LEARNING

DEFINITION:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. It is the acquisition of
information, knowledge, and skills.

The term "active learning" is often used to describe an interactive process, such as doing a hands-
on experiment to learn a concept rather than reading about it. But "passive learning" (reading a
text, listening to a lecture, watching a movie) is still learning, and can be effective.

Meaning and Nature:

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If
we compare the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves,
with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought,
sentiments. The individual is constantly interacting with and
influenced by the environment. This experience makes him to change
or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore,
learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour.
As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and
other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.

a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.

b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but

changes due to growth or maturation are not learning

c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must

last a fairly long time.
All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical
or mental activities. They may be simple mental activities or complex,
involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may
be very simple involving one or two activities of mind or complex
which involve higher mental activities.

What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning.

For example, habits, skills, facts, etc. There are different types of
learning. Some of the important and common learning activities are
explained here.

Types of Learning:
1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities.
The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life,
for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these
activities involve the muscular coordination.

2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the
communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words,
figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words
for communication.

3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes
like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts
from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term
‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept
learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation.
This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying things.

4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate
response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example,
sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics,
grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These
principles always show the relationship between two or more
concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.

6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use
of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation,
imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome
difficult problems encountered by the people.

7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our
behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about
the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be
positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes
of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.

Theories of Learning:
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they
learn. They have conducted many experiments on animals and
children and come to certain definite conclusions which explain the
modes of learning.

These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these

explanations are treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true. But
the term learning is very comprehensive. It covers a wide range of
activities which cannot be explained within a limited framework.
There are many theories explaining modes of learning. Important
among them are:

Trial and Error Learning Theory:

This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike
(1874-1949). He argues that learning takes place through trial and
error method. According to him learning is a gradual process where
the individual will make many attempts to learn. The essence of this
theory is-as the trials increase, the errors decrease.

This is possible because of association formed between sense

impressions and impulses to action. Such an association comes to be
known as a ‘bond’ or a ‘connection, because it is these bonds or
connections which become strengthened or weakened in making and
breaking of habits. According to this theory when an individual is
placed in a new situation, he makes a number of random movements.
Among them, those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the
successful ones are fixed.

These random movements are not eliminated at once. In the first

attempt their number is very large, in the second attempt the number
of errors diminishes and the range of activity becomes narrower.
Gradually the individual learns to avoid unnecessary movements and
reaches the goal. Improvement takes place through repetition.

Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number

of experiments on cats-using a box which he called ‘puzzle box’. In one
of the experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box and the door
was closed which could be opened by pressing a Latch. A fish was
placed outside the box in a plate.

The cat could see this fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in the
morning and ten in each afternoon for five days. The cat was fed at the
end of each experimental period and then was given nothing more to
eat until after the next session. If, succeeded in opening the door in
any trial by chance, he went to eat food (fish). A complete record was
made of the cat’s behaviour during each trial.

In the beginning the cat made a number of random movements like

biting, clawing, dashing, etc. gradually in subsequent trials the cat
reduced the incorrect responses (errors), as it was in a position to
manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box.
This experiment revealed that the random movements were decreased
gradually, that is-as the trials increased the errors decreased. As the
trials increased the solution to open the door (pressing the latch) was
discovered and at the end, the cat could open the door with zero error.
The time taken in each trial was eventually reduced.

Thorndike conducted many experiments with maze and puzzle box

learning in which cats and rats were used. He has demonstrated that
through numerous trials the animal learns much and gradually
improves his effort.

We all learn many skills like swimming, cycling, riding, etc., through
this method. Children learn to sit, stand, walk, and run by this method
only. However, this method involves considerable waste of time and
effort.

Learning by Conditioning:
In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a
new situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of substituting the original
stimulus by a new one and connecting the response with it. There are
two types of conditioning theories:

1. Classical conditioning:
This method of conditioning got its name from the fact that, it is a
kind of learning situation that existed in the early classical
experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist who
was awarded Nobel Prize, in 1904 for his experiments.

Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva

produced in response to food (meat power). At the beginning of his
experiment Pavlov noted that no saliva flowed when he rang the bell.
He then trained the dog by sounding the bell, and shortly afterwards
presenting food.

After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few times, he
tested the effects of the training by measuring the amount of saliva
that flowed when he rang the bell and did not present food. He found
that some saliva was produced in response to the sound of the bell
alone. He then resumed the training-paired presentation of bell and
food a few times and then tested again with the bell alone.

As the training continued, the amount of saliva on tests with the bell
alone increased. Thus, after training the dog’s mouth watered-
salivated- whenever the bell was sounded. This is what was learned; it
is the conditioned response.

This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing

with UCS (food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is
because the association (conditioning) is formed between CS and UCS.
This may be symbolically presented as follows:

UCS<———————————à UCR

(Food) (Saliva)

↓ (Conditioning)

CS<————————————-à CR

(Bell) (Saliva)

Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:

There are certain sub-principles which explain the different
phenomena of this experiment.

a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery:

Extinction means cessation of a response. The strength of the CS
gradually decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by
UCS for a number of trails. This process is called ‘extinction’. In this
experiment when only bell is presented without food for a number of
trials, the dog stopped salivation gradually.

But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some
trials, the CR (salivation) recovered. This is known as ‘spontaneous
recovery’. In spontaneous recovery the dog required less number of
trials than the first time, because the association between CS and UCS
still existed in the brain of the animal.

b. Stimulus generalization:
A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one is
called stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity, the more the
generalization. In this experiment, the dog started salivating even for
the sound of a buzzer which was similar to bell.

c. Stimulus discrimination:
When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can
discriminate between the two. For example, if the dog is conditioned
to salivate at the signal of red light, it will not salivate when green light
is presented.

d. Higher order conditioning:

If a ‘light’ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a number
of trials, the dog will start salivating to light itself. This phenomenon is
called higher order condition.

All these principles are very useful in behaviour therapy. Conditioning

is not confined only to the laboratory.

In our day-to- day’s life we come across many instances of such

learning. For example, a small child who does not know, touches a
burning candle, it gives him a painful experience and withdraws his
hand. Later this experience will make him withdraw from burning
objects and avoid them all together.

Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very effectively in

the treatment of abnormal behaviours such as phobias, alcoholism,
enuresis, etc. These are called behaviour modification techniques.
Watson and others have conducted many experiments to prove the
usefulness of this method.

2. Operant Conditioning:
This method of conditioning was developed by an American
psychologist BF Skinner. This theory is also known as ‘Instrumental
conditioning’, because the animals use certain operations or actions as
instruments to find solution.

Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry rat in a

box called after his name ‘Skinner box’. This box was containing a
lever and a food tray in a corner of the box. It was so arranged, that the
animal was free to move inside the box, but the pressing of the lever
would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray as reinforcement.

Arrangement was also made to record the number of pressings of the

lever by a mechanical device. It was found in the beginning that the rat
pressed the lever occasionally and used to get food as reinforcement
for each pressing.

Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of lever would give some
food, it repeated the responses very rapidly. This rapid increase in
pressing the lever is the indication of the animal conditioned to get
food.

In day-to-day’s life also, much learning takes place in animals as well

as in human beings by this method. The reinforcement will be the
motivating factor. It will make the organism to repeat its action.

It is on the basis of these experiments, Skinner made his famous

statement “Rewarded behaviour is repeated”. Instrumental
conditioning involves more activity by the learner than classical
conditioning. Skinner conducted his experiments on different animals
like pigeons, rats, etc.

Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of this experiment

is divided into two types: positive reinforcement is used in reward
training. Negative reinforcement-like punishment is used to stop
undesired responses or behaviours. Operant conditioning is useful in
shaping undesirable behaviour and also in modification of behaviour.
This is also useful in training of mentally retarded children to learn
dressing, eating and toilet training skills, treatment of phobias, drug
and alcohol addictions, and psychotherapy and to teach needed
behaviour in children. Further, these experiments have proved that
intermittent reinforcement yields better results than continuous
reinforcement.

Learning by Insight:
Many times learning proceeds by the more efficient process of trying
those methods which are seem to have a relation to solution. This is
possible by understanding or perception of the situation.

Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and

understanding the situation is insightful learning. This theory was
developed by a psychologist known as Wolf gang Kohler, who
belonged to Gestalt school of psychology.

According to Gestalt theory—perception of a situation as a ‘whole’

gives better understanding than sum total of its parts. That is, the
situation viewed as a whole will definitely look different from that,
viewed through its parts.

Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on chimpanzee- called

Sultan. In the experiment, Sultan was put in a cage and a banana was
placed at some distance outside the cage. Then the chimpanzee was
given two sticks, so constructed that one stick could be fitted into
another and make the stick longer.

The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get the banana.
Then he took one of the sticks and tried to pull the banana nearer,
then tried with other stick, but failed to reach it. By this effort, the
chimpanzee became tired and left the attempts to reach banana and
started playing with sticks.

While playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the
stick became lengthier. Immediately Sultan became elated and pulled
the banana with this long stick and ate it. This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to
reach food with longer stick was called as ‘Insight’, by Kohler.

He conducted many experiments to prove that learning takes place

also by insight and not only by trial and error. He concluded that the
occurrence of insight to find solution to a problem is possible by
perception of the whole situation.

Kohler conducted many experiments on this line of learning to prove

that, just trial and error method is not enough to find solution for
many complex problems.

Trial and error or association through connectionism and conditioning

may account for simple acquisition of knowledge, skills, interests,
habits and other personality characteristics. But it is absolutely
insufficient for solving complex problems.

It is here the method of insightful learning is very useful. Because it

involves many higher mental processes such as thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, etc.

Insight occurs, when the individual sees in a flash, the solution to his
problem or difficulty. It is not blind or stupid learning. It is an
intelligent way of learning. In many occasions people try to size up the
situation, things and arrive at a conclusion. With experience man is
able to solve problems better and sooner.

He exercises his discrimination ability in solving problems, and

learning becomes a matter of insight rather than of trial and error.
Archimedes’s example of’ Aha’ experience (eureka) explained in
creative thinking is the appropriate example for occurrence of insight.

Learning by Imitation:
It is the simplest method of learning. Many of our day-to-day’s
activities are learnt by imitating others. For example, the way we eat,
drink, walk, talk, dress, etc, are all learnt by imitating others. We
observe and watch what and how other people do certain activities and
imitate them.

We observe the demonstrations given by an expert, imitate his

movements and learn them. By copying the behaviour of others,
people avoid waste of time and effort of trial and error method of
learning. For example, a boy observes the way of holding a cricket bat,
the movements of an expert player, imitates the same and learns.

Psychologists like Millar and Dollard have tried to show that the
tendency to imitate is itself a learned response and if reinforced, the
individual will be more likely to continue to imitate.

Many people believe that imitation is a lower form type of learning.

Still others argue that imitation can never lead to novel responses and
there will be no chance to use individual’s creativity or originality. But
at the same time many educationists believe that only the imitative
individual can learn better. Whatever may be the opinion it is quite
obvious that we learn many things by imitation.

Laws of Learning:
EL Thorndike has explained three laws of learning called Primary laws
and in addition to these, he has also framed 5 subsidiary laws in
connection with his trial and error learning theory.

Primary laws:
These are the most important laws, which explain the basic
aspects of learning. They are:
1. Law of readiness:
By readiness means the organism is ready to respond or act. This is
more essential prerequisite for learning.

This indicates that the animal or human being is motivated to learn.

This condition of readiness has two effects— satisfaction and
annoyance. When the animal is ready to act- if permitted- it gives
pleasure. If it is not permitted, it feels annoyed.
In the same way when the animal is not ready to learn- if asked to
learn- it is annoying. On the other hand, if it is prevented from
learning it gives pleasure.

These points have been given below in the words of

Thorndike:
a. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-to conduct is satisfying.

b. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-not to conduct is annoying.

c. For a conduction unit not ready to conduct- to conduct is annoying.

This law clearly shows that readiness of a person to learn is very

important. Hence motivate him to learn.

2. Law of exercise:
This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to
number of repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated
exercising of a response strengthens its connection with stimulus.

This aspect refers to law of use and disuse, which explains that,
anything not in use will perish. So also if the response is not repeated,
its bond with stimulus gets weakened. This is also according to the
statement that ‘practice makes man perfect’.

In Thorndike’s experiment the cat becomes perfect after repeating the

response more number of times, i.e. it learnt to open the door without
committing any error.

3. Law of effect:
This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying
effect- its strength is increased. By this, Thorndike meant that the
probability of its occurrence is greater. In his experiment if the hungry
cat succeeded in opening the door, would get its favourable dish to eat.
This had a positive effect on its response. Rewards always strengthen
connections between stimuli and responses, and on the other hand,
punishment weakens connections.

Secondary laws:
In addition to the three primary laws explained above, Thorndike has
given five secondary or subsidiary laws also.

