Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 34, December 2009, pp. 384-399

Review Article

Application of natural dyes on textiles

Ashis Kumar Samantaa & Priti Agarwal
Institute of Jute Technology, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, India
Received 18 August 2009; accepted 22 September 2009

This paper reports the studies available on the characterization and chemical/biochemical analysis of natural dyes;
extraction of colorants from different natural sources; effects of different mordants and mordanting methods; conventional
and non-conventional methods of natural dyeing; physico-chemical studies on dyeing process variables and dyeing kinetics;
development of newer shades and analysis of colour parameters for textiles dyed with natural dyes; and test of compatibility
for application of binary mixture of natural dyes. The chemical modification of textile substrate for improving dyeability,
attempts for improvement in overall colour fastness properties and survey of some traditional processes of natural dyeing in
different parts of India have also been discussed.

Keywords: Cationic dye fixing agent, Colour fastness, Dye characterization, Natural dye, UV absorber

1 Introduction significant importance due to the increased

Natural dyes are known for their use in colouring environmental awareness in order to avoid some
of food substrate, leather as well as natural protein hazardous synthetic dyes. However, worldwide the
fibres like wool, silk and cotton as major areas of use of natural dyes for the colouration of textiles has
application since pre-historic times. Since the advent mainly been confined to artisan / craftsman, small
of widely available and cheaper synthetic dyes in scale / cottage level dyers and printers as well as to
1856 having moderate to excellent colour fastness small scale exporters and producers dealing with
properties, the use of natural dyes having poor to high-valued ecofriendly textile production and
moderate wash and light fastness has declined to a sales6,7. Recently, a number of commercial dyers and
great extent. However, recently there has been revival small textile export houses have started looking at the
of the growing interest on the application of natural possibilities of using natural dyes for regular basis
dyes1,2 on natural fibres due to worldwide dyeing and printing of textiles to overcome
environmental3,4 consciousness. Although this ancient environmental pollution caused by the synthetic
art of dyeing with natural dyes withstood the ravages dyes8. Natural dyes produce very uncommon,
of time, a rapid decline in natural dyeing continued soothing and soft shades as compared to synthetic
due to the wide availability of synthetic dyes at an dyes. On the other hand, synthetic dyes are widely
economical price. However, even after a century, the available at an economical price and produce a wide
use of natural dyes never erode completely and they variety of colours; these dyes however produce skin
are still being used. Thus, natural dyeing of different allergy, toxic wastes and other harmfulness to human
textiles and leathers has been continued mainly in the body.
decentralized sector for specialty products alongwith For successful commercial use of natural dyes, the
the use of synthetic dyes in the large scale sector for appropriate and standardized dyeing techniques need
general textiles/apparels owing to the specific to be adopted without scarifying required quality of
advantages and limitations of both natural dyes and dyed textiles materials. Therefore, to obtain newer
synthetic dyes 5. shades with acceptable colour fastness behaviour and
The use of non-allergic, non-toxic and ecofriendly reproducible colour yield, appropriate scientific
natural dyes on textiles has become a matter of techniques or procedures need to be derived from
scientific studies on dyeing methods, dyeing process
a
To whom all the correspondence should be addressed. variables, dyeing kinetics and compatibility of
E-mail: ijt@cal2.vsnl.net.in / ijt_aksamanta@hotmail.com selective natural dyes. A need has also been felt to
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 385

reinvestigate and rebuild the traditional processes of contain toxic / carcinogenic amines which are not
natural dyeing to control each treatment and pre- ecofriendly11, 12. Moreover, the global consumption of
dyeing process (preparation, mordanting) and dyeing textiles is estimated at around 30 million tonnes,
process variables for producing uncommon shades which is expected to grow at the rate of 3% per
with balanced colour fastness and eco-performing annum. The colouration of this huge quantity of
textiles. textiles needs around 700,000 tonnes of dyes which
India is rich in natural wealth and there are ample causes release of a vast amount of unused and unfixed
scope to explore and revive application of natural synthetic colourants into the environment. This
dyes on textiles, having more and more scientific practice cannot be stopped, because consumers
knowledge base available, as is evidenced from the always demand coloured textiles for eye-appeal,
studies reported9,10 with the objectives, such as to decoration and even for aesthetic purposes. Moreover,
know the chemistry of dyes and interaction between such a huge amount of required textiles materials
mordant dyes and fibres; to get maximum yield of cannot be dyed with natural dyes alone. Hence, the
colourant and reproducible shades; to have use of eco-safe synthetic dyes is also essential. But a
commercial availability of extracted natural dyes in certain portion of coloured textiles can always be
powder form; to improve the dyeing methods/ yields; supplemented and managed by eco-safe natural dyes6, 7.
to optimise dyeing conditions; to develop newer However, all natural dyes are not ecofriendly. There
shades; and to improve dyeability with natural dye. may be presence of heavy metals or some other form
In spite of the better performance of synthetic dyes, of toxicity in natural dye. So, the natural dyes also
recently the use of natural dyes on textile materials need to be tested for toxicity before their use.
has been attracting more and more scientists for study The present paper reports the studies carried out so
on this due to the following reasons: far on the chemistry and application of natural dyes
 Wide viability of natural dyes and their huge on textiles to understand the science of natural dyeing
potential. as well as to focus the problem areas, difficulty and
 Availability of experimental evidence for allergic probable measures to overcome them.
& toxic effects of some synthetic dyes, and non-
toxic & non-allergic effects of natural dyes. 2 Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles
 To protect the ancient and traditional dyeing 2.1 Characterization and Chemical/ Biochemical Analysis of
Natural Dyes
technology generating livelihood of poor artisan/
2.1.1 Macro- and Micro-chemical Analysis
dyers, with potential employment generation
facility. Saidman et al.13, Gulrajani et al.14 and Mohanty9
have reviewed the chemistry, chemical composition
 To generate sustainable employment and income
and chemical based classification of natural dyes
for the weaker section of population in rural and
having anthraquinone13 (madder), alpha
sub-urban areas both for dyeing as well as for
napthoquinones (henna), flavones13,14 (weld),
non-food crop farming to produce plants for such
indigoids (indigo and tyrian purple), carotenoids
natural dyes.
(annatto, saffron), etc. which give a basic
 To study the ancient dyeing methods, coloured
understanding of chemical nature of such colourants.
museum textiles and other textiles recovered by
Madder dyes are hydroxyl-anthraquinones which are
archaeology for conservation and restoration of
extracted from the root bark of various Rubiaceae,
heritage of old textiles.
e.g. from madder root (Rubia tinctorum). The root
 Specialty colours and effects of natural dyes contains approximately 1.9% of dye, present in the
produced by craftsman and artisans for their free form or bound as the glucoside. Annato 14 pulp is
exclusive technique and specialty work. rich in tannin but contains mixture of eight colourants
 Availability of scientific information on chemical of carotenoid group such as nor-bixin and bixin. Both
characterizations of different natural colorants, these components have the properties of Vitamin A.
including their purification and extraction. Indigoid dyes are perhaps the oldest natural dyes used
 Availability of knowledge base and database on by man. It is found as the glucoside indican in the
application of natural dyes on different textiles. plant Indigofera tinctoria and has been known in
Production of synthetic dyes is dependent on India for about 4000 years. The main dyeing
petrochemical source, and some of the synthetic dyes component of this plant is indigo. Tyrian purple is
 38 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

