Sultan Qaboos University

LANC 2161

English for Engineering 2

Fall 2023
 Acknowledgements
Third Edition by
Shafaq Abidi

Second Edition by Edward Furlow

First Edition by Bill Huguelet

Reading Units
by Elena William
Reviewed by Dr. Zakiya Al Naddabi
Edited & Revised (Units 1, 2 & 3) by Fayaz Ahmed

The ideas for some of the experiments and activities in this book came from
“How to Write Laboratory Reports” by Faisal Al Maamari

Thanks to Susan Finley, Randy Campbell, Oksana Prozorova,

Krisztina Poto, Misbah Naqvi, Marie Gallagher, Minder Kaur, Kim Vaughn,
and all other LANC2161 teachers, past and present,
for improvements to this book and all other course materials!

© Center for Preparatory Studies, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman 2022
 Contents
Reading Page
Unit 1: The Journey of a Pendulum Clock across the Atlantic 1-10
Unit 2: Bee Robots 11-21
Unit 3: Driverless Cars 22-32
Unit 4: Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster 33-42
Unit 5: Smart Construction Materials 43-52
Unit 6: Cybersecurity 53-62
Writing
A Complete Lab Report 63-65
Pendulum Experiment 66-70
Title 71-72
Aim 73-76
Introduction 77-80
Apparatus 81-85
Procedure 86-91
Results 92
Discussion 93-98
Conclusion 99-101
Appendices
Lab Report Writing – Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide: Title and Aim 102-103
Writing Guide: Apparatus 104-105
Writing Template: Title – Aim - Apparatus 106-107
Writing Guide: Procedure 108-109
Writing Template: Procedure 110-111
Writing Guide: Discussion 112-113
Writing Template: Discussion 114-115
Writing Guide: Conclusion 116
Writing Template: Conclusion 117
Lab Report Language-Examples 118-120
References: Reading texts 121-122
 Unit 1

Theme: Science in the Past

The Journey of a Pendulum Clock across the Atlantic

Getting started
A. Answer the following questions and discuss your answers with a partner.
● How have timekeeping devices improved our lives? Give a few examples.
● What devices do you use to track and manage your time? Why?
B. Watch a YouTube video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74I0M0RKNIE .
Answer the following questions as you watch the video. Discuss your answers in small
groups.

1. What are some of the timekeeping devices showed in the video?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is it important to keep track of time?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Understanding the gist

Now skim through the text quickly and answer the following question.
A. The main purpose of the reading text is to ____________________________________.

a. discuss the history of various timekeeping devices

b. describe how a pendulum clock was transported to North America
c. explain why timekeeping initially failed in America
d. highlight the importance of Huygens’ work on pendulum clocks

Scanning the text

B. Read the text quickly to find answers to the following questions.

a. In which year did Huygens invent the pendulum clock?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
b. When did the first pendulum clock locally made by an American become available?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. Which symbol is used to represent the gravitational acceleration at earth’s surface?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
d. Where was the first pendulum clock used by the Americans constructed?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_ 1
1 For millennia, humanity's one-and-only
reliable way to keep time was based on the
Sun. Over the course of a year, the Sun, at any
location on Earth, would follow a predictable
pattern and path through the sky. Sundials, no
more sophisticated than a vertical stick
hammered into the ground, were the best
timekeeping devices available to our
ancestors. Sundial

2 All of that began to change in the 17th century. Galileo, among others, noted that a
pendulum would swing for the exact same period regardless of the amplitude1 of the swing or
the magnitude of the weight at the bottom. Only the length of the pendulum mattered. Within
decades, pendulums with a period of exactly one second were introduced. For the first time,
time could be accurately kept here on Earth, with no reliance on the Sun, the stars, or any
other signs from the Universe.

3 The most renowned clockmakers of the 17th century were Dutch, led by the great physicist
Christiaan Huygens. Huygens' wide-ranging achievements across various fields like Wave
Mechanics, Optics, Physics, and Astronomy were outstanding. He is credited with the
discovery of centripetal force, the exploration of Saturn’s rings, and the discovery of its
largest moon, Titan. However, his most significant contribution, which revolutionized
timekeeping, was the invention of the pendulum clock in 1656.
4 Huygens was not the first to recognize that the
gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, known today
as g, was constant, but he was the first to put the idea to
exceptionally good use! By applying that phenomenon to
the problem of an oscillating pendulum, he was able to
derive an extremely useful mathematical formula for the
period of a pendulum: T = 2π √ (L/g), where T is the
pendulum's period, L is the length of the pendulum, and g is
the gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface. For this
derivation, many historians consider Huygens as the first
modern theoretical physicist.
One of the very first clocks ever produced by Christiaan Huygens, which operated on the principles of a fixed-period pendulum.
The clock still survives today, and can be found in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.

5 But this was the beginning of Huygens' work on pendulum clocks. He realized that, so long
as the pendulum was powered so that it would continuously tick away with the same, small
amplitude to its swings, one could keep time indefinitely. He then went a step further. Not
only did he build his own clocks, but also published a design anyone could follow to create a
clock. Within a few years, clockmakers in the Netherlands and England were able to keep the
time, accurately, to within a few seconds over the span2 of a full day. For nearly 300 years,
until the early 20th century, the pendulum clock remained the most accurate timekeeping
device accessible to humanity!
6 However, the American continents, then known as the New World, had no such
clockmakers available. It wouldn't be until 100 years after Huygens that the first American-
made pendulum clock became available. The way, then, to keep time more accurately than a
1.amplitude: the maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation
2.span: the complete duration or length of a day 2
sundial, was to bring Dutch-made clocks via ship to the New World. Any motion could
disturb the period of a pendulum as accurate timekeeping — at that time — was only possible
in a stationary location. The clock would thus be constructed and calibrated in the
Netherlands, shipped overseas, and then restarted at its destination. Compared to a sundial,
whose accuracy was limited to about ±15 minutes a day, the pendulum clock had the ability
to reduce the margin of errors to merely a few seconds.

7 As soon as the clock arrived and was set up, it began keeping time more accurately than
any timepiece ever used on the North American continent. At least, that was the assumption
everyone made for about a week or so. But it soon became clear that something was amiss.
The Sun and the Moon were not rising at their predicted times, but rather were off by a bit.
Even worse, the amount that the clock was off by appeared to be getting longer over time!
Whatever error was at play was steadily accumulating. Instead of occurring at the predicted
time on the clock, these celestial events were taking place earlier. The clock was not only
running slow, but appeared to be losing close to a minute per day.
8 This was completely unacceptable! Timekeeping, by the end of the 17th century, was
accurate to within 2-to-4 seconds per day. Why would that be happening? The only cause that
the colonists of the New World could think of — since there were no clockmakers (or clock-
repair experts) present — was that the timepiece must have had been somehow damaged
during the journey. The solution available in that situation was sending it back to the
manufacturer for repairs. So this enormous, heavy, complicated clock had to be shipped all
the way back to Europe, where the Dutch clockmakers examined it for defects. When they
restarted the clock back in the Netherlands, they received the biggest shock of all: the clock
worked exactly as designed, keeping time as precisely as any other similar timepiece: to
within just a few seconds per day!
9 However, a scientific investigation into this ‘mystery’ offers a logical explanation for what
actually happened to the clock. In fact, no one's observations or measurements were wrong,
nor were there any mechanical problems. The only thing that was different, that nobody
realized at the time, was that the acceleration due to gravity at Earth's surface, g, is not the
same everywhere on Earth. Our Earth is not a perfect, uniform sphere, but a rotating layer-
cake. The atmosphere sits atop the surface, which has a complex and unique topography3 that
rises miles and miles above sea level in many locations, and dips down miles beneath sea
level in the deepest trenches. There is an enormous, massive ocean on top of the crust, which
floats atop the mantle, enveloping the outer and inner core. As the Earth rotates, it bulges at
the equator and compresses at the poles.
10 When all these factors are taken into account, it becomes clear that the value of g we
learned in the Physics class — 9.81 m/s2 — is only the average value of g at planet Earth's
surface. If you went all over the world, you would find that g actually varies by about ±0.2%
in either direction: from 9.79 to 9.83 m/s2. The difference in g is most pronounced with
latitude: equatorial latitudes have lower values of g and polar latitudes have larger values.
Because of the latitude4 differences between the Netherlands and the location where the clock
resided in the New World, g was different (smaller) by about 0.01 m/s2 in the Americas. This
is what caused the clock, operating with a period given by T = 2π √(L/g), to lose about 45
seconds per day. The solution to this problem, therefore, is ensuring that the ratio, (L/g),
stays constant. If g is 0.1% smaller in a new location, the length of the pendulum (L) can be
shortened by 0.1%, to keep time correctly again. Similarly, if g is larger, the pendulum length
can be adjusted accordingly to maintain the consistency of the period without which proper
timekeeping is not possible.
3.Topography: the shape of the land including its hills, valleys etc.
4.latitude: the angular distance of a place north or south of the
3
Earth's equator
11 The reason our pendulum clock keeps track of time so well is that each swing of a
pendulum takes the same amount of time to complete. The only two factors that determine
the swing time, under ideal conditions, are the length of the pendulum and the gravitational
acceleration at Earth's surface. Even though the Earth is very close to a perfect sphere, and
even though the acceleration due to gravity is nearly constant everywhere, these tiny
variations do make a difference. People in the 17th century had no idea that the Earth's
gravitational acceleration varied, and the truth finally emerged in the most unexpected way.
The simple act of bringing a Dutch-made pendulum clock to the New World had proved to be
an unintentional but ground-breaking experiment that forever changed our understanding of
time and timekeeping.

Reading for details

A. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions.

1.The pendulum clock was shipped back from America to its manufacturers because ____.
a. it had some parts missing
b. it got damaged on the way
c. it was running too slowly
d. the design was defective

2.The writer compares the earth to a ‘layer cake’ in paragraph 9 to highlight its _____.
a. diverse climate
b. enormous oceans
c. perfect shape
d. uneven surface

3.The period of a pendulum swing varies only when there is a change in its __________.
a. weight
b. length
c. material
d. width

4.The clock worked perfectly in the Netherlands but not in America because _________.
a. America didn’t have any expert clockmakers at that time
b. the gravitational acceleration in the two places is not the same
c. America and the Netherlands are in two different time zones
d. it wasn’t handled carefully on arrival in America

4
5.The last sentence in paragraph 5 (“For nearly 300 years…”) implies that _________.
a. pendulum clocks are not reliable any more
b. some of the oldest clocks were functioning accurately till the early 20th century
c. there are new devices that can keep time more precisely than pendulum clocks
d. the pendulum clock is the most accurate timekeeping device ever produced

6.The Dutch clockmakers shut down the clock before shipping it overseas because ___.
a. the period of the pendulum could change while in motion
b. they thought too much movement might damage the clock permanently
c. none of them travelled with the clock to fix any possible problems
d. the pendulum, if powered on, could be affected by strong winds

7.The clock would have functioned perfectly in America if _____________________.

a. the weight of the pendulum had been adjusted
b. the length of the pendulum had been increased
c. it had not been transported over such a long distance
d. the length of the pendulum had been reduced

8. The underlined pronoun ‘they’ in paragraph 8 refers to ________________.

a. pendulum clocks
b. people from the Netherlands
c. people from America
d. the Dutch clockmakers

B. Decide whether the following statements are T(True) or F(False). Choose NI (No
Information ) if the information is NOT provided in the text.

a Galileo and Huygens worked together. T F NI

b Earth’s gravitational force always remains constant at different latitudes. T F NI

c In the 17th century, many European scientists experimented with the pendulum. T F NI

d Huygens didn’t want other clockmakers to use his ideas. T F NI

e Americans used different types of timekeeping devices before the pendulum T F NI

was introduced.

f When the clock arrived in America, people immediately realized it was not T F NI
functioning properly.

g The Dutch clockmakers were unable to identify the problem when the faulty T F NI
pendulum clock was shipped back to them.

h Some Americans opposed the idea of bringing a pendulum clock from Europe. T F NI

5
Vocabulary in context
A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 exploration (p3) a help in achieving something

2 contribution (p3) b adjust precisely for accurate measurement
3 phenomenon (p 4) c become greater in quantity
4 derivation (p 4) d investigation; examine closely
5 accessible (p5) e a difference between similar things
6 calibrate (p 6) f stay
7 accumulate (p7) g getting or obtaining something
8 reside (p11) h to make certain
9 ensure(p10) i an unusual fact or event of scientific interest
10. variation(p11) j can be used or reached

A2. Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options.

1. Which of the following means “to become visible”?

a. derive b. ensure c. emerge
2. If something doesn’t change, it’s ________________.
a. complex b. constant c. enormous
3. Based on the _______that it would rain, she took an umbrella when leaving the house.
a. variation b. contribution c. assumption
4. If something involves the theory of a subject or area of study, its____________
a. practical b. theoretical c. phenomenal
5. If something is indefinite, it ______________
a. cannot end after some time b. never ends c. stops for some time

A3. In each group below, one word is different from the rest. Identify the odd word.

1 gadget device strategy equipment

2 unattainable accessible available reserved
3 accuracy precision mistake error
4 intricate complicated simple complex
5 small massive tiny enormous

6
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Identify their part of speech and
write them down in the correct column in the table. Add other appropriate forms of each
word to complete the table.

exploration constant accumulate accuracy contribution

derivation accessible indefinitely theoretical complex

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

complex

C. Use the words from activities A and B to fill in the gaps in the sentences below.
Change the word forms where necessary.

1. Scientific instruments must be carefully _________________ to achieve precise results.

2. Environmentalists are concerned about the ____________________ of plastic waste.
3. Completing the marathon was an _______________ challenge.
4. The use of fossil fuels has greatly _______________ to climate change.
5. A significant population of foreigners ______________ in Oman.
6. These government documents are highly sensitive and are __________________ only
to authorized persons.
7. During their summer vacation, the students began an______________ of local wildlife,
learning about various species and their habitats
8. She ______________ great satisfaction from playing the piano.
9. Gravity is a natural _________________ that pulls everything to the earth’s surface.
10.The man may lack ______________ understanding of science, but he is capable of
coming up with useful practical solutions to day-to-day problems.
11. McDonald's has closed its business in Russia ________________ because of the ongoing
war and the resulting uncertainty.

7
D. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the vocabulary list (highlighted in the text
and provided at the end of the lesson) to complete the following summary of the reading
text. Change the word forms where necessary.

Huygens’ finest 1. ____________, the pendulum clock, was one of the most amazing
inventions of the 17th century. This 2. ___________ transformed timekeeping in
unprecedented ways. To 3. _______________its accuracy Huygens carefully 4. ___________
his clock so that the time of each oscillation of the pendulum was exactly one second.

In the 17th century, this new technology was not 5. ____________ in America, so a pendulum
clock constructed in the Netherlands was shipped there. However, when the clock arrived in
America, it failed to keep time 6. _______________. The general 7. ___________ was that
the timepiece must have been damaged during the journey. However, the truth 8. ________
after it was shipped back to Europe. There was no manufacturing defect. The reason for this
failure is the change in earth’s gravitational acceleration which is not an absolute 9.
____________ across various surfaces and is subject to minor 10. _______________at
different latitudes.

E1. Vocabulary Practice: "Jumble Word Challenge"

The following are a set of jumbled words. Unscramble them to form vocabulary words
you have practiced in this unit. The goal is to solve as many words as you can within a
set amount of time.

SEREDI RESIDE

8
E2. Vocabulary Practice: "Crossword Puzzle Challenge"

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

• Words can go across or down
• Letters are shared when the words intersect

9
Post-reading tasks
Group discussion
1. What are the three most important qualities that enable some individuals to make life-
changing inventions and discoveries?

2. What were some of the greatest challenges scientists faced in the past? How do you think
they overcame these challenges successfully?

Reflection

A. Write down two surprising/interesting things that you’ve learned from the reading text.

1. ______________________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________________

B. Which reading activity did you enjoy the most? Why?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

C. Which reading activity did you find most challenging? Why?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

D. Think of one difficulty that you faced while reading the text? What reading strategy did
you use to overcome the difficulty?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary list
Note: Words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text.
device exploration contribution assumption
constant phenomenon derivation enormous
theoretical available indefinitely emerged
accessible accuracy accumulate ensure
calibrate reside complex variation

10
 Unit 2

Theme: Innovation and our environment

Bee Robots
Getting started
A. Answer the following questions and discuss your answers with a partner.
● Why are bees important to our environment?
● Is bee-keeping a popular traditional industry in Oman?
● What are you going to read about? What does the title ‘Bee Robots’ bring to your mind?

B. Watch a short You Tube video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fz_OMI-3sY

After you watch the video, answer the following questions. Discuss your answers in small
groups.
1. What is the video about?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you support the idea of using robots to pollinate flowers? What are the pros and cons?
Pros Cons

Understanding the gist

Now skim through the text about robot pollinator bees and answer the following questions.
Compare your answers in pairs.

