h MODULE 17: NON NURSING FIRST SEMESTER: FINALS ABRAHAM MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before Individuals can attend to needs higher up from the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are physiological CAL NEED These are biological re requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. FETY NEEDS Once an individual's physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability, and control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools, business, and medical care) For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health, and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury). LOVE € BELONGINGNESS Needs after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work) ESTEEM NEEDS The fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) (i) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity CTUALIZATION Needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfllment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower-level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher-level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a need is not an “all-or-none" phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given "the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).When a deficit need has been more or less satisfied it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting. the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged. The more we learn about man’s natural tendencies, the easier it will be to tell him how to be good, how to be happy, how to be fruitful, how to respect himself, how to love, how to fulfil his highest potentialities... The thing to do seems to be to find out what one is really like inside; deep down, as a member of the human. species and as a particular individual (Maslow, 1987, p. 6) TAL INTERPERSONAL THEORIES. One's personality involves more than individual characteristics, particularly how one interacts with others He was an American psychiatrist who extended the theory of personality development to include the significance of interpersonal relationships. Sullivan established five life stages of development- infancy, childhood, juvenile, preadolescence, focusing on relationships. and adolescence, each various interpersonal DEI ION OF PERSONALITY + Personality = "relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations" * Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry MALLEABILITY OF PERSONALITY + “Illusion of individuality" + We become “different” people in different social situations + In each situation we imagine how others think of us and respond accordingly SOURCE OF THREATS + Importance of "Chums" (peers) + Healthy/ Unhealthy psychological development due to reactions of peers + Sullivan blames society for most problems Sullivan wanted to substitute for these formulations descriptions of interpersonal behavior that made for difficulties in living, such as the "negativistic” person, who feels insecure and inadequate and who accentuates his own significance by constantly disagreeing with others. "Self-absorbed” people, in Sullivan's scheme, are those who relate to others on an all-or-nothing basis: "People whom I like are all good while people whom | dislike are all bad." In each case, the person must be described by his typical ways of relating to other people, not by a list of self-contained symptoms. Sullivan wanted psychiatry to emphasize man's humanness, the fact that man’s feelings, motives, thoughts, and values are uniquely human and have no counterpart at the animal level. In Sullivan's view, the child's sense of self evolves gradually during the first year of life, primarily as a consequence of the ministrations of the person who takes care of the child. If this caretaker is LOVING, comforting and meets the infant's needs, the infant has a generalized feeling of "good me." On the other hand, if the caretaker is ANXIOUS, tense, and rejecting, this too is communicated to the infant, who experiences feeling of "bad me.” a The caretaker communicates to the infant primarily by means of a process that Sullivan calls "EMPATHY." Sullivan was among the first to recognize that: The therapist is not a disembodied spirit but rather affects the patient in significant ways that have to be taken into. consideration. The therapist must be a "participant observer’ in the sense that he must both interact with the patient and, at the same time, monitor the interaction from the standpoint of an outside, objective observer. The closest most of us come to true communication is what Sullivan called the "SYNTAXIC" mode, the situation when both individuals are using the same words to mean the same things. But this type of communication is impeded by two other modes of interpreting another person's meaning What the other individual says is always interpreted in the context of how he says it- his facial expression, tone of voice, and gestures. This mode of interpretation Sullivan calls "PROTOTAXIC In addition, what the other individual says is also interpreted in terms of who he is the same words coming from a child and from an adult are interpreted in quite different ways. When a remark is 50 interpreted, Sullivan speaks of the "PARATAXIC" mode.PSYCHOTHERAPY + seeks to help people overcome their prototaxic and parataxic distortions so that they can arrive at a correct, or syntaxic, understanding of other persons’ expressions. The process of arriving at this correct understanding of other people is what Sullivan called "CONSENSUAL VALIDATION.” + The aim of therapy is to do the same thing and thus help the patient refurbish his sense of self- esteem and respect. While the treatment process is obviously more complex than what has been described here, its aim is always to help the individual to the point where his