derived from the Mediterranean shell fish of the solvents and gives one homogenous component of
genera Purpura and Murex. Henna14, 15 contains high 0.86 Rf value on chromatographic separation, having
proportion of coloured species other than Lawsone, as wavelength of maximum absorption at 420 nm.
is evident from HPLC analysis of its aqueous extract, These studies are although too scientific in nature,
i.e 0.57% Lawsone. It is non-ionic moiety and is but are useful in understanding the UV absorbance
expected to bind with polyester through interaction, criteria, as these are indicative of many application
such as hydrogen bonding in addition to van der information, like possible fading and absorbance
Waals forces or even dipole-dipole interactions of the behavior under UV-light, sunlight, etc. Hence, these
Lawsone molecule with polyester fibre molecules/ reports are also important.
chains.
2.1.3 Chromatographic Analysis
2.1.2 UV-Visible Spectroscopic Study Thin layer chromatatography (TLC) was used by
UV visible spectra of any colourant/dye show its many workers to identify different colour components
peaks at predominating wavelength, indicating main in natural dyes to be applied on textiles26. Dyes
hue. For natural dyes, the spectra specially indicate detected were insect dyes and vegetable dyes, viz.
different peaks for mixed colourants available in their yellow, red and blue colours. Koren27 also analysed
extract in both UV and visible region. UV/ Visible the natural scale insect, madder and indigoid dyes by
spectroscopic studies of different natural dyes were HPLC. Guinot et al.28 used the TLC for preliminary
carried out by Bhattacharya16 and Erica et al.17 using evalution of plants containing flavonoids (flavonols,
different solvents for extraction. Neem bark18 flavones, flavanones, chalcones/ aurones,
colourant shows two absorption maxima at 275 and anthocynanins, hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins and
374 nm while beet sugar19 shows three absorption anthraquinones) colour compounds found in the
bands at 220, 280 and 530 nm. The visible spectra of plants.
ratanjot20 at acidic pH show maximum absorption at Identification of dyes used in historic textiles
around 520-525 nm, but under alkaline pH there is a through chromatographic and spectrophotometric
shift towards 570 nm and another peak is observed at methods as well as by sensitive colour reactions has
610-615 nm. Red sandal wood21 shows a strong been reported by Blanc et al.29. Szostek et al.30
absorption peak at 288 nm and the maximum studied the retention of carminic acid, indigotin,
absorption at 504 and 474 nm at pH 10 in methanol corcetin, gambogic acid, alizarin flavanoid,
solution. Gomphrena globosa flower colourant shows anthraquinone and purpurin. A non-destructive
one major peak at 533 nm. This dye does not show method was reported for identifying faded dyes on
much difference in the visible spectrum at pH 4 and 7; fabrics through examination of their emission and
however the peak shifted towards 554 nm, as reported absorption spectra. Balakina et al. 31 analysed
by Shanker and Vankar22. Bhuyan et al.23 observed the quantitatively and qualitatively the red dyes, such as
dye absorption for the dyes extracted from Mimusops alizarin, purpurin, carminic acid, etc. by high
elengi & Terminalia arjun and reported that performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This
depending on the concentrations of dyes in the dye technique has been used by several workers to
bath, the dye absorbed on the fibre varies from 21.94 identify different components of synthetic as well as
% to 27.46 % and from 5.18 % to 10.78% natural dyes.
respectively. The colour components isolated from Mc Govern et al.32 carried out the separation and
most of the barks contain flavonoid moiety. Bhuyan et identification of natural dyes from wool fibres using
al.24 also studied the colour component extracted from reverse phase HPLC with a C-18 column. Two
the roots of Morinda angustifolia Roxb using benzene quaternary solvent systems and one binary solvent
extract and showed its melting point as 280 oC. The system were used to obtain chromatograms of dyes,
compound shows UV/Vis absorption at 446, 299, 291, isomers and minor products present in the sample. A
265.5 and 232 nm and gives a positive Borntregar linear gradient elution method has been used for the
reaction, a characteristic for an anthraquinone. HPLC analysis of plant and scale insect as well as for
Extraction, spectroscopic and colouring potential the red anthraquinonoid mordant, molluscan blue, red
studies of the dye in ginger rhizome (Zingiber purple and indigoid vat dyes33. The method enables
officinale) were studied and reported by Popoola the use of the same elution programme for the
et al.25. This dye is soluble in hydroxyl based organic determination of different chemical classes of dyes.
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 387