A. Are the bee robots discussed in the text perfect like the bee robots in the video?
Why/why not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

B. Which of the following best summarizes the main idea of the text?
a. Bee robots are not always reliable.
b. Bee robots may assist in commercial pollination but cannot replace bees.
c. Bee robots will prevent the disappearance of bees in the future.
d. Bees can help in reducing environmental pollution.

11
1 There are about 20,000 species of bees in the
world, and they are probably the most important
insect pollinators. The thousands of bee species
have unique flight patterns and floral preferences,
and many have co-evolved with flowers in such a
way that their body sizes and behaviours almost
perfectly complement the flowers they pollinate.
Sadly, bees of all types are in decline worldwide, Bee-flower-pixabay-lilimey.jpg-10 24x577
largely because of environmental pollution, fungi, viruses, parasites,
insecticide and herbicide use, habitat loss, and global warming. Also, bees do not travel long
distances well. In the United States, they are transported hundreds of kilometres and after
several days of pollination, they die of fatigue.

2 If all of the world's bees died off, there would be major rippling effects throughout
ecosystems. This would alter the composition of habitats1 and affect the food webs they are
part of and would likely trigger extinction or decline of other dependent organisms .In terms
of agriculture, the loss of bees would dramatically alter human food systems. Many fruits and
vegetables cannot be grown at a large scale, or cheaply, without bees. Blueberries and
cherries, for example, rely on honeybees for up to 90 percent of their pollination. Without
bees, the availability and diversity of fresh produce would decline substantially, adversely
affecting the quality of human nutrition.

3 Scientists from the Warsaw University of Technology have built a robot called B-Droid to
address the problem caused by the decline in the number of bees. The team led by Dr. Rafał
Dalewski from the Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering took four years to create a
system for mechanical plant pollination that operates exactly like bees. The first version of
the device is a robot on wheels that carries a computer with all
necessary software. This allows it to perform its tasks
autonomously. “We set a target, press 'start' and it goes to
work”, Dalewski explains. “The robot observes the terrain2 using
on-board cameras and checks the captured images for the
presence of flowers in the vicinity.” Furthermore, by analysing
images from the cameras it can create a map of the terrain and
determine its own location. Then, if the robot “sees” a flower, it
establishes its location, prepares the data needed to reach the
flower with a brush for moving pollen, collects the pollen and
transfers it to the next flower. B-Droid performs this entire B-Droid on wheels
mission without any human intervention. But this robotic pollinator is still in its early stages
of development and deployment.

4 Another version of the B-Droid robot is simply a quadcopter, whose software remains on
the ground. All operations are supervised by an external
computer, but the on-board electronics including cameras allow
analysis and data transfer, among other things. The images from
the cameras are used by the computer to plan its route to the
flowers. Once it determines their location and its own, a flight
path is plotted. However, this flying device has its limitations as
it consumes excessive energy, and the on-board battery allows
only a few minutes of flight.
Flying B-Droid
Source: https://www.businessinsider.com/bee-drone-pollination-japanese-researchers-2017-3
wheels
1.habitat: natural home of plants and animals
2.terrain: stretch of land

12
5 In the summer of 2016, the scientists confirmed that their wheeled robot can successfully
pollinate garlic and strawberries. The rows of garlic plants, where the device worked, yielded
approx. 165 seeds. In contrast, the area not used for testing produced only 23 seeds. The
seeds formed due to B-Droid's pollinating activities were also 6% heavier, which means
higher quality. Dalewski plans to bring the product to market within the next few years. Work
on the flying system also finished in September 2016, but the researchers have not had a
chance to perform field testing yet.

6 Researchers at Harvard University have been working for the past several years to design a
new type of Robo-bee that mimics the way an insect’s brain works. A team at Harvard
University’s School of Engineering and Applied Sciences have successfully tested an
autonomous robotic bug that can fly. Possessing the same size, mass, and weight of a large
house fly or bumble bee, the pollination drone could eventually fly around in large swarms to
assist humans in agricultural production in the future. One of the team’s initial goals was
getting the drone to hover, which proved exceedingly difficult because the fragile robots were
unstable. This robot can now fly up to only 10 seconds before breaking.

7 Eijiro Miyako, a researcher at Japan's National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology (JAIST), has designed what he believes could one day be a partial solution: an
insect-sized drone capable of artificial pollination. Coated with a patch of horsehair bristles
and an ionic liquid gel, these pint-sized robots can collect and transfer pollen from one plant
to another. Miyako's Robo-bee prototype is still very much a work in progress, far from a
real-world field test. For one thing, it is not autonomous. The drones must be remote-
controlled, by humans, and can be difficult to manoeuvre. "It was hard to control the robotic
pollinators so that they would precisely hit the target sites," says Miyako. He is looking into
incorporating artificial intelligence, GPS, and a high-resolution camera to further improve
his design.

8 Researchers at JAIST have also come up with a brilliant

idea- pollen-infused soap bubbles blown out of a bubble maker
mounted to a drone. While blowing bubbles at a park with his
son, Miyako realized that if those bubbles could carry pollen
grains, they would make an ideal delivery system since
bubbles could be generated and transported easily, and they
literally disappear after doing the job! Further testing Miyako’s bubble maker drone
Source:
showed that 4 mg of pollen per ml of solution resulted in soap bubbles https://spectrum.ieee.org/drone-bubble-machine-pollina
that were each
carrying up to 2,000 individual grains of pollen, stuck to the surface of the bubble
membrane. The researchers were also able to mix in boron, calcium, magnesium, potassium,
and a few other things in the bubble solution to make it as pollen-friendly as possible and
showed that pollen grains within the solution were able to germinate successfully.

9 The real test, of course, was whether a soap bubble could be effectively used like other
methods to pollinate a plant. Surprisingly, after the shooting of the soap bubbles onto the
targeted flowers, young fruits formed after 16 days. The volumes of fruits obtained over time
also increased steadily and exhibited3 approximately 95 percent success rate. The final goal
of this research was to demonstrate the scope and efficacy4 of this technique by performing
robotic pollination on a larger scale using a drone with a bubble machine gun capable of
producing 5,000 bubbles per minute. In order to manage the downwash from the drone’s
rotors, the researchers mixed a stabilizer into the bubble solution, which was so effective that
some of the bubbles stuck around for five hours! They were smaller, and only carried about
3.exhibited: showed, displayed
4.efficacy: effectiveness

13
300 pollen grains each, but that is still a lot of pollen with nearly a hundred bubbles
generated per second. The researchers observed that it only took one single bubble landing
on the pistil of a flower to result in pollination, with an overall success rate of 90 percent
when the drone moved over flowers at a respectable 2 m/s at a height of 2 m.

10 The primary limitation of this technique is the fact that the substances used to produce the
bubbles, while biocompatible, are not eco-friendly enough. That is why the researchers are
now exploring the possibility of using ‘edible’ bubbles. They also point out that the drone
technique would need some further modifications and a better control mechanism to be
commercially viable. Miyako acknowledges the skepticism about his project, but notes that
he sees his drones not as a replacement for bees, but as a potential future ally in the face of
their extinction.

11 Quinn McFrederick, an entomologist5 at the University of California, recognizes the

immense potential of robotic technology to pollinate commercial crops, but he, like many
other experts, supports a more cautious approach. He believes that protecting our natural
pollinators is more important than developing new technology. "On top of more practical
arguments, such as costs to smaller farms," he says, "I would not like to live in a world where
bees are replaced by plastic machines. Let's focus on protecting the biodiversity6 we still have
left."

Scanning the text

A. Complete the following table with the missing information about different robots described
in the text. Work individually and then compare your answers in small groups.

Name of Robot Notes

B-Droid ● 2 types: 1. Robot on wheels 2. ………………….

● Created at Warsaw University of Technology
● Research team led by …………………………………..
● Wheeled robots used in ……………. to successfully pollinate
…………….. and strawberries

Robo-bee ● Developed by scientists at …………………………

● A flying robot that looks like a/an …………………
● Can fly up to ………… seconds at a time

● Developed at JAIST

……………………….
● Research team led by ……………………………………
● ………. filled bubbles carried by a ………………………
● Has the capacity to produce ………… bubbles per minute

5.entomologist: person who studies insects

6.biodiversity: variety of plant and animal life in the world

14
Reading for details
A. Answer questions 1-7 individually
Choose the correct option for each of the following questions.

1.Which of the following is mentioned in the text as a cause for the loss of bee population?
a. use of bee-robots
b. cold climate
c. use of fertilizers and chemicals
d. lack of facilities for beekeeping

2. Loss of bees could be dangerous because it would_____________________________ .

a. result in more pollution
b. cause new diseases
c. make farming impossible
d. reduce agricultural production

3. One of the disadvantages of the robotic bug created by scientists at Harvard University is
that _________________________.
a. it is too heavy
b. it cannot fly for too long
c. it does not look like an insect
d. it needs remote assistance

4. Miyako’s artificial pollinator fails to locate flowers precisely because ________________.

a. it has not been field tested yet
b. it is difficult to control
c. it cannot work without human support
d. it does not have a camera

5. Which one of the following statements is Not True about the bubble maker drone?
a. Soap bubbles effectively pollinate the flowers.
b. Substances used to produce bubbles are environment friendly.
c. The process is convenient and hassle free.
d. A variety of nutrients added to the bubbles make them pollen friendly.

6. In the concluding paragraph, Quin McFrederick implies that ____________________ .

a. robots cannot play an important role in commercial pollination
b. new technology will allow robots to replace bees one day
c. bees should be protected to prevent them from extinction
d. he does not like the idea of using bee robots

7. The reading text is mainly about _________________

a. the progress in the development of robotic bees
b. impact of pollution on bees
c. importance of bees in pollination
d. limitations of robotic bees

15
B. Decide whether the following statements are T(True) or F(False). Choose NI (No
Information ) if the information is NOT provided in the text.

a. The flying B-Droid uses too much of power for its flight. T F NI

b. The flying B-Droid is fitted with highly efficient and long-lasting batteries. T F NI

d. The bubble making drone created at JAIST was inspired by a child’s toy. T F NI

e. The small bee robots tested at Harvard university are stable and strong. T F NI

f. The B-Droid quadcopter has a rain sensor to prevent flight in bad weather T F NI

g. The seeds pollinated by the wheeled B-Droid are lighter in terms of weight. T F NI

h. Miyako’s Robo-bee prototype can fly for more than 10 seconds. T F NI

i Miyako’s Robo-bee was successfully used to pollinate flowers during field T F NI

trials.

C1. Compare the bee-robots discussed in the text by completing the following table.
Note down their main strengths and weaknesses. Work individually.

Name of Robot Strengths Weaknesses

B-Droid on wheels

Flying B-Droid

Robo-bee
Developed at Harvard
University
Miyako’s Robo-bee

Bubble maker drone

Developed at JAIST

C2.Work in small groups. Use the information from the table above to discuss the
robots and decide which one has the potential to become the most effective artificial
pollinator in the future.

16
Vocabulary in context
A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 environment a happening at the beginning

2 extinction b Move or turn skilfully
3 diversity c to produce or create
4 determines d main, basic
5 initial e surroundings in which people, animals and plants live
6 manoeuvre f small changes made in something such as a design, plan etc.
7 generate g variety
8 primary h establish, find out the facts about something
9 potential i a situation in which something no longer exists
10 modifications j possible

A2. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context in the text and choose
the most appropriate answer.

1. In paragraph 1, the verb complement means _________________ .

a. improve b. match c. commit d. compare
2. In paragraph 2, the verb alter means _______________________ .
a. replace b. cause c. move d. change
3. In paragraph 3, the adverb autonomously means ____________________ .
a. slowly b. independently c. dangerously d. naturally
4. In paragraph 7, the word incorporating means ______________________ .
a. producing b. controlling c. including d. improving
5. In paragraph 11, the adjective cautious means _______________________ .
a. able b. doubtful c. unrealistic d. careful

A3. Find words with similar meanings and group them into 5 lexical sets.

Find one synonym for each set in the text. (You can look at the wordlist).
1_________________ __________________ ______________ _______________
2_________________ __________________ _______________ _______________
3_________________ __________________ _______________ _______________
4_________________ __________________ _______________ _______________
5_________________ __________________ _______________ _______________

17
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Identify their part of speech and
write them down in the correct column in the table. Add other appropriate forms of each
word.

decline environment generate primary extinction

autonomous diversity target potential alter

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

primary

C. Use the words from exercise A to fill in the gaps in the sentences below. Change the
form of the word if necessary.

1. It's important to learn how to ___________________a vehicle safely in different traffic

situations.
2. The future of transportation is heading towards ____________vehicles that can operate
without human intervention.
3. Each __________________ has unique talents and abilities that contribute to the overall
success of a team.
4. The outcome of an experiment is often __________________ by the variables and factors
involved in the study.
5. The latest _________________ of the software includes several bug fixes and performance
enhancements.
6. The solar panels ________________ electricity by converting sunlight into usable energy.
7. You can _________________ the settings of your smartphone to customize it according to
your preferences.
8. The marketing team identified a specific _______________ audience for their new product
launch.

18
9. The ___________________ made to the design significantly improved the performance of
the machine.
10. The company plans to _______________ artificial intelligence technology into their new
product line.
11. It's important to be _____________________ while crossing the road to avoid accidents.
12. The robot _______________ human movements with remarkable precision and accuracy.
13. The ________________focus of the research study is to investigate the effects of climate
change on marine life.

D. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the vocabulary list (highlighted in the text
and provided at the end of the lesson) to complete the following summary of the reading
text. Change the word forms where necessary.

The a. __________ of pollinator bees would be a/an b. __________ disaster that could
threaten the c. __________ of our eco-system. Can artificial intelligence help to partially
solve this problem? Scientists are trying to design bee robots that have the d. __________ to
pollinate flowers e. _____________ without any human support. Though these robots f.
___________ generated some controversy and debate, they are now attracting a great deal of
interest. Most scientists agree that robots cannot replace bees altogether but could offer a
mechanism in the future to deal with the crisis caused by a rapidly g. ____________ bee
population.

E1.Vocabulary Practice: "Jumble Word Challenge"

The following are a set of jumbled words. Unscramble them to form vocabulary words you
have practiced in this unit. The goal is to solve as many words as you can within a set amount
of time.

ATETGR TARGET

19
E2.Vocabulary Practice: "Crossword Puzzle Challenge"

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

• Words can go across or down
• Letters are shared when the words intersect.

Down
Across
Post-reading tasks 1. to produce or create
4. variety
2. surroundings
7. small changes
3. happening at the beginning
8. move or turn skilfully
5. establish
9. main
6. possible

Critical Thinking: Discuss in small groups.

• Read each question carefully and take time to think about your response.
• Write down your ideas and any supporting evidence or examples in the space provided.
• Discuss your answers with your group to get feedback and different perspectives.
• Use your critical thinking skills to analyse and evaluate your own answers and those of your
peers.

1. Is it a good idea to replace natural pollinators like bees with artificial ones? Why/why
not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

20
2. What are the biggest challenges involved in implementing these robotic solutions on a
large scale in different types of environments?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. If you were to design a robotic pollinator, which features from the different robots
mentioned in the text would you incorporate? Why?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary list
Note: Words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text.
autonomous alter environment determines
complement diversity extinction mimics
version target potential manoeuvre
primary individual initial modifications
generate incorporate decline cautious

21
 Unit 3

Theme: Innovations in Technology

Driverless Cars
Getting started
A. Answer the following questions and discuss your answers with a partner.
● Would you ride in a driverless car? Why/why not?
● Do you think driverless cars should be available in Oman? Why/why not?
B. Watch a YouTube video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__EoOvVkEMo .
After you watch the video, answer the following questions. Discuss your answers in small
groups.

1. What is the video about?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What did you like the most about the car shown in the video? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Understanding the gist

Now skim through the text about driverless cars and answer the following questions. Compare
your answers in pairs.
A. Which answer best summarizes the main idea of the reading text?

a. Driverless cars will create more problems than solutions.

b. Driverless vehicles offer the ultimate solution to all traffic-related problems.
c. Self-driving cars offer many benefits, but they also have several limitations.
d. Further modifications are necessary to make autonomous cars safer in the future.

