Academic Success for All Learners

Making a Difference

Readi ng for Al l
L earners
Handw rit i ng
Pro g ram
S am & Fri end s

Academic Success for All Learners

Teachers Gui de
is making a difference in class-

rooms just like yours and in some

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Thi s pro duc t m ay b e u s ed at no co st thro ugh 1 2 / 3 1 / 2 0 0 7
(4) vocabulary, and (5) text © 2 0 0 7 Al an Hof mei ster
comprehension.
 Handwriting
Resource
Book

Manuscript/Cursive

Copyright 1981,1992, Alan M. Hofmeister. Academic Success for All Learners www.iseesam.com.
Copyright 1981, 1992, Alan M. Hofmeister. All Rights reserved. No part of this
publication with the exception of the materials in the appendices may be reproduced or
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1: Handwriting Instruction Techniques and Procedures ............................................... 3
CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write .................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 3: Manuscript and Cursive Alphabet Forms........................................................... 11
CHAPTER 4: Starting Formal Handwriting Instruction ........................................................... 15
CHAPTER 5: Instructional Errors and Appropriate Practices .................................................... 18
CHAPTER 6: Identifying Handwriting Problems ................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 7: The Left-Handed Student ............................................................................. 24
CHAPTER 8: Transitions ............................................................................................... 27
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 30
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 31
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 35
Appendix A: Posture Charts ................................................................................... 36
Appendix B: Handwriting Environment and Equipment List ............................................ 39
Appendix C: Manuscript and Cursive Handwriting Alphabets........................................... 41
Appendix D: Letter for Parents of Left-Handed Students ................................................ 44

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

INTRODUCTION 1

visible, basic skill area as handwriting.

INTRODUCTION Today's teachers are facing new problems that

affect handwriting instruction, such as the
increasing number of special education students in
the regular classroom. It is no longer sufficient
Teachers and parents have shown an increasing for a teacher to be experienced in good develop-
interest in improving the quality of handwriting. mental instructional procedures. He or she must
Two of the major problems facing those also be well versed in effective corrective
searching for ways to improve handwriting are methods in order to handle students with learning
the lack of expertise and the limited availability of difficulties.
validated instructional materials. While we all
might not agree with the label "national disgrace" Without adequate background in the field of
that has been applied to the problem (Enstrom, handwriting instruction, a teacher could subscribe
1970), there is certainly a feeling of inadequacy to misconceptions and malpractices of major and
on the part of many concerned teachers. These minor proportions. Inappropriate practices range
teachers feel that their training has not equipped from using handwriting practices left over from
them to conduct a quality handwriting program. pen and ink days to assuming that the left-handed
student can "work it out by himself in time."
A major reason for the lack of current Assumptions that cursive is naturally faster than
instructional resources in handwriting was the manuscript, that manuscript has to be taught first,
move to teaching approaches which stressed the and that tracing is an important method of
integration of handwriting instruction within handwriting instruction are three common
curriculum areas. The emphasis shifted from misconceptions.
writing as a product to writing as a process.
"Traditionally, transcription skills (e.g., The following chapters will present instructional
grammar, punctuation, spelling, handwriting) methods that have a firm base in research. Many
served as the focus for both regular education of the practices presented have been field-tested
classroom teaching and experimental inquiry" in regular classrooms and with students with
(Lynch & Jones, 1988, page 74). But, as stated disabilities. While no promise is made to make
earlier, that focus shifted from the mechanics to the task of handwriting instruction easy, it is
the cognitive processes involved in planning, possible for a teacher to reduce unnecessary
generating, and revising text. At the same time corrective instruction by following appropriate
that this de-emphasis on specific handwriting and well-sequenced instructional procedures.
lessons in the elementary schools has been
occurring, there has also been a de-emphasis on
handwriting instruction in teacher training The Goal of Handwriting Instruction
programs (Nelli, 1982). As a result, Farris
(1991) noted the following:
The decreased emphasis on handwriting Modern handwriting instruction should not be
in the elementary curriculum has raised confused with the penmanship drills of previous
ire among not only parents who are years. Penmanship drills were often more
concerned with legibility but also junior concerned with the development of a highly
and senior high teachers who simply ornate and consistent form of handwriting. While
cannot read their students' handwritten the end product was often admired, it was, for
papers. Such sentiments have been many, difficult to attain and left little room for
echoed as well by the public at large individual expression. Today instructional
(page 312). practices are more pragmatic and individualized.
We want handwriting to be functional, i.e., we
Schools face credibility problems if they cannot stress legibility and speed. Brown (1977) has
deliver effective instruction in such a highly noted:

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

INTRODUCTION 2

. . . the primary goal in teaching

penmanship is to produce efficiently a
free flow of ideas or easily read thoughts
onto paper with a minimum of attention
to the mechanics of the art (pages 2-3).
The chapters which follow use this goal as a
frame of reference. The techniques that are
advocated are designed to be consistent with this
goal and the research literature. Where the
research is inconclusive, the authors have relied
on many years of experience with students of all
ages, abilities, disabilities, and on the advice of
many talented teachers.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 1: Handwriting Instruction Techniques and Procedures 3

Letter Errors and Illegibility

CHAPTER 1
Handwriting Instruction Newland (1932) found that in cursive writing
illegibilities of four letters "a," "e," "r," and "t"
Techniques and Procedures contributed no less than 45 percent of all the
illegibilities recorded at any age level.
Quant's research (1946) indicated that good letter
It is important that the basic methodology we use
formation is the most important factor in
to instruct and assess handwriting has strong
determining the legibility of cursive handwriting.
support in the research literature. In this chapter
Compactness of handwriting and the regularity
a brief overview of the core handwriting
of slant also were found to affect legibility.
techniques is provided. The relationship between
these techniques and the research literature is Lewis and Lewis (1965) found that in manuscript
discussed. writing errors were more frequent in letters in
which curves and vertical lines merge (u, f, h, j,
m, n, r). Before instruction, left-handed subjects
Tracing Versus Copying in Letter as a group made more errors of all types; and
Formation after instruction, they still made significantly
more reversals and inversions. The incidence of
Research studies have shown that letter forms are errors in free writing was greater than in copying
learned better by copying activities than by letters. Horton (1969) found that the most
tracing, in which the letters are gradually faded or difficult cursive letters for sixth-grade students
parts of the letter are gradually withdrawn. were r, h, z, y, s, o, k, j, g, and d.
Tracing has some value as a brief, easier If a student's specific illegibilities can be
intermediate stage prior to the student copying the diagnosed and remediated directly, this would
letter without tracing prompts. Unsupervised seem to be a more economical use of time than
practice of inappropriate tracing responses, such using a broad approach which focuses on such
as joining the dashed sections in traced letters aspects as slant and spacing. This view is
with short lines rather than using one continuous supported in the research. Newland (1932),
line to make the letter, should be avoided. Horton (1970), and Cole (1936) have all sug-
gested that concentrated drill on an individual's
specific errors is the best form of remediation.
Use of Demonstrations of Correct Stewart (1973) found that a method of handwrit-
Letter Formation ing remediation, in which the student practiced
only his specific errors, was much more efficient
Kirk (1978), in a study of handwriting as rule- than one in which the focus was on general
based instruction rather than simple motor perceptual-motor ability. This conclusion was
learning, found that demonstrations and verbal also reached by Bergman & McLaughlin (1988)
instructions on how to make a letter had a after an extensive review of the literature.
positive effect on copying. Demonstration was
shown to be the key element in improved copying
and transfer of learning to letters not previously Handwriting Scales
taught. When teaching a new letter, therefore,
the teacher should clearly demonstrate the letter
being introduced and use clear, consistent
directions for letter formation. A number of handwriting scales have been
developed using general quality as a measure of
handwriting. The student's handwriting in a