In addition, it significantly shortens the retention time coli and Salimonella. Dwivedi et al.40, 41 and Benencia
of natural anthraquinonoid dyes over those previously and Courreger42 studied chemopreventative effects of
reported. Cristea et al.34 reported the quantitative red sandal wood oil on skin papillomas in mice
analysis of Weld by HPLC and found that after a 15 followed by the effects of sandal wood extract to
min extraction in a methonal/water mixture, 0.448% prevent skin tumor development in CD1 mice and
luteolin, 0.357% luteolin 7-glucoside and 0.233% antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus 1 and 2.
luteolin-3’7-diglucoside were obtained. Son et al. 35 The hepatoprotective43 activity of an aqueous methnol
reported HPLC analysis of indigo, showing that with extract of Rubia crodifolia (Manjistha) was
the increase in the dyeing time, the structural changes investigated against acetaminophen and CCl 4-induced
of indigo component are attributed to decrease in damage. Acetaminophen produced 100% mortality at
colour strength. a dose of 1 g/K in mice while pretreatment of animals
Study of annatto dyestuff, nor-bixin and bixin was with manjistha extract reduced the death rate to 30%.
reported by means of derivative spectroscopy and Singh et al. 44 tested Acacia catechu, Kerria lacca,
HPLC16. The sample preparation involved extraction Quercus infectoria, Rubia cordifolia and Rumex
with acetone in the presence of HCl and removal of maritimus against pathogens like Escherichia coli,
water by evaporation with ethanol. This residue was Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus
dissolved in chloroform-acetic acid mixture for vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Minimum
derivative spectroscopy and in acetone for HPLC. inhibitory concentration was found to vary from 5 µg
Derivative spectra were recorded from 550nm to to 40 µg. Using a bioassay-directed purification
400nm. Analysis of cochineal colour in foods scheme, the active antibacterial was isolated from
utilizing methylation with diazomethane was carried Caesalpina sappan45 (sappan wood or red wood) and
out using TLC and HPLC with a mobile phase of identified to be brasilian. The trypan blue dye
butanol, ethanol and 10% acetic acid. exclusion test showed that the brazilin lacks
These chromatographic analyses led to separation cytotoxicity against vero cells, it has potential to be
and understanding of individual component present in developed as an antibiotic. Bhattacharya et al.46
natural colourants extracted by different media and reported that the arjun bark, babul bark and
methods and therefore to establish and explain pomegranate rind are eco-safe and contained
different phenomena related to colouring of textiles sometimes traces amount of red listed heavy
by these natural dyes. metals/chemicals but in permissible range. Shenai 47
2.1.4 Test of Toxicity has given a critical and realistic evalution of dyeing
The toxicity36, 37 data sheet for natural dye provide with vegetable dyes highlighting the metal toxicity of
evidence about the possibility of any adverse effect to substances used in textile processing.
human being. The irritation effects to skin and eye Mondhe48 and Rao49 made an attempt to prepare
and the sensitization potential are the primary azo-alkyd dyes by the reduction of nitro alkyds,
concern. Furthermore, possible long-term effects, followed by diazotization of aminoalkyds and
such as mutagenic, carcinogenic or reproductive coupling with different phenolic compounds present
toxicity effects are also to be tested for any material/ in Jatropha curcas seed oil using IR spectra.
natural dye before its use. The LD-50 is the best- In general, it has been observed from the literature
known toxicity rating. It describes the ‘lethal dose for that the identification of natural dyes in textiles
50% of the test animals, which is the amount of involves selective extraction of dyes and comparison
substance in kg/kg of body weight that kills half of of each dye by various characterization techniques,
the animals. The crude methanolic extracts of stem, viz. UV-Visible and IR spectroscopy, TLC, HPLC,
root, leaves, fruit, seeds of Artocarpus hetrophyllus38 ecotoxicity (LD-50) and bio-assay, including methods
and their subsequent partitioning with petrol, of identification of vegetable dyes on cellulose fibres,
dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol fractions animal fibres and man-made fibres.
exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. The above reports are however exclusive but not
The butanol fractions of the root bark and fruit were exhaustive and many further analyses of colour
found to be the most active. None of the fraction was components of natural dyes are possible by other
active against the fungi tested. Mariegold39 showed modern techniques, like FTIR (Fourier Transform
negative test against microbiological control for E- Infrared Spectroscopy), NMR (Nuclear Magnetic
 38 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

Resonance), AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrometry), distilled water, boiled in pressure vessel and then
DSC (Differential scanning calorimetry), TGA filtered it to obtain a residual dye powder (15 - 20 %
(Thermogravimetric Analysis) and elemental analysis w/w) of the bark. Saxena et al.57 initially extracted
of natural dyes/colourants to study the chemical mariegold and chrysanthemum flowers by boiling
functional nature, presence of heavy metals, thermal their dry petals with acidified water and reported it to
behaviour and presence of different elements for be the best. Sarkar et al.58,59 and Deo and Paul60
understanding the chemistry of natural dye extracted colour component from three varieties of
component well. mariegold flower in aqueous medium by the addition
Recently, Samanta et al. 50 have studied UV- Vis of 5% sodium chloride in 1:2 proportion. Aqueous
spectra, DSC and FTIR of six selective natural dyes extraction of saffron yields a yellow dye with medium
(red sandal wood, jackfruit, sappan wood, mariegold, wash fastness on wool and poor wash fastness on
babool and manjistha) and found that the babool and cotton. The wash fastness can be improved by
mariegold show dominating UV-absorbance treatment with metal salts before dyeing, as studied
characteristics at 242-250 nm and 370-380nm, with and reported by Tsatsaroni et al.61.
the 242-250nm zone very predominant, while
manjistha has no such preferential UV- absorbance 2.2.2Extraction by Non-aqueous/ Organic Media / Mixed
Aqueous and Organic Solvents
peak at 242-370 nm zone except at 380 nm. DSC
Vankar et al. 62 utilized the supercritical fluids CO2 to
thermogram shows endothermic and exothermic
extract and purify natural colourant from eucalyptus
peaks at different zones for heating the same from
bark. Extraction of dye from food was best achieved
ambient to 500oC temperature. The FTIR study shows
with ethanolic 40M/oxalic acid mixture. The
the types of chemical functionality and bonds present
comparative behaviour of other red food dyes was
in the main colour components of each of the
also studied. A process developed for the extraction of
individual purified dyes.
natural dye from the leaves of teak plant has been
2.2 Extraction and Purification of Colorants from Natural Dyes carried out using aqueous methanol63. A brick red
The extraction efficiency of colourant components shade dyeing for silk/ wool using the isolated dye in
present in natural plant/ animal/ mineral sources presence of different mordant has also been
depends on the media type (aqueous/ organic solvent achieved. Bhuyan et al.24 studied the isolation of
or acids/ alkali), pH of the media and conditions of Morinda angustifolia roxb, which is a morindone type
extraction, such as temperature, time, material-to- of compound containing an anthraquinone group,
liquor ratio and particle size of the substrate. using ethanol in a soxhlet apparatus and observed that
2.2.1 Aqueous Extraction the silk and cotton fabrics can be dyed with this colour
Dayal and Dobhal51 extracted colourants from the component with and without using different mordants.
leaves of Eucalyptus hybrid, seeds of Cassia tora and Bhattacharya et al.46, 64 and Patel and Agarwal65 made
Grewia optiva by using aqueous medium under an attempt to standardize colourant derived from arjun
varying condition. These dyes impart fast shades on bark, babul bark and pomegranate rind. Singh et al.66
silk, cotton and jute fabrics. Khan et al.52 studied and Agarwal et al.67 studied extraction of dye from
natural dyes extracted from biomass products, namely well grounded henna leaves directly in a solvent
cutch, ratanjot and madder. The colour gamut of wool assisted dyeing process, employing organic
samples dyed with these dyes indicates red yellow solvent:water (1: 9) mixture as the dyeing medium.
zone. Maulik et al.53 also studied the extraction of Superior dyeing properties were obtained, when this
hinjal and jujube bark having pH 4-5 for dyeing wool dye was applied on polyester. The build-up, colour
and silk. The dye uptake appears to be higher in case yield and wash fastness properties were found
of wool than in case of silk. Teli and Paul 54 made an moderate to good. Vasugi and Kala68 obtained the dye
attempt to extract natural dye from the coffee seed for from the grape skin waste by using soxhlet extractor,
its application on cotton and silk. Pan et al.55 dyed the and later on distilled it under vacuum to obtain the
grey jute fabric with extracts from deodar leaf, concentrated dye solution. Eom et al.69 extracted
jackfruit wood and eucalyptus leaf by soaking it in colourant by using a reflux condenser for 1 h followed
soft water and boiling for 4 h separately. Dye uptake by filtration.
increased with the increase in mordant concentration. 2.2.3 Extraction by Acid and Alkali
Verma and Gupta56 overnight soaked wattle bark in Dixit and Jahan70 extracted euphorbia leaves under
acidic pH by adding hydrochloric acid, under alkaline
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 389

