Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052

e-mail- mohitjindal83@gmail.com Mobile- +919416589819 Vol-01

Technology
of
Cereals & Pulses
Name__________________________________
Roll No.________________________________

Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
e-mail- mohitjindal83@gmail.com Mobile- +919416589819
3.6 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS AND PULSES- SYLLABUS
LTP
3–3
 Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
e-mail- mohitjindal83@gmail.com Mobile- +919416589819 Vol-01
RATIONALE
This subject is aimed at imparting knowledge and skills related to the processing techniques, value addition, and
handling of processing equipment of cereal, pulses and oil seeds to the students, as the understanding of these
aspects are essential for diploma holders in food technology to perform efficiently and effectively in the industry
DETAILED CONTENTS
1. Introduction (6 hrs)
Status, production and major growing areas of cereals, pulses and oil seeds in India and world Structure and
chemical composition of cereals, pulses and oil seeds, antinutritional factors wherever applicable
2. Cereals (20 hrs)
2.1 Wheat: types of wheat, conditioning and tempering, types of wheat milling technology, pasta and extruded
products
2.2 Rice: Varieties of rice, classification of rice based on various physical parameters, parboiling, milling of rice,
and factors affecting quality of rice products
2.3 Maize: Classification of maize, dry and wet milling of corn, preparation of corn flakes
2.4 Barley and sorghum: Grain characteristics, technology of malt production, milling, malting and popping of
sorghum
3. Millets (6 hrs)
Different millets and their chemical composition, processing and utilization of millets
4. Pulses (6 hrs)
Pretreatment of pulses for milling, milling of major pulses
5. Snacks foods based on cereals, pulses and oil seeds – their production technology (4 hrs)
6. By-product utilization of different milling industries (6 hrs)
LIST OF PRACTICALS
1. Determination of physical characteristics of (a) rice (b) wheat (c) pulses (d) maize (e) barley and sorghum (f) oil
seeds
2. Milling of wheat to study its effect on various physico-chemical properties
3. Estimation of flour quality: Gluten, Ash, Water Absorption Power (WAP) Sedimentation Test, Maltose Value,
Pelshenke Value
4. Parboiling and milling of rice
5. Pre-treatment and milling of pulses
6. Demonstration of oil extraction and refining of oil, and visit to relevant industry
7. Preparation of Pasta products – Noodles, Macroni, Vermicelli (Sevian)
8. Preparation of ready-to-eat (RTE) food products by extrusion cooking technology
9. Visits to flour mill, Rice Mill/Rice Sheller, Dhal Mill, Oil expelling Unit, Refining Units, Milling and Brewing Units

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Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
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INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY
This being one of the most important subjects, teacher should lay emphasis on developing basic understanding of
various concepts and principles and procedures involved herein.
Suitable tutorial exercises may be designed by the teachers, which require students visit to various industries.
Students may also be exposed to various National, BIS and international standards. Visits to the relevant industry
for demonstrating various operations involved in the cereal, pulses, and oilseed processing is a must. Experts
from the industry may be invited to deliver lectures on the latest technology. Knowledge from pollution control
and devices for the same may be provided to the students. Wherever relevant, students may be made aware
about safety aspects.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. Cereal Technology by Kent, CBS
2. Wheat Chemistry and Technology by Y Pomeranz, AACC 77
3. Post-Harvest Technology of Cereals by Chakraborty AC, IBH
4. Rice Chemistry and Technology by Julian, AACC
5. Chemistry of Technology of Cereals as Food and Feed by Matz
Note: Wherever equipment’s are not available students may be demonstrated that topic relevant industry or in
any other institutions.

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 Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
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Status, production and major growing areas of cereals, pulses and oil seeds
in India and world Structure and chemical composition of cereals, pulses and
oil seeds, ant nutritional factors wherever applicable

1 Introduction

India has reached to a level of self-sufficiency in the production of cereals, pulses and oilseeds after the
Serial No. Common Name Vernacular Name Botanical Name

1 Wheat Gehun Triticum spp.

2 Maize or Corn Makka Zea mays
3 Rice Chaval Oryzae sativa
4 Oats Jai Avena spp.
5 Barley Jau Hordeum vulgare
6 Sorghum Jowar Sorghum vulgare or S. bicolor
7 Pearl Millet Bajra Pennisetumtyphoideum or P.
Americana
8 Finger Millet Ragi Eleusinecoracana
9 Kodo Millet Pakodi Arika Paspalumscrobiculatum
10 Proso Millet Vari or Kutki Panicum miliaceum
11 Little Millet Panicum miliare
12 Foxtail Millet Rala or Kangni Setariaitalica
13 Japenese Barnyard Millet Echinochloacolona
14 Gram or Chick Pea Chana Cicer arietinum
15 Peas Mattar Pisum sativum
16 Pigeon Pea Arhar Cajanus spp.
17 Lentil Masur Lens culinaris or L. esculenta
18 Mung Bean Mung Phaseolus aureus
19 Urd Bean or Black Gram Urd Phaseolus mungo
20 Moth Bean Moth Phaseolus aconitifolius
21 Soybean Bhatt or Japan Pea Glycine max
22 Lablab Sem Dolichos lablab
23 Groundnut or Peanut Moongphali Arachishypogaea
green revolution. Cereals are plants which yield edible grains and include rice, wheat, corn, barley, and
oats. Cereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the grass family (Gramineae). Cereal grains
provide the world with majority of its food calories and about half of its protein. They are also good
source of micronutrients such as calcium, iron and vitamins of group B.
Cereals are staples and are consumed in large quantities by majority of population in the world either
directly or in modified form as major items of diet such as flour, bran and numerous additional
ingredients used in the manufacture of other foods. Asia, America, and Europe produce more than 80
percent of the worlds cereal grains. Cereals are easy to store because of low moisture content, easy to

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handle and providing variety to the diet. The principle cereal grains grown in India are wheat, rice, corn,
sorghum and barley.
Legumes are next to cereals as an important source of proteins. They are flowering plants having
pods which contain bean or peas. There are basically two groups of legumes. First is high-protein high-oil
group like soybean, groundnut, lupine, etc. which are mainly used for processing and contains high
protein (~ 35%) and oil content (15- 45%). The second group comprises the moderate- protein low-oil
types like cowpea, gram, pea, lentil etc. India is one of the largest pulse growing countries in the World.
Different pulses grown in India are chickpea (bengal gram/chana), pigeon pea (tur/arhar), green gram
(moong), black gram (urad), lentils (masur).
Oilseeds have become an increasingly important agriculture commodity, with a steady increase in
annual production worldwide. Oilseeds are seeds which contain high oil content and are widely grown as
a source of edible oil. Major oilseeds grown in India are groundnut, cottonseed, mustard, rapeseed,
soybean, sunflower and sesame seed. The coconut (copra) is also an important oilseed.
Three Largest Producing States of Important Crops during 2005-06
Crop/ Group of Crops States Production
I. Foodgrains
Rice West Bengal 14.51
Andhra Pradesh 11.70
Uttar Pradesh 11.13
Wheat Uttar Pradesh 24.07
Punjab 14.49
Haryana 8.86
Maize Andhra Pradesh 3.09
Karnataka 2.73
Bihar 1.36
Total Coarse Cereals Karnataka 6.56
Maharashtra 6.09
Rajasthan 4.53
Total Pulses Madhya Pradesh 3.23
Uttar Pradesh 2.23
Maharashtra 2.01
Total Foodgrains Uttar Pradesh 40.41
Punjab 25.18
Andhra Pradesh 16.95
II .Oilseeds
Groundnut Gujarat 3.39
Andhra Pradesh 1.37
Tamil Nadu 1.10

Rapeseed & Mustard Rajasthan 4.42

Uttar Pradesh 0.91

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 Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
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Madhya Pradesh 0.85
Soyabean Madhya Pradesh 4.50
Maharashtra 2.53
Rajasthan 0.86
Sunflower Karnataka 0.79
Andhra Pradesh 0.30
Maharashtra 0.21
Total Oilseeds Rajasthan 5.96
Madhya Prd. 5.72
Gujarat 4.68
Production : Million Tonnes
Cereal grains are not only low in protein but also deficient in certain essential amino acids, especially
lysine. Legumes as well as many oilseeds are rich in lysine, though relatively poor in methionine. Edible
oilseed meals obtained from oilseeds are rich in proteins and have been used to improve the nutritional
properties of cereal products such as infant food and food for school going children in most of the
countries in world.

