DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND

GENERAL STUDIES
JIGAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC DUTSE

COURSE: COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH II

A LECTURE GUIDE COMPILED

BY

ALI ADAMU DUTSE

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MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
The word communication is used to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to
another person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that your
message reaches the target audience and that the receiver understands and responds to the
message appropriately. Communication is an important aspect of behaviour; human
communication is affected by all factors that influence human behaviour.
GENERAL DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication comes from the Latin word communicare, which means “to make common”
or “to share.” Communication is defined as the process of using messages to generate
meaning (Judy Pearson, 2008). Communication is considered a process because it is an
activity, an exchange, or a set of behaviours—not an unchanging product. It is an activity in
which you participate. David Berlo (1960), a pioneer in the field of communication, probably
provided the clearest statement about communication as a process: “If we accept the concept
of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic, on-going, ever changing,
continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a
beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The
ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the others. Working definition
Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning from one individual
or organisation to another by means of mutually understandable symbols. The crucial element
is meaning. Communication has as its central objective the transmission of meaning. The
process of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the
sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also
on the meaning of that information. In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words,
signs, pictures, sounds) which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the
person or persons with whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning
to the symbols used; otherwise, there is miscommunication.
ROLE/ PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION
1. Informing
We have reached the most important purpose of communication: informing. Communication
is used to convey information, facts, ideas, and knowledge among individuals or groups in
almost every aspect of life: family, public space, work, health, education, and more.

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2. Persuasion
Persuasion refers to the ability to influence the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of others through
communication. Mastering persuasion is a valuable communication skill, particularly in areas
such as marketing or advertising.
3. Motivating
Effective communication can play a key role in motivating people, whether in a work,
educational, or personal environment. Through proper communication, messages that inspire,
generate enthusiasm, and promote positive action can be conveyed.
4. Learning
Communication is a fundamental means of acquiring knowledge, exchanging ideas, and
sharing information. Through effective communication, we can learn from others, gain new
perspectives, acquire skills, and expand our knowledge in various fields.
5. Making decisions
Communication plays a crucial role in the decision-making process, whether at an individual
level or in a group context. Through communication, we can exchange information, discuss
different options, evaluate alternatives, and reach agreements that help us make informed and
effective decisions.
6. Resolve conflicts
Conflicts are inevitable in human interactions. However, when we use communication
assertively, we can resolve them.
7. Entertain
Communication is not limited solely to transmitting information or expressing emotions. In
many personal and professional situations, communication serves as a means to entertain and
have fun.
Additionally, entertainment also plays an important role in the media and entertainment
industry as a whole. Television programs, movies, music, theater, live shows, and other forms
of artistic expression heavily rely on the ability to entertain the audience.
8. Building relationships
One of the fundamental purposes of communication is to build strong and meaningful
relationships. Through communication, we establish connections with others, whether they
are personal, professional, or social relationships. Effective communication allows us to:
i. Get to know and understand people
ii. Establish bonds of trust
iii. Develop empathy

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iv. Strengthen the ties that bind us
9. Understanding others
Communication allows us to delve into the perspective of others, understanding their ideas,
feelings, and needs. Through the exchange of words, we seek to establish a connection that
enables us to comprehend and appreciate the diversity of human thoughts and experiences.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication as a process is moving, continually changing, with no beginning or end. In
our definition, communication is a process—something that is continually changing.
Individual words, sentences, and gestures have no meaning in isolation. They make sense
only when viewed as parts of an on-going, dynamic process. To fully understand the process
of communication, we must notice how what we say and do influences and affects what the
other person says and does. We must pay attention to the changes we experience and how
these changes influence and affect our perception, interpretation, and interactions with others,
from moment to moment, year to year, and decade to decade. Similarly, we also need to be
sensitive to the on-going changes in those we communicate with because they are changing
too. Communication is alive, and to fully appreciate it requires that we view it as a dynamic,
fluid, and continually changing process.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
There are seven elements or factors which make up the process of communication:
1. Source/Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating
2. Audience /Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended
3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the
communication
4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed
5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message
6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the sender
7. Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place.

1. Source
The source is the originator of the message. It is the person or persons who want to
communicate a message to another person or a group of people. The source of a message can
be an individual speaker addressing a group, a child asking for candy, a couple sending out
invitations to a family reunion, or a person writing a letter.