pH using sodium carbonate and under aqueous and ferrous sulphate showed excellent to good all
medium. It was observed that the silk fabric dyed around fastness properties. Wool yarns dyed with
under acidic medium produced best shades. Sudhakar turmeric18, when subjected to different concentrations
et al.71 extracted colourants using alkali from nuts of of natural mordant (a petaloid of banana flower) and
Areca catechu for colouration of silk fabric. Dye chromium under identical mordanting conditions,
extracted from jatropha seed gave a range of bright, showed similar colour fastness. Tulsi leave extract
even and soft colours on silk fabric when extracted when applied on textiles with or without using
under acidic condition72. Samanta et al.73 studied the metallic salts, produced pale to dark green and cream
extraction of the dye from jackfruit wood under to brown shades with adequate fastness as studied by
various pH conditions and reported that the optimum Patel et al.87. Silk88 fabric when mordanted with
conditions for extraction of colour component from magnesium sulphate produced lower depth of shade,
jackfruit is achieved at pH 11, giving absorbance of whereas copper sulphate produced highest depth.
colour component at 2.77  628 nm. Samanta et al. 74 Bhattacharya et al.89 studied the effect of various
studied the extraction of red sandal wood under metal sulphates as mordants and reported that the
various pH condition and reported that the optimum depth of dyeing can be improved by using different
conditions for extraction of colour component is metal salt mordants. Das et al.90 observed that the pre-
achieved at pH 4, giving absorbance of colour mordanting and post-mordanting employing ferrous
component at 2.63 603.0 nm. sulphate and aluminium sulphate improve the colour
uptake, light fastness and colour retention on repeated
2.3 Different Mordants and Mordanting Methods
washing. The use of such mordants, however, does
Mordanting is the treatment of textile fabric with not improve wash fastness property of dyed textile
metallic salts or other complex forming agents which substrate with pomegranate. Das et al.91 reported that
bind the natural mordantable dyes onto the textile the ferrous sulphate and aluminium sulphate improve
fibres. Mordanting can be achieved by either pre- colour retention on washing and the fastness
mordanting, simultaneously mordanting and post- properties further for dyed textile substrate with tea
mordanting. Different types and selective mordants or leaves. Chan et al.92 studied dyeing of wool with four
their combination can be applied on the textile fabrics varieties of tea. Coloured protein fibres became
to obtain varying colour/ shade, to increase the dye blackish, when ferrous sulphate was employed as
uptake and to improve the colour fastness behaviour mordanting agent. Tsatsaroni et al.61 reported that the
of any natural dye. Extensive work has been saffron yields a yellow shade on wool and cotton
reported75-83 in this area of study. when mordanted with aluminium sulphate, iron
Dayal et al. 84 studied the effect of copper sulphate sulphate, sodium potassium tartrate and zinc chloride.
and potassium dichromate on colour fastness The use of a mordant in dyeing alpha-crocin results in
properties of silk, wool and cotton fibres. The wool some darkening and dulling of yellow colour.
treated with metal ions, such as Al(III), Cr (VI), Cu
(II), Fe (II) & Sn (II) and rare earths such as La (III) Tin (as mordant) imparts good wash fastness to
& Sn (III) was used to dye with beet sugar colourant cotton dyed with golden rods. Chromium for
and it was found that this dyeing can withstand the mariegold dyeing and alum and tin for dyeing with
requirement of BIS fastness standards19. Agarwal et onion skins also impart good wash fastness as
al. 85 optimized the various concentrations of mordant reported by Vastrad et al.93. Turmeric dye94 can be
and reported that the best shades could be produced applied on cotton fabric using different mordants like
by 0.15% alum, 0.08% copper sulphate and stannous tannic acid, alum, ferrous sulphate, stannous chloride
chloride, 0.04% ferrous sulphate and 0.06% and potassium dichromate to obtain various shades of
potassium dichromate on mulberry silk fabric. Natural colour. The use of gluconic acid as a ligand for
dye extracted from the leaves of teak plant by using complexing iron (II) salts and for vat dyeing of cotton
aqueous methanol produced brick red shade on silk has been studied earlier. Chavan and Chakraborty95
and wool in the presence of different mordants63. reported the use of iron (II) salts complexed with such
Irrespective of mordanting methods, silk86 treated ligands as tartaric acid and citric acid for the reduction
with potash alum showed increase in colour fastness of indigo at room temperature for subsequent cotton
when subjected to sunlight exposure test and those dyeing. Wash fastness96 and light fastness97 can be
treated with potassium dichromate, copper sulphate increased by the use of metal salts or tannic acid on
 39 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