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 1: Handwriting Instruction Techniques and Procedures 4

sample passage is compared to a number of same letter in a post-test sample. A simple plus
specimens which have previously been rated. and minus is used to designate improvement or
Some scales include a measure of speed. A few non-improvement of each letter. In assessing the
scales are described below. reliability of this approach, both Watts (1971) and
Hofmeister (1969) found this suitable for
The Thorndike Scale (1910) for the measurement
classroom use.
of merit of handwriting was developed for cursive
handwriting and consisted of sixteen handwriting
specimens arranged in order of merit.
Manuscript and Cursive Styles
The Ayres Handwriting Scale (1912) was also
developed for cursive writing using legibility as a
criterion for judgment. While some researchers and writers advocate a
The Freeman Handwriting Measuring Scale single style of handwriting, the majority prefer
(1959) initially used five specific factors as manuscript writing in the first two or three grades
criteria: letter form, uniformity of slant, and then a change to cursive writing. Otto and
uniformity of alignment of letters, quality of line, Rarick (1968) concluded that when the transition
and spacing. As revised in 1959, the scale now is made (early second to late third grade) is less
measures general excellence. At different grade important than what is offered in the instructional
levels, specimens are given which have been program.
previously rated at five levels. Gerard (1978) summarizes the research on
Hopkins, Schutte, and Garton (1971) devised a manuscript and cursive styles of handwriting
system which scored each letter as correct or according to legibility, speed, ease of learning,
incorrect on the following measurable characteris- and transition and found the following:
tics: omissions, substitutions, reversals, degree 1.Manuscript writing is more legible than cursive
of slant, relative size of letters, and relative writing.
position of letters.
2.While research on speed is not so clear-cut,
Helwig (1976), Jones (1977), and Trap (1978) manuscript writing appears as fast or faster
have all used transparent overlays to judge than cursive.
correctly made letter strokes in both manuscript
and cursive writing. They found that both 3.Manuscript appears easier to learn for younger
teachers and students could be trained to reliably students because easier motor movements are
use these overlays. This use by students allows involved.
for objective and immediate feedback on their 4.Transition from manuscript to cursive style can
own handwriting without requiring a large occur anywhere from early second to fourth
amount of teacher time. grade. The time when this transition takes
The Test of Written Language (1983), developed place is usually determined by tradition and
to measure various aspects of written language, usage rather than on research data.
contains a norm-referenced test of cursive
handwriting for students in grades 3 through 8.
The most important consideration in the subtest is Use of Reinforcement
legibility (Mercer & Mercer, pages 447-448).
Although each of the scales or rating systems has
value, few classroom teachers are willing to take Stromer (1975) used modeling of correct and
the time to use complex rating systems (Bergman incorrect symbol formation, praise, and other
& McLaughlin, 1988). A comparative procedure forms of feedback to reduce reversals of letters (p
was developed (Hofmeister, 1969) in which each for q) and two-digit numbers (writing 31 for 13).
letter from a pretest sample is compared with the Hopkins, Schutte, and Garton (1971) used access

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 1: Handwriting Instruction Techniques and Procedures 5

to a playroom to reinforce work rates on printing

and writing. They found that this was an
effective reinforcer of rate of handwriting and
that quality of writing did not show a decrease.
Trap, Milner-Davis, Joseph, and Cooper (1978)
used overlays to test the effect of various types of
interventions on first-grade students being
introduced to cursive writing. As a result of this
study, they found the following:
1. Showing and telling the student in what way
his letters were not correct increased correct
letter formation.
2. Having the student then write the correct
letter correctly resulted in a further increase.
3. The chance to earn a Handwriting Certificate
of Achievement further increased correct
letter formation.
Ten letters were used during the training sessions
to provide correction and modeling. Sixteen
other letters which were practiced but not
"trained" also improved, but not as much as the
trained letters.
The use of praise or other forms of reinforcement
is an important addition to a handwriting program
designed to produce maximum improvement in
student handwriting.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write 6

and paste.

CHAPTER 2 Introductory Activities

Getting Ready to Write
Left-to-right orientation: Use games like Looby-
Prerequisite Skills Loo and Hokey-Pokey to give practice in left and
right discrimination. Have students move play
If a student displays most of the following objects from left to right. Draw green "go" and
behaviors, the teacher should consider direct red "stop" signs and have the students draw
instruction in handwriting. The student: horizontal lines between the two.
Has a preferred hand for drawing and
painting activities.
Has shown an interest in writing; for
example, the student has wanted to trace
letters or write his or her name.
Has demonstrated skill in fine motor tasks,
such as using paint brushes and crayons.
Can copy simple shapes like circles and
squares.

Pre-writing Activities
Ask students to complete drawings in which
horizontal left-to-right lines are missing.
Some activities which may be used to prepare for
direct instruction in handwriting include the Letter formation: Letter formation is the most
following: important aspect of legibility. The formation of
1. Paint with a large brush with water colors. manuscript letters involves vertical, horizontal,
and diagonal straight lines; and circles and parts
2. Trace large, simple pictures to hang when of circles.
finished.
To begin, the student should be given fun
3. Connect objects on a page by drawing a line exercises drawing lines and shapes on unlined
from one to the other. paper to practice the hand movement involved.
4. Mark a certain object on a page (e.g., put an Later, lined paper can be used. The student can
"X" or mark on the dog). be taught to start and stop on a line for a straight
line and to stay between the lines in drawing
5. Finger paint, adding sawdust, sand, coffee circles.
grounds, cinnamon, etc., for texture.
Students having extreme difficulty staying within
6. Rub crayons on thin paper placed over the lines on writing paper may either use
corrugated paper, bricks, cement, wood, etc. commercial paper with raised lines or teacher-
7. Arrange pictures in a left-to-right and top-to- made paper with raised lines. Right-Line Paper,
bottom sequence. produced by Modern Education Corporation, has
a raised line superimposed on the printed line so
9. Play dot-to-dot games, scribble, draw, cut,
the student can both feel and see the base line.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write 7

This raised line paper is available for both wide- are being prepared. The student who spends time
and narrow-rule paper (Mercer & Mercer, 1989). doing clockwise and counterclockwise spirals on
a chalkboard would be better off writing some of
Teacher-made raised line paper may be produced
the simpler manuscript letters on paper. The
with regular writing paper, glue, and a ruler.
latter tasks would be less demanding in terms of
The day before the paper is needed, spread a thin
the complexity of the involved motor skills and
line of glue on the desired solid lines of the paper
make infinitely more sense to the student.
using the ruler as a guide. When the glue dries,
it will be clear so the lines are visible.
When using raised line paper, students should be Handwriting Environment and
given exercises which allow them to stay within Equipment
the lines and focus on touching the lines. The
shapes shown below represent all the basic shapes Before the student begins formal writing
that are combined to form manuscript letters. instruction, the teacher should give some attention
to the writing environment and equipment.
Attention to the environment will maximize the
student's learning by reducing stressful body
positions, increasing the student's view of the
paper, and allowing for free movements of the
2 writing arm, wrist, and fingers.