Scanning the text

A. Read the text quickly to find answers to the following questions.

a. What are some of the advanced technologies used in autonomous cars?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
b. Who are different kinds of drivers unqualified to drive a normal car?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
c. Where is the Mcity Test Facility located?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
d. Which industrial site uses the largest number of self-driving vehicles?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_
22
1 Late night in the Metro area of Phoenix,
Arizona, under the artificial glare of streetlamps,
a car can be seen slowly approaching. Active
sensors on the vehicle radiate a low hum. A green
and blue 'W' glows from the windscreen, giving
off just enough light to see the inside with an
empty driver seat! The wheel navigates the curb
steadily and the car comes to a halt as an arrival
notification pings on the phone of the person
waiting for it. When she opens the door to step
inside, a voice greets her over the vehicle's sound Waymo Driverless Taxi GettyImages-1142125645

system. "Good evening, this car is all yours – with no one upfront." This is a Waymo One
robotaxi, hailed just 10 minutes ago using an app. The open use of this service to the public,
slowly expanding across the US, is one of the many developments signalling that driverless
technology is truly becoming a part of our lives.

2 The World Health Organization estimates that more than 1.3 million people die each year as
a result of road traffic crashes. "We want safer roads and less fatalities. Automation could
ultimately provide that," says Camilla Fowler, head of automated transport for the UK's
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Since autonomous systems will have a faster reaction
time and increased reliability as compared to human drivers, there will be fewer traffic
collisions1. According to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 93% of
crashes are caused by driver errors than by technical errors. More than 5 million vehicles crash
worldwide every year and just getting intoxicated drivers away from the steering wheel can
reduce this high number of fatalities by 39%.

3 Autonomous cars come equipped with the most advanced set of technologies. These include
computer vision, advanced GPS, radar and LIDAR (Laser Imaging, Detection and Ranging).
Driverless technology works by using numerous cameras and sensors that detect and collect
distance and speed data from objects, cars, and the road. The information collected from these
cameras and sensors are then fed into a control module. This module comes with unique
software that calculates information from the sensors and cameras to command appropriate
functions, such as the braking system pump and steering2 motor. For the cars to travel from
Point A to B, the autonomous technology uses the GPS system, which works with a navigation
system to continuously calculate speed, direction, orientation, and position of the surrounding
objects, the vehicle itself, and other vehicles around. This data is stored on a cloud and is
continuously updated on the onboard computer.

4 Since autonomous technology runs on a ‘computerized brain’, monitoring vehicle health

would not be a problem. The technology is able to rapidly detect engine, brakes, or any other
vehicle problems and facilitate3 preventative maintenance. Simultaneous monitoring of
surrounding objects, vehicles, and other factors also allow for better vehicle performance.
Overall, autonomous technology can reduce the space required for parking, physical road
signage, the need for vehicle insurance and traffic police. Moreover, since autonomous vehicles
can drive themselves, it wouldn’t matter if the “driver” is unlicensed, intoxicated, blind, or
even underage.
1.collision: crash
2.steering: parts of a car that allow you to control its direction
3.facilitate: to make it easier for a process or activity to happen 23
5 The self-driving technology allows users to input pre-set journeys or send a message to the
car via their smartphone to pick them up from their current location. Additionally, it even
provides ‘just in time’ scheduling for pick-up and delivery, thus reducing vehicle downtime.
Autonomous vehicles use a GPS system in addition to a navigation system with an ability to
determine the shortest routes to take the passengers to their specific destination. This helps
users to carry out their daily commuting much easily and faster. In the future, autonomous
vehicles may even be able to tackle various environmental conditions, such as heavy rainfall
and snow, more efficiently.

6 So, does this mean that there will be no crashes at all? Well, nobody dares to make that claim,
for now at least. This is mainly because autonomous vehicles are still in the testing and
prototype phase. The days when they might come into mass production are still quite far away.
Before driverless technology becomes mainstream, there are many challenges and obstacles
that need to be addressed for these vehicles to be safe. Interruptions in GPS or vehicle
communication could shut down the autonomous system which may increase the risks of
accidents. If the system malfunctions and manual driving is required, inexperienced drivers
may not be able to cope. Furthermore, driverless technology might not be able to respond
correctly to traffic rules and regulations. In the worst–case scenario, self-driving cars could
pave4 the way for terrorist activities. For instance, these cars could potentially be loaded with
explosives and sent to a destination to carry out deadly attacks.

7 There are other challenges self-driving technology has to contend with. It may not function
perfectly under severe weather conditions. The system may freeze, thus creating risks of
potential collisions. For autonomous cars to function efficiently, high-quality specialized maps
would need to be prepared. They would be costly to produce worldwide. It is a fact that
driverless cars are highly expensive and will be unaffordable for most people. Driving
enthusiasts may not find the whole concept of driverless technology appealing and may refuse
to forfeit5 control of their vehicles. The implementation of driverless technology could also
be catastrophic for the economy as millions of taxi drivers worldwide would find themselves
unemployed.

8 And these are not the only challenges. The industry has to deal with a host of other
constraints6 such as following specific government regulations, rethinking the highway code,
managing public perception, transforming the infrastructure of our streets, towns, cities, and
addressing the big question of fixing liability for road accidents. "The whole insurance industry
is looking into how they are going to deal with that change from a person being responsible to
the vehicle itself being in charge," says Richard Jinks, Vice President of Oxfordshire-based
driverless vehicle software company Oxbotica, which has been testing its technology in cars
and delivery vehicles at several locations across the UK and Europe.

9The biggest hurdle for those in the driverless technology industry is getting the cars to operate
safely and effectively in complex and unpredictable human environments. At the Mcity Test
Facility at the University of Michigan, experts are trying to address this issue. The world's first
purpose-built testing ground for autonomous vehicles is a mini town of sorts, made up of 16
acres of road and traffic infrastructure. It includes traffic signals and signs, underpasses,
building facades, tree cover, home and garage exterior for testing delivery and ride-hailing, and
different terrains such as road, pedestrian walkways, railway tracks, and road-markings which
4.pave way: to make it easier for (something to happen)
5.forfeit: surrender, to give up
6.constraints: something that limits one’s freedom to do what they
want
24
the vehicle must navigate. It is here that experts
test driverless vehicles in scenarios that even
the most experienced of drivers may be pressed to
handle, from children playing in the street to two
cars trying to merge on a junction at the same
time. “While testing driverless technology one
needs to consider hundreds of different variables
in any given situation," explains Necmiye Ozay,
associate professor of electrical and computer Mcity Test Facility at the University of Michigan
engineering at the University of Michigan. Creator: Scott C. Soderberg
photography.umich.edu

10 Much of the driverless technology already in use exists in industrial settings like mines,
warehouses, and ports and in high-risk environments, from nuclear plants to military settings,
to limit the dangers to human life. A Rio Tinto mine in Western Australia, for example, is
currently operating the largest autonomous fleet in the world. The trucks are controlled by a
centralised system miles away in Perth. Apart from these industries, Ozay further predicts the
possible use of “lighter robotic vehicles that could potentially use sidewalks and bike paths
with limited speeds – for delivering things such as food and groceries."

11Autonomous public transport systems are the answer to traffic congestion in the future. They
can be programmed to optimize routes and speeds, reducing unnecessary stops or slowdowns.
They can respond to real-time traffic conditions more quickly and accurately than human
drivers, potentially making the commute smoother for passengers. With the successful
implementation of autonomous public transportation, there could be fewer private vehicles on
the road. If the public transport system proves to be efficient, reliable, and convenient,
commuters might prefer it over owning a personal vehicle. This switch could reduce the total
number of cars on the streets, leading to less congestion. Experts believe that redesigning city
infrastructures can support the adoption of this carbon emission-free technology, leading us
towards more sustainable ways of living and thereby drastically transforming urban life.

12 While the technology holds promise, the transition7 to autonomous public transportation
would also require significant changes in infrastructure, legislation, and public acceptance.
It's a potential solution for the future, but it is not without challenges and questions that need
to be addressed. Much in the same way that electric charging stations have slowly entered car
parks, side streets, and service stations, so too will autonomous vehicles eventually make their
way into our everyday lives. Years from now, we may well be wondering how we ever lived
without them.

Reading for details

A. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions.

1. High frequency of traffic accidents all over the world today is a result of ___________.
a. technical problems
b. bad roads
c. human errors
d. severe weather conditions
7.transition: when something changes from one form or
state to another
25
2. The writer uses the phrase ‘preventive maintenance’ in paragraph 4 to mean _________ .
a. fixing a major problem after it is detected
b. driving carefully to prevent accidents
c. maintaining a safe speed while driving
d. fixing a problem quickly at an early stage

3. According to the text, the data collected by cameras and sensors in a driverless car does NOT
include information about ________________________ .
a. the road
b. other cars
c. passengers in the car
d. surrounding objects

4. Driverless technology is bad for the economy because it would result in _______________.
a. loss of jobs
b. high expenses
c. shortage of fuel
d. terrorist activities

5. Self-driving technology is extensively used in industrial settings to mainly ____________.

a. reduce cost of production
b. prevent accidents
c. reduce pollution
d. improve the quality of products

6. Insurance companies find the idea of driverless cars highly challenging because _________.
a. they will have to charge more money from customers
b. there will be no accidents in the future
c. more accidents will result in making huge payments
d. they cannot hold people responsible for accidents

B. Complete the following table by identifying the specific function of each technology in
a driverless car. Compare your answers in pairs.

Technology Function

cameras & sensors

control module

GPS technology

26
C. Choose one of the following options (True/False/No Information) for each statement.

a. Self-driving cars could be used for illegal activities. T F NI

b. Implementation of driverless technology can resolve traffic related issues. T F NI
c. Driverless cars cost less and will be affordable for most people. T F NI
d. Waymo One is the most popular robotaxi service in the USA. T F NI
e. Autonomous public transport vehicles could potentially run all night. T F NI
f. Much of the driverless technology already in use exists in industrial settings T F NI
and high-risk environments.
g. Robotic vehicles are currently being used to deliver fruits and groceries. T F NI
h. Most road accidents are caused by intoxicated drivers. T F NI

D1. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of driverless vehicles discussed in the text
and complete the table below with bullet points. Work individually.

Advantages Disadvantages
● ●

● ●

● ●

● ●

● ●

● ●

● ●

D2. Group debate: Work in small groups of four and debate on the following topic:

“Driverless cars should be allowed to operate widely.”

• Two members should speak in support of the topic statement whereas the other two
members should argue against the statement.
• Use the bullet points from the table above to express your point of view.
• Conclude the debate by either agreeing or disagreeing with the statement as a group.
• Nominate one member from each group to summarize and report the discussion to the
rest of the class.

27
Vocabulary in context
A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 reliability a basic systems or structures necessary for the

management of a country or an organization
2 maintenance b long-term efficient use, able to continue
without causing damage to the environment
3 orientation c full of traffic or people
4 perception d can be trusted
5 infrastructure e those who travel short distances regularly
6 implementation f loss of life in an accident, casualty
7 commuters g routine checks and repairs
8 sustainable h spatial arrangement, alignment
9 congestion I putting into action
10 fatalities j way of thinking

A2. Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options.

1. Which of the following means “an official rule or order”?

a. congestion b. regulation c. perception

2. If something cannot be foreseen, it’s ________________.

a. unreliable b. sustainable c. unpredictable

3.Which option corresponds to “one of the several things that cause or influence a situation”?

a. fatal b. factor c. identical

4. If a system malfunctions, it ________________________.

a. functions flawlessly b. increases efficiency c. fails to function properly

5. If a/an ______________ is poorly defined, it cannot be understood.

a. variable b. concept c. expert

A3. Circle the word that does NOT belong to the group.

1 several numerous few various

2 find out spot overlook detect
3 expert specialist commuter master
4 flexible unstable variable constant
5 stop halt move pause

28
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Identify their part of speech and write
them down in the correct column in the table. Add other appropriate forms of each word.

variable detect implementation commuter perception

sustainable reliability regulation concept expert

Noun Verb Adjective

detect

C. Use the words from above activities (A & B) to fill in the gaps in the sentences below.
Change the word forms where necessary.

1. Several _____________ such as weather, soil quality, and sunlight influence the growth of
plants.

2. The machines in the factory are due for their _________________ once every three months.

3. The city is trying to reduce ___________by encouraging people to use public transportation.

4. The car came to a sudden ______________when the red traffic light abruptly changed from
green to red.

5. Before we started the hiking trip, our guide gave us an ______________to make sure we
knew the direction to follow in the forest.

6. The weather in this region is highly _________, making it difficult to plan outdoor activities.

7. It is easy to make laws but challenging to _______________ them.

8. The temperature remained constant while pressure was a _____________ in the experiment.

9. The spread of cancer can be prevented with early _____________ of the disease.

10. My computer often __________________when I try to open too many programs at once.

29
D. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the vocabulary list (highlighted in the text
and provided at the end of the lesson) to complete the following summary of the reading
text. Change the word forms where necessary.

Introducing driverless technology is one of the biggest engineering challenges of this century.
Transforming the vehicle itself to make it autonomous is only one side of the issue. This 1.
__________ will not become a reality unless people’s 2. ________________ about it is
drastically altered. Moreover, existing 3. ______________ in most cities is awfully inadequate
for self-driving cars. 4.________________ upgrades and modifications will be required to
ensure seamless integration of autonomous vehicles into the transportation system. Transport
rules and 5. __________________ need to be completely re-structured as well to accommodate
these cars.

6. ____________________ are optimistic about these revolutionary changes to our lifestyles

that will usher in a more 7. ________________ way of life. They hope that an autonomous and
8. ___________________ public transport system will liberate 9. _________________ from
the hassles of pollution, congestion and road-safety issues, ultimately leading to a significant
reduction in 10. _________________ .

E1.Vocabulary Practice: "Jumble Word Challenge"

The following are a set of jumbled words. Unscramble them to form vocabulary words
you have practiced in this unit. The goal is to solve as many words as you can within a set
amount of time.

FTLAA FATAL

30
E2. Vocabulary Practice: "Crossword Puzzle Challenge"

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

• Words can go across or down
• Letters are shared when the words intersect.

Down
Across 1. routine checks and repairs
6. official rule or order 2. unforeseen
8. basic systems or structures 3. can be trusted
9. putting into action 4. way of thinking
10. full of traffic or people 5. fails to function properly
11. efficient and environment friendly 7. spatial arrangement, alignment

31
Critical Thinking: Discuss in small groups.

• Read each question carefully and take time to think about your response.
• Write down your answers and any supporting evidence or examples in the space provided.
• Discuss your answers with your group to get feedback and different perspectives.
• Use your critical thinking skills to analyse and evaluate your own answers and those of your
peers.

1. What measures can be taken to enhance the safety and security of autonomous vehicle
technology?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What social and cultural changes might occur as a result of the widespread use of driverless
cars?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think an autonomous shuttle system would solve student parking issues and the
congestion at SQU during peak traffic hours? Why/why not?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. What changes to the SQU campus would you recommend for the successful implementation
of the autonomous shuttle system?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary list
Note: Words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text.
detect orientation maintenance congestion

factor concept implementation halt

regulation perception infrastructure fatalities

unpredictable expert variable numerous

reliability sustainable commuter malfunction

32
 Unit 4

Theme: Failure Analysis of an Engineering Project

Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster

Getting started
Watch 0-4:15 of the YouTube video on the Challenger disaster.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUALwYsXSm8
A. What crossed your mind as you saw the explosion and heard the bone-chilling words “major
malfunction”? Share your thoughts with another student.

B. Have you heard of any similar incidents in space exploration history?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Understanding the gist

Now skim the text about the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster and answer the following
questions. Compare your answers in pairs.

A. Which of the following options best summarizes the main idea of the reading text?

a. The Challenger disaster happened because of the bitterly cold weather on the launch date.
b. The Challenger disaster happened because the shuttle was too old and over-used.
c. The Challenger disaster was the result of a technical fault that could have been fixed.
d. The Challenger disaster occurred because the crew lacked expertise.

B. According to the text, could this accident have been prevented? Why/why not?

___________________________________________________________________________

C. Where did you find evidence for your answer?

Paragraph(s) __________________________

Scanning the text

A. Scan the text to find the missing facts about the Challenger disaster:
Date: No. of crew:

Time: (____) seconds after launch Time (taken for search and rescue operation):

Place: No. of survivors:

Type of engine fuels used:

33
 (source: pininterest.m)

1 On January 28, 1986, the world watched in horror as the Space Shuttle Challenger broke
apart just 73 seconds into its flight, killing all seven crew members. It was a shocking and tragic
event that left an indelible mark on the history of space exploration The spacecraft
disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11:39 a.m.
Debris rained into the Atlantic Ocean for more than an hour after the explosion.

2 The crew of Challenger was a diverse and accomplished group, consisting of five NASA
astronauts, a payload specialist, and a civilian teacher. Each of the crew members was carefully
selected for their expertise and experience. Christa McAuliffe was selected as part of NASA's
Teacher in Space program, which aimed to inspire the next generation of students to pursue
careers in science and engineering. Her inclusion on the Challenger mission had generated a
great deal of excitement and interest from the public. On the night before the launch,
temperatures dipped below the freezing point. Despite the excitement and anticipation
surrounding the launch, there were some concerns about the weather conditions on the day of
the launch. The shuttle engineers were skeptical about O-rings and their ability to withstand
the cold temperatures, but these concerns1 had been ignored or downplayed by some NASA
officials and contractors.