10 wheat-producing countries worldwide, based on total yield in tonnes from 2000-2020:

China has produced more than 2.4 billion tonnes of wheat over the last two decades

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Just 10 countries are responsible for a bulk of global rice production:

Over 700 million tonnes of rice was produced in 2019 I

Video- Cereals Names and grains name in Hindi and English - अनाजकेनाम- Link-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ly7WXq9ktC0

Top Barley Producing Nations

 Worldwide 141,276,744 tonnes of barley is produced per year.

 India is with 1,505,000 is ranked at 22.

Country Production (Tons)

Russian Federation 17.992.517
Germany 10.730.500
France 10.306.008
Ukraine 9.435.710
Australia 8.992.274
Canada 8.704.300
Spain 7.979.590
Turkey 6.700.000
United Kingdom 6.655.000
United States of America 4.338.850
Denmark 3.949.600

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Top Maize Producing Nations

1.2 Cereal Grains

1.2.1 Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa, Linn.) crop originated in Asia and has been a staple food there since the Ice Age in
the North. The geographical site of original rice domestication is yet not sure. But according to a general
consensus, domestication occurred at three places India, Indonesia and China thereby giving rise to
three races of rice Indica, Javonica and Sinica (also known as Japonica), respectively. Actual rice grains
and husk have been excavated in India that was more than 4500 years old and in China more than 5000
years. According to ancient Greek writers, rice penetrated Europe around 3000 B.C., having been
brought from India by Alexander the Great.
1.2.2 Wheat
Historic documents confirm that wheat (Triticum aestivum, Triticum durum) is the earliest field crop
used for human food processing. The cultivation of wheat reaches far back into history as it
was predominant source of food for Human. The precise origin of the wheat cultivation is unclear, but it
is thought that man has been cultivating and processing the wheat for at least 12,000 -17,000 years.
1.2.3 Corn
Corn or Maize (Zea mays, L) is native to the America. Corn originated in Mexico, evolving from the wild
grass Teosinte. Archeological evidence suggests that corn was domesticated and grown as early as 5000
B.C. in Mexico. Following Columbus discovery of America, corn was transplanted to Spain from where it
quickly spread across Europe, Africa and Asia.
1.2.4 Barley
Barley (Hardeum vulgare L.) is among the most ancient of the cereal crops. The original area of
cultivation has been reported to be in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, in present day Lebanon,
Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. There is now considerable evidence that barley was under cultivation in India and
China considerably later then in Middle East. Barley played an important role in ancient Greek culture as
staple breadmaking grain, as well as an important food for athletes, who attributed much of their
strength to their barleycontaining training diets. Gladiators were known as hordearii, which means
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eaters of barley. In almost every culture through the ages, barley foods are described as having almost
mystical properties, and barley is often referred to as the king of grains.

Chemical Composition of Cereals

Cereals are of plant origin which yield edible grains which are consumed directly or in modified form as
major part of diet and also feed to livestock. Rice and wheat are most important cereals forming part of
human food. Cereal grains consist of about two third carbohydrates, mainly in form of digestible sugars
and starches. These grains are also an important source of several other nutrients such as protein,
calcium, iron, vitamin B complex and dietary fiber. Cereal grains contain 10-14% moisture, 58-72%
carbohydrate, 8-13% protein, 2-5% fat and 2-11% indigestible fiber. They also provide about 300-350
kcal/100 g of grains. Cereals are deficient in vitamins A, D, B12 and C
Proximate compositions of cereal grains

Calorific
Carbohydrates Protein Fat Fiber Ash value
Cereal Moisture %
% % % % % (kcal/100
gm.)
Wheat
11 69 13 2 3 2 340
(Triticum aestivum, Triticum durum)
Rice
11 65 8 2 9 5 310
(Oryza sativa, L.)
Corn
11 72 10 4 2 1 352
(Zea mays, L.)
Sorghum
11 70 12 4 2 1 348
(Sorghum bicolor L.)
Barley
14 63 12 2 6 3 320
(Hardeum vulgare L.)
Oats
13 58 10 5 10 4 317
(Avena sativa)
Rye
11 71 12 2 2 2 321
(Secale cereale)

Composition of Pulses

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Proximate compositions of pulses (Per 100 g edible portion

Pulse Scientific name Composition /100 g edible portion
Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrates Minerals Fiber Energy
(Kcal)
Tuver Cajanus cajan 13.4 22.3 1.7 57.6 1.7 1.5 335
(Red gram, Pegion pea)

Bengal gram (Chick pea) Cicer arietinum L. 9.8 17.1 5.3 60.9 3.0 3.9 360

Val papdi Dolichos lablab 9.6 24.9 0.8 60.1 3.2 1.4 347
(Field bean)
Moong Phaseolus aureus Ro 10.4 24.0 1.3 56.7 3.5 4.1 334
(Green gram) xb
Kulad Dolichos biflours 11.8 22.0 0.5 57.2 3.2 5.3 321
(Horse gram)
Masoor Lens esculenta 12.4 25.1 0.7 59.0 2.1 0.7 343
(Lentils)
Udad Phaseolus mungo 10.9 24.0 1.4 59.6 3.2 0.9 346
(Black gram)
Chowli Vigna catjang 13.4 24.1 1.0 54.5 3.2 3.8 323
(Cow peas)
Vatana Pisum sativum 16.0 19.7 1.1 56.5 2.2 4.5 315
(Peas)

Pulses contain carbohydrates, mainly starches (55-65 percent of the total weight); proteins, including
essential amino acids (18-25 percent, and much higher than cereals); and fat (1 - 4 percent). The
remainder consists of moisture, fiber, minerals and vitamins.

Composition of Oilseed
Proximate compositions of whole oilseeds (%)
Oilseed Scientific name Moisture Protein Fat, Crude Ash
EE* fiber
Soybean (Whole seed) Glycine max 10.0 36.3 18.9 5.0 4.4

Groundnut (Shelled kernel) Archis hypogea 10.0 26.0 45.0 4.0 2.5

Corn germ (Dry milled) Zea mays, L 10.0 13.0 22.5 4.5 2.5

Sunflower seed, oil-type (Whole Helliathus annus 10.0 21.0 42.0 19.0 4.5
seed)
Cotton seed (Cottonseed with Gossypium hirsutum L. 10.0 22.0 19.5 19.0 4.5
linters)
Rapeseed/Canola (Whole seed) Brassica juncea 8.0 22.0 41.0 10.0 5.0

EE*- Ether extract

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Mohit Jindal, Lecturer in Food Technology, Government Polytechnic, Mandi Adampur, Hisar, Haryana, India-125052
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Glossary
 Monocotyledons, also known as monocots, are one of two major groups of flowering plants (or
angiosperms) that are traditionally recognized, the other being dicotyledons, or dicots. Monocot
seedlings typically have one cotyledon (seed-leaf), in contrast to the two cotyledons typical
of dicots
 Poaceae (also known as the Gramineae) is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocot
flowering plants. Members of this family are commonly called (land) grasses.
 Caryopsis is a type of simple dry fruit one that is monocarpelate (formed from a single carpel)
and indehiscent (not opening at maturity) and resembles an achene, except that in a caryopsis
the pericarp is fused with the thin seed coat.
 The caryopsis is popularly called a grain and is the fruit typical of the
family Poaceae (or Gramineae), such as wheat, rice, and corn.
 Husk (or hull) in botany is the outer shell or coating of a seed. It often refers to the leafy outer
covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant. Literally, a husk or hull includes the
protective outer covering of a seed, fruit or vegetable.
 Endosperm is the tissue produced inside the seeds of most flowering plants around the time of
fertilization. It surrounds the embryo and provides nutrition in the form of starch, though it can
also contain oils and protein. This makes endosperm an important source of nutrition in human
diet. For example, wheat endosperm is ground into flour for bread (the rest of the grain is included
as well in whole wheat flour), while barley endosperm is the main source for beer production.
 Germ of a cereal is the reproductive part that germinates to grow into a plant; it is the embryo of
the seed. Along with bran, germ is often a by-product of the milling that produces refined grain
products. Cereal grains and their components, such as wheat germ, rice bran, and maize may be
used as a source from which vegetable oil is extracted, or used directly as a food ingredient. The
germ is retained as an integral part of whole-grain foods
 Bran is the hard-outer layer of grain and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. Along with
germ, it is an integral part of whole grains, and is often produced as a by-product of milling in the
production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, the grains lose a portion of their
nutritional value. Bran is present in and may be milled from any cereal grain, including rice, corn
(maize), wheat, oats, barley and millet. Bran should not be confused with chaff, which is coarser
scaly material surrounding the grain, but not forming part of the grain itself. Bran is particularly
rich in dietary fiber and essential fatty acids and contains significant quantities of starch, protein,
vitamins and dietary minerals.