They are as follows:

a. Law of multiple response:
It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the learner will
try with new responses until the goal is reached.

b- Law of set or attitude:

Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning.

c. Law of associative shifting:

This is nothing but shifting of the response to a new situation which is
similar to the earlier one. Because the fundamental notion is that, if a
response can be kept intact through a series of changes in stimulating
situation, it may finally be given to a new situation.

d. Law of prepotency of elements:

This law states that the learner is able to react in a selected way, only
to the salient elements of the problem and not for other unimportant
elements.

e. Law of response by analogy:

It means comparing a new situation to the previously learned one and
thus giving a response by analogy.

As stated above, Thorndike formulated these laws on the basis of his

experiments. According to the law of readiness, the cat was ready to
learn, because it was hungry. This hunger motivated the cat to learn to
open the door.
According to the second law, the cat was repeatedly given trials and
exercise which strengthened its learning. Finally on each trial the cat
was given reinforcement in the form of fish.

This encouraged the cat to continue its effort to learn to open the door.
The secondary laws given by him support these findings. These laws
are highly relevant to the field of education. The teachers can make
use of these laws in order to make their teaching more effective.

Types of Learning in Psychology

Behavioral learning falls into three general categories.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously
neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring
stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had
been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
For example, if you don't know how to swim and were to fall into a pool, you'd take actions to
avoid the pool.
How Classical Conditioning Works

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is
increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward
Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that
the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment
would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered
influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The
timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.
For example, your child might learn to complete their homework because you reward them with
treats and/or praise.
How Operant Conditioning Works

Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating
others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through
conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.
Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory
As demonstrated in his classic Bobo Doll experiments, people will imitate the actions of others
without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational
learning: attention, motor skills, motivation, and memory.
For example, a teen's older sibling gets a speeding ticket, with the unpleasant results of fines and
restrictions. The teen then learns not to speed when they take up driving.
The three types of learning in psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning.

History of the Psychology of

Learning
One of the first thinkers to study how learning influences behavior was psychologist John B.
Watson, who suggested in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It that all
behaviors are a result of the learning process. Psychology, the behaviorists believed, should be
the scientific study of observable, measurable behavior. Watson's work included the
famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat.
Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early 20th century. Although behavioral
approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence
of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.

important figures in the psychology of learning include:

 Edward Thorndike
 Ivan Pavlov
 B.F. Skinner
 Albert Bandura

Kolb's Cycle of Learning

Kolb's learning styles are one of the best-known and widely used learning styles theories.
Psychologist David Kolb first outlined his theory of learning styles in 1984.
He believed that our individual learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences, and
the demands of our current environment. In addition to describing four different learning styles,
Kolb also developed a theory of experiential learning and a learning style inventory.

Overview of Kolb's Cycle of

Learning
In his experiential theory, learning is viewed as a four-stage cycle. First, immediate and concrete
experiences serve as a basis for observation. Next, the individual reflects on these observations
and begins to build a general theory of what this information might mean.
In the next step, the learner forms abstract concepts and generalizations based on their
hypothesis. Finally, the learner tests the implications of these concepts in new situations. After
this step, the process once again cycles back to the first stage of the experiential process.

Theory of Kolb's Learning Cycle

The learning styles described by Kolb are based on two major dimensions: active/reflective and
abstract/concrete.1

The Converger
People with this learning style have dominant abilities in the areas of Abstract Conceptualization
and Active Experimentation. They are highly skilled in the practical application of ideas. They
tend to do best in situations where there is a single best solution or answer to a problem.

The Diverger
Divergers dominant abilities lie in the areas of Concrete Experience and Reflective Observation,
essentially the opposite strengths of the Converger. People with this learning style are good at
seeing the "big picture" and organizing smaller bits of information into a meaningful whole.
Divergers tend to be emotional and creative and enjoy brainstorming to come up with new ideas.
Artists, musicians, counselors, and people with a strong interest in the fine arts, humanities, and
liberal arts tend to have this learning style.

The Assimilator
Assimilators are skilled in the areas of Abstract Conceptualization and Reflective Observation.
Understanding and creating theoretical models is one of their greatest strengths. They tend to be
more interested in abstract ideas than in people, but they are not greatly concerned with the
practical applications of theories.
Individuals who work in math and the basic sciences tend to have this type of learning style.
Assimilators also enjoy work that involves planning and research.

The Accommodator
People with this learning style are strongest in Concrete Experience and Active Experimentation.
This style is basically the opposite of the Assimilator style. Accommodators are doers; they
enjoy performing experiments and carrying out plans in the real world.
Out of all four learning styles, Accommodators tend to be the greatest risk-takers. They are good
at thinking on their feet and changing their plans spontaneously in response to new information.
When solving problems, they typically use a trial-and-error approach. People with this learning
style often work in technical fields or in action-oriented jobs such as sales and marketing.

Kolb's Learning Cycle vs. Jungian

Personality Theory
Kolb has suggested that his theory expands and builds upon Carl Jung's theory of personality,
which is focused on how individuals prefer to interact and adapt to the world. Kolb's learning
dimensions share a great deal in common with the dimensions found on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI). The Jungian learning styles are also based upon the types identified on the
MBTI.
The MBTI is a personality inventory based on Jung's work that looks at personality across four
major dimensions. The Extraversion/Introversion dimension on the MBTI is very similar to
Kolb's Active/Reflective dimension.2
People high on extraversion and active experimentation tend to be doers, while those high on
introversion and reflective observation tend to be watchers.
The Feeling/Thinking dimension on the MBTI is also very similar to Kolb's Concrete/Abstract
dimension. Those high in the feeling and concrete experience areas tend to be more focused on
the here-and-now, while those high in the areas of thinking and abstract conceptualization prefer
to focus on theoretical concepts.

Support and Criticism

In one 1973 survey of students, Kolb and Goldman found that there was a correlation between
student learning styles and their chosen departmental major.3
Students who planned to graduate in their selected major had learning styles that were strongly
related to their areas of interest. For example, students entering management fields had a more
accommodative style, while those pursuing mathematics degrees had a more assimilative
approach.
The results also indicated that students who were pursuing a degree aligned with their learning
style had a greater commitment to their field than did students who were pursuing degrees not
related to their learning preferences.
The concept of learning styles has been criticized by many and experts suggest that there is little
evidence to support the existence of learning styles at all.
One large-scale study looked at more than 70 different learning style theories and concluded that
each lacked enough valid research to support its claims.
Educator Mark K. Smith argued that Kolb's model is supported only by weak empirical evidence
and that the learning process is actually far more complex than the theory suggests. He also
noted that the theory fails to fully acknowledge how different experiences and cultures may
impact the learning process.

What Is Classical Conditioning in Psychology?