Furniture: The student's desk and chair should

Introductory activities should be carried out in a be the proper height, allowing the knees to fit
relaxed atmosphere and made meaningful for the comfortably under the desk and the feet to lie flat
student by demonstrating how different combina- on the floor. The chair should be placed so the
tions of the practiced shapes can form different student faces the desk squarely. The desk for a
letters. During early instruction, posture and left-handed student should be about two inches
pencil grip should be checked and adjustments lower than for a right-handed student. This helps
made. Particular attention should be given to the left-handed student see what he or she has
left-handed students regarding desk height, paper written.
orientation, and pencil grip. For more
information on adaptions, refer to Chapter 7, Posture: The student's posture is important for
"The Left-Handed Student." comfort and legibility. He or she should be
sitting with feet flat on the floor, back straight,
leaning slightly forward, but not touching the
Evaluation of Readiness Activities desk. The head should be straight, not tilted,
with arms resting on the desk about three-quarters
of the way to the elbows. Figures 1 and 2
If there is any doubt about a student's readiness demonstrate correct and incorrect posture (see
for beginning handwriting instruction, a series of Appendix A for a full page version of each
well-managed introductory lessons will yield the figure). When working with students, model a
most valuable data. A significant change in range of correct and incorrect positions and ask
interest and effort may occur when a student them to identify the correct and incorrect body
realizes he or she is now participating in "real" positions.
writing activities.
It is possible to overemphasize readiness acti-
vities. In the name of readiness for handwriting,
students are often asked to do tasks far more
demanding than the writing tasks for which they

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write 8

Figure 1. Correct Posture Paper: It has been found that oversized writing is
not necessary for beginners; for example, writing
upper-case letters more than one inch tall has
questionable value. Paper with the lines distinctly
marked is a help so that the teacher has a guide to
use in giving directions; for example, "Start at the
top line and go straight down to the bottom line."
For a right-handed student, the paper is placed
directly in front of the student and slanted to the
left. The student should place his or her free
hand on the top of the paper to keep it steady on
the desk.

Figure 2. Incorrect Posture

For the left-handed student the paper is placed in

front of the student's left shoulder and slanted to
the right, placing his or her free hand at the top
of the paper.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write 9

In order to get the student to place the paper at Another method that can be used to ensure the
the correct angle, draw an arrow on the writing paper is correctly positioned is to place a piece of
paper being used. The student is told to keep the masking tape at the proper angle on the desk and
arrow pointing at his or her body. For a right- ask the student to line up the top of his or her
handed student, the arrow is in the bottom left- paper with the masking tape. This would be
hand corner. particularly useful for the left-handed writer who
may not have the advantage of peer models in the
classroom.

For a left-handed student, the arrow is in the

bottom right-hand corner. Right-Handed Student

This slant is used for both manuscript and

cursive.
Left-Handed Student

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 2: Getting Ready to Write 10

Pencils and Pencil Grip: While pencils need to HANDWRITING ENVIRONMENT

be long enough to be easily grasped, research AND EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
(Wiles, 1943) has shown that over-sized pencils
are not necessary and may even hinder a student's
writing. However, soft lead in the pencil may
help the student write without exerting undue
pressure. FURNITURE Is the desk the correct height?
The pencil should be gripped lightly with the Is the chair the correct height?
forefinger and thumb and should rest on the third
Is the learner facing the desk squarely?
finger. The hand should face down. The right-
handed student should grip the pencil 1 inch from
the point.

LIGHTING Is the light properly positioned?

POSTURE Are the student's feet flat on the

floor?
Is the student's back straight?
Is the student leaning forward
slightly?
Is the student's head straight?
Are the student's lower arms
The left-handed student should grip the pencil 1
resting on the desk?
1/2 inches from the point.

PAPER Is the paper slanted properly?

Is the student's free hand at the
top of paper?
Is the paper positioned
correctly in relation to the
The following checklist offers a quick reference learner?
guide for determining if the equipment and
environment are suitable for handwriting
instruction (see Appendix B for a full page
version of this checklist). The checklist should be
referred to periodically to assure that standards
are maintained and to instill habits that will carry
PENCIL Is the student gripping the
over into all handwriting situations.
GRIP pencil properly?

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 3: Manuscript and Cursive Alphabet Forms 11

against a dual program of handwriting

CHAPTER 3 instruction. (age 1011)

For most teachers the debate is more academic
Manuscript and Cursive than practical because they teach to a prescribed
curriculum and have little choice in the matter of
Alphabet Forms handwriting style selection. The typical elemen-
tary school will teach manuscript in the first two
grades and make a transition to cursive at the end
Manuscript/Cursive Alphabet of the second grade or early in the third grade.
Controversy
It is not the intent of this book to trace a detailed Modified Script Alphabet
research history of the relative merits of
manuscript and cursive style alphabets. There
are, however, strong proponents of both writing One approach that is being used to resolve the
styles. Early (1973) declared: debate between pro-cursive and pro-manuscript
I want to enter the lists as a strong advocates is to develop a modified script. This
advocate of the exclusive use of cursive modified script combines elements of both
writing in early elementary grades. I am manuscript and cursive alphabets. This is a
unalterably opposed to the present prac- common approach to writing in many northern
tice of teaching manuscript ("printing") European countries.
in the first two (or three) grades, and The usual approach in teaching with a modified
teaching cursive writing later. I feel that script is to modify manuscript letters to make
this practice is illogically conceived, that them more continuous; teach the letters individu-
it ignores basic developmental factors, ally and use them unconnected in words; and then
that it is an example of faulty pedagogy, add connecting strokes to achieve a modified
and that the practice is downright cursive style of handwriting with minimal
harmful to learning-disabled children. I modification to the letters.
feel quite strongly that manuscript
The following modified script was advocated by
writing should be taught only to
Joseph and Mullins (1970):
freshmen in college who are taking
courses in engineering drawing. All
other writing should be taught as cursive,
beginning with the child's very first
writing experiences in the first grade
(page 105).

In opposition to the above approach, Plattor and Lower Case

Woestehoff (1971) observed:
The evidence of a growing body of com-
parative data would seem to support the
introduction of manuscript as the writing
style in the primary grades and its
maintenance throughout the children's
educational careers. A transition to
cursive writing is complicated by factors
which may create unnecessary problems
Lower Case Joined
for many children and therefore militate

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 3: Manuscript and Cursive Alphabet Forms 12

Conventional Alphabets--Manuscript Reduce Discrimination Problems Between

and Cursive Letters:
Letters: If the cursive capital "F" and "T" are
written as in (a), they appear very similar. The
The majority of teachers use a conventional two letters can also be written as in (b), and the
alphabet; however, there are still some choices to discrimination between the letters is now easier.
be made in alphabet selection and alphabet
instruction. Since there is no nationally accepted
standard alphabet, variability may occur in both
letter shape and stroke sequence.
To reduce learning problems, the teacher may
adapt existing alphabet styles in the following
ways: (a)

Reduce Discriminations Within Letters:

Letters: The
manuscript "X" can be written in two ways:

(b)
3

(a) (b) Select Stroke Patterns Which Preserve Left-to-

Right Directionality:
Directionality: Letter reversals are often
encountered in early manuscript writing efforts.
In (a) the two strokes cross slightly above the It is important to preserve a left-to-right flow in
line; in (b) the cross occurs on the line. The manuscript. The stroking pattern for the
selection of the latter form simplifies the letter uppercase "M" can be as in (a), in which the
since the student does not have to determine what
"slightly above the line" means to make a correct
letter.