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Encoding Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or
convert that idea, thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will be most
effectively understood by the receiver. This encoding process can be extremely creative
because there are unlimited ways for the source to convert the idea or feeling into words and
behaviours.
2. Message
The message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate. This
message is encoded or converted into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will most likely be
understood by the receiver.
3. Receiver
The receiver is the recipient of the message. The receiver can be an individual or a group of
people. Once the receiver hears the words and receives the nonverbal cues from the sender,
she must interpret or decode them if communication is to occur.
Decoding Decoding is the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver
must decipher the language and behaviours sent by the source so they will have meaning.
After the receiver decodes the message, the receiver (now the source) can encode a return
message and send it back to the other person.
4. Channel
A channel is the medium by which the message is communicated. The source can utilize the
channels of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. For instance, if you want to communicate
affection for another person, you can utilize a variety of channels or combination of channels.
You can say, “I like you” (sound). You can give a hug (touch). You can wink an eye (sight).
You can send cookies that you baked (taste). Or you can deliver a dozen roses (smell). You
can creatively select the channels of communication to productively communicate your
message.
5. Context/Environment
All communication occurs within a certain context. The context is made up of the physical
surroundings, the occasion in which the communication occurs, the time, the number of
people present, noise level, and many other variables that can influence and affect the
encoding and decoding of messages. The context plays an important role in the
communication process.
6. Feedback
The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or
unconscious; it may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely leads

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the receiver to think. The receiver may take some action, if required. He may also reply to the
message. The response and/or reply is feedback. Receiver's functions complete one cycle of
the process of communication.
7. Goal/Purpose
This is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the communication

CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING

Code mixing and code switching are both language phenomena that involve using different
languages or dialects within the same conversation.
Code mixing is when a speaker alternates between different languages, dialects, or registers
within a sentence or phrase. For example, "I need abinci. If you try hada Hausa da Turanci
nobody can kure ka da gaggawa" These sentences mix English and Hausa words.

Code switching, on the other hand, refers to the act of switching between languages or
dialects in a conversation. For example, a bilingual speaker might begin a conversation in one
language, then switch to another language to express a concept that is better expressed in that
language. Code switching usually happens when a speaker wants to hide an information to
the third party

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 ORAL ENGLISH
Oral English refers to the spoken form of the English language. It is characterized by the use
of vowel and consonant sounds to convey meaning and express ideas. English is not about
what you see to pronounce (phonetic writing system). We have 26 English alphabet and 44
English sounds. These 26 alphabet are just a graphical representation of the 44 English
sounds, meanwhile what we write is not what we pronounce. Some people learn English
through writing which results to pronunciation error. In Nigerian languages' phonetic writing
system there is no deletion unlike English. Thus, it is important students to be exposed into
the oral English so as to reduce the level of pronunciation error.
Phonetics is the study of the sounds used in human language, including their production,
transmission and perception. It can be divided into three branches: articulatory phonetics,
acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.

1. Articulatory phonetics this branch of phonetics explores the physical mechanics involved
in speech production. It studies the anatomy and physiology of the vocal tract and how
sounds are articulated through the positioning and movement of the lips, tongue, teeth, and
other parts of the mouth. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the production of sounds in
speech and how they are modified to create different phonemes and sounds in different
languages.
These are some of the organs of speech which also referred as articulators
Lips
Tongue
Alveolar ridge
Teeth
Hard palate
Soft palate
Velum
Uvula
Glottis
Lungs
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity

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Larynx
Pharynx
2. Acoustic phonetics this branch of phonetics focuses on the physical properties of sound
waves produced in speech. It studies how sound is produced, transmitted, and received.
Acoustic phonetics measures speech sounds in terms of their frequency, amplitude, and
duration using instruments like spectrograms and sound analyzing software. It looks at the
acoustic properties of speech sounds that allow listeners to distinguish between different
phonemes and sounds.
3. Auditory phonetics this branch of phonetics is concerned with the perception and
processing of speech sounds by the human ear and brain. It studies how listeners perceive and
interpret speech sounds, including how they distinguish between different phonemes and
sounds in different languages. Auditory phonetics explores how people are able to recognize
and interpret speech in different listening environments and backgrounds. It is also concerned
with the development of speech perception in infants and children.
SOUNDS IN ENGLISH
Sounds in English are classified into two: vowel sounds and consonant sounds.
Vowel sounds
Vowel sounds are produced by the vibration of vocal cords and the positioning of the tongue
and lips. There are 20 vowel sounds in English, which can be divided into two categories:
short and long. Short vowel sounds are typically pronounced with a shorter duration and are
represented in English by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. Long vowel sounds are pronounced with
a longer duration and are represented in English by the letters a, e, i, o, and u when followed
by the letter "e" or when spelled with two vowels.
Parameters of identifying vowel sounds include
1. Tongue position Vowel sounds can be identified by the position of the tongue in the
mouth. For example, the vowel sound /a/ is pronounced with the tongue positioned low in the
mouth.
2. Lip position Vowel sounds can also be identified by the position of the lips. For example,
the vowel sound /u/ is pronounced with the lips rounded.
3. Duration Vowel sounds can be identified by their duration. Long vowel sounds are
pronounced for a longer duration than short vowel sounds.