cotton fabrics. Cotton yarns, when treated with There is lot of literature available on the
Acalypha98 dye after pre-mordanting with potash mordanting prior to normal dyeing and the effects of
alum, potassium dichromate, copper sulphate and mordants on colour fastness properties, shade
ferrous sulphate, showed excellent colour fastness development and other physical properties when
properties. applied individually106,107 or in combination108 on
Pre-mordanting route favours dyeing of jute99 cellulosic, protenic and synthetic fibres.
fabric with direct type of natural dyes in the presence However, it is felt that the fibres with integrated
of aluminium sulphate as a mordant, while and synthetic works necessarily show the different
simultaneous mordanting route gives better results for shades being developed for combination of different
madder on cotton with the same mordant. It has also ecofriendly mordants and natural dyes as well as their
been proposed that alum100 and aluminium sulphate colour fastness behaviors. Computerized database/
should be used as mordants in dyeing with natural electronic shade card in regard to this will be a more
dyes, as their environmental toxicity is almost nil. preferred choice for future requirement.
Samanta et al.73,74 also studied and reported the effect 2.4 Conventional and Non-conventional Methods of Natural
of different natural and chemical mordants (with or Dyeing
without mordant assistants) like aluminium sulphate, 2.4.1 Conventional Dyeing
tartaric acid and cetrimide on bleached jute fabric. As Dyeing can be carried out in an alkaline bath,
the mordant concentration and dye concentration are acidic bath or in a neutral bath, depending on the
increased, there is improvement in the light fastness chemical nature of natural dyes. There are various
by 1-2 grades. reports available on different methods of mordanting
Different types of mordant and method of as well as different methods of dyeing of different
mordanting significantly affect the rate and extent of fibres, such as cellulosics, lingo cellulosics, protenic
photofading. The use of copper or ferrous sulphate and synthetics. These studies are widely available in
gives high resistance to fading, whereas stannous different literature9, 109-112. Mohanty et al.9 reported
chloride or alum do not. On the other hand, light dyeing of cotton and silk with babool, tesu, manjistha,
fastness improves when post-mordanting is conducted heena, indigo, mariegold, etc. with different mordants.
with copper or ferrous ion, but pre-mordanting is Various kinds of shades, like black to brown and
superior in the case of stannous chloride or alum, as green to yellow to orange, can be obtained by the
investigated and reported by Gupta et al.101. application of different mordants. However, before
dyeing, the clothes need to be scoured, bleached or
Harda-tartaric acid combination is found to be the treated chemically by different methods. Thus,
best followed by tannic acid-harda and tartaric acid – source-wise and state-wise, different artisan dyers are
tannic acid combinations for cotton. Samanta et al.74 performing natural dyeing of silk, cotton and wool
reported that the combination of harda and aluminium from long time and have derived some special
sulphate as double mordants is best suited for jute techniques and processes for individual dye-fibre
fabric for red sandal wood natural dye. Synergistic combination to get a particular shade. Some
effect of mordant was observed while using the binary conventional dyeing practices followed in various
combinations of mordants. Meta-mordanting gave the states of India are reported here.
best results for harda-tartaric acid and tartaric acid- In Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan 9, the general
tannic acid combinations, while pre-mordanting gave process followed in preparing a cotton cloth for
the best results for tartaric acid-harda combination, as natural dyes includes dunging, washing, bleaching
studied by Deo and Paul102,103. The colour fastness and steaming followed by steeping in alkaline lye and
properties of goldendrop root dyed wool104 were rinsing. Then the cloth is usually soaked in a solution
studied using combinations of mordants, such as of harda/myrobolan and then dried. The cloth is then
alum: chrome, alum: copper sulphate, alum: ferrous pre-mordanted by dipping it in a solution of alum and
sulphate, chrome: copper sulphate, chrome: ferrous water. In some places, gum or a paste of tamarind
sulphate and copper sulphate : ferrous sulphate in the seed (tamarind kernel powder) is added to make it
ratio of 1:3, 1:1 and 3:1 respectivly. Bains et al.105 sticky. For dyeing, the cloth is generally boiled with
studied the effects of combination of mordants on an aqueous extracted solution of specific natural dye
colour fastness properties of cotton dyed with peach. until all the colouring matter is absorbed by the cloth.
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 391

The dyed fabric is then washed and spread out to dry completed. Mitha-vat is prepared by taking 60 gallon
gradually in air under the sun. Water is sprinkled at water and 4 lbs lime. On the next day, 4 lbs lime is
certain interval over the cloth so as to brighten the again added. At the end of 4th - 5th day, about 60 lbs of
colour; this process is continued for 2-4 days. If tali (taken from the old vat already running) is mixed
required, the cloth is finally starched by dipping it in a into the new sweet vat. The liquid is then stirred twice
paste of rice or wheat flour, or in a solution of babool a day for 4 days.
gum and then dried. The dyeing with Al-root9 does not require boiling
In Bengal9, the most common natural dyes used are and therefore called as ‘cold dyeing’. The cotton yarn
haldi, babool, madder (manjistha), pomegranate rind, was washed in plain water, dried and then steeped in a
palash, mariegold, saw dust, red wood, besides al- mixture called Khuranii (prepared by mixing castor
root, garan wood, etc. Sappan wood is either cut into oil, carbonate of soda and water). The yarn was then
small pieces or pounded into powder and then boiled soaked in this mixture overnight and dried without
in water for 6 h for its extraction in aqueous medium. washing. It was then exposed to sun for 7 h, steeped
The textile material is then dipped into this solution in a small quantity of fresh water and then kept in the
for 1 h with or without alum at boil. At Burdwan, the moist state for one night. The next morning, it was
dunged cotton cloth is generally boiled in water along again exposed to the sun drying. The operation was
with the powdered bark of the Al-root and then left repeated for seven days. Lastly, the yarn was washed
steeped in this solution until it is cooled. In Bengal, and dried. The next step was the preparation of Al-
manjistha (Indian madder) is extracted mainly from root solution. Finally, the yarn was steeped in the
stem, occasionally from the roots of the plant. The mixture, soaked for 24 h, and again washed
dye extract is prepared by boiling the dried manjeet thoroughly. These operations continued for 4 days.
stem with water, but sometimes merely left to steep Finally, the yarn was dipped in alkaline solution of
for few hours in cold water. In Malda, alum, sodium carbonate and dried. To produce a lemon
manjistha alum and Caesalpinia sappan are boiled yellow colour, kesuda (Betea frondosa) was boiled in
together with water for mixed dye extraction. The water with haldi, and the material was dyed in it.
textile material is then dyed in this solution, which is Finally, the material was dipped in lime juice. This
thus a single bath mordanting cum dyeing process. In practice of dyeing is generally used in Gujarat.
Chittagong (now in Bangladesh) and Malda, sawdust In many other states of India, different traditional
of wood (Artocarpus indegrifola) is also used as a methods are known to be available for natural dyeing
source of yellow natural dye. This is boiled with a of textiles9,10.
little alum till the water is reduced to half of its
original volume. The cotton yarn is then dyed yellow 2.4.2 Non-conventional Dyeing
by steeping in this solution for 2 h. Customer’s demand for ecofriendly textiles and
ecofriendly dyes led to the revival of natural dyes for
In Cuttack (Orrisa), the sappan wood chips are
textiles, with the newer energy efficient dyeing
generally boiled with alum and turmeric and then
process and more reproducible shade developing
cooled. After cooling the textile material is dipped in
processes.
the boiled extracts of sappan wood for 3 h. At
It is reported that the ultrasonic energized dyeing
Cuttack, aqueous extract of powdered Al-root is
conditions for neem leaves give better dye uptake,
prepared at room temperature (25°C) with sufficient
uniform dyeing, and better light and wash fastness on
quantity of water and then the cloth is steeped for 24
cotton fabric, as studied by Senthilkumar et al. 113.
h. Finally, the whole material is boiled gently for 2 h.
However, Ghorpade et al. 114 and Tiwari et al. 115
Two different types of indigo vat are prepared in reported ultrasound energy dyeing of cotton with
most of the places, particularly in UP, which are sappan wood. Tiwari et al.116 also reported dyeing of
known to be a khari-mat or alkaline-vat and a mitha- cotton fabrics by tulsi leaves extract using ultrasonic
mat or sweet-vat. Khari –mat is prepared by taking 40 dyeing technique. Dyeing under ultrasonic conditions
gallon water in earthen vessel, into which 2 lbs of is advantageous because it consumes less heat than
indigo, 2 lbs of lime, 2 lbs of sajji mati and one ounce normal dyeing for the same shade. Lokhande et al. 117
of gur (molasses) are generally added. The liquor is dyed nylon with three different natural dyes using
now ready for dyeing within 24 h in hot weather, but various mordants by two different techniques [open
in winters it took four days for the fermentation to get bath and high temperature high pressure (HTHP
 39 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