3 Despite these concerns, Challenger was launched at 11:38 a.m. Eastern time amid more
media attention than usual. The crew members boarded the shuttle and prepared for their
mission, unaware of the tragic events that would unfold2 just minutes later. Salvage crew spent
several weeks recovering pieces of the shuttle and carefully bringing up the remains of the
seven astronauts. The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were recovered
from the ocean floor after a three-month search and recovery operation. Remains that could be
identified were turned over to the families, while the rest were buried in a monument to the
Challenger crew at Arlington National Cemetery.
1. concerns: worries or anxieties about something
2. unfold: to happen, takes place
34
4 The disaster had a profound impact on the United States and the world, as people watched
in shock as the shuttle exploded live on television. An investigation was immediately launched
to determine the cause of the accident. The shuttle program was immediately grounded. A
presidential commission was convened to look into the incident, chaired by former Attorney
General and Secretary of State William P. Rogers. It included Neil Armstrong, the first man on
the moon, Sally Ride, the first American female NASA astronaut and eminent physicist
Richard Feynman among others. The commission primarily looked into the technical causes of
the accident. The investigation revealed that the disaster was caused by the failure of the O-
ring seals on the solid rocket boosters (SRBs). This caused a chain of events that ultimately led
to the catastrophic failure of the Challenger.

5 O-rings were made of a polymeric material called elastomeric, which was designed to be
flexible and to maintain a tight seal even as the rocket boosters expanded and contracted during
launch. However, the elastomeric3 material became brittle and less flexible at low
temperatures, which reduced the resiliency of the O-rings. At T+37 seconds, just after the
Challenger cleared the launch tower, the vehicle encountered a period of extreme aerodynamic
stress as it passed through Mach 1. The intense aerodynamic forces caused the right SRB to
flex, which opened a gap in the O-ring seal joint between the bottom of the SRB and the
external fuel tank. Hot gases from the burning fuel inside the SRB then escaped through the
gap in the O-ring and began to impinge4 on the lower part of the liquid oxygen tank, which was
filled with super-cold liquid oxygen at -183°C. This caused the aluminum skin of the liquid
oxygen tank to rupture, and the liquid oxygen rapidly turned to gas and escaped, which
destabilized the vehicle.

6 As the vehicle ascended, the leak expanded, and after 59 seconds a 2.4 metre stream of flame
emerged from the hole. This grew to 12 metres and gradually eroded one of the three struts that
secured the booster’s base to the large external tank carrying liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
for the orbiter engines. At T+64 seconds, just 27 seconds after the rupture of the liquid oxygen
tank, the Challenger began to break up, starting with the right SRB. The explosion of the SRB
caused the remaining structure of the Challenger to disintegrate, resulting in the loss of all
seven crew members on board.

3.elastomeric: relating to a type of polymer with elastic properties

4.impinge: have an effect or impact, especially a negative one
35
7 The investigation following the disaster revealed that the failure of the O-ring seals was
caused by a combination of factors, including:

• Unusually cold weather: The temperature at the launch site had dropped to an unusually
low level, which caused the O-rings to become brittle and lose their sealing capability.
The temperature was below the minimum operating temperature for the O-rings, which
had never been tested or qualified for such low temperatures.

• Design flaws: The design of the SRB joints was inherently flawed and made the O-
rings vulnerable to damage and failure. The joint design had several problems,
including asymmetry, limited contact area, and an inadequate sealing system.

• Management failures: NASA management had failed to adequately address the

concerns raised by the engineers at Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for
building the SRBs. The engineers had recommended that the launch be postponed until
the temperature increased, but their concerns were ultimately overruled by NASA
management.

A US House of Representatives report from the committee on Science and Technology

concluded that it was a long-standing failure in safety protocols, combined with an
unsustainable launch rate that led to the disaster.

8 In response to the disaster, NASA implemented a number of changes to improve the safety
of space shuttle flights. One of the most significant changes was the establishment of the Office
of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance which was responsible for overseeing all aspects
of safety and quality control within NASA. The agency also established the Aerospace Safety
Advisory Panel, an independent organization that was tasked with providing advice and
recommendations to NASA on safety matters.

9 NASA also made significant changes to the design and operation of the space shuttle. The
agency implemented a number of new safety features, including improved O-ring seals,
redundant electrical systems, and better thermal protection for the shuttle's exterior. NASA also
developed new protocols for launching and aborting shuttle missions, which were designed to
ensure the safety of the crew in the event of an emergency.

10 In addition to these technical changes, NASA also made changes to its organizational
culture and management practices. The agency established new communication channels
between engineers and management emphasizing the importance of safety and reliability in
all aspects of the space shuttle program. NASA also implemented new training programs for
astronauts and ground crew members, which were designed to improve their understanding of
safety procedures and to prepare them for emergency situations.

11 The Challenger disaster was a tragedy that shocked the world and led to significant changes
in the way space exploration is approached. The loss of seven brave astronauts was a reminder
of the risks and dangers that are inherent in space travel, and of the importance of taking all
possible measures to ensure the safety of those who venture into space. Through its
investigation and subsequent reforms, NASA demonstrated its commitment to learning from
its mistakes and to continuously improving the safety and reliability of its space exploration
programs. It took several years before manned space flight missions resumed.
Note: The text is adapted and synthesized from several sources - see reference list in Appendix
.... 36
Reading for details
A. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions.

1. Engineers were cynical before the Challenger launch because ______________ .

a) astronauts were not trained for the cold weather
b) crew members were not experienced
c) they were concerned about too much media attention
d) cold temperatures could pose a risk to the shuttle's O-ring seals

2. What was the main purpose of NASA's ‘Teacher in Space’ program?

a) to inspire students to go in for careers in science and engineering
b) to get a teacher to deliver lessons from space
c) to encourage public to fund the space exploration programmes
d) to recruit more astronauts for future missions

3. What caused the liquid oxygen tank to rupture?

a) extreme heat from the burning fuel inside the SRB
b) collision with space debris
c) extreme cold from the liquid oxygen inside the tank
d) a design flaw in the liquid oxygen tank

4. What changes did NASA implement after the Challenger disaster?

a) complete ban on space shuttle flights
b) improved safety measures for space shuttle flights
c) the establishment of a new space exploration program
d) a reduction in funding for NASA's space programs

5. What does the Challenger disaster teach us about space exploration?

a) Space exploration is inherently dangerous.
b) Careful planning can minimize risks in space exploration.
c) Space exploration is not worth the money invested.
d) O rings should not be used in space shuttles.

B. Choose one of the following options (True/False/No Information) for each statement.

a. The immediate cause of the Challenger disaster was the failure of two T F NI
rubber O-rings
b. NASA space programme was not well funded. T F NI

c. After the Challenger disaster, the shuttle missions were never resumed. T F NI

d. Joint design in the Solid Rocket Boosters was inherently flawed. T F NI

e. O-ring seals were tested in low temperatures before the launch. T F NI

37
Vocabulary in context

A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 indelible a a small part broken off or separated from something

2 skeptical b involving or causing sudden great damage or suffering
3 profound c remains or pieces of something that are left after it has
been destroyed in an accident, explosion etc.
4 protocol d having doubts or reservations; not easily convinced
5 reliability e ability to bend or compress easily
6 catastrophic f having a strong influence or deep effect
7 anticipation g making marks that cannot be removed or forgotten
8 flexible h quality of being consistent and trustworthy
9 debris i the act of looking forward to something
10 fragments j the official procedure or system of rules

A2. Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options.

1. Which of the following means “to follow or continue along a path”?

a. unfold b. pursue c. implement
2. If something can be easily broken, it’s ________________.
a. expandable b. brittle c. flexible
3. Students coming from different countries have _______________ backgrounds.
a. diverse b. similar c. identical
4. If a plane is grounded, it ________________________
a. can fly b. cannot fly c. has crashed
5. If someone is eminent, he/she cannot be ______________
a. famous b. respected c. unimportant

A3. Circle one word from each group that is different from the rest.
1 adequately carefully appropriately satisfactorily
2 repair rupture burst tear
3 apply enforce ignore implement
4 proportion imbalance asymmetry unevenness
5 restart finish continue resume

38
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Add other appropriate forms for each
word.

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

diverse
anticipation
flexible
implement
adequately
eminent
reliability
asymmetry
catastrophic
resume

C. Use the words from the above exercises (A) to fill in the gaps in the sentences below.
Change the form of the word if necessary.

1.The ____________that resulted from the explosion of the rocket created a hazard for the
nearby wildlife.

2 Sudden ______________in the dam caused a massive flood that destroyed homes and
businesses in the surrounding area.

3.The investigation team searched the area for any ___________that could provide clues to the
cause of the airplane crash.

4.The ___________nature of the material meant that it was prone to cracking and breaking
under stress

5. After taking a break from work to travel the world, she was ready to ____________her career
with renewed energy and enthusiasm.

6.The images of the first moon landing have left a/an ___________mark on the minds of people
around the world.

7. The speaker's words had a/an ______________impact on the audience, leaving them deep
in thought and reflection.

8. Following proper ______________is essential in the healthcare industry to maintain patient

safety and privacy.

9. The feeling of excitement grew stronger as the release date of the highly ______________
movie approached.

10.Spacecraft operators constantly monitor for___________ of debris that could pose a threat
to space missions.

39
D. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the vocabulary list (highlighted in the text
and provided at the end of the lesson). Change the word form where necessary.

1. Engineering failures can have disastrous consequences, often resulting in loss of life and
property damage. One example of an engineering failure is the _________________ collapse
of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, which was caused by the bridge's _________________
design and inadequate wind resistance. Another example is the explosion of the Space Shuttle
Challenger in 1986, which was due to a failure of the O-ring seal. To prevent such failures, it's
important for engineers to ________________the highest standards of safety and quality in
their designs. Engineers must also be willing to learn from their mistakes and make necessary
changes to prevent future failures. While engineering failures can be devastating, they also
provide valuable lessons and opportunities for improvement to ensure the ________________
of critical systems and infrastructure.

2. Space exploration has always been a subject of ________ interest, with many people eagerly
waiting to see what new discoveries and advancements will be made. It is a field that attracts
some of the most ________________scientists and engineers, who are driven by the desire to
expand our knowledge of the universe. However, not everyone is convinced of the benefits of
space exploration, and some remain _________________about the risks involved. Despite this,
many continue to ________________space exploration, knowing that the potential benefits
could have a far-reaching impact on our understanding of the world around us.

E1.Vocabulary Practice: "Jumble Word Challenge"

The following are a set of jumbled words. Unscramble them to form the target words you have
practiced in this unit. The goal is to solve as many words as you can within a set amount of
time.
KERCEGAW WRECKAGE

FREMNTSAG
COORPOTL

SEKAPTICL
EEXLBILF

DRUNGEDO YBIEIIARLL
T
AINTPIOCTANI IOHTCATARSCP

40
E2.Vocabulary Practice: "Crossword Puzzle Challenge"

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

• Words can go across or down
• Letters are shared when the words intersect.

Down

Across 1. remains
2.to follow a goal, idea etc.
3. remains 5. showing variety
4.to follow a goal, idea etc. 6. to put into effect
8. showing variety 7. procedure
10. to put into effect 9. burst or tear

41
Critical Thinking: Discuss in small groups.

• Read each question carefully and take time to think about your response.
• Write down your answers and any supporting evidence or examples in the space provided.
• Discuss your answers with your group to get feedback and different perspectives.
• Use your critical thinking skills to analyse and evaluate your own answers and those of your
peers.

1. How did you feel while reading about the Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster? What
emotions did you experience?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Do you think space missions are too dangerous and not worth the risks involved?
Why/Why not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. Do you think the funds allocated for space missions could be better utilized for making
life on earth sustainable? Why/Why not?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary List
Note: Words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text.

debris anticipation eminent adequately

indelible pursue catastrophic asymmetry
fragments diverse flexible reliability
profound grounded brittle implement
skeptical protocol rupture resume

42
43
 Unit 5
Theme: Innovation in the Construction Industry
Smart Construction Materials
Getting started
A. Answer the following questions and discuss your answers with a partner.
● What kind of new materials may be used in the future to construct buildings?
● How do you think the cost of constructing new buildings could be reduced in the future?
B. Watch a YouTube video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lC8x6oEhhZI
Answer the following questions as you watch the video. Discuss your answers in small
groups.
1. What is ‘bio-concrete’ and how does it work?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How will the use of ‘bio-concrete’ help in the construction of buildings in the future?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Understanding the gist

Now skim the text quickly and answer the following questions.
A. In which paragraph do you find the information presented in the video? __________

B. Which of the following best summarizes the main idea of the reading text?
a. Smart construction materials will minimize power consumption in the future.
b. Research is being conducted to produce self-healing concrete.
c. Smart construction materials will help to make constructions more sustainable.
d. Shape-shifting metals have changed the way buildings are constructed.

Scanning the text

A. Read the text quickly to find answers to the following questions.

a. What type of rock is produced when self-contained pods in smart concrete mix with water?
__________________________________________________________________________
b. What provides insulation to walls made of transparent concrete?
__________________________________________________________________________
c. What does the name ‘Automobile Materials’ refer to in the text?
__________________________________________________________________________
d. Which material is used in making fire-proof blankets because of its excellent thermal
insulation property?
__________________________________________________________________________

43
1 Architectural marvels and infrastructure assets, including towers, bridges, dams, and tunnels
can face significant damage, or even complete collapse, when exposed to strong forces like
wind or seismic vibrations. The challenge of designing these structures to be resilient and
durable continues to test the skills of engineers. Despite determined efforts to develop designs
resistant to earthquakes and wind, our built environment remains susceptible to damage during
intense natural events. This vulnerability stems from the limited energy dissipation and load
resistance capacities of structures built using conventional methods. These traditional
structures struggle to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The limitations of
traditional structures have prompted researchers to explore the use of innovative, smart
material technologies in construction. Thus, considerable emphasis is being placed on
employing smart materials as a means to enhance cost-effectiveness, environmental
sustainability, and safety.

2 Smart materials, when incorporated into a structure, are engineered to respond intelligently
to any environmental stimuli such as temperature, pressure, the presence of oxygen or climatic
changes. They can offer a wide range of advantages in construction technology. Their enhanced
toughness, strength, and ductility contribute to improved durability and a prolonged lifespan.
Additionally, these materials exhibit superior resistance to corrosive1 elements, chemicals and
abrasions. Efficiently reacting to extreme environmental conditions, these innovative
components also boast self-healing, diagnostic, and structural control capabilities. This
exciting area has caught the attention of scientists worldwide, who are now developing
products once thought only possible in Hollywood fantasy movies.
Crack exposes bacteria
3 One such innovative application of smart materials can be
seen in concrete construction, a significant area due to the
widespread use of concrete in building infrastructure.
Concrete, as a primary building material, has its own
vulnerabilities2. It begins to deteriorate when subjected to Bacteria multiply when water fills crack
elements such as water, wind, stress, and pressure. Until
now, the typical response to structural instability in concrete
has been to repair or replace it. However, an innovative
solution presents itself - what if one could simply add a bit
of water to address this issue? Enter the world of smart Bacteria produce healing products
concrete, a novel variant that contains dormant bacteria
spores and calcium lactate within self-contained pods. When
these pods interact with water, they produce limestone,
filling the cracks and fortifying the concrete. It's projected G
Source: R researchgate.net
that this self-healing concrete could cut the lifetime cost of concrete by up to 50% by
eliminating the need for repair. While tests are ongoing to determine the sustainability of the
bacteria, there is optimistic anticipation about the imminent introduction of smart concrete to
the construction industry.

4 While self-healing concrete represents a significant advancement in smart material

applications, the innovations do not stop there. Engineers are continually pushing boundaries,
revolutionizing conventional materials like concrete, commonly seen as solid and hefty. A
stunning breakthrough in this transformation is the development of concrete mixtures capable
of transmitting light, also known as translucent concrete. The development of translucent
concrete involves either incorporating fiber optics into the concrete mixture or replacing certain
components of traditional concrete with transparent alternatives. This inventive material
represents a recent development in green construction, offering a functional and
1.corrosive: damaging
2. vulnerability: weakness, shortcoming 44
comprehensive solution that can reduce power consumption. As it can transmit light, rooms
with walls made of transparent concrete can benefit from natural illumination3. The embedded
optical fibers can act as insulators, making this material particularly useful in cold climates. In
addition to its practical benefits, transparent concrete also lends an aesthetic appeal to
buildings.