1. /i/ as in "meet"
2. /ɪ/ as in "sit"

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3. /e/ as in "met"
4. /ɛ/ as in "pen"
5. /æ/ as in "cat"
6. /ɑ/ as in "father"
7. /ɔ/ as in "dog"
8. /o/ as in "boat"
9. /ʊ/ as in "put"
10. /u/ as in "boot"
11. /ə/ as in "about"
12. /ɜ/ as in "her"
13. /ɚ/ as in "bother"
14. /eɪ/ as in "day"
15. /aɪ/ as in "bye"
16. /ɔɪ/ as in "boy"
17. /aʊ/ as in "house"
18. /ju/ as in "cute"
19. /oʊ/ as in "goat"
20. /ɪə/ as in "fire"
Consonant sounds
Consonant sounds are produced by the obstruction or partial obstruction of airflow through
the mouth. There are 24 consonant sounds in English.

Parameters of identifying consonant sounds

There are three parameters used in the classification of consonant sounds in English, these
are:
1. Place of articulation
2. Manner of articulation
3. State of glottis/voicing
Place of articulation
Consonant sounds can be identified by the place of articulation, which refers to where in the
mouth the sound is produced. For example, the consonant sound /t/ is produced by the tip of

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the tongue touching the roof of the mouth behind the upper front teeth. These are places of
articulation:
a. Bilabial Sounds made by using both the lips, such as /p/, /b/, and /m/.
b. Labiodental Sounds made by using the lower lip and upper teeth, such as /f/ and /v/.
c. Dental Sounds made by using the tongue and teeth, such as /Ø/ (as in 'thin') and / ð/ (as in
'this').
d. Alveolar Sounds made by using the tongue and the alveolar ridge (the ridge just behind
the teeth), such as /t/, /d/, /s/ /z/.
e. Alveolo-Palatal Sounds made by using the tongue and the hard palate (the roof of the
mouth behind the alveolar ridge), such as /ts/ (as in teacher) /dƷ/ (as in judge).
f. Palatal sound it is when you raise the tongue to this point and constrict airflow. English
has only one palatal consonant: /j/ (as in yes).
g. Velar Sounds made by using the back of the tongue and the soft palate (the area at the
back of the roof of the mouth), such as /k/ /g/, and /ŋ/ (as in wrong, king).
h. Glottal sounds are those that are produced using the glottis in some way. The /h/ sound is
the glottal consonant sound in the English language.

Manner of articulation
Consonant sounds can also be identified by the manner of articulation, which refers to how
the sound is produced. For example, the consonant sound /s/ is produced by forcing air
through a narrow opening between the upper and lower teeth.
a. Plosives these are the sounds that when production there is a total obstruction of the air in
the vocal tract (completely blockage of air) and it is suddenly released from the mouth.
Examples include /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/.

b. Fricatives When the air flows through a narrow channel in the mouth, it creates a
frictional or hissing sound. Examples include /f/, /v/, /s/, /z.
c. Affricates These are sounds that start off as plosives and then transition into fricatives.
Examples include /ts/ and /dƷ/.
d. Nasals These sounds are produced by lowering the velum at the back of the throat to allow
air to flow through the nose. Examples include 'm', 'n', and 'ng' (as in 'sing').
e. Lateral These sounds are produced by shaping the tongue to allow air to flow around it.
Examples include /r/ and /l/.

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f. Approximant These sounds are produced by the movement of the tongue from one
position to another. Examples include /w/

Voicing
Consonant sounds can be either voiced or unvoiced. Voiced consonants are produced with
vibration of the vocal cords, while unvoiced/voiceless consonants are produced without
vibration. For example, the consonant sound /b/ is voiced, while the consonant sound /p/ is
unvoiced/voiceless.