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Cereals
1.1.1 What are Cereals?

A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain. These are produced in large quantities and
provide a large amount of food worldwide than any
other crop. These are therefore termed as staple crops.
Or we can say that Cereal grains are the fruit of plants
belonging to the grass family (Gramineae). Botanically,  Wheat is a member of the grass family that
cereal grains are a dry fruit called a caryopsis. produces a dry, one-seeded fruit commonly
called a kernel.
The caryopsis fruit has a thin, dry wall which is  More than 17,000 years ago, humans
fused together with the seed coat. Kernel structure is gathered the seeds of plants and ate them.
important with respect to minimizing damage during After rubbing off the husks, early people
simply chewed the kernels raw, parched or
grain harvest, drying, handling, storage, milling, and
simmered.
germination and in enhancing nutritional value. There  Wheat originated in the ―cradle of
are a few important structural features that the cereal civilization‖ in the Tigris and Euphrates river
grains have in common. valley, near what is now Iraq.
 The Roman goddess, Ceres, who was
All of the cereal grains are plant seeds and contain deemed protector of the grain, gave grains
three distinct anatomical portions a large centrally their common name today – ―cereal.‖
located starch endosperm, which also is rich in protein,  Wheat, used for white bread, pastries, pasta,
protective outer layers such as hull and bran, and an and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop
embryo or germ. since the 18th century.
 Wheat was introduced by the first English
The seed portion of cereals consists of numerous colonists and quickly became the main cash
components which basically include three parts: a seed crop of farmers who sold it to urban
populations and exporters. In colonial times
coat or testa (bran), storage organ or nutritive reserve
its culture became concentrated in
for the seed (endosperm), and a miniature plant or the Middle Colonies, which became known
germ. as the ―bread colonies‖.
 Wheat is the primary grain used in U.S.
The fruit tissue consists of a layer of epidermis and grain products — approximately three-
several thin inner layers a few cells thick. quarters of all U.S. grain products are made
The aleurone layer which is just below the seed coat, is from wheat flour.
only a few cells thick, but is rich in oil, minerals, protein  Wheat is grown in 42 states in the United
and vitamins. States.
 Six classes bring order to the thousands of
Starch and protein are located in the endosperm varieties of wheat. They are: hard red winter
which represents the bulk of the grain and is sometimes (HRW), hard red spring (HRS), soft red
the only part of the cereal consumed. winter (SRW), hard white (HW), soft white
(SW) and durum.
Starch is arranged in the form of sub-cellular
structures called granules that are embedded in a matrix
of protein.
The diameter, shape, size distribution and other characteristics of starch granules vary with different cereals.

Wheat
• 1/5 of all calories consumed by humans
• 30% of world grain production
• 50% of world grain trade
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Main wheat exporters- US, Canada, Australia, Argentina, France

Main parts-Germ, Endosperm, Bran
Germ (Embryo)- Germination of wheat seed, all nutrients are What is durum wheat
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum durum)
present
is one of the two most popular species of
Endosperm- Store house of wheat, storage as starch mainly wheat. The other is bread wheat (also
Bran- Outermost covering layer known as common wheat, whole wheat or
Triticum aestivum vulgare). Because
Wheat, any of several species of cereal grasses of durum wheat is high in protein and gluten,
it is used in making many foods such as
the genus Triticum (family Poaceae) and their edible grains. Wheat
pasta, couscous, bulgur, noodles, and
is one of the oldest and most important of the cereal crops. Of the bread. The endosperm of durum wheat can
thousands of varieties known, the most important are common be grounded to make semolina.
Health benefits of durum wheat?
wheat (Triticum aestivum), used to make bread; durum wheat (T.
Besides protein, durum wheat is also high
durum), used in making pasta (alimentary pastes) such as spaghetti in folate, iron, calcium and dietary fiber. A
and macaroni; and club wheat (T. compactum), a softer type, used 100-gram (slightly more than cup) serving
of durum wheat contains 13.7 grams of
for cake, crackers, cookies, pastries, and flours. Additionally, some protein. It has low glycemic index,
wheat is used by industry for the production of starch, paste, malt, meaning it is less likely to increase blood
dextrose, gluten, alcohol, and other products. sugar levels.
The nutritional composition of the wheat grain varies somewhat
with differences in climate and soil. On an average, the kernel contains 12 percent water, 70 percent
carbohydrates, 12 percent protein, 2 percent fat, 1.8 percent minerals, and 2.2 percent crude
fibres. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and small amounts of vitamin A are present, but the milling process removes
most of those nutrients with the bran and germ.

The greatest portion of the wheat flour produced is used for breadmaking. Wheats grown in dry climates are
generally hard types, having protein content of 11–15 percent and strong gluten (elastic protein). The hard type
produces flour best suited for breadmaking. The wheats of humid areas are softer, with protein content of about
8–10 percent and weak gluten. The softer type of wheat produces flour suitable for cakes, crackers, cookies, and
pastries and household flours. Durum wheat semolina (from the endosperm) is used for making pastas, or
alimentary pastes.

Some High Yielding Wheat Varieties

 Sonalika (HD-1553) released in 1967. This is an early maturing variety. It is single gene dwarf
wheat with attractive grains, resembling good quality desi wheats. It is suitable for timely as well
as late sowings in U.P., Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, M.P., Maharashtra, A.P., Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka.
 Kalyan Sona (HD-1593) released in 1967. it is a medium late maturing variety. It is high yielding
wheat with widest adaptability. It has been grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana,
Delhi, U.P., Rajasthan, M.P., Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
 Sharbati Sonora released in 1967. Sharbati Sonora is an amber mutant of Sonora-64 with early
maturity and synchronous habit of filleting. It is grown in all wheat growing regions.
 Shera (HD-1925) released in 1974. It is double dwarf wheat with very good bold amber grains. It
;s resistant to lodging, shattering and black rust in Central and Western zones of our country.
 Rai-911 released in 1974. It is a 2-gene dwarf durum. It is high yielding as well as resistant to
rust. It is suitable for the central wheat tract.

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 Malvika (HD-1502). It is a triple dwarf durum. It is suited for peninsular wheat tract.
 WL 71 1, UP 368 and HD 2177 are recommended for cultivation under timely sown irrigated high
fertility condition of Punjab, Jammu area, Haryana, Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
(except Kota and Udaipur divisions). These varieties are better than Kalyan Sona and Sonalika in
yield and rust- resistance.
 WL 410 and C 306 are good for cultivation under low fertility rain-fed conditions of north-
western India.
 UP 115 and HP 1209 are good for irrigated high fertility and late sowing conditions of Bihar,
eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa and other eastern states.
 High yielding and disease resistant CC 464 and HD 2189 are good for -peninsular India
comprising Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and the plains of Tamil Nadu.
 HD (Hybrid Delhi)-2204. It is for the first time that a variety of g wheat combines high yield and
disease resistance. It has been recommended for Large-scale cultivation under high fertility
irrigated conditions in the north-western plain zone comprising the country's wheat bowl areas
of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Jammu and-Kashmir.
 WP-72. It has been recommended for the above-mentioned zone of HD-2204 for rain-fed
cultivation.
 HW-657. This highly disease-resistant variety has been recommended for filn-fed cultivation in
the peninsular zone states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
 X-7410 and HUW-12. These two varieties have been re- commended for irrigated areas in the
north-eastern plains.
 VL-421 (Vivekanand Laboratory, Almora). This variety has been recommended for the north hill
zone.
 The Punjab Agricultural University released a new variety of wheat called WL-71 1.