5 Expanding the horizons of innovation, the concept of self-healing materials has emerged as
a groundbreaking development within the realm of smart materials. These artificially created
materials possess the remarkable ability to autonomously repair damage resulting from material
failure and degradation, eliminating the need for external intervention. Autonomic healing is
achieved through the incorporation of microencapsulated healing agents containing chemical
initiators or catalysts within the polymer matrix. The market has already seen the introduction
of self-healing coatings, sealants, and adhesives, with notable advancements showcased by the
US based company Autonomic Materials. Their self-healing coatings, utilized in marine-based
structures like ships and oil rigs, are crafted from polymers that react with each other upon
rupture, facilitating the process of self-repair.

6 Although Autonomic Materials' discovery currently focuses on water-based structures, the

company is actively exploring the development of materials with broader applications in the
construction industry. Scientists are conducting tests on a self-healing coating designed
specifically for concrete. Remarkably, this material can self-heal when exposed to sunlight, as
the ultraviolet (UV) rays react with concrete particles, causing them to expand and fill the
cracks. The journal ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces recently highlighted the scientific
breakthrough of this coating, but emphasized that it is not yet ready for industrial use.

7 Another noteworthy area of exploration lies in shape-shifting metals and their potential
impact on the durability of structures such as skyscrapers, bridges, and homes. These metals
possess the ability to withstand significant stress and temporarily change shape, but they are
engineered to "remember" their original form and revert back to it if altered. When utilized in
the construction of critical infrastructure like bridges, they can provide added resilience4
against the forces of hurricanes or earthquakes. While the practical implementation of this
remarkable metal is still primarily in the developmental phase, scientists are actively
researching its potential applications within the construction industry.

8 Aside from the fascinating advancements in shape-shifting metals that could revolutionize
construction by offering superior resilience
against natural calamities, there are also
other cutting-edge materials gaining
significant attention. Aerogels, Aluminium
Oxynitride (ALON), and Carbon fiber,
each with unique characteristics, are
broadening possibilities across multiple
sectors from construction and military to
air purification and automobiles. The blend
of these state-of-the-art materials with Apple Installs Carbon Fibre Roof on New “Theatre” Building
traditional construction practices could set Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=carbon+fiber+buildings
the stage for safer, more efficient, and sustainable structures and products. Aerogels,
Aluminium Oxynitride (ALON), and Carbon fiber are advanced materials with diverse
applications in construction, military, and other industries. Aerogels offer exceptional thermal
and sound insulating properties, ideal for applications ranging from fire retardant blankets to
3.illumination: lighting up, providing light
4. resilience: ability to recover quickly
45
 sound insulating panels. These materials are also
efficient air purifiers, capable of absorbing various
ALON indoor pollutants. ALON, a ceramic material that
combines mechanical strength and optical
transparency, is used in applications requiring blast-
resistant and bulletproof windows, and in military
infrared optics. It is also ideal for transparent
structural components like roofs for sport arenas or
oil platforms. Meanwhile, Carbon fiber, with its high
strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to fire and
corrosion, and excellent electrical conductivity, is a
Source: https://makezine.com/article/science/transparent-alum versatile material used in strengthening various
structures from steel and concrete to timber and cast iron. It is extensively used in the military
and automotive industries to develop products such as aircraft components, protective helmets,
and car bodies.

9 The advent of smart materials, from self-healing concrete and shape-shifting metals to
aerogels, ALON, and carbon fiber, holds transformative potential for construction and many
other industries. The marked resilience, adaptability, and superior performance characteristics
these materials offer can substantially mitigate the vulnerabilities and limitations of traditional
construction methods. In the face of extreme environmental conditions and increasing demands
for sustainable, efficient construction, these advanced materials represent a significant stride
towards a new era in material science and engineering. As research and development continue
to push the boundaries of what's possible, we stand on the brink of an exciting future where
our built environment is not just robust and adaptable, but also more sustainable and efficient
than ever before.
Note: The text is adapted and synthesized from sources - see reference list in Appendix ....

Reading for details

A. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions.

1. For engineers, the biggest challenge posed by the traditional structures is
a. rising cost of repair
b. lack of durability
c. damage to environment
d. the time needed to build them

2. Which sentence about Aluminium Oxynitride is NOT true?

a. It is a ceramic material.
b. It is harder than glass.
c. Light cannot pass through it.
d. It is used to build stadium roofs.

3. What is the main idea of paragraph 5?

a. Self-healing materials are new to the market.
b. Self-healing materials are used in ships and oil rigs.
c. Self-healing materials can repair themselves.
d. ‘Autonomous Materials’ has introduced self-healing coatings.

46
4. Shape-shifting metals could potentially prevent damage to structures because
a. their shape can permanently change to adapt to changes in environment.
b. they are unbreakable and thus absorb pressure quickly.
c. they are resistant to heat and other extreme weather conditions.
d. they can return to their original shape after temporary change.

5. Translucent concrete is environment friendly because

a. it uses fiber optics.
b. it requires less power.
c. it can transmit light.
d. it has self-healing properties.

6. What stimulates the self-healing process of a coating especially designed for concrete?
a. water
b. bacteria
c. polymer
d. sunlight

7. Which advanced material is used for making bulletproof windows?

a. Aerogels
b. ALON
c. Carbon fiber
d. Translucent concrete

8. The transformative potential of smart construction material is to

a. make construction more environment-friendly.
b. offer exceptional thermal and sound insulation in extreme climates.
c. make future structures stronger and more adaptable.
d. replace traditional materials entirely.

B. Decide whether the following statements are T(True) or F(False). Choose NI (No
Information ) if the information is NOT provided in the text.

a. Self-healing concrete can reduce the cost of concrete significantly. T F NI

b. Translucent concrete is primarily used for thermal insulation. T F NI

c. Shape-shifting metals are being used extensively in the construction of T F NI

bridges.

d. Self-healing coatings can be applied to different types of concrete T F NI

structures.

e. Translucent concrete can be used to make structures look beautiful. T F NI

47
Vocabulary in context

A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 innovative a increase in strength or amount

2 adapt b traditional
3 enhance c the quality of being able to last for a long time
4 conventional d involvement, stepping in
5 comprehensive e short-term
6 consumption f give special importance to or lay stress on (something)
7 durability g full, including everything
8 intervention h creative and new ideas and methods, inventive
9 temporary i change and become suitable for different conditions
10 emphasize j use

A2. Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options.

1. Which of the following means “to become gradually worse”?

a. durable b. deteriorate c. collapse
2. If someone is full of hope, he/she is ________________.
a. pessimistic b. skeptical c. optimistic
3. If an idea is original and not seen before, it is__________________
a. familiar b. traditional c. novel
4. If the effects of global warming mitigate, they’ll __________________
a. increase b. remain the same c. decrease
5. If a subject is extremely interesting, it is _________________.
a. fascinating b. innovative c. comprehensive

A3. Choose the correct synonyms for the following words from the box given below.

outstanding multitalented react multiuse breakdown disasters

1 collapse 4 exceptional
2 respond 5 calamities
3 versatile (object) 6 versatile (person)

48
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Identify their part of speech and
write them down in the correct column. Add other appropriate forms for each word.

collapse enhance innovative fascinating consumption

exceptional intervention temporarily durability mitigate

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

collapse

C. Use the words from exercise A and B to fill in the gaps in the sentences below. Change
the form of the word if necessary.

1. The documentary provides a/an ________________insight into the intricate world of

quantum physics.

2. Turning off the lights and the AC after class can reduce the ____________________ of
electricity at SQU.

3. Planting trees can help ________________the effects of carbon dioxide on the atmosphere.

4. The teacher provided a ___________________guide for the final exam.

5. The firefighter team was quick to __________________to the emergency call.

6. Steve Jobs was known for his _____________________ideas in the technology industry.

7. Studying abroad can greatly _________________your understanding of different cultures.

8. The coach _______________the importance of teamwork as the key to winning matches.

9. The region was subjected to a series of___________, which worsened the economic crisis.

10. Despite new cooking techniques, many chefs still use _____________________methods.

49
D. Fill in the blanks with suitable words from the vocabulary list (highlighted in the text
and provided at the end of the lesson). Change the word form where necessary.

Smart materials, celebrated for their 1_____________________, are transforming various

industries. Unlike conventional materials that 2____________________ over time and may
even ____________________, smart materials have proven to be incredibly resilient and
reliable. Engineers are 4_____________________ about the wide range of applications, owing
to their 5____________________ nature. These materials can 6________________ to changes
in their surroundings.

For example, certain smart materials can 7_____________________ alter their properties in

response to environmental stimuli, which could result in significant reductions in energy

8______________________. Moreover, some smart materials possess self-healing

capabilities, reducing the need for external 9_____________________ to repair damage. This

10__________________ feature is particularly useful in sectors like construction, where it can

lead to more sustainable and resilient infrastructure.

E1.Vocabulary Practice: "Jumble Word Challenge"

The following are a set of jumbled words. Unscramble them to form vocabulary words you have
practiced in this unit. The goal is to solve as many words as you can within a set amount of
time.

TPAAD ADAPT

50
E2.Vocabulary Practice: "Crossword Puzzle Challenge"

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

• Words can go across or down
• Letters are shared when the words intersect.

Down
Across 1. full
3. lay stress on something 2. disasters
7. use 4. traditional
9. interesting 5. for a short period
10. involvement 6. long lasting
11. to become progressively worse 8. outstanding

51
Critical Thinking: Discuss in small groups.

• Read each question carefully and take time to think about your response.
• Write down your answers and any supporting evidence or examples in the space provided.
• Discuss your answers with your group to get feedback and different perspectives.
• Use your critical thinking skills to analyse and evaluate your own answers and those of your
peers.

1. The construction industry in Oman is booming. What type of smart building material
would be most helpful in building houses in Oman?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How might the adoption of smart materials affect employment in sectors such as
construction or manufacturing? What do you think might happen in the future- loss of
jobs or creation of new jobs?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary list
Note: Words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text.

collapse durability consumption exceptional

adapt deteriorate intervention calamities
innovative novel emphasized versatile
enhance conventional temporarily mitigate
respond comprehensive fascinating optimistic

52
 Unit 6
Theme: Safety Protocols on the Internet
Cybersecurity
Getting Started
A. Watch a short film on YouTube about a cyberattack.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GX_XsdNv1PY
B. Take notes to answer the following questions in small groups.
1. What did the hackers gain access to?
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What did the hackers plan to do with the information they accessed?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Who was affected by the hacking?
_________________________________________________________________________

Understanding the gist

A. Skim each paragraph and match them with the most suitable headings.
Paragraph Answers Headings
number
1 a. How to protect your computer from hackers
2 b. How automation can benefit cybersecurity
3 c. Basic precautions to take while on the internet
4 d. How to avoid being tracked on the internet
5 e. The best cybersecurity plan
6 f. Definition of cybersecurity
7 g. Some examples of cyber-threats
8 h. Loss incurred due to the activities of cybercriminals

B. Scan the text to find the following acronyms and what they represent.
a. PII _______________________________________________
b. GDPR _____________________________________________
c. SNMP _____________________________________________
d. AI ________________________________________________

53
C. Which title best sums up the main idea of the reading text?
a. Cyberattacks and the Science of Hacking
b. Antivirus and Antispyware Software Protection
c. Cybersecurity Incidents
d. Cybercrime, Cybersecurity and Safety Protocol on the Internet

Source: ge.com

1) Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting sensitive, confidential and critical system

information from digital attacks. The practice is used by individuals and enterprises to protect
against unauthorized access to data centres and other computerized systems. A strong
cybersecurity strategy can provide a good security guard against malicious attacks designed
to access, alter, delete, destroy or extort money from users or organizations or aim to disrupt
normal business operations. Cybersecurity is also instrumental in preventing attacks that aim
to disable or disrupt a system's or device's operations.

2) In 2020, the average cost of data breach was USD 3.86 billion globally. These costs include
the expenses of discovering and responding to the breach, the cost of downtime and lost
revenue, and the long-term damage to the reputation of a business and its brand. Cybercriminals
target customers’ personally identifiable information (PII) — names, addresses, national
identification numbers and credit card information — and then sell these records in
underground digital marketplaces.

3) A strong cybersecurity strategy has layers of protection to defend against cybercrime. It must
protect the computer systems and networks that are important for national security, economic
health, and public safety. It must protect the computer network, including both wired and
wireless (Wi-Fi) connections from attacks. It must protect applications operating on hardware
and in the cloud. It must encrypt cloud data at rest (in storage), in motion (as it travels to, from
and within the cloud) and in use (during processing) to support customer privacy. It

54
must include data protection measures, such as the General Data Protection Regulation or
GDPR, that secure data from unauthorized access, exposure, or theft. End -users must be
trained to delete suspicious email attachments and avoid using unknown USB devices. It must
include tools and procedures for responding to unplanned events, such as natural disasters,
power outages, or cybersecurity incidents. It must make data copies which can quickly be
restored to support recovery, minimizing the impact of such incidents.

4) Although cybersecurity professionals work hard to close security gaps, attackers are always
looking for new ways to find gaps in the system. The term “malware” refers to malicious
software such as worms, viruses, Trojans, and spyware that provide unauthorized access or
cause damage to a computer. Malware attacks are now able to bypass antivirus tools that scan
for suspicious file attachments. Cybercriminals also use ransomware to lock down files, data
or systems. They threaten to erase the data or “leak” private or classified data unless money is
paid to them. State and local governments are usually targeted because they may be under
pressure to pay ransoms in order to restore applications and websites on which citizens rely.
Phishing is a method to trick users into providing their own personal or confidential
information. In phishing scams, users get emails or text messages from a known company
asking for login information or credit card data. Current or former employees, business
partners, contractors, or anyone who has had access to systems or networks in the past can be
considered an insider threat if they abuse their access permissions. Insider threats can be
invisible to traditional security solutions which focus mostly on external threats. Intruders can
also enter a system and remain undetected for an extended period. The intruders leave networks
and systems intact to spy on business activity and steal sensitive data without triggering
security mechanisms. Some cybercriminals attempt to crash a server, website or network by
overloading it with traffic, usually via the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP),
used for modems, printers, switches, routers, and servers. Man-in-the-middle is an attack,
where a cybercriminal “listens” to messages on an unsecure Wi-Fi network and collects data
being passed between the guest’s device and the network.

5) Using artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning can help improve cybersecurity in
three ways. AI platforms can analyse data and recognize known threats, as well as predict new
threats. AI platforms also create and automatically enact security protections. Moreover,
security protocols are often overloaded with alerts and repetitive tasks. These can be easily
automated. Other benefits of automation in cybersecurity include attack classification and
malware classification.

6) Computer users must continually pro-

tect themselves. There are some basic pre-
cautions to take while online and when en-
tering chat rooms or posting personal web
pages. The personal information posted on
personal web pages must be limited. Re-
quests by online “friends” or acquaint-
ances must be carefully monitored for
predatory behaviour. Personal and finan-
cial information must be kept out of online
conversations. Extreme caution must be
exercised when agreeing to meet an online Source: stealthlabs.com
“friend” or acquaintance in person. Users must update their operating system regularly and

55
increase their browser security settings. Questionable websites must be avoided. Software must
be downloaded only from sites that can be trusted. Free software and file-sharing applications
should be carefully evaluated before downloading them.

7) Safe email and virus/malware protocols must be practiced. It is not safe to open messages
from unknown senders. Any suspicious scam messages must be deleted immediately.
Antivirus and antispyware software protection must be installed in computers. An unprotected
computer is like an open door for computer hackers and predators. To take it a step further,
computers can be protected from hackers by using a spam filter or gateway to scan inbound
email or instant messages. It is critical to have up-to-date guaranteed protection. Using
complex strong passwords with a combination of upper and lower case letters, numbers and
symbols is a safeguard. Also, changing passwords regularly is a safety measure. Everyone
should also use two-step authentication whenever possible for their online accounts. Most
banks and major social networks provide this option. As the name suggests, two-step
authentication requires two steps: entering your password and entering a number only you
can access. For example, step one is logging in with your username and password. In step
two, a temporary code is sent to you in a text message or through an app and you enter that
code to log in.

8) It is also important to protect your web browsing. Companies and websites track
everything you do online. Every ad, social network button, and website collects information
about your location, browsing habits, and more. The data collected reveals more about
you than you might expect. The websites you visit regularly provide all the data advertisers
need to pinpoint the type of person you are. This is part of how targeted ads remain one of
the Internet’s most unsettling innovations. It is possible to use a browser extension that blocks
advertisements and the data they collect. The extension also prevents malware from running
in your browser. Doing this will not eliminate the problem completely, but it will
significantly cut down the amount of data collected.
Note: The text is adapted and synthesized from sources - see reference list in Appendix ....