dyeing methods)], of which HTHP dyeing was found conditions and place of growing, harvesting period,
to be better as compared to open bath. Battacharya extraction methods and conditions, application method
and Lohiya118 also used the HTHP technique for and technological process followed. Many workers
dyeing cotton and polyester fibres with pomegranate have reported some of the most significant
rind, catechu, nova red and turmeric. experimental results on laboratory trials regarding
Tiwari and Vankar119,120 studied unconventional dyeing conditions, techniques and achievable best
natural dyeing using microwave and sonicator with parameters for extraction and application of natural
alkanet root bark. Vankar et al.121 studied and reported dyes, including observations on variation in extraction
ecofriendly sonicator dyeing of cotton with Rubia parameters, such as extraction temperature126,
cordifolia Linn using biomordant. Use of biomordant extraction time, extraction solvent, vegetal material
replaces metal mordants, thus making natural dyeing and liquor ratio, type of media or solvent used and
more ecofriendly. Vankar et al.122 also studied also on observations of varying mordanting agent and
conventional and ultrasonic methods of dyeing cotton technique as well as dyeing parameter.
fabric with aqueous extract of Eclipta alba. The
effects of dyeing show higher colour strength values The effects of dye extraction medium, optimum
obtained by the latter. Beltrame et al.123 studied and concentrations of dye source material, extraction time,
reported the dyeing of cotton in supercritical carbon dyeing time, mordant concentration and methods of
dioxide fluid as newer solvent system. The advantages mordanting on silk dyed with natural dyes has been
of supercritical fluid extraction as compared to reported by Grover et al.127 and Dixit and Jahan70. The
aqueous liquid extraction and dyeing are that it is acidic media exhibited maximum per cent absorption
relatively rapid process because of the low viscosities for jatropha, lantana, hamelia and euphorbia dyes,
and high diffusivities associated with supercritical while kilmora and walnut showed good results in
CO2 fluids. Kamal et al.124 studied the mixture dyeing alkaline medium. The result obtained from different
of Terminilla arjun fruit and chochineal with aqueous experiments leads to the optimization of a standard
extract on wool fabric. Neetu and Shahnaz 125 studied recipe for a particular dye-mordant-fibre combination.
the dyeing with combination of natural dyes obtained Srivastava et al.128 studied the optimum dyeing
from onion skin and kilmora root. Samanta et al.99 technique for dyeing wool by determining the
reported the application of mixture of turmeric and optimum wavelength, dye material concentration,
madder on cotton and reported that it yields some extraction time, dyeing time, pH, concentration of
synergistic effect for enhancing colour strength. mordant, etc. Das et al.91 reported colouring of wool
However, these methods are still in research and silk textiles with tea extracts, which have highest
laboratory stage. None of them has yet affinity for both wool and silk at pH 2 - 4 in presence
commercialized due to many reasons, including high and absence of either of the ferrous sulphate and
cost, ignorance about the process to the small scale aluminium sulphate as mordants. Optimization of
dyers, etc. dyeing process variables for wool with natural dyes
obtained from turmeric has been studied and reported
2.5 Physico-chemical Studies on Dyeing Process Variables by Agarwal et al.129. Bansal and Sood130 studied the
and Dyeing Kinetics optimum conditions for development of vegetable dye
It is felt essential to develop a knowledge base on on cotton from Eupatorium leaves. The optimization
dye chemistry and effects of dyeing process variables of dyeing of wool by Rhododendron arboretum as a
as well as rate of dyeing and chemical kinetics of natural dye source was reported by Sati et al. 131. Rose
dyeing for different natural dyes and fibres et al.132, Maulik and Bhowmik133, Siddiqui et al.134
combinations to manipulate the processes of natural and Samanta et al.74 studied the effect of process
dyeing efficiently in order to get maximum colour variables on dyeing with selective natural dyes. The
yield in economical way. standardization and optimization of dyeing conditions
are essential for effectively colouring any textile in a
2.5.1 Dyeing Process Variables particular shade in techno-economic way to produce
Source-wise, the natural dyes have variable maximum colour yield.
chemical compositions, which are influenced by a Gupta et al.135 studied and reported the kinetics and
number of physical and chemical factors, besides the thermodynamics of dyeing with Juglone for different
compositions of vegetal part of the plant from where fibres. The isotherm for wool, human hair, silk, nylon
the natural dye extracts are obtained. This again
depends on
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 393