 Video- Discovery How Stuff Works : Wheat- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F4VoVLlyuS0

A brief account of some of the high yielding varieties of wheat

Variety Description Areas of adaptability
Kalyan Sona A double dwarf variety released jointly by IARI and the Suitable for cultivation
Punjab Agricultural University. Most widely grown in throughout India.
India presently. Suitable for cultivation under both
normal and late plantings as well as high and low
fertility conditions, and irrigated and rain fed areas.
Yields range from 60-70 quintals/ ha. Grains are
amber, medium and lustrous. Highly resistant to loose
smut and hill bunt diseases.
Sonalika A single dwarf variety next in popularity to Kalyan Sona Suitable for cultivation
in India. Grains are bold, hard, lustrous and very throughout India.
attractive. Sonalika is highly field resistant to black and
brown rusts. It is suitable for cultivation under both
normal and late plantings but particularly suitable for
the later category of conditions. Yield potential from
50-65 quintals/ ha.

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Variety Description Areas of adaptability

Sharbati An amber grained double dwarf variety through Late planting in
Sonora irradiation of the red seeded Sonora-64. It has high produced Punjab, U.P.,
resistance to black rust. Grains are amber, hard, Rajasthan, and normal
lustrous and of medium size. Protein content high (up plantings, in M.P.,
to 16%) One of the best wheats today in India for Bihar, W. Bengal,
bread-making purposes. Yield potential 50-65 quintals/ Gujarat, Maharashtra,
ha A Pt., and Tamil Nadu

A Kernel of Wheat
 The wheat kernel is sometimes called the wheat berry. The kernel is the seed from
which the wheat plant grows. Each tiny seed contains three distinct parts that are
separated during the milling process to produce flour.
 Endosperm is about 83% of the kernel weight and the source of white endosperm
flour. The endosperm contains the greatest share of protein, carbohydrates, and iron,
as well as B-vitamins such as riboflavin, niacin. It is also a source of soluble fiber.
 Bran is about 14% of the kernel weight. Bran is included in whole wheat flour and can
also be bought separately. The bran contains a small amount of protein, trace
minerals, and dietary fiber – primarily insoluble.
 Germ is about 2.5% of the kernel weight. The germ is the embryo or sprouting section
of the seed. It is often separated from flour because the fat content (10%) limits shelf
life. The germ contains minimal quantities of high quality protein and a greater share
of B-complex vitamins and trace minerals. Wheat germ is part of whole wheat flour
and can be purchased separately.

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Wheat Kernel Structure

WHEAT FLOUR PROTEINS

NON GLUTEN GLUTEN

-15% -85%
-Non Dough Forming -Dough Forming

LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HIGH MOLECULAR

(25,000 – 1,00,000) WEIGHT
-ALBUMINS (60%) (>1,00,000)
-GLOBULINS (40%)
-PEPTIDES GLIADIN GLUTENIN
-AMINO ACIDS

GLUTENIN SPECIES
GLIADIN SPECIES
-Flour enzymes -Low extensibility
-Extensible
-Soluble, foaming proteins -Elastic
-Low elasticity
-Coagulable proteins -Suspendable in acids, bases, hydrogen
-Soluble in acids, bases,
bonding solvents
hydrogen bonding solvents
-Complexes with lipids

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Bran
―Outer shell‖ protects seed
• Fiber
• B Vitamins
• Trace Minerals Endosperm
Provides energy
• Carbohydrate
• Protein
Germ
Nourishment for
the seed
• B Vitamins
• Vitamin E
• Antioxidants

Origin

Wheat began as a wild grass, although its exact geographical origin is unknown. Some theories point to
ancient Mesopotamia or along the Euphrates and Tigris river as its birthplace. However, most ancient
languages include a mention of wheat. The earliest known records of wheat cultivation are by Swiss lake
dwellings in 6700 B.C. China began cultivation around 3000 B.C. Early milling practices involved
grinding the entire wheat kernel between two large stones.

Wheat has been in the U.S. since colonial times. However, it was during the late 1800s that its cultivation
and production took off. Red Wheat varieties were introduced in Kansas by Russian immigrants, and it
soon became the staple crop of the American farm land.

The three parts that make up a wheat kernel each have different qualities and nutrients:
1) Bran
The outer layer or the seed covering is called the wheat bran and protects the main part of the
kernel. The bran comprises about 15 percent of the seed weight. Bran can be further divided into
the pericarp which consists of epidermis, hypodermis, cross layer, tube cells, seed coats, and
hyaline layer.
Bran is nutritionally rich in protein and is used in the production of brown and wholemeal flours.

2) Endosperm
Endosperm is the main part of the seed and it accounts for 80 percent of the seed weight. It is the
potential white flour within the centre of the wheat grain. When milled, the endosperm fractures

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along the cell walls, and separates from the bran layers. It consists of starchy endosperm and
endosperm cell.
This layer contains the greatest share of protein, carbohydrates, and iron, as well as the major B-
vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine. The Aluerone is a thin layer between the bran
and the endosperm. The Scutellum is also a thin layer between the germ and the endosperm.
Both of these layers are very rich sources of vitamins essential for our health which may be
deficient in our diet.
Endosperm consists of a mass of brick shaped cells which contain starch surrounded by a
clear glassy. The wet protein, called gluten, has four very important properties which make
wheat flour suitable for bread making:
1. It swells in water, to hold about twice its own weight in water,
2. It is sticky
3. It flows when pulled
4. It is elastic like rubber.

3) Germ (wheat germ)

The germ is responsible for germination when planted in soil. It is a rich source of B-complex
vitamins, oil, vitamin E and natural plant fat. The wheat germ is the embryo that would eventually
develop into the wheat plant. Consequently, it is often used in health foods, such as fortified
bread and wholemeal flour.

In most cereal grains, as total protein contents increases to about 14% the concentration of the albumins
plus globulins (and consequently of lysine) in the protein decreases.
The main form of carbohydrate is starch, which is the main source of calories provided by the grains.
The major portion of the carbohydrates is in the starchy endosperm. 9812306906

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Fatty acids in cereals occur in three main types-neutral lipids, glycolipids, and phospholipids. The lipids
in cereals are relatively rich in the essential fatty acid, linoleic acid. Saturated fatty acids (mainly
palmitic) represent less than 25% of the total fatty acids for most grains.
In summary, cereal grains are a diversified and primary source of nutrients. Their high starch
contents make them major contributors of calories; they also contribute to our needs for proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals. Vitamins and minerals lost during milling into refined food products (wheat flour
or white rice) can be (and in many countries are) replaced by nutrient fortification. The composition of
cereal grains and their milled products make them uniquely suited in the production of wholesome,
nutritional, and consumer-acceptable foods.

Composition of Wheat

Wheat composition can vary considerably from one area to another as well as from year to year within
any given area.

Proteins
The uniqueness of wheat among cereal grains depends mostly upon the characteristics of its protein
content. Protein is considered the most important nutrient for humans and animals, as manifested by the
origin of its name, from the Greek proteios for primary.
The protein content of wheat grains may vary between 10% - 18% of the total dry matter. Typically,
hard red spring wheat and durum will analyze about 13 to 17% protein. Hard red winter wheat will test
out at 11 to 15% protein, in most cases. Soft winter wheat and club wheat would ordinarily fall in the
range of 7 to 11% protein. Of course, in the normal course of events, many samples will be found that fall

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outside this range because of unusual weather events, heavy fertilizer applications, disease, or
characteristics of a particular variety.
Wheat proteins are classified according to their extrability and solubility in various solvents. The
proteins of wheat are complex. Gluten is the main storage protein of wheat grains. Gluten is a complex
mixture of hundreds of related but distinct proteins, mainly gliadin and glutenin. Similar storage proteins
exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley,
and avenins in oats and are collectively
referred to as "gluten."
Proteins with enzyme activity are the
albumins and globulins located in the
embryo, aleurone, and endosperm.
 albumins, which are soluble
in water;
 globulins, which are
insoluble in pure water, but
soluble in dilute NaCl
solutions, and
insoluble at high NaCl
concentrations;
 gliadins, which are soluble in
70% ethyl alcohol, and;
 glutenins, which are soluble
in dilute acid or sodium
hydroxide solutions.

Albumins are the smallest wheat proteins, followed in size by globulins.

Gliadins and glutenins are complicated high-molecular weight proteins. Gliadins and glutenins are
storage proteins and cover about 75% of the total protein
content.
Generally speaking, the more refined the product, the less lysine is present. Germ contains the most.
Various attempts have been made to develop strains of wheat, which have better than average protein
quality, particularly by increasing the content of lysine. Some success has been achieved, but high lysine
strains generally have other defects, such as poor yield, reduced bread making quality, etc.