Reading Comprehension Questions

1. What do cybercriminals try to steal?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

56
2. Work in pairs. Read paragraph 4 and complete the notes in the following table.
Cyber-attack software/method What is the threat?
collects data from unsecure wi-fi networks
_________________________
are able to bypass anti-virus tools
_________________________
Insider threats may misuse their __________ privileges to steal
secret business data and they may not be easily
detected by _______________ systems
can affect ordinary citizens because
___________________ and ____________ they use
___________________ware
can be hacked.
Governments may be asked to pay money to the
hackers.
Phishing scammers get
________________________________ from users
crash a server, website or network
______________________________

3. Choose one or more answers. Traditional security systems do not recognise insiders’
malicious activities as suspicious because

a. insiders have access permission.

b. insiders can enter the system and remain undetected.
c. insiders do not damage the system.
d. of all of the above

4. Which of these protective measures cannot be taken by computer users?

a. increase browser security settings.
b. encrypt cloud data.
c. use a browser extension that blocks advertisements and the data they collect.
d. delete suspicious email attachments and avoid using unknown USB devices.
e. all of the above

57
5. Identify the following statements as True (T), False (F) or No Information (NI).

a A strong cybersecurity strategy must protect a cyber-system as well as T F NI

support its recovery in the event of damage.

b There were several cyberattacks on businesses in the year 2020. T F NI

c Users need anti-virus tools to protect themselves from Phishing attacks. T F NI

d Artificial intelligence in security systems can predict new threats. T F NI

e Free software and file-sharing applications should be carefully evaluated T F NI

before downloading them.

6. Read paragraphs 6-8. Work in pairs.

a. Which of the internet safety protocols mentioned in the paragraphs above do you fol-
low? Take notes.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

b. What methods will you choose to enhance your safety as a computer user? Take notes.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

7. Pronoun Reference

a. A strong cybersecurity strategy has layers of protection to defend against cybercrime. It must
protect the computer systems and networks that are important for national security, economic
health, and public safety.

It refers to __________________________________

b. Some cybercriminals attempt to crash a server, website or network by overloading it with

traffic, usually via the simple network management protocol (SNMP), used for modems,
printers, switches, routers, and servers.

it refers to ___________________________________

58
Vocabulary in context

A1. Guess the meaning of the following words from their context and match them with
their correct definitions.

1 strategy a strong effect

2 identification b formal declaration that something will be done
3 exposure c test the value of something
4 impact d verification, showing that something is true
5 professional e person with experience and expertise
6 analyse f method, plan
7 monitor g no protection/ uncovered
8 evaluate h get rid of, remove
9 guarantee i proof of who/what someone/something is
10 authentication j watch/observe carefully
11 eliminate k examine the parts of something carefully in
order to understand it better

A2. Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options.

1. Which of the following means “care taken in advance to prevent harm”?

a. evaluate b. precaution c. monitor
2. If something looks questionable or doubtful, it’s, ________________.
a. obvious b. clear c. suspicious
3. If an action is intended to cause harm, it's _____________________.
a. malicious b. beneficial c. helpful
4. If something can't be seen, it's _____________________________.
a. visible b. doubtful c. invisible
5. If something is returned to its original condition, it's _____________________ .
a. destroyed b. restored c. altered

A3. Choose the word that does NOT belong to the group.
1 considerable substantial significant negligible
2 break disrupt fix disturb
3 incident time event occurrence
4 private confidential public personal

59
B. The words given below are taken from the text. Identify their part of speech and write
them down in the correct column in the table. Add other appropriate forms of each word
to complete the table
significant eliminate monitor identification disrupt
evaluate strategy impact professional malicious
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
diverse

C. Use the words in the above exercises to fill in the gaps in the sentences below. Change
the form of the word if necessary.

1. Long-term space travel can involve the dangers of prolonged ___________________ to solar
radiation.
2. The car battery came with a one-year ________________________.
3. Many regulations are in place to _______________________ the use of plastic.
4. The experimental subjects were constantly ___________________ to observe any changes
in temperature.
5. You can access the building only if you show proper ____________________.
6. I decided to get _______________________ advice in order to make an informed decision.
7. Before the football match, the coach and the team discussed their ___________________.
8. The _____________________ of the nuclear accident was felt for several decades.
9. The property was ___________________ before it was put up for sale.
10. Experts were employed to ___________________ the situation and find an appropriate
solution.
11. Entering a PIN or a password is an accepted method of ___________________ .

60
D. Work in pairs. Vocabulary Practice.

Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

Words can go across or down.
Letters are shared when the words intersect.

ACROSS
4. no protection /uncovered
6. watch/observe carefully
8. test the value of something
10. verification, showing that something is true
11. examine the parts of something carefully in order to understand it better

DOWN
1. strong effect
2. proof of who/what someone/something is
3. person with experience and expertise
5. get rid of, remove
7. formal declaration that something will be done
9. method, plan

61
Critical Thinking: Discuss in small groups.

1. Discuss the most common type of cybercrimes you think are happening in Oman.

2. Who is affected by these crimes? Do you think cybercrimes may affect even people who
do not use the internet?

Individual Reflection (Writing)

• What did you learn from this lesson?

• What did you like?
• What challenges did you face?
• How did you deal with these challenges?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Vocabulary List

Note: words in the vocabulary list are in bold in the reading text

strategy identification disrupt malicious

exposure incident confidential restored

impact professional analyse suspicious

monitor evaluate guarantee precautions

authentication eliminate significant invisible

62
 Science, Engineering, and the Importance of Clear Written
Communication

The goal of Engineering is to efficiently solve practical problems in the real world. To do
this, engineers apply knowledge obtained from experience and from studying the natural
sciences. The natural sciences are not just a body of facts, however. Scientific knowledge
is the product of the much more important scientific process. This process is a way of
thinking. It is a method of finding out what is true in the natural world.

The method
• Scientific thought begins with careful observation of the world.
• Observations lead to hypotheses about how the world works.
• Hypotheses are tested through experiments.
• Experimental results lead to conclusions and new hypotheses.
• The results of the experiment are recorded and communicated to others.

Experiments are a key component of the scientific method. They provide the evidence of
truth. To be useful, experimental results and conclusions must be communicated to other
people. This communication is done in the form of a laboratory report.

The people who read the lab report may be far away from the writer. A scientist in Japan
may need to understand the research done by a scientist in South Africa, thousands of
kilometers away. The distance between the two scientists is also cultural and linguistic. A
system is needed to overcome these distances. Writing is more easily transmitted over
distance (whether space or time) than conversation. Over many generations, a standard
form of a written lab report has been developed. In addition, English has become the
standard language of scientific communication.

It is critically important for scientists and engineers to have the ability to read and
understand lab reports in English. It is just as important for them to be able to write clear
and understandable reports.

Therefore, learning how to write lab reports is one of the main goals of LANC 2161. It is
a skill that requires thought and effort; it is not a mechanical skill. This means that it is
generally not possible to have a model report that can be used in many different
experiments just by changing a few key words. Every experiment is different and so
every report is different.

Report writing is a skill that takes practice. It is like football. To be a good goalkeeper,
for example, requires years of practice. Almost always, practice leads to improvement.
Anyone can improve their skills as a goalkeeper with enough practice. The same is true of
report writing. It takes motivation and may require some serious work, but the results are
worth the effort. Good writing skills will improve students’ GPAs and will be very
valuable in the working world.

LANC 2161 aims to give students an introduction to and practice in, writing lab reports.
Please take maximum advantage of this opportunity!
 Introduction to Writing Lab Report: A Complete Sample

Lab Reports as a Means of Communication

Good lab reports are complete, clear, and concise.

• Complete: all information is included (not just the part that supported the
conclusion!)
• Clear: readers can understand exactly what happened in the experiment
• Concise: the report uses as few words as possible while remaining clear

Comparing the Viscosities of Olive Oil and Sunflower Oil

Aim

The aim of the experiment was to compare the viscosities of olive oil and sunflower oil
by means of a bottle, a marble, and a stopwatch.

Introduction

Viscosity is the property of a fluid that tends to prevent it from flowing when subjected
to an applied force. High-viscosity fluids resist flow; low-viscosity fluids flow easily.
For example, honey has a high viscosity and does not flow quickly. Water has a low
viscosity and flows easily.

Determining the viscosity of a liquid can be very important for engineers because it can
be a factor in choosing the right fluid for a specific application. Lubricating oils, for
example, may need to be more or less viscous for the conditions of their use. The
viscosities of vegetable oils may be a factor in determining their suitability for use as
biofuels.

Viscosity is usually measured in a viscometer, a container with a standard-sized orifice in

the bottom. The rate at which the fluid flows through the orifice is a measure of its
viscosity. This rate is given a numerical value. Indexes of the viscosities of different
liquids have been compiled.

In the present experiment, only a simple comparison between the viscosities of the test
liquids is necessary. A numerical value of the viscosity is not required. The method used
is to measure the time a glass marble takes to travel the same distance through the two
liquids. A slower travel time means there is greater resistance and thus higher viscosity.

63
Temperature affects the viscosity of a liquid. In this experiment, the temperature is kept
constant at 25° C. Air bubbles adhering to the marble could increase the friction between
the marble and oil and thus slow the travel time of the marble. If air bubbles are observed,
they are removed by shaking the bottle.

Apparatus

The test apparatus, shown in the figure to the right, includes a

bottle, a film canister, a marble, and a stopwatch. The 1.5-liter
Figure Apparatus
plastic bottle is positioned on its side. The cap of the bottle rests on for Comparing
the 5 cm high by 3 cm diameter cylindrical plastic film canister. Viscosities
The bottom of the bottle rests on the table. The bottle has a slope
of approximately 10°. There are two lines, 20 cm apart, drawn
around the bottle. These are the starting and ending points for timing the movement of the
marble. The spherical glass marble is 1 cm in diameter. It is placed inside the bottle and
rolls down the slope. A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for the marble to
travel the 20 cm between the two lines. The two oils tested are 100% pure olive oil,
produced by the Aceites Agro Sevilla Corporation of Spain, and 100% pure sunflower
oil, produced by Areej Vegetable Oils and Derivatives SAOG of Oman.

Procedure

The apparatus to compare viscosities was set up as shown in the figure above. The
bottle was filled with olive oil. The marble was inserted, and the cap was closed tightly.
The bottle was positioned with the cap on the film canister. The bottom end of the
bottle was raised, causing the marble to roll to the cap end. Then the bottom was
lowered to the table and the marble began to roll down the slope. When it reached the
first line, the stopwatch was started. When the marble reached the second line, the
stopwatch was stopped, and the time was recorded. This process was repeated 5 more
times, for a total of 6 trials. Next, the olive oil was replaced with sunflower oil and the
above procedure was repeated. Six trials were carried out with the sunflower oil. The
travel times for the marble through each liquid were averaged and recorded. The
percentage change between the average travel times was calculated and recorded. The
percentage difference between each trial and the average travel time was calculated
and recorded. The results are shown in the table below.

64
Results
Table Travel Times of a Marble in Olive and Sunflower Oil

% Difference from Sunflower % Difference from

Trial Olive Oil (s) Average
Average Oil (s)
1 4.2 2.35 4.9 0.41
2 4.7 8.89 4.9 0.41
3 4.3 0 4.8 1.65
4 4.3 0 4.9 0.41
5 4.2 2.35 4.8 1.65
6 4.3 0 5.0 2.43
Average 4.3 4.88
The average travel time in the sunflower oil is 12.63% more than in the olive oil.

Discussion of Results

The table shows the time in seconds for the individual trials, the average travel time of
the marble in each liquid and the percentage difference between the times. The travel
times for the marble are very consistent in both types of oil. The range of variation
between trials is small. In all but one trial, the times are within 3% of the average. In
all trials, the travel time for the marble is lower in the olive oil than in the sunflower
oil. The average time for the olive oil is 4.3s and for the sunflower oil it is 4.88s. The
marble travels 12.63% slower through the sunflower oil. Because the marble moves
more slowly through the sunflower oil, it is concluded that sunflower oil has a higher
viscosity than olive oil.

The time recorded in trial 2 for the olive oil (4.7s) is anomalous. This value is 8.89%
different from the average and inconsistent with all the other trials. This discrepancy
could be due to unobserved air bubbles adhering to the surface of the marble.

Conclusion

The viscosities of two liquids, olive oil and sunflower oil, have been compared. The
average time of the marble traveling through the sunflower oil (4.88s) was greater than
through the olive oil (4.3s). It was concluded that sunflower oil is more viscous than olive
oil. An anomaly in one trial may have been caused by the presence of air bubbles on the
surface of the marble.

65
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment

Your Assignment
You are in a Physics class, and you are studying gravity. You want to know if the value of
the gravitational acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2) is really true. You read this statement
about an ideal (frictionless) pendulum:

The acceleration due to gravity (g) can be calculated using a simple pendulum
and the following equation:
4 2 L
g= 2
T

where L is the length of the string and T is the period.

You conduct an experiment to find out if this statement is true. Then you write a lab report
about your experiment and the results.

What You Know

From the videos on Moodle, you have already learned that changing the mass of the bob or
changing the amplitude does not affect the period of a pendulum. However, changing the
length of the string does affect the period. By lengthening the string, the bob falls further
through the arc and takes more time to complete an oscillation.

You also know that gravitational acceleration (g) on the Earth is standardized as 9.81 m/s2.
This means that an object falling without air resistance will accelerate at the constant rate of
9.81 meters per second for every second that transpires. This value of 9.81 m/s2 reflects
Newton’s law of universal gravitation where the gravitation constant (G), big “G” not small
“g” or the force between two bodies, is determined by mass and distance. Accordingly, the
value of g varies slightly at different points on the surface of the Earth with factors such as
altitude and latitude (as the Earth is not a perfect sphere).

Your Experiment
In your experiment, you will attempt to verify if the gravitational acceleration constant (g) is
really true. You want to know if a falling body actually accelerates at a constant and
predictable rate, which on Earth is approximately 9.81 m/s2. To do this, you will measure the
periods of pendulums of different lengths. You will then apply the values of length and period
to the equation. If the calculated values of g are consistent for pendulums of different lengths
and with the accepted value of 9.81 m/s2, then the constant is verified. Calculated values are
consistent if they are within 3% of the accepted value (9.81 m/s2). After you collect your
data, you will calculate the percentage difference between the calculated values of g and the
accepted value.

66
Measuring the time of a single oscillation accurately by hand is difficult. Therefore, you
should measure the time of 20 oscillations, and then average the time to obtain the period.
You must make an accurate measurement of the length of the string from the pivot point to
the center of the bob. Please be careful to record all your data accurately in the table.

Your Experiment
You will complete this experiment in class, and then use the experience to write your lab
report in the class. As you conduct the experiment, you should be aware of every step you
take as these actions will form the basis of the procedure section of your report. It is important
to record your data as you complete each measurement. After the experiment, you will
complete some calculations and analyze your results. You will use this analysis as part of
your discussion section of the report.

You may or may not be able to use the results of your experiment for your lab report as the
assignment asks you to write about specific items such as an anomaly. If your results do not
match the assignment requirements, your teacher will give you a sample results table that is
similar to the original for you to use.

The Writing Process

Students will write the following sections of a lab report on this pendulum experiment: Title,
Aim, Apparatus, Procedure, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. As students learn how to
write each section of the lab report week-by-week, they will apply what they learn to write
each section of the report. Students will write these sections individually in class on days
specified by the teacher.

67
 Part 1: Planning the Experiment
Calculations

Before you conduct the experiment, do the following calculations to complete the table
below.

A. Calculate the average period from the time of 20 oscillations.

B. The acceleration due to gravity (g) can be calculated using a simple pendulum and the
following equation:
4 2 L
g= 2
T
where L is the length of the string and T is the period.

C. When you are checking the consistency of a sample value against the accepted, you can
calculate the percentage difference this way:
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger one.
• Divide the difference by the accepted value.
• Multiply by 100. This gives you the percentage difference between the numbers.

D. Calculate the average g of all the trials.

E. Calculate the percentage difference between the average of g and the accepted value
using the method in “C” above.

Sample Results A B C
Length of 20 Oscillations Period (T) Calculated g % Difference
Pendulum Trial String (m) (s) (s) (m/s2) from 9.81 m/s2
A 1 0.98 40.13
2 0.98 39.42
3 0.98 39.57
B 1 0.78 34.41
2 0.78 35.22
3 0.78 35.43
C 1 0.58 30.61
2 0.58 30.39
3 0.58 30.81

D Average g:

E Average % Difference from 9.81 m/s2:

68
 Part 2: Conducting the Experiment

While you do the experiment, carefully consider all the steps you have taken and write them
down in detail below. To simply write, “measure the period of the pendulum” is not enough.
“In detail” means that you will record every step that is taken (see step 1 below).
You can note down the steps here as an instruction—for example, “Release the bob….”
However, in the Procedure section of your report, you will write in passive voice as a record
of what was done: “The bob was released…”:

Steps:
1. Measure the length of the string from the pivot point to the center of the bob.
2. Record the length.
3. _________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________________
6. _________________________________________________________________
7. _________________________________________________________________
8. _________________________________________________________________
9. _________________________________________________________________
10. _________________________________________________________________
11. _________________________________________________________________
12. _________________________________________________________________

Results
As you conduct the experiment, record your results. See the previous page for calculations.