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious
or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.1 In simple terms, classical
conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex.
One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic experiments with
dogs. In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring
reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the
unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response.2
Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist, it has had a tremendous
influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.3 Behaviorism
assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment
shapes behavior.

Classical Conditioning Definitions

Classical conditioning—also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning—uses a few
different terms to help explain the learning process. Knowing these basics will help you
understand classical conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus
An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold
breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces
an involuntary response (the shivering).

Neutral Stimulus
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the
sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a response.
That would make it a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus
A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now
leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and
now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response
An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought
when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts
watering, the watering is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response
A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response
existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the
bite is a conditioned response.

How Classical Conditioning Works

Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli, resulting in a
learned response.4 There are three basic phases of this process.

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that
will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example
of a naturally occurring stimulus.
During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned
response (UCR).4 Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation
response (the UCR).
At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until the neutral
stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.
Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:
 The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.4 For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may
immediately feel hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned
stimulus.
  The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to
the unconditioned stimulus.4 In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the
smell of food is the unconditioned response.
In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association
between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.
At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The
subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a
previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus,
eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.4
In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the
sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the
whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the
conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The during conditioning phase involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned
stimulus alone will come to evoke a response—even without the unconditioned stimulus. The
resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).4
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our
example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the
whistle.
In the after conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned
response.

Key Principles of Classical

Conditioning in Psychology
Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical
conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while
others describe the disappearance of a response. Here is a closer look at five key principles of
classical conditioning.

Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened.5 During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically
triggers a response without any learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to
emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as
a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired.
Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the response to make sure
the behavior is well learned.

Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical
conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.6
For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of
a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), the sound of the whistle would eventually come to evoke
the conditioned response of hunger.
However, if the smell of food were no longer paired with the whistle, eventually the conditioned
response (hunger) would disappear.

Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge, even after a period of extinction. This is
called spontaneous recovery.7
For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop
reinforcing the behavior and the response becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the
conditioned stimulus is not presented, you ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers
the previously learned response.
If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will
return very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

Generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses
after the response has been conditioned.8 For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate
at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to a sound that's similar to
the bell.
In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small child was
conditioned to fear a white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus generalization by also exhibiting
fear in response to other fuzzy white objects, including stuffed toys and Watson's own hair.

Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.9
For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being
able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is
able to distinguish between these stimuli, they will only respond when the conditioned stimulus
is presented.

What Are Examples of Classical

Conditioning?
It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates
both in experimental and real-world settings.

Fear Response
John B. Watson's experiment with Little Albert is an example of the fear response.10 The child
initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary
sounds, the child began to cry when the rat was present.
Prior to the conditioning, the white rat was a neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was
the loud, clanging sounds, and the unconditioned response was the fear response created by the
noise.
By repeatedly pairing the rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned
stimulus) came to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).
This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases,
a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being
bitten by the dog) can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).

Taste Aversions
Another example of classical conditioning is the development of conditioned taste aversions.
Researchers John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed this phenomenon when they observed
how rats that had been exposed to nausea-causing radiation developed an aversion to flavored
water after the radiation and water were presented together.11
In this example, the radiation represents the unconditioned stimulus and nausea represents the
unconditioned response. After the pairing of the two, the flavored water is the conditioned
stimulus, while nausea that formed when exposed to the water alone is the conditioned response.
Later research demonstrated that such classically conditioned aversions could be produced
through a single pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
Researchers also found that such aversions can even develop if the conditioned stimulus (the
taste of the food) is presented several hours before the unconditioned stimulus (the nausea-
causing stimulus).11
Why do such associations develop so quickly? Forming such associations can have survival
benefits. If an animal eats something that makes it ill, it needs to avoid eating the same food in
the future to avoid sickness or even death.
This is an example of biological preparedness. Some associations form more readily because
they aid in survival.12
In one famous field study, researchers injected sheep carcasses with a poison that would make
coyotes sick but not kill them. The goal was to help sheep ranchers reduce the number of sheep
lost to coyote killings.
Not only did the experiment work by lowering the number of sheep killed, it also caused some of
the coyotes to develop such a strong aversion to sheep that they would actually run away at the
scent or sight of a sheep.13

Organizational Behavior
Classical conditioning can also have applications in business and marketing. For example, it can
be used to help people form favorable attitudes toward products, businesses, or brands.
While there may not be a direct link between the item and the consumer response, creating this
association may help motivate people to purchase certain products because they have developed
a favorable opinion of them due to classical conditioning.

What Is the Difference Between Classical

Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a
positive or negative consequence. This form of learning links voluntary actions with receiving
either a reward or punishment, often to strengthen or weaken those voluntary behaviors.

Classical conditioning is a learning process focused more on involuntary behaviors, using

associations with neutral stimuli to evoke a specific involuntary response.

Criticisms of Classical
Conditioning
Some psychologists maintain that classical conditioning represents a reductive, mechanical
explanation for some behaviors. Some other criticisms of classical conditioning center on the fact
that:
 Classical conditioning does not take human individuality and free will into account
 It generally does not predict human behavior; people can form associations but still not
act upon them
 Many different factors can impact the associations and outcomes
 People can choose to not act on the associations they have made through classical
conditioning
However, the approach still holds great fascination for researchers and relevance in modern
psychology.
In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous real-
world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical
conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful for helping people cope with phobias or anxiety problems.
Therapists might, for example, repeatedly pair something that provokes anxiety with relaxation
techniques in order to create an association.
Teachers can apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation,
such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new
associations. Instead of

What Is Operant Conditioning?

How Reinforcement and Punishment Modify Behavior
By
Kendra Cherry, MSEd
Updated on February 24, 2023
Reviewed by
David Susman, PhD
Print
Table of Contents
 History
 Behavior Types
 Components
 Examples
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of
learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that
behavior.1
For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a
reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a
result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.
But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while
training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and
punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such
as classrooms or therapy sessions.
The History of Operant
Conditioning
Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.1 As a behaviorist, Skinner believed
that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain
behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behavior.
Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology.
The ideas of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the
principles of classical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person
regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.2
Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in
how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of
learned behaviors we exhibit every day.
His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had
proposed what he called the law of effect.3 According to this principle, actions that are followed
by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable
outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by
reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a
funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story
again in the future.
If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will
be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the
behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is
strengthened.
Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and
less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but
nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you
shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to
interrupt the class again.