Proportion of different proteins in wheat grain as percentage of total protein

Albumin 5-10

Globulin 5-10

Prolamine 40-50

Glutelin 40-50
Wheat proteins are rich in glutamic acid and low in tryptophan. The high concentration of amide is
important in determining the characteristic of the gluten. The biological value of endosperm proteins is
much less than that of the whole wheat protein.

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Carbohydrates
Starch is the carbohydrate present in the greatest amount in the mature wheat kernel; in fact, it
exceeds all other types of compounds, being several times larger than the next largest class of substances.
Cereal grains store energy in the form of starch. The amount of starch contained in a wheat
grain may vary between 60% and 75% of the total dry weight of the grain. Starch occurs in
seed in the form of granules.
Percentage distribution of carbohydrate in wheat

Endosperm Germ Bran

Carbohydrate

Starch 95.8 31.1 14.1

Sugar 1.5 36.4 76
Cellulose 0.3 16.8 35.2
Hemicellulose 2.4 15.3 43.1

Source: Shakuntala Manay N, 1987

Wheat has two types of starch granules: large (25-40 um) lenticular and small (5-10um) spherical ones.
The lenticular granules are formed during the first 15 days after pollination. Starch is basically a polymer
of glucose. Chemically, at least two types of polymers are distinguishable: amylose and amylopectin.

Determination Range of Analytical Results, %

Low High
Protein (N x 5.7) 7.0 18.0
Mineral Matter (Ash) 1.5 2.0
Lipids (Fat) 1.5 2.0
Starch 60.0 68.0
Cellulose (Crude Fiber) 2.0 2.5
Moisture 8.0 18.0

Lipids
Among the lipids reported to have been found in wheat kernels are free fatty acids, simple glycerides,
galactosylglycerides, phosphoglycerides, sterol lipids, sphingolipids, diol lipids, tocopherols,
carotenoids, wax esters, and hydrocarbons. In amount, the principal lipids are acyl lipids containing
the fatty acids palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic. Reports have indicated minor amounts
of many other fatty acids.
The principal glyceride in wheat is triglyceride, with minor amounts of diglyceride and
monoglyceride. The glycolipids consist of glycosylglycerides, sterylglycosides, and glycosylceramides.
The ubiquitous plant phosphoglycerides are present, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine,

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phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidic acid, most of the corresponding monoacyl
derivatives of lysophospholipids, and N-acyl phosphohpids. The principal sterols are the C29 and C28 4-
dimethyl sterols sitosterol and campesterol. Significant amounts of cholesterol have occasionally been
reported, but there is not universal agreement these results are accurate. Most of the sphingolipids consist
of ceramide and a series of ceramide glycosides, containing no phosphorus. Acylated diols (with C 2 to
C5) have been reported in wheat (Morrison 1988).

Minerals
Minerals form a small part of the wheat kernel and an even smaller proportion of the endosperm-less
than 1%. Micronutrient malnutrition (―hidden hunger‖) now afflicts over 40% of the world’s
population and is increasing especially in many developing nations. Today, deficiencies of
iron and iodine are of most concern to the nutrition community and healthcare officials
although other nutrient deficiencies, including zinc, selenium, calcium and magnesium may
be prevalent in some global regions. One report shows the following ranges, in mg per kg, for wheat:
iron 18-31, zinc 21-63, copper 1.8-6.2, manganese, 24-37, and selenium 0.04-0.71. Hard wheat
generally contains more of these elements than soft wheat. Potassium is present at about 0.37% in whole
soft wheat (air dry basis), magnesium at 0.15%, phosphorus at 0.42%, and calcium at 335 ppm
(O’Dell et al. 1972). The sodium content of wheat is quite low.
As with most cereal grains, the amount of minerals depends on the soil in which it’s grown.
 Selenium. This trace element has various essential functions in your body. The selenium content
of wheat depends on the soil — and is very low in some regions, including China.
 Manganese. Found in high amounts in whole grains, legumes, fruits and vegetables, manganese
may be poorly absorbed from whole wheat due to its phytic acid content.
 Phosphorus. This dietary mineral plays an essential role in the maintenance and growth of body
tissues.
 Copper. An essential trace element, copper is
often low in the Western diet. Deficiency may
have adverse effects on heart health.
 Folate. One of the B vitamins, folate is also
known as folic acid or vitamin B9. It’s
particularly important during pregnancy.
Some of the most nutritious parts of the grain — the
bran and germ — are absent from white wheat because
they’re removed during the milling and refining
process.
Therefore, white wheat is relatively poor in many
vitamins and minerals compared to whole-grain wheat.

Vitamins
There are considerable variations in published figures
for the vitamin content of wheat, but the grain is
considered to be a significant source of the vitamins
thiamin, niacin, and Bs. Davis et al. 1981 reported the
vitamin content of 406 wheat cultivars from five market
classes. The mean values, in mg per kg, were 4.6 for
thiamin, 1.3 for riboflavin, 55 for niacin, and 4.6 for
pyridoxine. Ranges were 3.3 to 6.5, 1.0 to 1.7, 38 to 93
and 1.6 to 7.9, respectively. From another source, content in a wheat sample (HRS) of other vitamins in
mg per kg on a dry weight basis were, biotin 0.056, folacin 0.56, and pantothenic acid 9.1. The content

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of vitamin A is known to be negligible, but the germ is one of the richest known sources of vitamin E.
In one large sample of wheat, the total tocopherols ranged from 4.9 to 40.1 mg per kg.

Fiber
Dietary fiber is defined as lignin plus the polysaccharide components of plants which are
indigestible by enzymes in the human gastrointestinal tract (Bermink, 1994). These
components are typically divided into two categories. Soluble dietary fiber is those
components that are soluble in water and includes pectic substances and hydrocolloids.
Insoluble dietary fiber is those components that are insoluble in water and includes cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin. Whole grains are good sources of insoluble fiber. Whole wheat is high in fiber
— but refined wheat contains almost none.
 The fiber content of whole-grain wheat is 12–15% of the dry weight.
 As they’re concentrated in the bran, fibers are removed during the milling process and largely
absent from refined flour.
 The main fiber in wheat bran is arabinoxylan (70%), which is a type of hemicelluloses. The rest is
mostly made up of cellulose.
 Most wheat fiber is insoluble, passing through your digestive system almost intact and adding
bulk to stool. Some fibers also feed your gut bacteria
 What’s more, wheat contains small amounts of soluble fibers, or fructans, which may cause
digestive symptoms in people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
 By and large, though, wheat bran may have beneficial effects on gut health.

Pigments
Ripe wheat grain varies from light buff or yellow to red-brown, according to the amount of red
pigmentation in the seed coat. The color will vary little in true breeding cultivars, allowing wheat
varieties to be reliably classified as red or white. Red pigmentation is controlled by three genetic loci,
with the result that depth of color can vary between varieties classified as red. The amber color of some
durum wheats results from the endosperm pigments showing through the translucent exterior layers.
Nearly all bread wheat grown in the U.S. is red, but Australia produces white wheat exclusively.
Canadian wheat is all, or nearly all, of the red type. In some emmer wheats, a purplish kernel color has
been observed. Soft, chalky endosperm increases the paleness of white wheats and decreased the
color of red wheats, while hard, vitreous endosperm has the opposite effect.
The endosperm of wheat has a pale yellow color, which is slightly more intense in hard wheat, as
compared to soft wheat, and durum has even more color. The outer layers of wheat have a slight red to
dark brown color, depending on the cultivar. These pigments are not desired in white bread, but the
yellow color is much less objectionable than the grayish effect given by bran particles. The yellow
color is highly desirable in pasta, however, and therefore is a quality factor in durum semolina. Bran
specks are at least as objectionable in pasta as in bread, and probably more so.
The yellow pigments are primarily carotenoids, hydroxylated xanthophylls (lutein), mono- and di-
esters of lutein, and flavones (primarily tricin). Very small amounts of other xanthine compounds and
chlorophyll decomposition products have also been reported. The bleaching agents used on some types
of flour oxidize carotene; nutritionally this is not important since there is not enough provitamin A in
flour to be a significant source for humans. Xanthophylls are easily oxidized to colorless compounds.
Both carotenes and xanthophylls are insoluble in water but readily dissolve in many organic solvents.
Tricin is the major flavone in wheat. The flavone pigments range in color from yellow to brown.