sense of positive self-regard outweighs his sense of being worthless and unhuman TUS a a GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY + Systems theory was proposed in the 1940s by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy and furthered by Ross Ashby (1964). Von Bertalanffy was reacting against both reductionism and attempting to revive the unity of science. He is considered to be the founder and principal author of general systems theory. + Nursing theory has drawn from the work of von Bertalanffy on systems theory. - Newman's system theory, Roger's theory, Roy's adaptation model, Imogene king's theory, Orem's self-care deficit theory, and Johnson's behavior system theory + This theory may be considered a specialization of Systems Thinking and a generalization of Systems Science General Systems Theory is a General Science of Wholeness + This Theory also has been applied in developing Nursing Theories conducting Nursing Research SYSTEM @ set consisting of integrated, interesting parts or components that function as a whole. Each part is necessary to make a complete and meaningful whole. THIS THEORY ASSUMES FOLLOWING + All systems directed must be goal + Assystem is more than the sum of its parts Assystem is ever-changing, and any change in one part affects the whole. CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEMS SYSTEMS refer specifically to Self Regulating Systems SYSTEMS are Self Correcting through Feedback SYSTEMS have a structure that is defined by its parts and process SYSTEMS are Generalizations of Reality Every living organism is essentially an Open System HOLISTIC VIEW SYSTEMS THEORY is focused on the arrangement of and relationship between the parts which connect them as a Whole. A mutual interaction of the parts makes the Whole bigger than the parts of themselves. PRINCIPLES AND ITS APPLICATION TO NURSING | 1. The principle of WHOLENESS: It is the core of General system theory. This principle provides guidance or methodology to us in order that we can study all kinds of objects effectively 2. The principle of OPTIMIZATION: The principle of optimization of a system is to achieve an optimal state in a certain condition and to perform its best function by organization and coordination. REVOLUTION OF GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY TO NURSING To look at a person with a systematic viewpoint The human being is the object of Nursing. The human being is a system that is composed of many elements, such as physiological, psychological, social, spiritual, and cultural elements THE HUMAN BEING IS A NATURAL SYSTEM A basic condition of life activities and health of human beings is harmony and equilibrium of the internal and external environment in the human body, A human being an open and dynamic system A human being exchanges energy, matter, and information with its environment constantly, as well as within its body to maintain life and health ‘A Human being is a system with a subjective activity A human being is conscious and able to supervise and control his/her state of functions.TO UNDERSTAND NURSING WITH A SYSTEMATIC VIEWPOINT Nursing system is a system with a complicated structure Nursing system is an open system Nursing system is a dynamic system Nursing system is with the function of decision-making and feedback. CHANGE THEORY OF NURSING + Born on September 1890 and Died in February 1947 + A German-American psychologist known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology in the United States. + During his professional career, Lewin applied himself to three general topics: applied research, action research, and group communication. + Recognized as the "FATHER of SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY" and was one of the first to study group dynamics and organizational development. + A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Lewin as the 18th-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. OR CI 1.DRIVING forces are those that push in a direction. that causes change to occur. They facilitate change because they push the patient in a desired direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change. 2. RESTRAINING forces are those forces that counter the driving forces. They hinder change because they push the patient in the opposite direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium that opposes change. 3. EQUILIBRIUM is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces, and no change occurs. It can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the and restraining forces. UNFREEZING + the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was somehow counterproductive. + necessary to overcome the strains of individual resistance and group conformity. 3 METHODS THAT CAN LEAD TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF UNFREEZING. + The first is to increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or STATUS QUO. * Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium. + Thirdly, finding a combination of the first two methods. CHANGE STAGE + also called "moving to a new level" or “movement,” involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive. REFREEZING STAGE + establishing the change as the new habit, so that it now becomes the "standard operating procedure.” Without this final stage, it can be easy for the patient to go back to old habits AL THE * Developmental theories present systematic ways of thinking about how human beings grow from babies to adolescents to adults to elderly people, and the various changes they undergo as they make this passage. Different developmental theories describe different types of changes. + Development is best understood as progress through an ordered series of increasingly complex progressive stages. + Early developmental delays (interrupting