Reduce Problems in the Transition From Manu-

script to Cursive:
Cursive: The lower-case manuscript
letter "e" can be taught as in (a) or in (b):
(a) (b)

direction changes from "left to right" to "right to

left" and back to "left to right." The stroking
4 pattern may also be taught as in (b), in which the
flow from left to right is consistent throughout the
(a) (b) production of the letter.

In the latter case the letter production is more

consistent with the lower-case cursive letter "e."
The transition from the manuscript letter to the
cursive letter requires less change.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 3: Manuscript and Cursive Alphabet Forms 13

Select Stroke Patterns That Have Long-Term

Value:: The manuscript letter "V" can be taught
Value
as in (a) or in (b):

(a) (b)

In the latter case the letter production is more

consistent with adult writing patterns. For many
students the first form exists for a short period of
time and is lost when the student begins cursive
instruction.
The manuscript and cursive alphabets, which
follow, represent examples of alphabets that use
widely accepted letter forms, but include simplifi-
cations and stroking patterns designed to reduce
writing problems (see Appendix C for a full page
version of each alphabet).

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 3: Manuscript and Cursive Alphabet Forms 14

The Writing of Numerals

In teaching the writing of numerals, both a
manuscript form and a cursive form may be
taught; or a joint form that is used in both
manuscript and cursive situations may be taught.
In the case of the joint form, the same numeral
forms are used but are written vertically with the
manuscript alphabet and are slanted with the
cursive alphabet.

Manuscript Form

Cursive form

Joint manuscript form

Joint cursive form

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 4: Starting Formal Handwriting Instruction 15

A Systematic Instructional Sequence

CHAPTER 4 A teacher needs to have a very clear step-by-step
sequence of instructional tasks. The following
Starting Formal suggestions will help identify procedures and
Handwriting Instruction materials to ensure a clear progression of
activities that will meet the needs of all students.

This chapter will consider the two major Assessment and Monitoring of Beginning Skills:
requirements for an effective handwriting A process is needed that will facilitate the
program--resources for individual instruction and identifying and monitoring of specific habits
a systematic instructional sequence. (posture, pencil grip, paper slant) for the
beginning handwriter. Lack of attention to these
habits leads to poor writing and results in
Resources for Individual Instruction difficulties for the student and time-consuming
remedial activities for the teacher. An inappro-
priate handwriting habit may be so ingrained after
one year that remediation may not be practical.
Handwriting is a combination of visual-motor and The result may be a student who carries a handi-
cognitive tasks, and effective instruction requires capping handwriting habit for life. With the left-
that classrooms be organized for individual handed student this occurrence is all too
attention while new skills are being taught. Just prevalent. The use of a checklist, like the
as a tennis coach tries to supply suggestions Handwriting Environment and Equipment
immediately to the student learning a new skill, so Checklist found on page 10, is an excellent way
the handwriting teacher must be prepared to do to monitor the development of those important
the same. Correcting handwriting papers after habits related to posture and pencil grip.
school and handing them back the next day is
highly inappropriate for this type of learning. Teacher Description of Letters: The teacher
The classroom should be managed in such a needs to facilitate learning by determining a
fashion that the teacher is working with no more consistent vocabulary to use when describing
than five students who are in the critical letters of an alphabet to students. For example,
introductory stages of learning a new handwriting using the words "tall letter" or "big letter" may
skill. The other students may be practicing cause students to wonder if the reference is to an
handwriting tasks involving consolidation of skills uppercase letter or a very large-sized lowercase
previously introduced. letter. Also confusing can be the terms "capital"
and "small." Use of the terms "uppercase" and
It is better for the teacher to reduce the amount of "lowercase" is recommended when describing
handwriting instruction to ensure intense letters of the alphabet to beginning writers.
supervision of initial skill development than to
conduct poorly supervised instruction in the Handwriting and Written Expression: Care
critical beginning skills. Poorly supervised should be taken to remember that handwriting
instruction means that future instructional efforts differs from written expression and therefore
will require the correction of bad habits--a time- instruction in each area should differ. Since
consuming process for the teacher and an handwriting is basically a visual-motor task that
unpleasant process for the student. does not require complex cognitive abilities,
instruction in that area should concentrate on the
visual-motor tasks which include learning to form
basic strokes, copying models, and writing
without a model.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 4: Starting Formal Handwriting Instruction 16

Written expression, on the other hand, is one of 3.Complex lower-case manuscript letters (a, b, d,
the highest forms of communication. It is a e, f, g, h, j, k, m, n, p, q, r, s, u, w, y, and
communication process which involves not only z).
handwriting, but spelling, punctuation, language,
4.Simple manuscript words.
and organizational skills. It reflects a person's
ability to comprehend information, organize 5.Simple manuscript phrases.
thoughts, and convey a message utilizing
6.Numerals (0-9).
handwriting as a medium rather than oral
language. 7.Manuscript upper-case letters that are similar to
lower-case letters (C, O, P, S, U, V, W, X,
Handwriting Skill Sequences: Handwriting and Z).
instruction involves the relatively simultaneous
8.Manuscript upper-case letters that are different
emphasis on two skill sequences:
from lower-case counterparts (A, B, D, E,
An application sequence stressing the transfer F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Q, R, T, and
from close-range models to everyday written Y).
expression assignments utilizing the
9.Simple manuscript words with initial upper-case
chalkboard and texts.
letter.
A motor sequence in which the student
10.Punctuation marks (.,!?).
moves from making simple strokes to
demonstrating fluency in manuscript and 11.Simple manuscript sentences.
cursive writing.
12.Manuscript sentences and paragraphs.
The Application Skills Sequence: This sequence 13.Basic cursive strokes.
moves from specific, structured instruction in the
14.Simple lower-case cursive letters (similar to
preskills required for forming letters to the point
manuscript--a, c, d, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o,
that handwriting skills are automatic enough they
p, q, t, u, v, w, x, and y).
may be incorporated into higher-level written
expression activities. Major steps in the 15.Complex lower-case cursive letters (not
application skills sequence include the following: similar to manuscript--b, e, f, r, s, and z).
1. Copying specific shapes and letter forms 16.Cursive connections (bottom and middle of
from a close model, e.g., a model at the top line).
of the page.
17.Simple cursive words.
2. Copying letters from a distant model, e.g., a
18.Simple cursive phrases.
model on the chalkboard.
19.Upper-case cursive letters similar to their
3. Writing with verbal prompts but without a
lower-case counterparts (A, C, M, N, O, P,
visible model.
U, V, W, X, Y, Z).
The Motor Skill Sequence: In this sequence the 20.Upper-case cursive letters that differ from
teacher helps build the student's motor skills for their lower-case counterparts (B, D, E, F,
handwriting. Major steps in the motor skill G, H, I, J, K, L, Q, R, S, and T).
sequence include writing the following:
21.Simple cursive words with initial upper-case
1. Basic manuscript strokes (vertical, letter.
horizontal, and slanted), circles (clockwise
22.Simple cursive sentences.
and counterclockwise), curves, and dots.
2. Simple lower-case manuscript letters (l, i, t, 23.Cursive sentences and paragraphs.
o, c, x, and v).
Progressing Through the Skill Sequences: As