Length of 20 Oscillations Period (T) Calculated g % Difference

Pendulum Trial String (m) (s) (s) (m/s2) from 9.81 m/s2
A 1
2
3
B 1
2
3
C 1
2
3

Average g:

Average % Difference from 9.81 m/s2:

69
 Part 3: Discussion-Evaluate your results

After you complete your experiment and the calculations , answer these questions.

1. Based on the results, has the gravitational acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2) been
verified? Why or why not?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. What evidence do you have?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Numbers:
Sometimes it is not clear if numbers are different or similar or if the difference between
two numbers is significant. Engineers use statistical analyses in these cases. In this
course, we will use a simple standard: 3%. If two values are within 3% of each other,
then they are consistent in this course. If the difference is greater than 3%, then are
inconsistent—that is, the numbers do not agree.

In the far-right column of the table, the percentage difference between the experimental
value of g for each trial and the accepted value is calculated. A result over 3% indicates
that the calculated value of g for that trial is a discrepancy.

Discrepancy

Question 3: Based on the above explanation, are there any discrepancies in your results? __

Question 4: In which trial of which pendulum does the discrepancy occur? _________

Question 5: If yes, what is the anomalous value? _____________ m/s2

Question 6: What is the percentage difference from average of that value? ________%

70
 Title

When someone reads the title, they should have a clear idea of what is contained in a lab report.
As a concise summary of the experiment, the title is for communication, not decoration, and it
must contain useful information.
The title consists of three parts:
1. The type of experiment (measure, verify, compare or determine)
2. The property, law or principle (density, the boiling point, etc.)
3. The subject of the experiment - not always present (water, aluminium, steel cable etc.

Examples

Comparing (1) the Viscosities (2) of Sunflower Oil and Olive Oil (3)
•Verifying (1) Newton’s Third Law (2)

Exercise 1
In the three titles below, circle the experiment type, underline the property or principle,
and double underline the subject:

Verification of the Gravitational Constant

An Experiment to Measure the Friction in a Simple Pulley
Comparing the Compressive Strength of Three Types of Omani Limestone

Language:
1.The title is not a sentence. There is no subject + verb pattern. It should be as clear and
informative as possible without being too long and wordy.

2.There are three possible patterns, based on the action word which gives the type of experiment:
a) infinitive b) noun c) gerund.

a. An Experiment to Measure the Diameters of Omani Coins

b. Measurement of the Diameters of Omani Coins
c. Measuring the Diameters of Omani Coins

Exercise 2

Look at the 3 words you circled above (the experiment type) above and change the form in the
table:

Infinitive Noun Gerund

verification
to determine
comparing

71
Format:
Look at this title again. What do you notice about punctuation and capitalization?

Title Comparing the Compressive Strength of Three Types of Omani Limestone

1. Capitalization: All word words in the title should be capitalized except prepositions (of),
articles (the), conjunctions (and), and demonstratives (this). Note that “Is” is a verb and is
capitalized.
2. Punctuation: The title is not a sentence; it does not have a full stop at the end. Commas are
possible.
3. The word Title is not written as a heading.

Exercise 3

Read the descriptions of experiments and write a title for each one.

1. Engineers wanted to find out whether distilled water or ethylene glycol has a higher boiling
point.
____________________________________________________________________________

2. Physics students wanted to know if Newton’s Third Law is true.

____________________________________________________________________________

3. Mechanical engineers wanted to find out the tensile strength of a 10 mm steel cable.

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Electrical engineers needed to know the temperature that plastic insulation on wires begins to
melt.
____________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 4
Look at the following titles and say whether they are correct or not. If they are not correct, explain
what is wrong with them: Missing information, too much information, sentence structure,
informal style, capitalization, or punctuation

a. Comparing the Boiling Points of Ethylene Glycol (197.3°) and Water (98.7°)
b. A Comparison of Copper and Aluminum
c. Verifying Boyle’s law
d. An Experiment To Measure The Tensile Strength Of Human Hair
e. Measuring the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
f. A Verification of Hooke’s Law.
g. Comparing the Melting Points of Sodium and Sulfur

72
 Aim

This section in a lab report states the goal of the experiment. It shows what the experiment will
demonstrate or prove. In addition to the elements present in the title, the aim includes a summary
of the experimental means or method. This gives information on how the experiment was
conducted.

The 4 main elements of the aim are:

1. Experiment type
2. Property/law
3. Subject of experiment
4. Means/method

Example

The aim of the experiment was to compare (1) the viscosities (2) of olive oil and sunflower oil
(3) by means of a bottle, a marble and a stopwatch (4).

Exercise 1
In the six aims below, circle the experiment type, underline the property or
principle, double underline the subject, and put a box around the
means/method.

Means
1. The aim of the experiment was to measure the diameters of 5, 10, 25 and 50
baiza coins using a Vernier caliper.

2. The experiment was conducted to compare the boiling points of distilled water
and saltwater using a test tube, a thermometer and a Bunsen burner.

Method
3. The experiment was conducted to verify Newton’s Second Law by measuring
the acceleration of a system subject to a net force.

4. The purpose of this experiment was to measure the modulus of elasticity of a

steel wire by applying tensile stress and measuring elongation.

Means/ Method
5. The aim of the experiment was to compare the viscosities of olive oil and
sunflower oil by means of a bottle, a marble and a stopwatch.

6. The aim of the experiment was to compare the viscosities of olive oil and
sunflower oil by measuring the time taken for a marble to travel the same
distance through each liquid.

73
Language:

1. The same action words that are used in the title to state the experiment type are used again
in the aim. The action words are mostly used as infinitives.

2. One of the following patterns is used to begin the aim (notice the past tense):

a) The aim of the experiment was to verify…

b) The purpose of this experiment was to verify…
c) The experiment was conducted to verify…

3. The aim is written as a sentence, with sentence capitalization and punctuation.

Examples
• The aim of the experiment was to measure the diameter of a coin using a Vernier
caliper.
• The experiment was conducted to measure the diameter of a coin using a Vernier
caliper.
• The purpose of the experiment was to measure the diameter of a coin using a Vernier
caliper.

4. Means: a list of the most essential equipment used in the experiment (no more than 4
items). The phrases “by means of” or “using” are used.

Tip: Do not repeat the experimental subject materials in the means.

Include articles (a/an) where necessary in the list for the means.

Examples
• The aim of the experiment was to verify Newton’s Third Law by means of a catapult on
wheels and a projectile.
• The experiment was conducted to compare the boiling points of distilled water and
saltwater using a test tube, a thermometer, and a Bunsen burner.

5. Method: is used when the apparatus is complicated, or when the list of instruments used would
not clearly explain the method. The phrase “by (verb) + ing” is used here.

Examples
• The purpose of the experiment was to determine the tensile strength of a 10mm steel cable
by suspending a sample and adding weights until it failed
• The purpose of this experiment was to measure the modulus of elasticity of a steel wire
by applying tensile stress and measuring elongation.

74
 Exercise 2

Write an Aim for each of the situations below:

1. Automotive engineers wanted to find out whether distilled water or ethylene glycol has a
higher boiling point. They put a sample of each liquid in a beaker, suspended a thermometer in
the liquid, and heated it with a Bunsen burner until the temperature of the liquid stopped rising.

__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Physics students wanted to know if Newton’s Third Law is true. They used a small catapult on
wheels which threw a mass in one direction; the catapult rolled in the other direction.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. Mechanical engineers wanted to find out the tensile strength of 10 mm steel cable. They
suspended the cable from a frame and added weight to it until it broke.
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. An electrical engineer needed to know the exact temperature that plastic insulation on wires
begins to melt. She put a sample of the plastic in a test tube, inserted a thermometer, put this
arrangement in a beaker of liquid and heated it until the plastic melted.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

75
 Exercise 3

Can you recognize a good aim?

Look at the following aims and say whether they are correct or not. If they are not correct,
explain what is wrong with them: Missing information, too much information, sentence
structure, informal style, capitalization, or punctuation

a. To Verify Newton’s Third Law Using a Balloon, a String, and a Drinking Straw

__________________________________________________________________

b. The purpose of the experiment was to compare sodium and sulfur.

__________________________________________________________________

c. The experiment was conducted to measure the tensile strength of human hair by

measuring the force required to break a number of samples

____________________________________________________________________

d. The aim of the experiment was to measure the coefficient of thermal expansion by heating

samples and measuring their elongation.

____________________________________________________________________

e. The experiment was conducted to compare the melting points of gold and lead using a

crucible, a gas burner, a thermometer, and samples of gold and lead.

____________________________________________________________________

76
 Introduction

Content
The introduction helps the reader understand the experiment by giving background. Each
introduction is unique and can contain many kinds of information including:

• Definitions of key items and terms • Methodology (the approach to the problem)
• Statement of the research problem • Equations important to the experiment
• Theory and theoretical background • Conditions that could affect the results
• Summary of other relevant research • How these conditions are controlled
• Applications of the research • Summary of past findings on the topic

Audience: Consider your audience by answering the question, “Who will read my report?” If you
are writing for a professor, you will need to demonstrate you have a thorough understanding of the
experiment and its scientific background. If you are writing to experts, you will explain your topic
in detail, but you might assume they have knowledge of the basic concepts.

Exercise 1

1. Match the topic with the paragraph (A-E). There are two extra options.
2. Underline the verbs. What tense is used? What voice (active/passive) is used?

A. Viscosity is the property of a fluid that tends to prevent it from flowing when
____ Background subjected to an applied force. High-viscosity fluids resist flow; low-viscosity
fluids flow easily. For example, honey has a high viscosity and does not flow
quickly. Water has a low viscosity and flows easily.

____ History B. Determining the viscosity of a liquid can be very important for engineers
because it can be a factor in choosing the right fluid for a specific application.
Lubricating oils, for example, may need to be more or less viscous for the
conditions of their use. The viscosities of vegetable oils may be a factor in
____ Equations determining their suitability for use as biofuels.

C. Viscosity is usually measured in a viscometer, a container with a

standard-sized orifice in the bottom. The rate at which the fluid flows
_A_ Definitions through the orifice is a measure of its viscosity. This rate is given a
numerical value. Indexes of the viscosities of different liquids have been
compiled.
____ApplicationsD. In the present experiment, only a simple comparison between the
viscosities of the test liquids is necessary. A numerical value of the
viscosity is not required. The method used is to measure the time a glass
____Methodology
marble takes to travel the same distance through the two liquids. A slower
travel time equates with greater resistance, and thus higher viscosity.

E. Temperature affects the viscosity of a liquid. In this experiment, the

____Conditions temperature is kept constant at 25° C. Air bubbles adhering to the marble
could increase the friction between the marble and oil and thus slow the
travel time of the marble. Air bubbles are removed, if observed, by
shaking the bottle.
77
 Exercise 2

Look at Introductions A and B. Find the differences.

Introduction A:
In this experiment, Newton's Second Law is verified by measuring the acceleration of a system
subject to a net force. Newton's Second Law states that the acceleration of an object is
proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the object's
mass. Newton's Second Law can be expressed in the equation:

Fnet = ma (1)

where Fnet is the total of the forces acting on the system, m is the mass, and a is the acceleration.
If F and m are known, then the value of a can be easily determined.

Introduction B:
In this experiment, Newton's Second Law is verified by measuring the acceleration of a system
subject to a net force (Fnet). Newton's Second Law states that the acceleration (a) of an object is
proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the object's mass
(m). Newton's Second Law can be expressed in the equation:

Fnet = ma (1)

If F and m are known, then the value of a can be easily determined.

(Brackets): You may have noticed that brackets (--) were used in Introduction B, but not
Introduction A. The brackets were used when the symbol or value follows the word it explains:

Introduction A: …m is the mass, and a is the acceleration.

Introduction B: …the acceleration (a)…the object's mass (m)

Other examples: …the accepted value is 9.81m/s2

…the accepted value (9.81m/s2)

Equations and formulae:

If a formula or equation is used in an experiment, it is included and explained in the Introduction.
Later, in the Procedure, for example, the equation is not written again. It is referred to by its
number: Density was calculated using formula 2. If there is only 1 formula, it does not have to
be numbered. Then the reference would be: Density was calculated using the formula.

78
 Exercise 3

Choose the best answer from the choices below to complete this introduction.

1. The scientist Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) _______ (1) that the length of a spring can be extended

in proportion to the load applied to that spring. This _______ (2) Hooke's Law. This law ________

(3) that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force acting on it. In other words,

an increase in the force pulling the spring downwards _______ (4) in a corresponding increase in

its length. This relationship is expressed as:

F = -kx Equation 1

where ________ (5) is the force applied to the spring, k is the spring's constant, and x is the amount

of elongation or displacement. The minus sign occurs because the direction in which the force

pulls the spring is opposite to the direction the spring stretches. If F is known, then _________ (6)

can be calculated if x is solved for using:

F = -K (x-xo) Equation 2

where xo is the spring at its equilibrium position and x is the displacement of the spring after force

is applied.

2. Hooke’s Law applies to all stretchy materials unless the elastic limit of the material _____ (7).

________ (8) the material is stretched past the limit, the material will not return to its original

length when the applied force _______ (9).

3. In the present experiment, a steel spring _____ (10) from a retort stand and its elongation
________ (11) as masses are added to its lower end.

1. a. is discovered b. discovered c. was discovered d. discovers

2. a. is called b. called c. was called d. calls
3. a. is stated b. stated c. was stated d. states
4. a. is resulted b. resulted d. was resulted d. results

79
5. a. F b. (F)
6. a. k b. (k)

7. a. is exceeded b. exceeded c. was exceeded d. exceeds

8. a. By b. But c. So d. If
9. a. is removed b. removed c. was removed d. removes
10. a. is suspended b. suspended c. was suspended d. suspends
11. a. is measured b. is measured c. was measured d. measures

12. Background information can be found in paragraph: 1 2 3

13. A statement of Hooke’s Law is found in paragraph: 1 2 3
14. An explanation of the experimental method is in paragraph: 1 2 3

80
 Apparatus

The purpose of this part of the lab report is to tell the reader what materials and equipment are used
in the experiment. A diagram of the experimental set-up with labeled components and captions is
included. The basic content includes:

• The equipment used for the test

• The components, how they are arranged, their functions
• The materials tested, described in adequate detail

A paragraph describing the experimental set-up and materials consists of:

1. Reference to the figure
2. A topic sentence including the main components
3. Details of the components in the same order as given in the topic sentence; details could include
dimensions, materials, colours, shapes etc.
4. An explanation of the experimental set-up (arrangement)
5. Functions of the tools
6. The details of the experimental subject materials

Example

The test apparatus for comparing the viscosities of olive oil and sunflower oil is shown in the figure to
the right. It includes a bottle, a film canister, a marble, and a stopwatch. The 1.5-liter plastic bottle is
positioned on its side. The cap of the bottle rests on the 5 cm high by 3 cm diameter cylindrical plastic
film canister. The bottom of the bottle rests on the table. The bottle has a slope of approximately 10°.
There are two lines, 20 cm apart, drawn around the bottle. These are the starting and ending points for
timing the movement of the marble. The spherical glass marble is 1 cm in diameter. It is placed inside
the bottle and rolls down the slope. A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for the marble to
travel the 20 cm between the two lines. The two oils tested are 100% pure olive oil, produced by the
Aceites Agro Sevilla Corporation of Spain, and 100% pure sunflower oil, produced by Areej Vegetable
Oils and Derivatives SAOG of Oman.

_______________________________Exercise 1 _____________________________

Look at the apparatus section of the viscosity experiment above. Read the description and
draw the apparatus in the box:

81
 Order and Organization

Look at the apparatus section of the viscosity report and see how the description of components
is given in the same order as in the topic sentence.

The test apparatus for comparing the viscosities of olive oil and sunflower oil is shown in the figure
to the right.

It includes a 1 bottle, 2 film canister, 3 a marble, and 4 a stopwatch

1 The 1.5-liter plastic bottle is positioned on its side.

2 The cap of the bottle rests on the 5 cm high by 3 cm diameter cylindrical plastic film canister. The
bottom of the bottle rests on the table. The bottle has a slope of approximately 10°. There are two
lines, 20 cm apart, drawn around the bottle. These are the starting and ending points for timing the
movement of the marble.

3 The spherical glass a marble is 1 cm in diameter. It is placed inside the bottle and rolls down the
slope.

4 A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for the marble to travel the 20 cm between the two
lines. The two oils tested are 100% pure olive oil, produced by the Agro Sevilla Corporation of Spain,
and 100% pure sunflower oil, produced by Areej Vegetable Oils of Oman.