STRESS IN ENGLISH
In some languages, each syllable in each word is pronounced with the exact same stress.
English is not one of those languages. English has its own rhythm, complete with its own
vocal music. This means that one part of a certain word is said louder and longer than other
parts of the same word.
It is something that is completely natural for English speakers, but something ESL students
can learn from learning the correct way to pronounce new words, practicing their
conversational skills, and by learning the rules for using word stress.
Rules of Identifying English stress
1- Two-Syllable nouns and adjectives
In most two syllable nouns and adjectives, the first syllable takes on the stress.
Examples:
SAMples
CARton
PURple
RAIny
CHIna
HAPpy
2- Two-Syllable verbs and prepositions
In most two syllable verbs and prepositions, the stress is on the second syllable.
Examples:
reLAX
reCEIVE
diRECT
aMONG

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aSIDE
beTWEEN
deCIDE
3- Three-Syllable words
For three-syllable words ending with the suffixes er or ly, the stress is placed on the first
syllable.
Examples:
ORderly
SIlently
LOvingly
MAnager
GARdener
EAsier
Words ending in consonants and in y
If there is a word that ends in a consonant or in a y, then the first syllable usually gets the
stress.
Examples:
RARity
OPtimal
GRAdient
GEnorous
Also take a look of the various stress pattern of words ending with the following letters:
able: ADDable, DURable, LAUGHable
ial: differENTial, SOcial, fiNANcial
cian: muSIcian, phySIcian, cliNIcian
ery: BAkery, SCEnery
ian: coMEdian, ciVILian, techNIcian
ible: reSIstible, imPOSsible, TERRible
ic: arCHAic, plaTOnic, characteRIStic
ics: diaBEtics, paediAtrics, TOpics
ion: classifiCAtion, repoSItion, vegeTAtion , congratuLAtion
ia: MEdia, bacTERia, vicTORia
ient: inGREdient, PAtient, ANcient
ious: mySTERious, reLIgious, VARious

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ish: SELfish, ENglish, PUnish
osis: hypNOsis, diagNOsis, osmosis
LETTER WRITING
Letter writing has been deemed as one of the most useful forms learnt and used for various
reasons. There are several kinds of letters, each of which has its own form and style.
However, there are certain parts of the letter which remain the same. They include:
Address
Date
Greeting or Salutation
Body of the Letter
Closing Remarks/Subscription
Signature
Address
The writer’s address has to be mentioned at the beginning of the letter on the right-hand side
of the paper. This lets the receiver know where you wrote the letter from. However, in formal
letter the receiver’s address has to be mentioned at the left-hand side of the paper thus, formal
letter has two addresses. There are two ways of writing address
1. Block address
A block address is the address that we write without indenting a letter, e.g
Department of English,
College of General Studies,
Jigawa State Polytechnic Dutse,
PMB 111
Jigawa State.
July 4, 2023.
2. Indented address
An indented address is the address that we write with indenting a letter i,e to give a space of
letter, e.g
Department of English,
College of General Studies,
Jigawa State Polytechnic Dutse,
PMB 111
Jigawa State.
July 4, 2023.

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Date
The date is written just below the address, and it lets the recipient know when exactly the
letter was written. The date may be written in any of the following ways:
04 September, 2023.
July 4, 2023.
4/6/2023.
4-6-2023.

Greeting or Salutation
The Salutation depends on the relationship between the sender and the receiver.

To members of your family and friends, it could be Dear Father, My Dearest Friend, Dear
Uncle, Dear Diana, etc.

To Business people or any officer of higher rank, it could be Dear Sir, Dear Madam, and
Dear Sir/Madam when you do not know the receiver is either male or female.

Body of the Letter

The message that you want to convey is stated in the body of the letter. The style, however,
depends on the type of letter you are writing. The style of a friendly letter differs completely
from that of a business letter or an official letter, but there are certain points that apply to both
formal letters and informal letters.
Types of letter writing
Informal Letter
Letters to friends and family can be written in a conversational style. They are just a
composition of spontaneous thoughts, and they are easy and personal. When writing an
informal letter, you are free to use colloquial language, which would be quite out of place in a
formal letter. This does not mean that you can pen down random thoughts that are totally
disconnected and make no sense. Wrong spelling, punctuation and grammar are not allowed
even though the letter is informal and personal.

Formal Letter
Formal letters or Business letters should be clear and concise. You should always remember
that formal letters are written to bring important information into consideration, so you

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should always take care to draft the letter carefully by providing only the necessary
information. The language used in formal letters is a lot more professional than informal
letters.
Formal letters are written with the intention of communicating in a professional setting. The
types of formal letters include:
1. Business letters these are written between companies, or from one company to another.
2. Job application letters these are written by job seekers to express their interest in a job
position.
3. Complaint letters these are written to express dissatisfaction with a service, product, or
person.
4. Invitation letters these are written to invite someone to an event or a meeting.
5. Official letters these are written by government officials for formal communication.