Types of Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors
 Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling
your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee.
You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and
involuntarily.
 Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may
occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that
then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the
environment and the consequences of that action make up an important part of
the learning process.
While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it
could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant
conditioning held far greater importance.
Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his
studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber,
often referred to today as a Skinner box. The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or
pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a
reward.
In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder.
The device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be
read by looking at the slope of the line.

Components of Operant
Conditioning
There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment
that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning.
There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the
behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by
the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager
gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the
middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the
removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your
child's).
Reinforcement in Conditioning Behavior

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the
behavior decreases.
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an
unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for
misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game
following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.
Recap
The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. Extinction occurs when a response is
no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and disappearance of the
behavior.
Punishment and its Influence on Behavior

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that
can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found
that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength
of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new
behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.
Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning process:4
1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response
occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low.
Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only
after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady
response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement
occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly
steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately
after the reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing
behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and
slow extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner
described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of
time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.
How Schedules of Reinforcement Work

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing
projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action
include:
 After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience.
This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
 You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he
performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer.
 A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do
not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the
final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
 If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your
performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it less
likely that you will finish projects late in the future.
  A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her
phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a
positive stimulus is taken away.
In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior.
Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable
outcome or the application of a negative outcome.
For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class.
This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

Observational Learning In
Psychology: Example
Behaviors
Observational learning involves acquiring skills or new or changed behaviors
through watching the behavior of others.
 The person or actor performing the action that the observational learner
replicates is called a model.

 Theeducational psychologist Albert Bandura was the first to recognize

observational learning through his Bobo Doll experiment.

 Observationallearning consists of attentive, retentive, reproductive, and

motivational processes.

 Observational learning pervades how children, as well as adults, learn to

interact with and behave in the world.

Background
Observational learning, otherwise known as vicarious learning, is the
acquisition of information, skills, or behavior through watching others
perform, either directly or through another medium, such as video.

Those who do experiments on animals alternatively define observational

learning as the conditioning of an animal to perform an act that it observes in
a member of the same or a different species.
For example, a mockingbird could learn to imitate the song patterns of other
kinds of birds.

The Canadian-American psychologist Albert Bandura was one of the first to

recognize the phenomenon of observational learning (Bandura, 1985).

His theory, social learning theory, stresses the importance of observation and
modeling of behaviors, attitudes, and the emotional reactions of others.

Stages Of Observational Learning

Bandura (1985) found that humans, who are social animals, naturally
gravitate toward observational learning. For example, children may watch
their family members and mimic their behaviors.

In observational learning, people learn by watching others and then imitating,

or modeling, what they do or say. Thus, the individuals or objects performing
the imitated behavior are called models (Bandura, 1985).

Even infants may start imitating the mouth movements and facial expressions
of the adults around them.

There are four processes that Bandura’s research identified as influencing

observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
(Debell, 2021).
Attention
 Inorder to learn, observers must pay attention to their environment.
The attention levels of a learned person can vary based on the
characteristics of the model and environment where they are learning
the behavior.

 These variables can include how similar the model is to the observer and
the observer’s current mood.Humans, Bandura (1985) proposed, are
likely to pay attention to the behaviors of models that are high-status,
talented, intelligent, or similar to the learner in some way.
  Forexample, someone seeking to climb the corporate ladder may
observe the behavior of their managers and the vice presidents of their
company, and try to mimic their behavior (Debell, 2021).

Retention
 Attentionin itself, however, is not enough to learn a new behavior.
Observers Must also retain, or remember, the behavior at a later time.
In order to increase the chances of retention, the observer can
structure the information in a way that is easy to remember.

 Thiscould involve using a mnemonic device or a daily learning habit,

such as spaced repetition. In the end, however, the behavior must be
easily remembered so that the action can later be performed by the
learner with little or no effort (Debell, 2021).

Motor Reproduction
 After retention comes the ability to actually perform a behavior in real-
life. Often, producing a new behavior can require hours of practice in
order to obtain the necessary skills to do so.

 Thus, the process of reproduction is one that can potentially take years
to craft and perfect (Debell, 2021).

Motivation
 Finally,
all learning requires, to some extent, personal motivation. Thus,
in observational learning, an observer must be motivated to produce
the desired behavior.

 Thismotivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic to the observer. In

the latter case, motivation comes in the form of rewards and
punishments.

 Forexample, the extrinsic motivation of someone seeking to climb the

corporate ladder could include the incentive of earning a high salary
and more autonomy at work (Debell, 2021).
The Bobo Doll Experiment
Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment is one classic in the field of observational
learning. In all, this experiment showed that children could and would mimic
violent behaviors simply by observing others.

In these experiments, Bandura (1985) and his researchers showed children a

video where a model would act aggressively toward an inflatable doll by
hitting, punching, kicking, and verbally assaulting the doll.
The end of the video had three different outcomes. Either the model was
punished for their behavior, rewarded for it, or there were no consequences.

After watching this behavior, the researchers gave the children a bobo doll
identical to the one in the video.

The researchers found that children were more likely to mimic violent
behaviors when they observed the model receiving a reward, or when no
consequences occurred.

Alternatively, children who observed the model being punished for their
violence showed less violence toward the doll (Debell, 2021).

Observational Learning Examples

There are numerous examples of observational learning in everyday life, in
people of all ages.

Nonetheless, observational learning is especially prevalent in the socialization

of children. For example:

 An infant could learn to chew through watching adults chew food.

 After witnessing an older sibling being punished for taking a cookie

without permission, the young child does not take cookies without
permission.

A school child may learn to write cursive letters through observing their
teacher write them on the board.

 Children may learn to play hide and seek by seeing other children
playing the game and being rewarded in the form of entertainment

 Children may also learn to say swear words after watching other
children say swear words and gain social status.

A child may learn how to drive a car by making appropriate motions

after seeing a parent driving
 A young boy can swing a baseball bat without being explicitly taught
how to do it after attending a baseball game. Similarly, a child could
learn how to shoot hoops after a basketball game without instruction.

A child may be able to put on roller skates and stand on them without
explicit instruction.

A student may learn not to cheat by watching another student be

punished for doing so

A child may avoid stepping on ice after seeing another child fall in front
of them.

Positive And Negative Outcomes

Bandura concluded that people and animals alike watch and learn, and that
this learning can have both prosocial and antisocial effects.

Prosocial, or positive models can be used to encourage socially acceptable

behavior. For example, parents, by reading to their children, can teach their
children to read more.

Meanwhile, parents who want their children to eat healthily can in themselves
eat healthily and exercise, as well as spend time engaging in physical fitness
activities together.

Observational learning argues, in all, that children tend to copy what parents
do above what they say (Daffin, 2021).