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A preparation of the enzyme(s) called hpoxygenase is commercially available for use as a bleaching
agent in bread dough. In a rather complex series of reactions, carotene is oxidized by this enzyme
preparation, so that a lighter-colored breadcrumb is obtained.

1.1.1.1 Enzymes
There are certainly hundreds, perhaps thousands, of different kinds of enzymes in wheat.
Among the carbohydrases; in cereals are α-amylases, β-amylases, debranching enzymes, cellulases,
β-glucanases, and many glucosidases. Alpha-amylase appears to be the most important carbohydrase.
Wheat also contains a large number of proteolytic enzymes, such as endoproteolytic enzymes(cleaving
peptide bonds some distance from the ends of protein molecules) and exoproteolytic enzymes
(attacking either the carboxyl or amino termination of a protein molecule). The acid
carboxypeptidases, which are exoproteolytic enzymes reacting at the carboxyl termination, are
relatively abundant. Ester hydrolases include enzymes such as lipases, esterases, and phosphatases;
the first two are differentiated by their ability to break ester linkages from water-insoluble esters and
soluble carboxylic acid esters, respectively. Phosphatases act primarily on esters of orthophosphoric acid.
Phytase catalyzes the hydrolysis of phytic acid to inositol and free orthophosphate. Lipoxygenase,
which catalyzes the peroxidation of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids by molecular oxygen, is
present in relatively high concentration in soybeans and is found in wheat. Polyphenol oxidases
(catechol oxidase, tyrosinase, etc.) oxidize phenols to quinones and are evidently more concentrated in
the bran than in the endosperm; some of their reaction products are colored. Peroxidases and catalase are
classed as hydroperoxidases that catalyze the oxidation of certain aromatic amines and phenols by
hydrogen peroxide; they are also more active in bran than in the endosperm.

1.1.2 Wheat-Processing, Milling

Over two-thirds of the annual harvest of wheat is processed for food. The limited use for industrial
purposes is due mainly to its high price in relation to other cereal grains. The main use of wheat for food
is the manufacture of flour for making bread, biscuits, pastry products, and semolina and farina for
alimentary pastes. A small portion is converted into breakfast cereals. Large quantities of flour are not
sold in the form in which they come from the mill but are utilized as blended and prepared flours for
restaurants, cafeterias, and schools and as all-purpose flours for the private household.

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Bran ~13%
Endosperm ~84%
Germ ~3%
Embryo
Scutellum
Figure 1Wheat Kernel Structure
Industrial uses of wheat include the manufacture of malt, potable spirits, starch, gluten, pastes, and
core binders. Because of the relatively high price, wheat malt is used little in the brewing and distilling
industries. It is used mainly by the flour milling industry to increase the alpha-amylase activity of high-
grade flours. In the USA, small quantities of wheat flour (mainly low-grade clears) are used to
manufacture wheat starch as a by-product of viable (functionally in bread making) gluten. The gluten is
used to supplement flour proteins in specialty-baked goods (hamburger buns, hot-dog buns, hearth-
type breads, specialty breads, etc) and as a raw material for the manufacture of monosodium
glutamate, which is used to accentuate the flavors of foods. Some low-grade flours are used in the
manufacture of pastes for bookbinding and paper hanging, in the manufacture of plywood adhesives,
and in iron foundries as a core binder in the preparation of molds for castings. In Australia, the starch is
a by-product of wheat gluten manufacture. Low-grade flours are also used in Australia as an adjunct in
brewing (as a source of fermentable sugars). The high yields of wheat in western Europe (compared to

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those of corn) make attractive production of starch and gluten, provided both products can be
marketed economically.

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Figure 2Domestic Atta Chakkis

1.1.2.1 Wheat and Flour Quality

In wheat and flour technology, the term quality denotes the suitability of the material for some
particular end use. It has no reference to nutritional attributes. Thus, the high-protein hard wheat flour
is of good bread making quality but is inferior to soft wheat flours for chemically leavened products
such as biscuits, cakes, and pastry.

The miller desires wheat that mills easily and gives a high flour yield. Wheat kernels should be plump
and uniformly large for ready separation of foreign materials without undue loss of millable wheat. The
wheat should produce a high yield of flour with maximum and clean separation from the bran and germ
without excessive consumption of power. Since the endosperm is denser than the bran and the germ,
high-density wheats produce more flour. In production of bread flours, the reduction in protein content
from wheat to flour should be minimum (not above 1%). The test weight is affected by kernel shape,
moisture content, wetting and subsequent drying, and even handling, because these characteristics and
operations affect the grain packing. Weathering lowers

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the test weight by swelling kernels, but the proportion of the endosperm remains the same. Some
environmental factors influence the ease of milling. Bran of weathered and frosted wheats tends to
pulverize, and it is difficult to secure clean separation of flour from bran.

1.1.2.2 Roller Milling

Milling grain as food for man has been traced back more than 8,000 years. Flour milling has advanced
from a primitive and laborious household task to a vast and sophisticated, to a large extent automated
industry. In the production of white flour, the objective is to separate, the starchy endosperm of the
grain from the bran and germ. The separated endosperm is pulverized. A partial separation of the
starchy endosperm is possible because its physical properties differ from those of the fibrous pericarp
and oily germ. Bran is tough because of its high fiber content, but the starchy endosperm is friable. The
germ, because of its high oil content, flakes when passed between smooth rolls. In addition, the
particles from various parts of the wheat kernel differ in density. This makes possible their separation by
using air currents.
The differences in friability of the bran and the starchy endosperm are enhanced by wheat conditioning,
which involves adding water before wheat is actually milled. The addition of water toughens the bran
and mellows the endosperm. The actual milling process comprises a gradual reduction in particle size,
first between corrugated break rolls and later between smooth reduction rolls. The separation is
empirical and not quantitative. The milling process results in the production of many streams of flour
and offals that can be combined in different ways to produce different grades of flour. Still, the offals
contain some of the starchy endosperm particles, and some of the flour streams have little bran and
germ particles.

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Flow Chart 1How Flour is Milled

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ELEVATOR - storage and care of

wheat.

PRODUCT CONTROL - chemists

inspect and classify wheat, blending
is often done at this point
MAGNETIC SEPARATOR - iron or
steel articles stay here.

SEPARATOR - reciprocating screens

remove stones, sticks and other
coarse and fine materials.
ASPIRATOR - air currents remove
lighter impurities

DE-STONER

DISC SEPARATOR - barley, oats,

cockle and other foreign materials
are removed.

Flow Chart 2How Wheat Becomes Flour (A simplified diagram) Continued- Part 1 of 3

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SCOURER - beaters in screen cylinder scour

off inpurities and roughage.

TEMPERING MIXER - moistens wheat

evenly.

TEMPERING - water toughens outer bran

coats for easier separation- softens or
mellows endosperm.

BLENDING - types of wheat are blended to

make specific flours.

IMPACT SCOURER - impact machine

breaks and removes unsound wheat.

FIRST BREAK - corrugated rolls break

wheat into coarse particles.

Flow Chart 3How Wheat Becomes Flour (A simplified diagram) Continued- Part 2 of 3

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from the sifter . . .

broken wheat is sifted
through successive screens
of increasing fineness.

air currents and sieves

separate bran and classify
particles (or middlings).

REDUCING ROLLS - smooth

rolls reduce middlings into
flour.
from the sifter . . .
A series of purifiers,
reducing rolls and sifter
repeat the process.

BLEACHING - flour is
matured and color
neutralized.

from bulk storage . . .

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Flow Chart 4How Wheat Becomes Flour- Part 3 of 3

1.1.2.2.1 Selection and Blending

The miller must produce a flour of definite characteristics and meet certain specifications for a
particular market. The most critical requirement is maintaining a uniform product from a product
(wheat) that may show a wide range of characteristics and composition. Consequently, selection of
wheats and milling according to quality for proper blending are essential phases of modern milling. An
adequate supply of wheat, binned according to quality characteristics, makes it possible to build a
uniform mix to meet some of the most stringent specifications. The availability of rapid, nondestructive,
near-infrared reflectance instruments has made this task substantially easier.