Features of a Formal Letter

1. Clear purpose and objective
2. Professional tone and language
3. Formal formatting and layout
4. Use of formal language, salutations, and closings

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 Sample of formal letter

No. 09, Zai Quarters,

Dutse Local Government,
Jigawa State.
04 September, 2023.
The Principal,
Elite Secondary School,
Dutse Local Government,
Jigawa State.

Dear Sir,

APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF ENGLISH TEACHER

I am applying for the position of English Teacher in your organization with reference to the
advertisement on The Daily Trust Newspaper dated 18/04/2023. I have great interest in this
position and would highly appreciate it if you could consider my application.
I have completed my Post Graduation in English and have experience of working as a High
School English Teacher for two years. In my teaching experience, I have come across various
challenging situations with kids and parents, and I have learnt to handle all of them well. I
have enjoyed connecting with the children and being a part of their growth and development
as considerate and intelligent individuals.
I have attached my resume and experience certificate for your kind perusal and hope to hear
from you in this regard.

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Yours faithfully,

Ibrahim Umar

Semi-formal letter is a type of letter that is less formal than a formal letter, but more formal
than an informal letter. It is usually written to someone who is known personally or
professionally.
The features of a semi-formal letter include:
1. A conversational tone that is friendly, but not too casual.
2. Using a more personal introduction and closing, such as “Dear [Name]” and “Best
regards”.

3. A clear and concise purpose for the letter.

4. Avoiding slang or overly casual language.

5. A less rigid format compared to a formal letter.

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MEMO
A memo is actually short for Memorandum. It is one of the most used means of official
communication in the business world. Its main purpose is to serve as a reminder or to give
some instructions. Again these like circulars are a means of mass communication, i.e. to
communicate with a large number of people within the organization.
Usually, we write a memo for one of the following five reasons
i. As a reminder
ii. Highlight an event or circumstance
iii. To recount an event
iv. Keep an official record of anything
v To pass information or instructions
The Format of a Memo
Heading: After the name and address of the company (which is on the letterhead) we type
the word “Memo’ or ‘Memorandum’ at the top of the page in the center.
Recipient: Address the recipients in the correct format, Example -‘To: All Employees of the
Sale Division’
Writer: Write the name of the person writing the memo, Example – ‘From: Mr. ABC, Head
of Sales’
Date: The date of writing the memos is an important detail that one must include.
Subject Line: This will give the reader a brief idea about the information in the memos. The
line must be brief, precise and to the point. Example – Subject: Meeting of all employees of
the Sale Division.
The body of a memo: This is where all the information is contained. A formal salutation is
not required in a memo. Just relay the necessary information with clarity and precision. The
body must not be too long. The ending must restate the issue and end on a positive note.

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 MEMORANDUM

From: Mr. XYZ, Head of Accounts To: All Employees of the Accounting Department

Ref. Date : 10 September, 2023

Subject: Compulsory Training to the New Software

As you are all aware, we have recently adopted new accounting software at the company. The
decision was taken to improve our accounting procedure and make it more time and cost
efficient. A training seminar will be held on 5th November 2018 at 9 am to familiarize the
staff with the new software. This is done to make the transition between the software as easy
as possible. All employees of the department are required to attend.

Ahmad Musa
Head of Account unit

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Circulars
A circular is essentially a letter containing some important information that is distributed to a
large number of people. Say for example you have to invite an entire department for a
meeting, or update the dress policy for the whole office – a circular will be the best mode of
communication for these purposes.
Additionally, circulars also find use as advertising tools. They can contain marketing
information and have a wide distribution range. Be it for inter-departmental communication,
advertising or even personal reasons a circular must always reach a large number of
correspondents. This is one of its main features. Example:

Circular No. ____

25th October 2018
Revised Working Hours
All Employees of XYZ Company,

This is to inform all employees there will be a change in the working hours of the
organization effective immediately. As you know we now do not function on any Saturdays
since last month. So we only have 5 working days in a week, a revision in the working hours
was necessary to ensure the quality of work does not suffer. Hence one hour will be added to
the previous 9 hour work days. The revised working hour will be as follows:
Working Days: Monday to Friday (except holidays)
Working Hours: 8:30 am to 6:30 pm (These hours will include the one-hour lunch break)
All employees are requested to note these new and revised timings. The timings are effective
immediately from 26 October 2018. Punctuality and adherence to the new timings are
requested. Repeated defaulters will face action. Please contact the HR department or your
managers for any queries you may have.

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ABC,

CEO of XYZ Company.

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