Observational learning has also been used to explain how antisocial behaviors
develop. For example, research suggests that observational learning is a
reason why many abused children grow up to become abusers themselves
(Murrel, Christoff, & Henning, 2007).

Abused children tend to grow up witnessing their parents deal with anger and
frustration through violent and aggressive acts, often learning to behave in
that manner themselves.

Some studies have also suggested that violent television shows may also have
antisocial effects, though this is a controversial claim (Kirsh, 2011).
Observational Learning and Behavioral Modification
Observational learning can be used to change already learned behaviors, for
both positive and negative.

Bandura asserted that, if all behaviors are learned by observing others and
people can model their behavior on that of those around them, then
undesirable behaviors can be altered or relearned in the same way.

Banduras suggested showing people a model in a situation that usually causes

them some anxiety. For example, a psychologist may attempt to help someone
overcome their fear of getting blood drawn by showing someone using
relaxation techniques during a blood draw to stay calm.

By seeing the model interact nicely with the fear-evoking stimulus, the fear
should subside. This method of behavioral modification is widely used in
clinical, business, and classroom situations (Daffin, 2021).

In the classroom, a teacher may use modeling to demonstrate how to do a

math problem for a student. Through a prompt delay, that teacher may then
encourage the student to try the problem for themselves.

If the student can solve the problem, no further action is needed; however, if
the student struggles, a teacher may use one of four types of prompts — verbal,
gestural, modeling, or physical — to assist the student. Similarly, a trainer may
show a trainee how to use a computer program to run a register.

As with before, the trainer can use prompt delays and prompts to test the level
of learning the employee has gained.

Reinforcers can then be delivered through social support after the trainee has
successfully completed the task themself (Daffin, 2021).

Observational Learning Vs. Operant

And Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning, also known as pavlovian or respondent conditioning, is
a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus — the conditioned
stimulus — is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response — the
unconditioned stimulus.

This results in a learned, or conditioned, response when the conditioned

stimulus is present. Perhaps the most famous example of classical
conditioning is that of Pavlov’s dogs.

Pavlov conditioned a number of dogs by pairing food with the tone of a bell.
After several repetitions, he was able to trigger his dogs to salivate by ringing
the bell, even in the absence of food.

Operant conditioning, meanwhile, is a process of learning that takes place by

seeing the consequences of behavior. For example, a trainer may teach a dog
to do tricks through giving a dog a reward to, say, sit down (Daffin, 2021).

Observational learning extends the effective range of both classical and

operant conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning, in
which learning can only occur through direct experience, observational
learning takes place through watching others and then imitating what they do.

While classical and operant conditioning may rely on trial and error alone as a
means of changing behavior, observational conditioning creates room for
observing a model, whose actions someone can replicate.

This can result in a more controlled and ultimately more efficient learning
process for all involved (Daffin, 2021).

Pavlov’s Dogs Experiment And

Pavlovian Conditioning
Response
By
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Updated on
July 24, 2023
Reviewed by
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical
conditioning) was discovered accidentally. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936)
was a physiologist, not a psychologist.

During the 1890s, Pavlov researched salivation in dogs in response to being

fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva
when the dogs were fed (with a powder made from meat).

Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food in front of
them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they
heard the footsteps of his assistant, who was bringing them the food.

When Pavlov discovered that any object or event that the dogs learned to
associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same
response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery.

Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.

Table of Contents

Pavlovian Conditioning: Theory Of

Learning
Pavlov’s theory of learning, known as classical conditioning, or Pavlovian
conditioning, posits that behaviors can be learned through the association
between different stimuli.

Classical conditioning (later developed by Watson, in 1913) involves learning

to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular
response (i.e., a reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new
stimulus brings about the same response.

Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process:
 NeutralStimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit a
particular response or reflex action. In other words, before any
conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus has no effect on the
behavior or physiological response of interest. For example, in
Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of a metronome was a neutral
stimulus initially, as it did not cause the dogs to salivate.
  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): This is a stimulus that naturally and
automatically triggers a response without any learning needed. In
Pavlov’s experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus as it
automatically induced salivation in the dogs.

 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is a previously neutral stimulus

that, after being repeatedly associated with an unconditioned
stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. For instance, in
Pavlov’s experiment, the metronome became a conditioned stimulus
when the dogs learned to associate it with food.

 Conditioned Response (CR): This is a learned response to the

conditioned stimulus. It typically resembles the unconditioned
response but is triggered by the conditioned stimulus instead of the
unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, salivating in
response to the metronome was the conditioned response.

 Unconditioned Response (UR): This is an automatic, innate reaction to

an unconditioned stimulus. It does not require any learning. In
Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs’ automatic salivation in response to the
food is an example of an unconditioned response.

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does
not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see
food. This reflex is ‘hard-wired’ into the dog.

Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell
if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given
food.

Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his
early work between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is “classical” in that it is
the first systematic study of the basic laws of learning (also known as
conditioning).
Pavlov’s dogs were individually situated in secluded environments, secured
within harnesses. A food bowl was positioned before them, and a device was
employed to gauge the frequency of their salivary gland secretions.

The data from these measurements were systematically recorded onto a

rotating drum, allowing Pavlov to meticulously monitor the rates of salivation
throughout the course of the experiments.

First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was
the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate)
response. (i.e., a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)

In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus. By itself,
the metronome did not elicit a response from the dogs.

Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Response

Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking
metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a
number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the metronome on
its own.
As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now
caused an increase in salivation.

Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned Response (Salivate)

So the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the food
and a new behavior had been learned.

Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned

response (and also known as a Pavlovian response). The neutral stimulus has
become a conditioned stimulus.
Temporal contiguity
Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be
presented close together in time (such as a bell).

He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the
conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great,
then learning will not occur.

‘Unconditioning’ through experimental extinction

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is repeatedly presented
without the unconditioned stimulus (the food).

Over time, the dog stops associating the sound of the bell with the food, and
the conditioned response (salivation) weakens and eventually disappears.

In other words, the conditioned response is “unconditioned” or

“extinguished.”

Spontaneous recovery
Pavlov noted the occurrence of “spontaneous recovery,” where the conditioned
response can briefly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented
after a rest period, even though the response has been extinguished.

This discovery added to the understanding of conditioning and extinction,

indicating that these learned associations, while they can fade, are not
completely forgotten.

Generalization
The principle of generalization suggests that after a subject has been
conditioned to respond in a certain way to a specific stimulus, the subject will
also respond in a similar manner to stimuli that are similar to the original one.