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 4: Starting Formal Handwriting Instruction 17

shown in Figures 1 and 2, a matrix can be used to The final skill taught would be the box in the
better understand how the skill sequences are lower right of the cursive handwriting matrix,
applied in manuscript and cursive handwriting. which would be a combination of Skill 3 from the
application skill sequence and Skill 23 from the
The point where the teacher initiates instruction
motor skill sequence. The resulting combination
would be the box in the upper left of the
would be the writing of cursive sentences and
manuscript handwriting matrix, which would be a
paragraphs without a visible model.
combination of Skill 1 from the application skill
sequence and Skill 1 from the motor skill
sequence. The resulting combination would be Figure 2. Cursive Handwriting Matrix
the copying of the basic manuscript strokes.
APPLICATION SKILL SEQUENCE
Figure 1. Manuscript Handwriting Matrix MOTOR SKILL 1. COPYING 2. COPYING 3. WRITING
SEQUENCE close model distant model without model

13. Basic strokes

APPLICATION SKILL SEQUENCE

MOTOR SKILL 1. COPYING 2. COPYING 3. WRITING

SEQUENCE close model distant model without model 14. Simple
lower-case
1. Basic strokes letters

15. Complex
lower-case
2. Simple letters
lower-case
letters 16. Cursvie
connections
3. Complex
lower-case
letters 17. Simple
words
4. Simple
words
18. Simple
phrases
5. Simple
phrases
19. Simple
upper-case
6. Numerals letters

20. Complex
upper-case
7. Simple letters
upper-case
letters 21. Simple
words
8. Complex
upper-case
letters 22. Simple
sentences
9. Simple
words
23. Sentences
and
10. Punctuation paragraphs

11. Simple As new visual-motor skills are taught, the teacher

sentences
should always be alert to ways of applying these
12. Sentences skills in everyday activities. The teacher should
and provide opportunities to apply skills and monitor
paragraphs
students closely enough to ensure that new
applications are associated with teacher
recognition and praise.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 5: Instructional Errors and Appropriate Practices 18

handwriting lessons.

CHAPTER 5 For many students, using models and demonstra-

tions rather than verbal instructions are the
Instructional Errors and primary instructional vehicles. If the teacher uses
the chalkboard for demonstration, the possibility
Appropriate Practices of incorrect letter production is increased. The
effort required to copy from a distant model is
greater than that required to copy from a close-
Common Instructional Errors range model. Many young students are not yet
capable of copying from distant models.
The teacher attempting handwriting instruction Even if the student uses a workbook with a model
without guidance may make some procedural at the top of the page, the possibility of incorrect
errors which would reduce effectiveness. Among letter production is increased if the teacher does
these errors are: not carefully monitor the student's writing to
Unsupervised handwriting practice while ensure the models at the top of the page are used
skills are being formed. to guide letter production. Typically students
who are not receiving close monitoring attempt to
Lack of immediate feedback to correct
complete the writing task as quickly as possible
errors. with little concern given to accurate letter
formation. Rather than refer back to the top of
Lack of emphasis on student analysis of
the page, the student often works down the page
errors.
using his or her own work and possibly incorrect
No close-range models of correct letter efforts as a model.
formation. Teachers inadvertently may require the same
Repeated drill of both correct and incorrect amount of practice on letters that are done well as
letter formation. on those that are done poorly instead of requiring
the student to concentrate only on those letters
Misplaced emphasis on activities of limited
that require improvement. Therefore, the conse-
value.
quences for the student who is trying to improve
There is nothing in current research to indicate his or her handwriting are the same as if the
that practice alone will improve the quality of student was not trying at all.
handwriting. In fact, the opposite may be true.
As in all instructional situations, it is necessary to
Unsupervised, massed practice may perpetuate
choose the most effective activities to achieve the
errors and result in a decrease in handwriting
instructional goal. It is critical that handwriting
quality.
instruction be intense and effective since there is
The act of handwriting involves motor move- normally such a short period of time allocated to
ments, so feedback should be as immediate as specific handwriting tasks. In handwriting
possible as in most motor training. A delay in instruction, demonstration is a more valued
feedback often means that the student is allowed activity than unsupervised seatwork. Activities
to practice inappropriate handwriting skills, that stress copying are more appropriate than
making future instruction even more difficult. activities that emphasize tracing at the expense of
copying.
One of the most important skills a student should
acquire is the ability to compare his or her efforts
with a model and to determine the changes
required to conform to that model. This skill
A Progressive Approximation Approach
should generalize and carry over to writing
activities beyond those covered in specific

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 5: Instructional Errors and Appropriate Practices 19

A program was developed by Hofmeister (1969) the incorrect portions.

to counteract the six procedural errors which can
reduce handwriting effectiveness. The program
used worksheets with a model at the top and
space for several practice lines below. The
models were individual manuscript or cursive
letters, numerals, words, short sentences, or the
student's name, address, or telephone number.
The critical aspect of the program was the
instructional procedure associated with use of the
worksheet. The major effect of the method was Step 4. The student moves to the next line and
to take the student through a series of progressive the same procedure is followed except that the
approximations towards more legible student repeats only the letters which had been
handwriting. The student who discriminated well corrected on the preceding line.
and made systematic improvement did not use the
entire worksheet. Attempts to always fill the
page would have destroyed the proper emphasis
on qualitative improvement. This procedure had
four major steps:
Step 1. The student completes the first line and
informs the teacher.

Program Effectiveness: This approach was used

successfully with students with moderate and
severe disabilities (Hofmeister, 1969). Stewart
(1972) conducted a study in which she compared
Step 2. The teacher corrects by overmarking this progressive approximation procedure against
with a "high-lighter" (light-colored felt-tip a more general motor training approach. Stewart
marker). Letters which represent significant used forty-eight referrals from regular elementary
improvement are not corrected and the student is grades and randomly divided them into the two
not required to repeat them. The teacher tries to treatment groups. Each group spent the same
incorporate as much as possible of the student's amount of time practicing its respective methods.
efforts in his or her overmarking. The difference in handwriting performance was
significant and in favor of the progressive
approximation procedure.

Models: The procedures for using the worksheet

assume that there is a logical progression in the
type of skills modeled at the top of each
worksheet. The student will typically begin with
individual letters and should progress to words
and then sentences as soon as possible so that the
Step 3. The student erases incorrect portions of writing process is as meaningful as possible. For
letters and traces over the teacher's overmarking. a complete sequence of skills, refer to pages 16
The student must trace the whole letter, not just and 17.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 5: Instructional Errors and Appropriate Practices 20

Self-Correction Procedures: The progressive

approximation method is well suited to tutorial
and remedial activities when extra teacher time is
available. The classroom teacher who wishes to
use the technique in a developmental handwriting
program with a full class should use some self-
correcting procedures to reduce demands on
teacher time.
Two of the most common approaches to hand-
writing self-correction are the use of chemical
inks and templates or overlays. Where chemical
inks are used, the students use a special pen to
copy or trace on treated paper. When the
students write outside a zone on the paper, the ink
changes color. When templates are used,
students write on a paper translucent enough that
a template will be visible beneath the paper for
self-correction purposes. After writing a line of
letters, the student places the template under the
line of letters and assesses the degree to which his
or her efforts were consistent with the model.
Researchers (Stowitschek & Stowitschek, 1979)
have determined that the use of self-correction
guides increases the quality of handwriting
instruction, makes more effective use of teacher
time, and increases the development of students'
discrimination skills.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 6: Identifying Handwriting Problems 21

letters without a model. A standardized sample

CHAPTER 6 such as this allows the teacher to assess both

writing quality and speed. It should be remem-
bered that writing quality is the main concern.
Identifying Handwriting Speed, or rate, is a necessary skill but is second-
Problems ary to quality. In assessing a handwriting
sample, the following criteria should be kept in
mind:
In this chapter suggestions are given for Correct letter size. The letters should touch the
identifying specific handwriting problems and appropriate top, middle, and bottom lines. A
setting remedial priorities. A number of letter is considered incorrectly written if the
questions are posed; and in seeking answers to stroke of the letter extends above or below the
these questions, the teacher should cover many of line so that a space appears between the written
the potential problem areas. In diagnosing stroke and the printed line.
problems, no checklist should attempt to replace
insightful observation on the part of the teacher.
The teacher should also be ready to look past the
obvious to underlying problems; for example, it
is of limited value to give specific practice in
letter formation to a student who is purposely
writing illegibly to mask poor spelling.
Correct Incorrect