and polyester was linear, indicating a partition myrobolan shows the reverse trend. Such studies
mechanism of dyeing. The slope of isotherms was using mixture of natural dyes on jute or cotton or any
found to increase with the increasing temperature in other textiles are rare and scanty. Several studies have
all the cases. ∆H and ∆S values were positive for all been reported on compatibility140-144 of binary and
these dyeings. The apparent diffusion coefficient was tertiary mixture of synthetic dyes, however such
highest for wool and lowest for silk. Gulrajani et al.136 studies on natural dyes are still rare and sporadic.
studied the kinetics of annatto and reported that it has Sakata and Kataryama145, Patel et al. 146 and
high affinity for both nylon and polyester fibres. The Sudhaker and Gowda147 analyzed the different colour
process of dyeing is endothermic as the dye uptake parameters of silk fabric dyed with dry Indian madder
increases at higher temperature. Mahale et al.137 by L*, a* and b* values. The colour of jute 148 dyed
investigated the conditions of extraction and with aqueous extract of tea was investigated on
application of African mariegold on silk yarn. The computer aided colour measuring system in terms of
optimum conditions were found to be 60 min dye K/S and CIE Lab colour difference values. CIE
extraction time, 30 min mordanting, 30 min dyeing L*C*H* values were studied for cotton and woollen
using mixtures of 5% potash alum, 1% potassium textiles dyed with yellow natural dye and it was found
dichromate and 1% copper sulphate as mordants. that the H* values for cotton and wool were 74.19 and
Samanta et al.74 has studied the dyeing absorption 75.15. This indicates the predominance of yellow hue
isotherm, heat of dyeing, free energy and entropy of with different mordants and high ∆E values, Iron (II)
dyeing for red sandal wood74 and jackfruit wood138. sulphate mordant with high ∆C* and ∆H* values
Study with red sandal wood revealed that this dyeing shows change in shade towards grey to black, as
process follows a linear Nernst absorption isotherm studied by Tastsaroni and Eleftheriadis149. Mishra et
for jute; while study on jackfruit wood revealed that al. 150 studied dyeing of silk fabric for reddish shade
Nernst absorption isotherm is followed in most of the with natural lac dye of different concentrations and
cases, except jute-FeSO4 –jackfruit combination of then measured the K/S values. Sarkar and Seal151
natural dyeing138, where it follows Langmuir studied the influence of different mordanting systems
adsorption isotherm. on colour strength and colour fastness of flax fabrics
These studies are notably important for dyed with selective natural colourant. Results
understanding the dyeing theory and physico- obtained were then analyzed and correlated with
chemical dyeing parameters of different natural dye- colour strength and related colour interaction
fibre combinations. These are also important for parameters. Recently, Samanta et al.152-154 have
practically manipulating dyeing conditions to get studied the compatibility of binary combinations of
maximum colour yield from particular natural dyes. jackfruit wood with manjistha, red sandal wood,
mariegold, sappan wood and babool applied on jute
2.6 Newer Shade Development, Colour Interaction
fabric. In this work, a newer and simple method of
Parameters and Dye Compatibility
Newer shades can be achieved by applying mixture assessing relative compatibility rating (RCR) of pairs
of compatible natural dyes or by using sequential of natural dyes has been proposed with compatibility
dyeing technique with two or three natural dyes. For rating of 0-5 scale, (0 indicates completely non-
the use of mixture of natural dyes, the dyers must compatible and 5 indicates highest order of
know whether the natural dyes are compatible with compatibility), based on determination of newer
each other or not. Reports are available on dyeing of colour difference index (CDI) values.
different textiles with selective mixtures of natural There are some recent reports for application of
dyes. According to one report139 it is observed that the natural dyes even on synthetic fibres. According to
use of a mixture of turmeric and madder on cotton in one report155, 100% nylon fabric does not pick up
case of simultaneous mordanting shows a synergistic dyes such as heena and turmeric, but if it is pre-
effect in colour development than that for single dye treated for 5 min with heat or / and acetic acid it
application; 50:50 ratio of turmeric and madder gives readily picks up colour. Gupta et al.156 reported few
the best results. For the combined dye application, it spectral curves confirming the behaviour of purpurin
is observed that in case of simultaneous mordanting as a mordantable dye and showing the colour change
method, turmeric when combined with either madder with the mordant due to the characteristic of metal –
or red sandal wood gives better colour strength, while dye interactions. Thus, for producing variety of
 39 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

shades and variations in L*, C*, H* values, the use of well. Effect of low temperature plasma treatment167
different mordant-natural dye combination and on colouring of wool and nylon-6 fabrics increases
mixture of natural dyes are the two important routes. the dye uptake and saturated dye exhaustion for acid
dye, despite the increased electro-negativity of the
2.7 Effects of Chemical Pretreatments and Modification of
Textile Materials fibre surface. Pascual and Julia168 reported that the
The primary objective in chemical modification of pre-treatment with hydrogen peroxide improves the
a polymer/ fibre material is normally to preserve its effectiveness of chitosan, Alkali pre-treatment
original chemical structure and related favourable followed by chitosan application increases the rate of
properties. Such chemical modifications may involve dyeing and alters the physico-chemical parameters of
incorporation of new functional groups with or dyeing kinetics and causes a reduction in
without large scale chain rupture or chain hydrophobicity and shrinkage. However, a high
degradation. This however involves addition of some concentration of chitosan can produce a rough hand
newly built-in property criteria, favouring and uneven dyeing, increasing the viscosity as well as
development of the modified material for improved resistance to shrink. Davarpanah et al.169 studied and
dyebility with or without affecting some other reported the surface modification of silk fibre using
property criteria. anhydrides to graft the polysaccharide chitosan and to
There are many reports on the dyeing of improve dyeing ability of the grafted silk. The
unmodified and modified jute 157-160 and cotton161 physical properties show acceptable changes,
textiles with different classes of synthetic dyes. regardless of weight gain. Scanning electron
However, such studies are sporadic and scanty with microscopy (SEM) analysis shows the presence of
natural dyes. There are only few reports available on foreign materials firmly attached to the surface of silk.
the chemical modifications of cotton textiles for the FTIR spectroscopy provided evidence that the
improvement of their dyeability with natural chitosan is grafted onto the acylated silk through the
dyes 99,161-163. There is only one report99 available on formation of new covalent bonds. The dyeing of the
chemical modification of jute substrate with chitosan grafted acylated silk fibre indicated the
acrylamide monomer using K2S2O8 initiation and higher dyeability in comparison to the acylated and
cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) for degummed silk samples.
investigating their effects on subsequent dyeing with However, specific chemical modification is
natural dyes like turmeric and madder. Treatment of required to suit different purposes and the same has
textile materials with chitosan164 obtained from the many odd effects too, i.e. increasing yellowing,
waste products of crab and prawn fishing is a possible variation in shades and colour fastness properties.
route for the chemical modification of textile These effects are not always favorable and hence one
polymers to develop a variety of effects in textile can use this judiciously with specific knowledge and
dyeing and finishing applications. Bandhpoadhyay study.
et al.165 reported that the pre-treatment of cotton 2.8 Colour Fastness Properties of Natural Dyed Textiles
textiles with chitosan can reduce the amount of Colour fastness is the resistance of a material to
electrolyte addition during dyeing with reactive dyes change any of its colour characteristics or extent of
and enhance fixation, but such studies using natural transfer of its colourants to adjacent white materials in
dyes are yet not reported. touch. The colour fastness is usually rated either by
Sorption behaviour of shellac, a natural loss of depth of colour in original sample or it is also
thermosetting resin, on wool164 fibres and enzymatic expressed by staining scale, i.e. the accompanying
degradation of shellac-modified wool fibres has also white material gets tinted or stained by the colour of
been investigated. With the use of methanol as the original fabric. However, among all types of
solvent, the amount of sorbed shellac is found to be colour fastness, light fastness, wash fastness and rub
maximum (about 0.03g/g of wool), which is fastness are considered generally for any textiles;
decreased with the increase in molecular weight of the perspiration fastness is considered specifically for
alcohol from methanol to t-butanol. apparels only.
Shin et al.166 studied the antimicrobial finishing of 2.8.1 Light Fastness
polypropylene nonwoven fabric by treatment with Light fastness of many natural dyes, particularly
chitosan which has gained improved dyeability as which are extracted from flower petals are found to be
 SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 395