In Pavlov’s famous experiments with dogs, he found that after conditioning

dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell (which was paired with food), the dogs
would also salivate in response to similar sounds, like a buzzer.
This demonstrated the principle of generalization in classical conditioning.

However, the response tends to be more pronounced when the new stimulus
closely resembles the original one used in conditioning.

This relationship between the similarity of the stimulus and the strength of the
response is known as the generalization gradient.

This principle has been exemplified in research, including a study conducted

by Meulders and colleagues in 2013.

Impact Of Pavlov’s Research

Ivan Pavlov’s key contribution to psychology was the discovery of classical
conditioning, demonstrating how learned associations between stimuli can
influence behavior.

His work laid the foundation for behaviorism, influenced therapeutic

techniques, and informed our understanding of learning and memory
processes.

1. Behaviorism: Pavlov’s work laid the foundation for behaviorism, a

major school of thought in psychology. The principles of classical
conditioning have been used to explain a wide range of behaviors,
from phobias to food aversions.

2. Therapy Techniques: Techniques based on classical conditioning,

such as systematic desensitization and exposure therapy, have been
developed to treat a variety of psychological disorders, including
phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

In these therapies, a conditioned response (such as fear) can be

gradually “unlearned” by changing the association between a specific
stimulus and its response.

3. Little Albert Experiment: The Little Albert experiment, conducted by

John B. Watson in 1920, demonstrated that emotional responses
could be classically conditioned in humans. A young child, “Little
Albert,” was conditioned to fear a white rat, which generalized to
similar objects.
 4. Educational Strategies: Educational strategies, like repetitive
learning and rote memorization, can be seen as applications of the
principles of classical conditioning. The repeated association between
stimulus and response can help to reinforce learning.

5. Marketing and Advertising: Principles from Pavlov’s conditioning

experiments are often used in advertising to build brand recognition
and positive associations.

For instance, a brand may pair its product with appealing stimuli (like
enjoyable music or attractive visuals) to create a positive emotional
response in consumers, which then gets associated with the product.

Operant Conditioning: What It

Is, How It Works, And
Examples
Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is
influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated,
and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were
becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps
the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is
more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner’s views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that
we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable
behavior rather than internal mental events.

The work of Skinner was rooted in the view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to
be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to
understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this
approach operant conditioning.
BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based
on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. behavior that is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die
out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a “Skinner Box ” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to
objectively record an animal’s behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be
rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats)
or key pecking (for pigeons).
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

 Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.

 Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

 Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and
punishers. As a child, you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their
consequences.

For example, when you were younger, if you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence
was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been
positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and
your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would
consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning.
In positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the
repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.

Primary reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they are not learned and
directly satisfy a need, such as food or water.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that are reinforced through their association with a primary
reinforcer, such as money, school grades. They do not directly satisfy an innate need but may be
the means. So a secondary reinforcer can be just as powerful a motivator as a primary reinforcer.

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box.
The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally
knock the lever. Immediately it did so that a food pellet would drop into a container next to the
lever.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times being put in the box. The
consequence of receiving food, if they pressed the lever, ensured that they would repeat the
action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds

rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework
(i.e., a reward), you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening
the behavior of completing your homework.

The Premack principle is a form of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning. It suggests

using a preferred activity (high-probability behavior) as a reward for completing a less preferred
one (low-probability behavior).

This method incentivizes the less desirable behavior by associating it with a desirable outcome,
thus strengthening the less favored behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response.

This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which
is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it
stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will
complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of
completing your homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then
subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever.

Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go
straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the
electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact, Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before
the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on
because they knew that this would stop the electric current from being switched on.

These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (Weakens Behavior)

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a
response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like
a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it’s suppressed – behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present.
  Causes increased aggression – shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

 Doesnot necessarily guide you toward desired behavior – reinforcement tells you what to
do, and punishment only tells you what not to do.

Examples Of Operant Conditioning

1. Positive Reinforcement: Suppose you are a coach and want your team to improve
their passing accuracy in soccer. When the players execute accurate passes during
training, you praise their technique. This positive feedback encourages them to repeat
the correct passing behavior.

2. Negative Reinforcement: If you notice your team working together effectively and
exhibiting excellent team spirit during a tough training session, you might end the
training session earlier than planned, which the team perceives as a relief. They
understand that teamwork leads to positive outcomes, reinforcing team behavior.

3. Negative Punishment: If an office worker continually arrives late, their manager

might revoke the privilege of flexible working hours. This removal of a positive
stimulus encourages the employee to be punctual.

4. Positive Reinforcement: Training a cat to use a litter box can be achieved by giving it
a treat each time it uses it correctly. The cat will associate the behavior with the reward
and will likely repeat it.

5. Negative Punishment: If teenagers stay out past their curfew, their parents might take
away their gaming console for a week. This makes the teenager more likely to respect
their curfew in the future to avoid losing something they value.

6. Ineffective Punishment: Your child refuses to finish their vegetables at dinner. You
punish them by not allowing dessert, but the child still refuses to eat vegetables next
time. The punishment seems ineffective.

7. Premack Principle Application: You could motivate your child to eat vegetables by
offering an activity they love after they finish their meal. For instance, for every
vegetable eaten, they get an extra five minutes of video game time. They value video
game time, which might encourage them to eat vegetables.

8. Other Premack Principle Examples:

  A student who dislikes history but loves art might earn extra time in the art
studio for each history chapter reviewed.

 For every 10 minutes a person spends on household chores, they can spend
5 minutes on a favorite hobby.

 For each successful day of healthy eating, an individual allows themselves a

small piece of dark chocolate at the end of the day.

 A child can choose between taking out the trash or washing the dishes.
Giving them the choice makes them more likely to complete the chore
willingly.

Skinner’s Pigeon Experiment

B.F. Skinner conducted several experiments with pigeons to demonstrate the principles of
operant conditioning.

One of the most famous of these experiments is often colloquially referred to as “Superstition in
the Pigeon.”

This experiment was conducted to explore the effects of non-contingent reinforcement on

pigeons, leading to some fascinating observations that can be likened to human superstitions.

Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) refers to a method in which rewards (or

reinforcements) are delivered independently of the individual’s behavior. In other words,
the reinforcement is given at set times or intervals, regardless of what the individual is
doing.

The Experiment:
1. Pigeons were brought to a state of hunger, reduced to 75% of their well-fed weight.

2. They were placed in a cage with a food hopper that could be presented for five seconds
at a time.

3. Instead of the food being given as a result of any specific action by the pigeon, it was
presented at regular intervals, regardless of the pigeon’s behavior.