Identifying Problems

Will the student write in an acceptable manner in

structured teaching sessions but not in
unsupervised settings? The student who is
capable of writing legibly but who has developed Correct Incorrect
the habit of not writing legibly requires
intervention. Intervention suggestions are Correct letter form. Malformation of individual
discussed in Chapter 8, "Transitions." letters is a major source of legibility errors.
What specific information can be obtained
regarding the quality of the student's
handwriting? A determination of handwriting
quality can be made by taking a sample of a
student's handwriting under standardized
conditions. Collecting samples under
standardized conditions allows the teacher to Correct Incorrect
monitor the student's progress and determine the
success of intervention procedures through pre-
and post-test assessment. An example of
standardized handwriting assessment was
developed by Hofmeister (1969). This
assessment allows the teacher to collect timed
samples of the student's ability to name letters, Correct Incorrect
copy letters from a close-range model, and write

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 6: Identifying Handwriting Problems 22

Correct letter slope. The slope of each letter The best measure of an appropriate handwriting
should closely resemble the slope of the model rate can be determined by finding the average rate
letters. Variability in slope among the letters in a of a sample of students in the class. Another
word is probably more serious than sloping the option suggested by Mercer and Mercer (1989)
letters consistently in an inappropriate direction, would be to utilize suggested proficiency rates.
particularly if the consistent slope is only a mild Zaner-Bloser, for example, recommends the
deviation from the model. following handwriting proficiency rates:
Grade 125 lpm
Grade 230 lpm
Grade 338 lpm
Grade 445 lpm
Grade 560 lpm
Grade 667 lpm
Grade 774 lpm
Correct Incorrect
What is the extent and nature of the student's
present and past handwriting instruction? In
many cases a student's lack of progress is
associated with a lack of intensive individual
instruction. A teacher may feel that because a
student participates in a group lesson for a few
minutes a day, the student has received
appropriate instruction.
Correct Incorrect The student who is not now receiving or who has
not received systematic handwriting instruction in
Correct spacing. When writing words, there the past may require a different approach than the
should be appropriate and equal spacing between student who has received intensive handwriting
letters and words. instruction. It is important to identify how much
time per day of specific handwriting instruction
the student is presently receiving. Specific
handwriting instruction means that specific tasks
are set and supervised through the use of appro-
priate demonstration and immediate feedback.
Correct Incorrect After determining the extent and nature of present
and past handwriting instruction, it is possible to
define the severity of the problem and allocate
resources accordingly. The student who has
received intensive individualized instruction and
still has problems will require extensive remedial
Correct Incorrect resources. This student may also have serious
attitudinal problems associated with handwriting
instruction. A student who has not received
Rate. Speed of handwriting can be determined on
intensive instruction may be helped to improve
a handwriting sample by asking the student to
his or her handwriting with a less extensive
write as well and as rapidly as he can. The rate
instructional program.
of handwriting, letters per minute (lpm), is
figured by dividing the total number of letters
written by the number of minutes of writing.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 6: Identifying Handwriting Problems 23

Is the student using appropriate posture, pencil the dot and cross for "i" and "t"); Broken Letters
grip, and paper positions? Refer to the section (upper- and lower-case a's, d's, g's, k's, p's, and
"Handwriting Environment and Equipment" s's, upper-case B's, H's, I's, J's, and R's and
beginning on page 7. The degree to which this lower-case f's and q's often appear incompletely
information will aid intervention will depend on written); Loopertheria (unlooped letters that
the age of the student. There may be limited should be or looped letters that shouldn't be);
success in this area with the older student since Disjointed Writing (words are not written with
incorrect handwriting habits may already be one continuous motion, which results in spaces
firmly established. between letters).
Also refer to the progressive approximation
What resources exist for a comprehensive attack
approach described in Chapter 5, "Instructional
on the problem? Because handwriting problems
Errors and Appropriate Practices." The
relate to a wide range of home and school
procedures outlined in Chapter 5 are designed to
activities and are often tied to difficult-to-break
develop and maintain discrimination skills.
habits, a comprehensive attack is needed. The
involvement of the parents, other teachers (e.g.,
in team teaching), and possibly peers will be
helpful. Chapter 7, "The Left-Handed Student,"
Setting Priorities for Remediation
provides suggestions for involving others in the
intervention process.
In preparing a remediation program, priorities
What is the student's level of discrimination? will have to be assigned. The objective of
One of the most critical aspects of good hand- handwriting instruction is to develop the ability to
writing instruction is training the student to write legibly in a relaxed manner and at a useful
discriminate appropriate from inappropriate speed. Clearly, the end product has to be legible
procedures. The level of student discrimination since handwriting has value only if it serves as an
can be assessed in the following way: accurate record. Handwriting that is legible but
is produced in a time-consuming and painful
Ask the students to critique their own
manner has limited practical value.
handwriting in the absence of a model. If
they have difficulty, ask them to critique with Correct letter formation appears to be the most
a model visible, such as a template. important factor in determining the legibility of
handwriting although regularity of slant and
Ask the students to criticize themselves with compactness of style also make important
the aid of prompting, e.g., "Look at your contributions to legibility.
pencil grip and tell me if there is anything
wrong in the way you hold your pencil." Time is always a factor in remediation programs.
The teacher may also model appropriate and The teacher must select goals that will have the
inappropriate paper positions, pencil grips, best long-term payoff for the student. Interven-
and posture and ask the students to critique. tion methods must be selected that are intensive
and of proven effectiveness.
Developing Discrimination Skills. An effective
way to raise interest and develop discrimination The teacher whose instructions reflect a concern
skills was described by Westbrooks (1976). She for the specific subskills of handwriting will be
identified twelve common handwriting errors and well prepared to prevent problems and identify
assigned each a "disease" title. The "diseases" those problems that do develop. The ability of a
were Giantwrityitis (very large words and letters student to identify and correct his or her own
that take up too much room); Tinywrityitis errors must be assigned the highest priority. The
(writing that is too small); Frillyosis (curlicues development of this ability requires a consistent
and fancy swirls); Slantwritis (letters slanting the and structured effort by the teacher over an
wrong way); "T"sles and Un-measles (neglecting extended period of time.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 7: The Left-Handed Student 24