poor to medium. So, an extensive work has been mordant is found to be more important than the dye
carried out to improve the light fastness properties of itself in determining the light fastness of natural
different natural dyed textiles. Cook 170 has reported a coloured textiles.
comprehensive review on different attempts made for Oda 176,177 reported effects of various additives on
improving colour fastness properties of dyes on the photofading of carthamin in cellulose acetate film.
different textile fibres by different means. The study The rate of photofading was remarkably suppressed in
includes tannin-related after-treatments for improving the presence of nickel hydroxyl arylsulphonates,
the wash fastness and light fastness of mordantable while the addition of UV absorbers afforded little
dyes on cotton; some of these treatments might be retardation in the rate of fading. Cristea and
applicable to specific natural dyes. Vilarim178, Lee et al.179, Micheal and Zaher180 and
Most of the natural dyes have poor light stability as Gupta et al.181 made various attempts to improve the
compared to the best available synthetic dyes, and light fastness of different fabrics dyed with natural
hence the colours in museum textile are often dyes. Samanta et al.154 have recently reported the
different from their original colours. The relative light improvement in light fastness to one to half unit for
stability of a range of dyes was reviewed by Padfield natural dyed jute textiles by application of 1%
and Landi171 who also studied changes in qualitative benztriazole in specific conditions. The corresponding
fashion. These changes in colour were studied mechanism of action of benztriazole on jute has also
quantitatively by Duff et al.172, who expressed the been studied and reported by them.
changes in terms of the Munsell scale and also in CIE
colour parameters. Wool dyed with nine natural dyes 2.8.2 Wash Fastness
was exposed in Microscal MBTF fading lamp. Duff et al.182 studied the light fastness and wash
The fastness ratings were similar to those observed by fastness 172,173 under standard condition (50°C) and
Padfield and Landi171 in day light fading. After rating also at 20°C with a washing formulation used in
by the blue wool standards for light fastness (LF) conservation work for restoration of old textiles.
rating, yellow dyes (old fustic, Persian berries) Some dyes undergo marked changes in hue on
showed poor light fastness (1-2) ; reds [(cochineal (tin washing due to the presence of even small amounts of
mordant )], alizarin (alum and tin mordant ) and lac alkali in washing mixtures, highlighting the necessity
(tin mordant) showed better light fastness (3-4); to know the pH of alkaline solutions used for the
indigo showed light fastness rating of 3-4 or 5-6 cleaning of textiles dyed with natural dyes. As a
depending on the mordant used; and logwood black general rule, natural dyes show moderate wash
(chrome mordant) showed light fastness rating of 4-5 fastness on wool, as assessed by the ISO II test.
or 6-7 using other mordants. Gupta173,174 reported the Logwood and indigo dyes are found to be much
effects of chemical structure of natural dyes on light faster. Duff et al.182 studied the wash fastness of
fastness and other colour fastness properties. dyeing from native Scottish and imported dyes. In the
A large proportion of natural dyes is, of course, ISO II test, the fastness of the indigo and logwood
mordant dyes. There is strong influence of nature, was superior to that of the native natural dyeing, such
type and concentration of mordants on wash and light as presian berries and water-lilly root respectively.
fastness grades. The influences of different mordants But in comparison of native and imported yellow,
were found to play important role in fading of 18 reds, red/purples, greens and browns, there was little
yellow natural dyes175. Wool dyed with different difference between the two groups. Samanta et al.154
natural dyes specimens was exposed to a xenon arc recently reported that the treatment with 2%CTAB or
lamp for assessing its light fastness upto 8 AATCC sandofix-HCF improves the wash fastness to nearly 1
fading units equivalent to BS-8B blue wool standards. unit.
The corresponding colour change after exposure to
2.8.3 Rub Fastness
xenon arc lamp was also assessed in each case.
In general, rub fastness of most of the natural dyes
Turmeric, fustic and mariegold dyes faded is found to be moderate to good and does not require
significantly more than any of the other yellow dyes. any after-treatment. Samanta et al.73,152.183 reported
However, the use of tin and alum mordants causes that the jackfruit wood, manjistha, red sandal wood,
significantly more fading than that with the use of babool and mariegold have good rub fastness on jute
chrome, iron, or copper mordant. Thus, the type of and cotton fabrics. Sarkar58, 59 also reported good rub
 39 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER

fastness for mariegold on cotton, silk and wool. match prediction are possible with computerized
Mahale et al.86 studied the dry and wet rub fastness of programe.
silk dyed with Acalypha. It also has good rub fastness
property. Khan et al.52 reported that the cutch and References
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