Observation:
 1. Over time, Skinner observed that the pigeons began to associate whatever random
action they were doing when food was delivered with the delivery of the food itself.

2. This led the pigeons to repeat these actions, believing (in anthropomorphic terms) that
their behavior was causing the food to appear.

Findings:
1. In most cases, pigeons developed different “superstitious” behaviors or rituals. For
instance, one pigeon would turn counter-clockwise between food presentations, while
another would thrust its head into a cage corner.

2. These behaviors did not appear until the food hopper was introduced and presented
periodically.

3. These behaviors were not initially related to the food delivery but became linked in the
pigeon’s mind due to the coincidental timing of the food dispensing.

4. The behaviors seemed to be associated with the environment, suggesting the pigeons
were responding to certain aspects of their surroundings.

5. The rate of reinforcement (how often the food was presented) played a significant role.
Shorter intervals between food presentations led to more rapid and defined
conditioning.

6. Once a behavior was established, the interval between reinforcements could be

increased without diminishing the behavior.

Superstitious Behavior:
The pigeons began to act as if their behaviors had a direct effect on the presentation of food,
even though there was no such connection. This is likened to human superstitions, where rituals
are believed to change outcomes, even if they have no real effect.

For example, a card player might have rituals to change their luck, or a bowler might make
gestures believing they can influence a ball already in motion.

Conclusion:
This experiment demonstrates that behaviors can be conditioned even without a direct cause-and-
effect relationship. Just like humans, pigeons can develop “superstitious” behaviors based on
coincidental occurrences.

This study not only sheds light on the intricacies of operant conditioning but also draws parallels
between animal and human behaviors in the face of random reinforcements.

Schedules Of Reinforcement
Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box.” In operant conditioning, if no food pellet is delivered
immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever
(how long would someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The
behavior has been extinguished.

Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different
effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different
ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on

1. The Response Rate – The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat
worked).

2. The Extinction Rate – The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave
up).
Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e.,
people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-
ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is
continuous reinforcement.

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time
a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

 Response rate is SLOW

 Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one
reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.

 Response rate is FAST

 Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has
been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes
(half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then
food delivery is shut off.

 Response rate is MEDIUM

 Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.


 Response rate is FAST


 Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed
person being paid at unpredictable times.

 Response rate is FAST

 Extinction rate is SLOW

Behavior Modification Therapy
Behavior modification is a set of therapeutic techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner,
1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a
person’s behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or
punishing undesired ones.

This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is
basically bribery.

There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward
strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a
behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer.

Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping.

Token Economy
Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).

Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards
can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token
economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior.

Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However,
the patients can become over-reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to
society once they leave prison, hospital, etc.

Staff implementing a token economy program have a lot of power. It is important that staff do
not favor or ignore certain individuals if the program is to work. Therefore, staff need to be
trained to give tokens fairly and consistently even when there are shift changes such as in prisons
or in a psychiatric hospital.

Behavior Shaping
A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping
through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can
be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in
such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each
time.
In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards
a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of behavior.

To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time
the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.

According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained
as a product of this type of successive approximation.

Educational Applications
In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill
performance.

A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g.,

compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest
response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initial reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs
at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until
eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.

For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should
praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the
teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional
answers will be praised.

Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished
through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to
them). This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much
about the way to behave.

Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important

to vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy
task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Operant Conditioning Vs. Classical

Conditioning
Learning Type
While both types of conditioning involve learning, classical conditioning is passive (automatic
response to stimuli), while operant conditioning is active (behavior is influenced by
consequences).

 Classical conditioning links an involuntary response with a stimulus. It happens

passively on the part of the learner, without rewards or punishments. An example is a
dog salivating at the sound of a bell associated with food.

 Operant conditioning connects voluntary behavior with a consequence. Operant

conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of
action to be rewarded or punished. It’s active, with the learner’s behavior influenced
by rewards or punishments. An example is a dog sitting on command to get a treat.

Learning Process
Classical conditioning involves learning through associating stimuli resulting in involuntary
responses, while operant conditioning focuses on learning through consequences, shaping
voluntary behaviors.

 Learning by Association (Classical Conditioning): In learning by association, a person

(or animal) learns to associate two stimuli, causing a behavior change. A neutral
stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Over time, the person responds to the neutral stimulus as if it were the unconditioned
stimulus, even when presented alone. The response is involuntary and automatic.

An example is a dog salivating (response) at the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) after
it has been repeatedly paired with food (unconditioned stimulus).

 Learning by Consequences (Operant Conditioning): In learning by consequences,

behavior is learned based on its outcomes or consequences. The learner is active, and
the response is voluntary.

Behavior followed by pleasant consequences (rewards) is more likely to be repeated,

while behavior followed by unpleasant consequences (punishments) is less likely to be
repeated.

For instance, if a child gets praised (pleasant consequence) for cleaning their room
(behavior), they’re more likely to clean their room in the future.

Conversely, if they get scolded (unpleasant consequence) for not doing their
homework, they’re more likely to complete it next time to avoid the scolding.
Timing of Stimulus & Response
The timing of the response relative to the stimulus differs between classical and operant
conditioning:

 ClassicalConditioning (response after the stimulus): In this form of conditioning, the

response occurs after the stimulus. The behavior (response) is determined by what
precedes it (stimulus).

For example, in Pavlov’s classic experiment, the dogs started to salivate (response)
after they heard the bell (stimulus) because they associated it with food.

 Operant Conditioning (response before the stimulus): In this form of conditioning, the
response generally occurs before the consequence (which acts as the stimulus for
future behavior).

The anticipated consequence influences the behavior or what follows it. It is a more
active form of learning, where behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus influencing
their likelihood of repetition.

For example, a child might behave well (behavior) in anticipation of a reward

(consequence), or avoid a certain behavior to prevent a potential punishment.

Summary
Looking at Skinner’s classic studies on pigeons’ / rat’s behavior we can identify some of the
major assumptions of the behaviorist approach.

• Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner’s

study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.

• Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal

events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learned to
press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily
observed behavior that the rats acquired.

• The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the
Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that
behavior, e.g., operant conditioning.

• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in
other animals. Therefore research (e.g., operant conditioning) can be carried out on
animals (Rats / Pigeons) as well as on humans. Skinner proposed that the way humans
learn behavior is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.
So, if your layperson’s idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing
white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then
you are probably thinking of behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological
perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain
ways.

We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior.
behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes
place.

Critical Evaluation
Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of
learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical applications (such as token
economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.

However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive
factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and
animals.

For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of
insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)
suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal
experience.

The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation.
Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their
anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences
and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.