CHAPTER 7
Activity Left Right
Holds cup X
The Left-Handed Student Holds spoon X
Holds crayon X
There will usually be at least one left-handed Holds paint brush X
student, and possibly two or three, in each class- Waves hand X
room. The left-handed student needs the same
attention, help, and encouragement as the right- Throws ball X
handed student. The teacher must completely Accepts objects X
accept the handedness of each student so that
there are no feelings of uncertainty or Stacks blocks X
antagonism. Points with X
Uses scissors X
Detecting Hand Preference ___ ___
7 3
Detecting hand preference is usually not a
difficult task. In those few cases where difficulty
is encountered, methods such as those suggested Formula: 3 - 7 = -4 = -.4
by Munroe (1951) and Hildreth (1950) are useful.
Munroe (1951) used observation of the student's 3 + 7 10
preferred hand in such situations as picking up an
object placed directly in front of the mid-line of Some generally accepted ideas regarding
the body, pretending to throw a ball, threading a handedness are:
needle, combing hair, brushing teeth, eating, and
pointing at an object. Having the student actually 1.If there is a definite preference for left-handed
do these activities may constitute a better test. writing, no attempt should be made to change
to the right hand.
Hildreth (1950) suggested observing the student
in a number of different situations, counting 2.If ambidexterity or no clear-cut handedness is
right- and left-handed usage, and then using the shown, encouragement should be given
formula: towards right-handed writing.
3.If poor left-handed habits are already
established, better left-handed habits should
Handedness = frequency of use of right - frequency of use of left
frequency of use of right + frequency of use of left
be encouraged.

or right - left
right + left

-1 0 +1
Adjustments for Left-Handed Students

left-handed ambidextrous right-handed

Improper left-handed writing habits can impede a
student's speed in handwriting as well as limit the

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 7: The Left-Handed Student 25

legibility of the writing. Research indicates that 5.Grip the pencil farther from the point than the
on the average, left-handed students reach only right-handed student (1 1/2").
four-fifths of the speed of right-handed students.
However, with appropriate instruction the left-
handed student can achieve the same level of skill
as his or her right-handed peers.
The following suggestions should reduce con-
fusion and allow left-handed students to develop
handwriting skills consistent with their right-
handed peers:
1. Adjust the student's desk approximately two 6.Use a hard lead pencil since the lead will not
inches below normal height. break or smear as easily.
2. Adjust the lighting over the right shoulder. 7.If necessary, allow the student to write cursive
letters vertically or slant them to the left.
3. Place the writing paper in front of the
student's left shoulder with the book or
reference materials at the upper right-hand
side of the desk. Preventing Problems for the Left-
4. Tilt the paper to the right about 30 degrees to Handed Student
the extent that the left forearm approach is
over the bottom center of the paper. The left-handed student is at a disadvantage
because the English language is written and read
from left to right, and the left-handed student may
have difficulty seeing what he or she has just
written. The beginning writer is very dependent
upon being able to see what has just been written
in order to spell the remainder of a word and to
complete the sentence in a coherent manner.
In analyzing the suggestions offered for helping
the left-handed student, it is obvious that the
major purpose of these suggestions is to allow the
left-handed student to see what is being written.
If allowed to devise their own writing style, left-
handed students may develop the "hook" position.
In this position the wrist and hand are held above
the line being written. Such a position allows the
student to see his or her writing, but the cramped
position of the wrist and finger limits the flow of
movement necessary to achieve a quality of hand-
writing equivalent to that of the right-handed
learner.
Two related practices which are also
inappropriate for left-handed students are holding
paper in a vertical position and writing on paper
held in a three-ring binder. Allowing the

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 7: The Left-Handed Student 26

student's writing paper to remain in a binder may

force the student to adopt the "hook" position. Suggestions for Parents of
Left-Handed Students

In school your child uses his or her left

hand consistently. Because of this, there
are certain adjustments that need to be
made to ensure your child will learn to
write legibly and quickly. We will not try
to change hand preference to the right
hand.

In any written work done at home, the

following may be helpful:

1.Seat your child at a table approximately

two inches lower than the height used
by a right-handed child.
2.Place the writing paper towards the left-
One of the most effective ways to prevent the hand side of the desk in front of your
"hook" position from developing is to ensure that child's left shoulder. Place any
the writing paper is always turned with the reference material or papers to be
bottom line making an angle of 30 degrees to the copied to the right of your child's
edge of the desk for both manuscript and cursive paper.
writing. Some handwriting methods advocate 3.Mark the bottom right-hand corner of the
having the paper at an angle; others suggest that writing paper with an arrow, as
the paper be vertical for teaching manuscript to shown. Have your child point the
both right- and left-handed students. Because a arrow towards his or her left shoulder.
vertical position makes it difficult for left-handed
students to see what they have written and
because the student is most dependent on seeing
his or her writing during the early stages of
handwriting, it is recommended that the paper
position be the same for manuscript as it is for
cursive, i.e., slanted so the bottom line of the
page forms an angle of approximately 30 degrees
with the bottom edge of the desk. In this position
students have a better view of their writing and it
is almost anatomically impossible for the "hook"
position to develop.
It is important to enlist the support of the parents
in helping a left-handed student. At the beginning
of a formal handwriting program, the suggestions
for parents which follow may be copied and sent 4.Make sure your child is holding the
home with the left-handed student (see Appendix pencil at least 1 1/2" from the point.
D for a prepared letter containing the same
information.)

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 8: Transitions 27

Transition from Manuscript to Cursive

CHAPTER 8
Transitions For many students who have just mastered manu-
script, cursive writing is a confusing jumble of
lines. While students are attracted to cursive
because of its identification with adult behavior,
Transition from Copying to there are many who encounter severe problems in
Independent Writing the transition process. The initial stages of the
transition process must be carefully handled to
A large amount of time in handwriting instruction ensure that consistent success experiences build
is spent in copying and tracing activities with the necessary enthusiasm to carry the student
clearly visible models. Even though students may through the process of learning cursive writing.
have mastered these activities, they still need
systematic instruction to develop independent The first goal should be to reduce the confusing
writing skills. The student must reach a stage jumble of cursive lines to a rational arrangement.
where legible writing is an automatic process and When the student can confidently recognize cur-
letter formation is no longer a conscious, sive letters, letter production can then be taught
deliberate activity. Only then is the student free through an intensive copying approach. To
to concentrate on the subject area of spelling or of reduce the confusion, begin by initially working
writing a composition or theme. with only those cursive letters that are very
similar to their manuscript counterparts. By
Some intermediate activities which may be used deleting all capital letters and the lower-case
to facilitate transition from structured copying letters b, e, f, r, s, z, the remaining twenty lower-
are: case letters can be used to demonstrate the
Present the student with a model. Allow "x" relationship between the two alphabets.
number of seconds for the student to look at The words initially selected to demonstrate these
the model and then remove it. The student twenty lower-case letters should be simple three-
must then write the letter, word, or sentence letter words that are easy to read and spell. An
from memory. initial list might be cat, can, tan, pin, man. Each
Dictate letters or words and sentences the student should be given a colored pencil and a
student is capable of spelling correctly. The worksheet containing the list of words written in
student must write them without models cursive. The teacher writes the first word, "cat,"
being available. in cursive on the chalkboard and explains that
there are three manuscript letters hidden in the
Plan language arts activities in which the word. With the aid of participating students, the
student is asked to compose and write manuscript letters, c a t, are traced over the
captions for pictures, titles for stories, or cursive letters with colored chalk on the
other short sentences. chalkboard. The students repeat this procedure
Plan compositional activities in which the on their worksheets using colored pencils. After
student is asked to write on a certain subject the manuscript letters are identified, the word
and must compose and write sentences in an should be spelled and read. As new lists are
organized manner. prepared, words should be used that are simple to
spell and read and that contain at least one letter
These four activities can be used in manuscript previously practiced. The goal is to build
and cursive writing activities. confidence in working with cursive handwriting,
and not to test students on reading and spelling.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