1.1.2.2.2 Cleaning

Wheat received in the mill contains many impurities. Special machines are available to remove those
impurities. Preliminary cleaning involves the use of sieves, air blasts, and disc separators. This is
followed by dry scouring in which the wheat is forced against a perforated iron casting by beaters fixed
to a rapidly revolving drum. This treatment removes foreign materials in the crease of the kernel and in
the brush hairs. Some mills are equipped with washers in which the wheat is scrubbed under a flowing
stream of water. The washed wheat is then passed through a "whizzer" (centrifuge), which removes free
water. In practice, little wheat is washed today, because the process is relatively ineffective, may
actually increase microbial populations, and creates problems of disposing large amounts of polluted
water with a high biological oxygen demand (BOD).

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Figure 3 High Frequency Vibration Cleaning Sieve

1.1.2.2.3 Conditioning

In this process water is added and allowed to stand for up to 24 hours to secure maximum toughening
of the bran with optimum mellowing of the starchy endosperm. The quantity of water and the
conditioning time are varied with different wheats to bring them to the optimum conditioning for
milling. The quantity of added water increases with decreasing moisture content of the wheat, with
increasing vitreousness, and with increasing plumpness. Generally, hard wheats are tempered to 15-
16% moisture and soft wheats to 14-15% moisture. In the customary conditioning, the wheat is scoured
again, after it has been held in the tempering bins for several hours. A second small addition of 0.5%
water is made about 20-60 minutes before the wheat goes to the rolls.

1.1.2.2.4 Breaking

The first part of the grinding process is carried out on corrugated rolls (break rolls), usually 24-30 inches
long and 9 inches in diameter. Each stand has two pairs of rolls, which turn in opposite directions at a
differential speed of about 2.5: 1. In the first break rolls there are usually 10-12 corrugations per inch.
This number increases to 26-28 corrugations on the fifth break roll. The corrugations run the length of
the roll with a spiral cut, which is augmented with an increase in the number of corrugations. As the
rolls turn rapidly toward each other, the edges of the corrugations of the fast roll cut across those of the
slow roll, producing a shearing and crushing action on the wheat, which falls in a rapid stream between
them. The first break rolls are spaced so that the wheat is crushed lightly and only a small quantity of
white flour is produced. After sieving, the coarsest material is conveyed to the second break rolls. The
second break rolls are set a little closer together than the first break rolls so that the material is crushed
finer and more endosperm particles are released. This process of grinding and sifting is repeated up to
six times. The material going to each succeeding break contains less and less endosperm. After the last
break, the largest fragments consist of flakes of the wheat pericarp. They are passed through a wheat
bran duster, which removes a small quantity of low-grade flour.

1.1.2.2.5 Sieving

After each grinding step, the crushed material called stock or chop, is conveyed, to a sifter, which is a
large box fitted with a series of sloping sieves. The break sifters have a relatively coarse wire sieve at the

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top and progressively'-finer silk sieves below, and end with a fine flour silk at the bottom. The sifter is
given a gyratory motion so that the finer stock particles pass through the sieves from the head (top) to
the tail (bottom). Particles that are too coarse to pass through a particular sieve tail over it and are
removed from the sifter box. The process results in separation of three classes of material:, (1) coarse
fragments, which are fed to the next break until only bran remains; (2) flour, or fine particles, which
pass through the finest (flour) sieve; and (3) intermediate granular particles, which are called middlings.

Figure 4 The Sieve

1.1.2.2.6 Purification

The middlings consist of fragments of endosperm, small pieces of bran, and the released embryos.
Several sizes are separated from each of the break stocks; individual streams of similar size and degree
of refinement result from the sieving of several break stocks and are combined. Subsequently, the bran-
rich material is removed from the middlings. This is accomplished in purifiers. Purifiers also produce a
further classification of middlings according to size and thereby complete the work of the sifters. In the
purifier, the shallow stream of middlings travels over a large sieve, while shaken rapidly backward and
forward. The sieve consists of a tightly stretched bolting silk or grits gauze, which becomes progressively
coarser from the head to the tail end of the purifier. An upward air current through the sieve draws off
light material to dust collectors and holds bran particles on the surface of the moving middlings so that
they drift over to the tail of the sieve.
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1.1.2.2.7 Reduction

The purified and classified middlings are gradually pulverized to flour between smooth reduction rolls,
which revolve at a differential of about 1.5: 1. The space between the rolls is adjusted to the granulation
of the middlings. The endosperm fragments passing through the rolls are reduced to finer middlings and
flour. The remaining fibrous fragments of bran are flaked or flattened. After each reduction step, the
resulting stock is sifted. Most of the bran fragments are removed on the top sieve while the flour passes
through the finest bottom sieve. The remaining middlings are separated according to size, are moved to
their respective purifiers, and are then passed to other reduction rolls. These steps are repeated until
most of the endosperm has been converted to flour and most of the bran has been removed as offal b
the reduction sifters. What remains is a mixture of fine middlings and bran with a little germ; this is
called feed middlings. Impact mills have been used in reduction grinding, especially with soft wheats.
Close grinding using clean middlings on reduction rolls, followed by a pin mill or detacher, increases the
yield of flour from a reduction step. This process has been used more for soft than for hard wheats.
The embryos are largely released by the break 'system and appear as lemon-yellow particles in some of
the coarser middling streams. These streams are called sizings. The embryos are flattened in reduction
of the sizings and are separated as flakes during sieving. Germ may be separated also without reduction
of the sizings by gravity and regular air currents. Previously, the entire germ was mixed with the shorts
as feed. Some special uses of germ in foods and as a source of pharmaceuticals have been developed.

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Picture 1Flour Milling Machines

1.1.2.3 Flour Grades

Each grinding and sieving operation produces flour. In addition to the various break and middlings
flours, a small quantity of flour is obtained from dust collectors and bran and shorts dusters. With each
successive reduction, the flour contains more pulverized bran and germ. The flour from the last
reduction, called "red dog," is dark in color and high in components originating from the bran and germ,
such as ash, fiber, pentosans, lipids, sugars, and vitamins. Such flour bakes into dark-colored, coarse-
grained bread but is mostly sold as feed flour.
In a large mill there may be 30 or more streams that vary widely in composition. If all the streams are
combined, the product is called straight flour. A straight flour of 100%, however, does not mean whole-
wheat flour. It means, generally, 75% flour; because wheat milling yields about 75% white flour and
about 25% feed products. Frequently, the more-highly refined (white) streams are taken off and sold
separately as patent flours; the remaining streams, which contain some bran and germ, are called clear
flours. A diagram of flours and milled feed products is given in Figure 8-2. Some clear flours are dark in
color and low in bread-making quality. Some of the better, lighter, clear flours are used in blends with
rye and/or whole wheat flours in the production of specialty breads. The darker grades of clear flours
are used in the manufacture of gluten, starch, monosodium glutamate, and pet foods.
Table 1 Grades of Flour
100 POUND OF WHEAT
72% of Wheat = 100% Straight, All Streams 28% of Wheat = Feed
40% - 60% 14% Bran 14% Shorts
Secon
Clear

Clear
First

Extra Short or Fancy Patent Flour

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100 POUND OF WHEAT

72% of Wheat = 100% Straight, All Streams 28% of Wheat = Feed
70%
Short or First Patent Flour
80%
Short Patent Flour
90%
Medium Patent Flour
95%
Long Patent Flour
100%
Straight Flour 16% Bran 12% Shorts

1.1.2.4 Yields of Mill Products

The plump wheat grain consists of about 83% endosperm, 14.5% bran, and 2.5% germ. These three
structures are not separated completely, however, in the milling process. The yield of total flour ranges
from 72% to 75%, and the flour contains little bran and germ. In ordinary milling processes only about
0.25% of the germ is recovered. Bran range from 12% to 16% of the wheat milled. The remaining by-
products are shorts. The low-grade flour and feed middlings may be sold separately as feed by-products.
The objective of efficient milling is to maximize the monetary value of the total mill products, generally
by increasing the yield of flours.