progress towards a particular stage) threaten the developing person's overall progress * Uneven or incomplete development in any important life domain can lead to serious life problems. Itis important to identify and correct developmental delays while they are first occurring and as soon as possible, so as to minimize the cumulative damage that delays may cause.STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT was a German-born psychoanalyst who extended Freud's work on personality development across the life span while focusing on social and psychological development in the life stages. In his view, psychosocial growth occurs in sequential phases, and each stage is dependent on the completion of the previous stage and life task. + Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings. Erikson’s theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger community MORAL DEVELOPMENT Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. Kohlberg reviewed people's responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for preconventional morality (before age. 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve 3. LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Level One - PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY: In stage one, moral reasoning is based on concepts of punishment. The child believes that if the consequence for an action is punishment, then the action was wrong. In the second stage, the child bases his or her thinking on self-interest and reward. Preconvertional morality focuses on self-interest. Punishment is avoided and rewards are sought. Level Two - CONVENTIONAL Morality: Those tested who based their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act. In stage three, the person wants to please others. At stage four, the person acknowledges the importance of social norms or laws and wants to be a good member of the group or society. People care about the effect of their actions on others. Level Three - POSTCONVENTIONAL Morality: Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of everyone and that can transcend the self and social convention. It goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes that learning occurs in a social context and that much of what is learned is gained through observation. Personal factors - Behavior - Environmental factorsLEARNING THROUGH OBSERVATION BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT The Bobo Doll experiment confirmed that people learn imitate behaviors that they observe (or have observed) in other people Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling. Albert Bandura, 1977 TYPES OF MODELS Alive Model + Verbal Instruction Model + Symbolic (fictional character) OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING In his early writing, Bandura emphasizes the power and pervasiveness of social modeling and the process of learning through observation + Bandura suggests that observational learning occurs either intentionally or accidentally + Observational leaming is done through imitation or modeling FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MODELING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODEL We are more likely to be influenced by someone who we believe is similar to ourselves rather than by someone who is different. According to research, people who are physically attractive influence more people ATTRIBUTES OF THE OBSERVER People who are lacking in self-esteem or who are incompetent are especially prone to follow the structure and style of the model. + Ahighly motivated individual will also emulate a model in order to master a desired behavior. + Reward consequences associated with the behavior + Participants are more likely to emulate a behavior if they believe that such actions will lead to positive short- or -long term results. THE MODELING PROCESS REINFORCEMENT IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING EXTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT - being rewarded with objects and stuff. Example: Winning a competition and being rewarded with a medal INTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT - being rewarded by the feedback or the outcome of the behavior done. Example: Playing a difficult piece of music well leads to feeling of accomplishment. Self-satisfaction VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT - Is learning by observing others. If people can learn by watching, they must be focusing their attention, construct images, remember, analyze, and make decisions that affect learning. Example: A child who sees a sibling being spanked for a misdemeanor quickly learns not to do the same thing. SELF-REINFORCEMENT - this reinforcement is important for both students and teachers. Controlling your own reinforces We want our students to improve not because it leads to external rewards, but because the students value and enjoy their growing competence. Example: One tunner might be Satisfied by completing @ mile in five minutes; another would want to finish tin less time AGGRESSION & INHUMANE BEHAVIOR ( MULTIPLE EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE) Overwhelming of the nervous system Aggressive style behavior Desensitization or habituation of viewers to violence (emotional numb) Shaping the image of reality (distorted)MORAL DISENGAGEMENT & SELF-EFFICACY SELF-EFFICACY Is defined as the people's belief that they can successfully perform behaviors that will produce desired effects. Central regulation mechanism of self- Govern our motivations, thought and actions THE ESSENCE OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social influences shaped our behavior Humans are products of learning Emotional arousal stemming from aversive experiences motivates aggression. Observational models may strengthen or existing response.