CHAPTER 8: Transitions 28

Stowitschek (1978) developed a program to work

with students who were capable of writing legibly
but did not. Using handwriting samples from
other subject areas, the teacher and student
together identify problems. Problems might
include letters omitted, letters added, letters too
After the first twenty letters are introduced and large, letters too small, bottom of letters not on
practiced, the remaining six lower-case letters can line, letters spaced too far apart, letters spaced
be introduced, and finally, the upper-case letters too close together, letters too slanted, letter lines
can be taught. not connected, and parts of letters missing. The
problems were then prioritized and the most
serious are worked on first.
Transition to Other Written Activities

It is a major and legitimate concern of teachers

that students will produce legible writing during a
structured handwriting lesson but then turn in
assignments in other subject areas that are barely
readable. For these students specific techniques
are necessary which will motivate them to
transfer good handwriting to other subject areas.
Transition from structured handwriting lessons to
other writing activities should include the
following practices:
Periodic check-ups. The student must retain
legibility while increasing his or her speed of
writing. Periodic checks by the teacher with
reports to the student regarding letter
formation, slant, etc., are important.
Student self-assessment. The student needs
to be able to assess his or her own
handwriting and make changes where
necessary.
Reinforcement. A student will make the
effort to write well if there is a reason to do
so. Reinforcement, such as praise and noting
good handwriting during other activities, will
help to motivate students to maintain quality
handwriting.
Overlearning. Handwriting needs to be
overlearned to the point that a student does
not have to think about the mechanics of
writing and can maintain legible handwriting
while concentrating on other aspects of the
assignment.

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

SUMMARY 29

degree of satisfaction from their written work.

SUMMARY For the teacher who wishes to utilize the

techniques presented in this resource book, the
Handwriting Kit is available. The kit provides
directions, instructor's dialogue, worksheets,
The Handwriting Resource Book attempts to fill charts, and other materials for use in managing
in the gaps in teacher training in the area of the development of manuscript and cursive
handwriting instruction. Many teachers received handwriting skills.
little direct handwriting instruction or intervention
during their own school years and very little
formal instruction in the methods of teaching Looking Ahead
handwriting in their teacher training programs.
These teachers now find themselves in the
position of being responsible for handwriting
instruction and being accountable for their One rationale given for the lack of instructional
student's proficiency, or lack of it, in this skill investments in the teaching of handwriting is the
area. increased use of computers for written
communication. Although this practice may be
The aim of handwriting instruction should be to evident, one should not assume that the keyboard
develop the ability to write legibly in a relaxed will be the only means for information entry.
manner and at a useful speed. The goal of formal Voice and pen-based entry procedures may
penmanship instruction is to impose a very replace the keyboard for personal computers.
stylized and uniform system of writing on all Letters and graphics can already be entered into
students. A more up-to-date functional handwrit- the computer by using a pen on a pressure
ing system stresses legibility and speed. After sensitive "electronic slate." Computers can
proper instruction in functional handwriting, the accurately translate manuscript letters into printed
student should be able to write freely with text. The following comments have been made
minimal attention to the mechanics of letter regarding "pen-based" computing.
formation.
"Market analysts forecast that the market for pen-
It is hoped that teachers will be able to based computing may reach $3 billion by the year
confidently direct their students in achieving 2,000." (Business Week, May 14, 1990)
legible handwriting when they are given the
following: "Pen-based portable computers have the potential
to be revolutionary." (PC Week, December 2,
An awareness of common instructional errors 1991)
and handwriting problems.
There is every indication that handwriting will be
Concrete suggestions for handwriting an important form of communication for some
instruction. time to come, even in the information and
Concrete suggestions for choosing or computer age.
modifying alphabet forms.
Concrete suggestions for using a systematic
instructional sequence.
Since handwriting proficiency affects many areas
of the curriculum, it is a skill that cannot be
ignored or neglected. The procedures outlined in
this book are of such a nature that with proper
application, all students can be helped to develop
or improve efficient handwriting and achieve a

HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

REFERENCES 30

Cieslicki, V. L. Working with children with

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Burns, P. C. Improving handwriting instruction Freeman, F. N. A new handwriting scale.
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Freeman, F. N. An analytical scale for judging Hofmeister, A. An investigation of academic

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Freeman, F. N. Handwriting. In W. S. Munroe
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The effects of access to a playroom on the
Gerard, J. A. An investigation into the efficacy
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Hammill, D. D. Problems in writing. In D. D.
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Hammill and N. R. Bartel (Eds.), Teaching
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children with learning and behavior
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Helwig, J. J., Jones, J. C., Norman, J. E., &
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Cooper, J. D. The measurement of
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Hildreth, G. Readiness for school beginners.
Jackson, K. O. A comparison of remedial
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Hirsch, E. The effects of letter formation grade students. Doctoral dissertation, Texas
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Exceptional Children, 1973, 6, 30-33.

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Lewis, E. R., & Lewis, H. P An analysis of selected Piagetian spatial concepts and
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HANDWRITING RESOURCE BOOK

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
Posture Charts
Correct Posture
Incorrect Posture
 APPENDIX B
Handwriting Environment and
Equipment List
 HANDWRITING ENVIRONMENT AND EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST

CHECKPOINTS RECOMMENDATIONS

FURNITURE Is the desk the correct height? The writing surface should be approximately 2" lower
for left-handed students.
Is the chair the correct height?
Learner's legs should fit under desk comfortably.
Is the learner facing the desk squarely?

LIGHTING Is the light properly positioned? No shadows on paper; light over left shoulder for right-
handed student; over right shoulder for left-handed
student.

POSTURE Are the student's feet flat on the floor? Hips should touch back of chair.
Is the student's back straight? Student's body should not be leaning against the desk.
Is the student leaning forward slightly? Student should not "tilt" his/her head.
Is the student's head straight? 3/4 of lower arm should rest on the desk.
Are the student's lower arms resting on the desk?

PAPER Is the paper slanted properly? Paper of the right-handed student should point to
midpoint of body; paper of left-handed student should
Is the student's free hand at the top of paper?
point to left shoulder.
Is the paper positioned correctly in relation to the
learner?

Right-handed

Left-handed

PENCIL GRIP Is the student gripping the pencil properly? Pencil held with fore-finger and thumb; resting on third
finger; other two fingers on desk?
Right-handed students grip pencil 1" from point; left-
handed students grip pencil 1 1/2" from point. Student
should not grip pencil too tightly.
 APPENDIX C
Manuscript and Cursive
Handwriting Alphabets
 APPENDIX D
Letter for Parents of
Left-Handed Students
To the parents of :

In school your child uses his or her left hand consistently. Because of this, there
are certain adjustments that need to be made to ensure your child will learn to
write legibly and quickly. We will not try to change hand preference to the right
hand. In any written work done at home, the following may be helpful:

1. Seat your child at a table approximately two inches lower than the height used
by a right-handed child.
2. Place the writing paper towards the left-hand side of the desk in front of your
child's left shoulder. Place any reference material or papers to be copied to
the right of your child's paper.
3. Mark the bottom right-hand corner of the writing paper with an arrow, as
shown. Have your child point the arrow towards his or her left shoulder.

4. Make sure your child is holding the pencil at least 1 1/2" from the point.

If you have any questions or need further assistance, please contact me during
school hours at .

Sincerely,