1.1.2.5 Flour Fractionation

Wheat flour produced by conventional roller milling contains particles of different sizes (from 1 to 150
μm), such as large endosperm chunks, small particles of free protein, free starch granules, and small
chunks of protein attached to starch granules. The flour can be ground, pin milled to avoid excessive
starch damage, to fine particles in which the protein is freed from the starch. The pin-milled flour is then
passed through an air classifier A fine fraction, made up of particles about 40 μm and smaller, is
removed and passed through a second air classifier. Particles of about 20 μm and smaller are separated;
they comprise about 10% of the original flour and contain up to about twice the protein of the

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unfractionated flour. This high-protein flour is used to fortify low-protein bread flours or for enrichment
in the production of specialty baked goods. A comparable fraction containing about half the protein
content of the unfractionated flour is also obtainable.
Air classification has created considerable interest in the milling industry. Its advantages are numerous,
such as manufacture of uniform flours from varying wheats; increase of protein content of bread flours
and decrease of protein content in cake and cookie flours; controlled particle size and chemical
composition and production of special flours for specific uses. A number of equipment and process
patents on fine grinding and separation have been issued. The technology of the process is well known,
yet its benefits and potential have not been fully utilized mainly because of the availability of low and
high-protein wheats and the high-energy cost involved in air classification. In recent years there has
been interest in air-classified low-protein fractions as a replacement of chlorinated wheat flour in high-
ratio cake production.

1.1.2.6 Soft Wheat Milling

Soft wheats are milled by the method of gradual reduction, similar to the method for milling hard bread
wheats. Patent flours containing 7-9% protein, milled from soft red winter wheats, are especially
suitable for chemically leavened biscuits and hot breads. Special mixtures of soft wheats are used to
make cake flours for use in cookie and cake making; such flours usually contain 8% protein or less and
are milled to very short patents (about 30%). Treatment with heavy dosages of chlorine lower the pH to
about 5.1-5.3, weaken the gluten, and facilitate the production of short pastry. Cake flours are sieved
through silk of finer mesh than that used for biscuit or bread flours.

1.1.2.7 Durum Wheat Milling

In durum milling, the objective is the production of a maximum yield of highly purified semolina.
Although the same sequence of operations is employed in the production of flour and semolina, the
milling systems differ in design. In semolina manufacture, the cleaning and purifying systems must
remove impurities and the mill offals. Durum wheat milling involves cleaning and conditioning of the
grain, light grinding, and extensive purification. The cleaning, breaking, sizing, and purifying systems are
much more elaborate and extensive than in flourmills. On the other hand, the reduction system is
shorter in durum mills, because the primary product is removed and finished in the granular condition.
For maximum yield of large endosperm particles, break rolls with U-cut corrugations are employed. The
break system is extensive to permit lighter and more gradual grinding than in flourmills. Durum wheat
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of good milling quality normally yields about 62% semolina, 16% clear flour, and 22% feeds. Particle size
distribution and granulation of semolina are highly important in the production of macaroni.

1.1.2.8 Flour Bleaching and Maturing

Bleaching of flour was introduced as early as 1879 in Britain and around 1900 in America. In the earliest
days flour was treated with nitrogen peroxide. Subsequently other methods came into use to make the
flour whiter and simultaneously improve the dough handling and bread characteristics. The treated
flour possesses baking properties similar to those of flour that has been stored and naturally aged.
Today, much bread and practically all cake flours in the United States are bleached. In addition,
maturing agents are used to obtain maximum baking performance. Flour improvers are used in Great
Britain, Canada and many other countries. In West Germany only ascorbic acid may be used legally as a
flour improver. In still other countries no flour improver is allowed. Agents that have maturing action
but little or no bleaching action include bromates, iodates, peroxysulfates, peroxyborates, calcium
peroxide, and ascorbic acid (which is enzymatically converted to dehydroascorbic acid, an oxidizing
agent). Agents that have both bleaching and maturing effect include oxygen, ozone, chlorine, and
chlorine dioxide. The improvers azodicarbonamide and acetone peroxide have been approved by the
Food and Drug Administration for inclusion with the standards of identity for flour as bleaching and
maturing agents. Acetone peroxide performs a dual function of bleaching and maturing.
Azodicarbonamide H2NCON=NCONH2 is reduced to hydrazodicarbonamide (biurea),
H2NCONHNHCONH2. It has maturing action only. Benzoyl peroxide is added primarily as a bleaching
agent. Additional agents, used less commonly for bleaching, include nitrogen peroxide, fatty acid
peroxides, and certain preparations (e.g., from untreated soy flour) containing the enzyme
lipoxygenase.
Quantitative requirement for oxidation of flours depends on several factors. Generally, as the protein
content increases, the requirement for oxidants increases. Mixing time and oxidation levels compensate
each other to some extent, even though they are not completely interchange- able. As the degree of
milling refinement or flour grade is lowered, oxidation requirements increase, because protein
sulfhydryl groups susceptible to oxidation are found in higher concentrations in the aleurone layer and
the germ than in the starchy endosperm. Low-grade flours have more of those tissues than highly
refined flours.

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It may contain a maximum of 200 ppm ascorbic acid and optimum amounts of the following bleaching
and/or oxidizing (aging) agents (alone or combinations): oxides of nitrogen, chlorine, nitrosyl chloride,
chlorine dioxide, benzoyl peroxide (with carrier), acetone peroxides, and up to 45 ppm
azodicarbonamide. Up to 50 ppm potassium bromate may be added to flours whose baking qualities are
improved by such additions,
Enriched flour contains (mg/lb) 2.9 thiamine, 1.8 riboflavin, 24 niacin, and 13.0-16.5 iron. Its total
calcium content should not exceed 960 mg/lb, and it may contain up to 5% wheat germ or partly
defatted wheat germ.
Instantized flours are prepared by selective grinding or bolting, other milling procedures, or by
agglomerating procedures.
Phosphated flour contains 0.25-0.75% monocalcium phosphate.
Self-raising flour contains a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and one or more acid-reacting substances
added to a maximum level of 4.5 parts per 100 parts of flour to produce at least 0.5% of carbon dioxide.
Cracked wheat is produced by cracking,
Crushed wheatflour by crushing, and
Whole wheat flour by grinding cleaned wheat, other than durum and red durum, to meet specified
granulation requirements. The maximum of potassium bromate in whole-wheat flour is 75 ppm.
The ash content of farina may not exceed 0.6% and of semolina 0.92%, on a moisture-free basis, for
both. Farina may be enriched to contain (per pound) 2.0-2.5 mg thiamine, 1.2-1.5 mg riboflavin, 16.0-
20.0 mg niacin, at least 13.0 mg iron, and 500 mg of the optional ingredient calcium.

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Flow Chart 5How Flour is Fractionated

Table 2 Flour Types (Hard and Soft)

Flour Types Characteristics
Hard Wheat Flours
Top Patent 0.35 - 0.40% ash content: 11.0-12.0% protein
Uses: - Danishes, sweet doughs, yeast doughnuts and
smaller volume breads and buns.
First Baker's 0.50 - 0.55%. ash content: 13.0-13.8% protein
Uses: All purpose strong baker's flour, breads, buns, soft
rolls and puff pastry
First Clears 0.70-0.80% ash content: 15.5-17% protein
Uses: A dark very high protein flour used as a base for rye
bread production; poor color not a factor in finished
product.
Second Clears Low grade flour, not used in food production. Constitutes
less than 5% of flour produced by a mill.
Soft Wheat Flours
Cake Flour 0.36-0.40% ash content: 7.8 - 8.5% protein, chlorinated to
4.5- 5.0 pH.
Uses: High-ratio cakes (cakes with a high amount of sugar
and liquid in proportion to flour), angel food cakes and
jelly rolls.
Pastry Flour 0.40-0.45% ash content/8.0-8.8% protein, chlorinatedto
5.0-5.5 pH, (also available unchlorinated).
Uses: Cake, pastries and pies.
Cookie Flour 0.45-0.50% ashcontent: 9.0 - 10.5% protein
Uses: Cookies and blended flours. For large-scale
manufacturers, flour can be chlorinated to the user's

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Flour Types Characteristics

specifications.

Whole Wheat Flour Various bran coat granulations produce coarse to fine
whole-wheat

Table 3Commercial Flour Types

Per 100 Parts of Dry Substance
Type & Maximum Moisture Maximum Maximum Minimum
Denomination % Ash Cellulose Gluten
Flour Type 00 14.50 .50 NA 7
Flour Type 0 14.50 .65 .20 9
Flour Type 1 14.50 .80 .30 10
Flour Type 2 14.50 .95 .50 10
Flour -Wheat 14.50 1.40 - 1.60 1.6 10
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