland’s economy was suffering in the 1860s due to a decline in
the cod- and seal-fishing industries. Government revenue had decreased
as a result. Almost one-quarter of the revenue the government took in NEW BRUNSWICK
was spent on providing relief to those struggling in poverty. Some vocal In the mid-1860s, New Brunswick was split politically over Confederation.
opponents of Confederation, such as merchant and mining entrepreneur Anti-Confederation politician Albert J. Smith led his fellow opponents of
Why would Confederation to victory in the 1865 general election. How is the concern
Charles Fox Bennett, persuaded Newfoundlanders that the economic remaining as a British
decline was temporary. He used fear tactics to further the movement against colony be a better option
Smith notes in Figure 2.19 similar to the concerns expressed by other
Confederation. Read his editorial comment in Figure 2.16. Why would for Newfoundland than anti-Confederation leaders?
Newfoundland’s geographic location provide a strong argument against the joining Confederation? Smith resigned in 1866 due to pressure from Britain to reconsider a
colony joining Confederation? union among the colonies. Another election was called and former premier
B Samuel Leonard Tilley, a pro-Confederation politician, won.
5-3
FIGURE 2.16 Excerpt from an
u01-c02-f02-hist8sb editorial Bennett wrote to The
“We are chiefly and almost wholly by nature’s laws
Crowle Art Group
a fishing population, possessing rich resources in our fisheries …
Newfoundlander, December 5, 1864. “[I]n a few years we shall be at the feet of Canada—
Analyze: Who does Bennett say Upper Canada—who will exercise control not only over Lower Canada
The sending of Delegates [representatives] to Canada ... would entail will benefit from Confederation?
3rd passa very heavy expense … the sacrifice of our independent legislation but also over us.”
[laws] and the control of our own rich colonial resources for the benefit — Albert J. Smith, premier of New Brunswick
ved of that nationality which … can confer [grant] but few and trifling
[insignificant] benefits on us.”
FIGURE 2.19 Smith expressed this concern about Confederation in the winter of 1864 to 1865.
— Charles Fox Bennett, anti-Confederationist Analyze: What do you think the phrase “we shall be at the feet of Canada” means?

60 UNIT 1: Creating Canada: 1850–1890 NEL NEL CHAPTER 2: The Path to Confederation: 1860–1867 61
 A POSSIBLE MARITIME UNION INCLUSION OF THE
What positive
As you read in Chapter 1, the Maritime colonies were dealing with NORTHWEST REGION “I would be quite willing,
and negative changes many challenges. Arthur Hamilton Gordon, the lieutenant-governor of personally, to leave that whole country
By the time Confederation was being considered, the fur
might Confederation New Brunswick, was concerned that a union with the Province of Canada a wilderness for the next half-century
trade was in serious decline in British North America. The
bring to the Maritime would destroy the Maritime colonies’ power and independence. Gordon instead but I fear if Englishmen do not go there,
colonies? bison were disappearing, and some First Nations were
believed that a Maritime union of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Yankees will.”
suffering from food shortages, famine, and new diseases
Edward Island offered a solution to many of their challenges. A Maritime union
brought over by the settlers. — John A. Macdonald, Father of
would also allow these colonies to pool their tax dollars to pay for much-needed
Despite not owning the North-Western Territory and Confederation
infrastructure, such as roads and railways.
Rupert’s Land (see Figure 2.1), Hudson’s Bay Company
In September 1864, leaders from New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
owned the rights to the fur trade in the region. Supporters of FIGURE 2.21 Excerpt from Macdonald’s letter to British
Prince Edward Island met to discuss the union of their three provinces at
Confederation were eager to take over this vast land. They Member of Parliament and railway entrepreneur
the Charlottetown Conference. You will learn more about the Charlottetown Sir Edward W. Watkin, 1865. Analyze: Why does
were worried about rumours that Hudson’s Bay Company
Conference later in this chapter. Figure 2.20 shows a sculpture of former Macdonald want to take over the lands controlled by
FIGURE 2.20 This bronze
was willing to sell its dominion over the region to the Hudson’s Bay Company?
premier John Hamilton Gray of Prince Edward Island (right) speaking
sculpture by British Columbia United States. Read the words of John A. Macdonald in
with former premier of New Brunswick John Hamilton Gray (left) at the
artist Nathan Scott was unveiled Figure 2.21 and George Brown in Figure 2.22. Compare their
in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Charlottetown Conference. Both men had the same name but were not
Island, on September 4, 2014.
perspectives to the American belief in manifest destiny that “If Canada acquires this
related, and they both went on to become Fathers of Confederation. Why do
Analyze: What message do you you learned about earlier in this chapter. territory it will rise in a few years from
you think this conversation was so significant that it was commemorated in
think is being communicated by the Supporters of Confederation believed they needed to a position of a small and weak province
artist through the body language a sculpture 150 years later?
and positioning of these men?
convince people in Canada East and the Atlantic colonies to be the greatest colony any country
to join the union. But they saw the lands controlled by has ever possessed, able to take its
Hudson’s Bay Company as something that simply needed place among the empires of the earth.
to be purchased in order to create settlements. Why do you The wealth … of [this] territory will flow
think this region was viewed differently in the questions and through our waters and be gathered
discussions around Confederation? by our merchants, manufacturers, and
agriculturalists. Our sons will occupy
INCLUSION OF THE PACIFIC COAST the chief places of this vast territory, we
The end of the gold rush brought economic decline will form its institutions, its rulers, teach
to the Pacific Coast. In 1866, the British government its schools, fill its stores, run its mills,
imposed a union on the colonies of Vancouver Island and navigate its streams.”
British Columbia to help improve their economic situations. — George Brown, Father of
The union, however, lacked a government responsible to Confederation
the people because it consisted of many appointed, rather
than elected, officials. With debt rising, British Columbia FIGURE 2.22 Excerpt from a Globe editorial
considered joining Confederation. This was a challenge by Brown, January 22, 1863. Analyze: What groups
since the colony was cut off from the rest of the colonies are being excluded from Brown’s plans for the
Northwest region?
in the east by the vast expanse of Hudson’s Bay Company
lands. Also, some people in this region supported
annexation by the United States over Confederation.

CHECK-IN
1. GATHER AND ORGANIZE What were the main 3. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Create a multimedia report
arguments against Confederation? or dramatic performance in role as someone living
2. EVALUATE AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS Which colony in British North America in the mid-1860s. What
had the most to gain from joining Confederation? are your concerns? Use the primary sources in this
Which colony had the most to lose? section to support your perspective.

62 UNIT 1: Creating Canada: 1850–1890 NEL NEL CHAPTER 2: The Path to Confederation: 1860–1867 63