________________________________ Exercise 2 _____________________________

Put the sentences in the correct order.

a. The three 50 baiza coins tested are manufactured in 1999, and they are silver in color.

b. The equipment, shown in the figure to the right includes an electronic balance, a
micrometer, and a Vernier caliper.

c. All coins are in good condition

d. A micrometer (± 0.02mm) is used to measure the thickness of the coins.

e. A Shimadzu electronic balance (± 0.02mm) is used to measure the mass of each coin.

f. Three 10 baiza coins are from the year 2010, and they are copper in color.

g. A Vernier caliper (±0.02mm) is used to measure the diameter of the coins.

82
Language:

The following grammatical points are used in describing the experimental set-up and materials:

1. Present tense (active and passive voice)

e.g. includes, has, is positioned, is attached
2. Prepositions of location and motion
e.g. on the table, at the top, to the right
3. Adjectives and adverbs describing spatial relationships
e.g. horizontal, vertically, diagonally
4. Action verbs showing relationships between parts
e.g. place, insert. rest
5. Infinitives of purpose
e.g. is used to measure
6. Relative clauses
e.g. which is attached

Look at the language used in the viscosity report. There are different types of verbs used:

1. Stative verbs describe states: conditions or situations that exist. There is no action.
Examples:
1. The bottle has a slope of… 3. The apparatus consists of...
2. …the bottle rests on the table. 4. The marble is 1 cm in diameter

2. Action verbs can be in the active or passive voice. The passive voice is often used in scientific
writing.
Action (Active Voice) Action (Passive Voice)
1. The marble…rolls down the slope. 1. The test apparatus is shown…
2. The string hangs from the pivot point. 2. The…bottle is positioned on its side

________________________________ Exercise 3 _____________________________

Choose the correct form of the verbs in the following sentences.

Stative Verbs
1. The box ______ 2 kg. of limestone rocks. A. is contained B. contains

2. A new phone ______ over 300 OR. A. is cost B. costs

3. The desk ______ 50 cm. by 100 cm. A. measures B. is measured

4. This desk __________ too much. A. is weighed B. weighs

5. This book ___________ lab reports. A. include B. includes

83
 Action (Active voice)
6. That store ________ phones. A. is sold B. sells

7. The customer ______ the desk. A. was measured B. measured

8. The dog _________ across the yard A. ran B. is run

9. My luggage ______ over 40 kg. It’s heavy. A. weighs B. is weighed

10. 4. The wire _____ the speaker to the computer. A. connects B. is connected

Action (Passive voice)

11. The phone _______ at that store. A. is sold B. sells

12. The dimensions of the desk ______. A. were measured B. measured

13. My luggage ______ by the staff. A. weighed B. was weighed

14. The speaker _____ to the computer with a wire. A. connects B. is connected

15. The glass ____________ by the waiter. A. was dropped B. dropped

________________________________ Exercise 4 _____________________________

Complete the sentences using the given words. All sentences are in the present tense, but you’ll
have to choose between the active and passive voice.

1. An electronic balance is used to ______ the mass of each coin. (weigh)

2. A lab report should ___________ a labelled diagram or picture. (has)

3. The thermometer ______________ inside the test tube. (position)

4. The car _______________ on the slope. (place)

5. The rope ___________ from the ceiling. (suspend)

6. The liquid _____________ easily through the tube because of its low viscosity. (flow)

7. The string _________ from the spool to the pivot point. (run)

84
________________________________ Exercise 5 _____________________________

Thermometer

Stopper Clamp

Test tube 400 ml beaker

Bunsen burner Retort stand

Figure 1 Boiling Point Apparatus

Fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the words from the table below.

show place hold x 2 diagonally contain prevent locate

measure use consist include provide have vertically

The apparatus to determine boiling points ______________________ in figure 1. It ___________ of

a beaker, a test tube, a thermometer, and a Bunsen burner. The 400 ml beaker ___________on a ring
attached to a retort stand. The beaker is filled with 400 ml of mineral oil to ________ uneven heating.
The test tube ____________ by a clamp inside the beaker. The thermometer is positioned _________
inside the test tube. A stopper _________ the thermometer in place. The thermometer
____________the temperature. The Bunsen burner __________ under the beaker. It _________ to
___________ heat. The distilled water is 100% pure water. The saltwater __________ 29.2 g of
sodium chloride (NaCl) per liter of water. The 2 liquids are tested in 75 ml samples.

Note:
• Don’t forget to include articles (a/an, the) before nouns.
• Don’t forget to include the functions of measuring tools
• Don’t use informal language
• Use Simple Present and Present Passive in this section

85
 Procedure

Lab reports must describe exactly how the experiment was carried out. The reader must know how
the results of the experiment were obtained. If data is in the results section, then a description of
how that data was obtained must be in the report.

The Procedure section includes:

1. Reference to the Apparatus section and its diagram
2. All the steps carried out in the experiment in the order they were taken
3. Description of repeated steps or groups of steps
4. All calculations (refer to the formula in the introduction section if used)
5. Recording of all values (measured and calculated)
6. Reference to the Results section

Example

The apparatus to compare viscosities was set up as shown in the figure above. The bottle was
filled with olive oil. The marble was inserted, and the cap was closed tightly. The bottle was
positioned with the cap on the film canister. The bottom end of the bottle was raised, causing
the marble to roll to the cap end. Then the bottom was lowered to the table and the marble began
to roll down the slope. When it reached the first line, the stopwatch was started. When the
marble reached the second line, the stopwatch was stopped, and the time was recorded. This
process was repeated 5 more times, for a total of 6 trials. Next, the olive oil was replaced with
sunflower oil, and the above procedure was repeated. Six trials were carried out with the
sunflower oil. The travel times for the marble through each liquid were averaged and recorded.
The percentage change between the average travel times was calculated and recorded. The
percentage difference between each trial and the average travel time was calculated and
recorded. The results are shown in the table below.

Exercise 1

A. Underline the verbs in the paragraph above. Write down some examples.

____________________________________________________________________________

B. Which verb tenses are used in the paragraph above?

___________________________________________________________________________

C. Why do you think these structures are used?

____________________________________________________________________________

86
Language:

The following grammatical points are used in describing the procedure:

1. Past tense (active and passive voice)
e.g. the substance was placed in a beaker, water boiled
2. Sequence words (not too many)
e.g. first, next, then, subsequently, finally
3. Prepositions and adverbs of location
e.g. the pendulum was held at an angle of 5º, cold water was poured into the cylinder

Passive Voice
In a scientific experiment, the person performing the steps is not important. Therefore, the passive
voice is often used.

The bottle was filled with olive oil. (who filled the bottle is not important)

Exercise 2

Use the words from the box to complete the sentences. Use the past tense with passive voice.
Use each word only once.

calculate obtain estimate predict

activate prevent lubricate suspend

1. Rain _____________________ for today, but it was only cloudy.

2. The timer ________________________ by turning the button to the “on” position.

3. The boy noticed the Bunsen burner had been left on, and an accident ___________________.

4. The rope _______________________ from the ceiling.

5. The temperature ___________________ to be over 300°C, but the exact value was unknown.

6. The machine’s gears ____________________________ with oil.

7. The procedure section explained how the results ___________________________.

8. The density of the first sample __________________ using equation 1.

Exercise 3

Complete the sentences using the words given. All sentences are in the past tense, but you
will have to choose between active and passive voice.

1. After the balls ________________, they ________________ down the slope. (release, roll)

2. The water ______________ into the beaker, and the volume ______________. (pour, obtain)

87
3. When the water _____________ to boil, the sample ____________ in the beaker. (start, place)

4. Tensile stress ____________ to the wire, and the elongation _____________ (apply, measure).

5. The volume of air _________ in 5 ml increments until it ____________ 50 ml.(reduce, reach)

6. The liquid ________________ easily through the tube because of its low viscosity. (flow)

Repeating steps

In the viscosity experiment, there were 3 trials for each oil. That means some steps were repeated
6 times. However, there is no need to repeat the same steps again and again and again…

In experiments, steps are repeated. Don’t Describe repetitive steps in short

use the same sentence again n again. sentences.

This process was repeated 5 more times, for a total of 6 trials.

Next, the olive oil was replaced with sunflower oil, and the above procedure was repeated for
six trials.

Exercise 4

Here are some other examples describing repetitive steps in short sentences. Fill in the
correct form of verbs to complete the sentences.

1. Five weights ofThis

500 process was repeated
g ___________, one at5a more
time. times, for a totalofofthe
The extension 6 trials.
spring ___________
with each addition. (add, measure)

2. Weights totaling 2.5 kg __________in 500 g increments. The extension of the spring was
measured each time. (added)

3. The temperature _______________ at intervals of 20 minutes. ( record )

4. The ball _________________ and the timer was started simultaneously. ( release)

88
Calculations
In this course, we will practice describing calculations in the procedure. You must state which
calculations were made to the data from your experiment. If you calculate using a formula which
is included in the introduction, do not re-write the formula or give details of the calculations.

Example: The area was calculated using formula 1.

Exercise 5

Table Boiling Points of Distilled Water and Saltwater

Thermometer Distilled Boiling % Difference

Water Point (°C) from Average
Stopper Clamp 1 99.9 0.1
Test tube 2 100 0
400 ml beaker
3 100.1 0.1
Bunsen burner Retort stand Average 100
Saltwater
1 100.6 0.07
2 100.5 0.03
3 100.6 0.07
Figure 1 Boiling Point Apparatus Average 100.53
.053 % difference between averages

Choose the words from the box below and fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the
words.

repeat average calculate observe ignite

record place liquid show x2 fill

The apparatus was set up as___________ in the figure above. A test tube ______________with
seventy-five ml of distilled water. The tube was then attached to a thermometer and put in a 400 ml
beaker full of mineral oil. The beaker _________________on the Bunsen burner and the burner
________________. When the temperature stopped rising, the value _______________ and
recorded as the boiling point. This process __________ for 2 more samples of distilled water and 3
samples of salt water. The average boiling point for each _______________was calculated and
recorded. The percentage difference between the boiling point of each sample and ________was
calculated and ____________. The percentage difference between the average boiling points
________________and recorded. The results ________ in the table below.

89
 Exercise 6 (A)

A. Rewrite each step of the procedure using appropriate punctuation, capitalization and the
correct form of the verbs.

show the results in table 1 and table 2 below

___________________________________________________________________________

measure the diameter of each coin using a Vernier caliper

convert values to centimeters and record

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

collect the instruments and materials to determine densities of 10 and 50 baiza Omani coins as
shown in figure 1.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

use formula 1 to calculate the volume for all trials and record

_______________________________________________________________________________

repeat the preceding steps with three10 baiza coins

_______________________________________________________________________________

calculate the percentage difference between the density of each sample and the average of that
coin type, and record.

_______________________________________________________________________________

measure the thickness of the coins using a micrometer, convert values to centimeters, and record

_______________________________________________________________________________

use formula 2 to determine the density of each coin

_______________________________________________________________________________

calculate the percentage difference between averages and record

90
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

place three 50 baiza coins on an electronic balance and record the mass of each coin

_______________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 6 (B)

B. Put the steps from the previous exercise in logical order in the form of a paragraph. Use
sequence words where necessary.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

91
 Results

This section of the report is used to record data. It is important to note down your observations/
measurements and calculations as you complete an experiment.

How to record the results of an experiment in a table?

1. Give a caption to the table.

2. Figure out how many columns and rows you need.
3. Label all your columns with appropriate headings and units(where required).
4. Record the data from your experiment in the appropriate columns.

Table: Travel Times of a Marble in Olive and Sunflower Oil

% Difference Sunflower % Difference

Trial Olive Oil (s)
from Average Oil (s) from Average

1 4.2 2.35 4.9 0.41

2 4.7 8.89 4.9 0.41
3 4.3 0 4.8 1.65
4 4.3 0 4.9 0.41
5 4.2 2.35 4.8 1.65
6 4.3 0 5.0 2.43
Average 4.3 4.88
The average travel time in the sunflower il is 12.63% more than in the olive oil.

Exercise

Fill in the table with the given information.

Aim: To compare the boiling points of distilled water and saltwater
Number of trials: 5
Average boiling point - distilled water: 99.98
Average boiling point – salt water: 100.54
The percentage difference between the average boiling points: 0.56%
Table: A. ____________________________________________

% Difference % Difference
B. __________ C._________ D.__________
from Average from Average
1 99.9 0.1 100.6 0.07
2 100 0 100.5 0.03
3 100.1 0.1 100.6 0.07
4 99.9 0.1 100.5 0.03
5 100 0 100.5 0.03
Average 99.98 100.53
The average boiling point in salt water is E. __________more than in distilled water

92
 Discussion

The Discussion of Results is related to the Aim. This part of the lab report demonstrates how the
numbers from the Results section prove that the Aim has been achieved.

The discussion section usually has two paragraphs and contains answers to these questions:

1. Reference to the results table: What important data is shown in the results?
2. Main finding: Was the aim achieved?
3. Support: What evidence shows that you have achieved your aim?
4. Discrepancy: Are there any discrepancies? How do you know they are discrepancies?
5. Reason for Discrepancy: What is the most probable explanation?

Example

The table shows the time in seconds for the individual trials, the average travel time of the marble
in each liquid, and the percentage difference between the times. The travel times for the marble
are very consistent in both types of oil. The range of variation between trials is small. In all but
one trial, the times are within 3% of the average. In all trials, the travel time for the marble is
lower in the olive oil than in the sunflower oil. The average time for the olive oil is 4.3s and for
the sunflower oil is 4.88s. The marble travels 12.63% slower through the sunflower oil. Because
the marble moves more slowly through the sunflower oil, it is concluded that sunflower oil has
a higher viscosity than olive oil.

The time recorded in trial 2 for the olive oil (4.7s) is anomalous. This value is 8.89% different
from the average and inconsistent with all the other trials. This discrepancy could be due to
unobserved air bubbles adhering to the surface of the marble.

Language:

The following grammatical points are used in the discussion of the results.

1. The present tense is used because the results are being discussed now.
e.g. the table shows, the values are, the average is, is concluded )
2. The language of comparison is used to express findings or support for findings.
e.g. slightly lower, significantly higher, close to, consistent with, in agreement with
3. Cause and effect language is useful for findings
e.g. because the marble travels more slowly through olive oil..,, Thus, it is concluded……
4. Modal verbs and expressions of possibility are used for error justification.
e.g. could be.
5. Use adjectives in describing values.
e.g. .. percentage difference between the observed value and accepted value.., ….between
calculated value and standard value
93
Paragraph 1

1. Reference to the results table

Example
• The table above shows the measured current in a circuit with varying power and resistance.

Which sentence from the discussion section on the previous page refers to the data from the results
table?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

2. The main finding (It is connected to the aim and refers to the type of experiment)

Example
• The results show that Ohm’s Law holds true. (verifying)

What is the main finding (refer to the example on the previous page)?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 1

The main finding and aim are connected. Choose the best main finding for each aim below.

1. The aim of the experiment was to measure the boiling point of water on Jebel Shams….
A. The boiling point of water on top of Jebel Shams is higher than in Muscat.
B. The boiling point of water on top of Jebel Shams is found to be 89.947°C.

2. The purpose of the experiment was to verify Newton’s Third Law….

A. Newton’s Third Law is a very important idea.
B. Newton’s Third Law holds true.

3. The experiment was conducted to compare the melting points of gold and silver...
A. Gold has a higher melting point than silver…
B. The melting point of gold is 1064.18 °C.

94
3. Support (evidence)

A. Consistency of results

• Sometimes it is not clear if numbers are different or similar or if the difference between
two numbers is significant. In this course, we will use a simple standard: 3%.
• If two values are within 3% of each other, then they are consistent in this course. If the
difference is greater than 3%, then are inconsistent—that is, the numbers do not agree.
• Look at the table below.

Are all values in the given table consistent? Why / Why not?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

B. Averages

• Comparing two things:

Comparison between averages & the percentage difference between averages

• Verifying the law:

Average calculated value & the average percentage difference from the accepted value

What is the support (look at the table on the previous page)?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

There are two possible ways of organizing this information.

1) support → therefore → main finding

2) main finding → because of → support

95
 Exercise 2

Choose the best support for each main finding.

1. Main Finding: The resistance of the aluminum wire changes with its length.
Support:
A. As the length increased, the resistance increased.
B. At 25 cm, the resistance is 0.9 ohms, while at 30 cm, the resistance is 1.1 ohms.

2. Main Finding: The boiling point of salt water is higher than the boiling point of distilled water.
Support:
A. The average boiling point of salt water is 100.53°C, and the average boiling point
of distilled water is 100°C. The difference in temperatures is 0.53%. The boiling
point of each sample was consistent with its average with a difference of less than
0.1%.

B. The average temperature at which saltwater boiled is higher than that of distilled
water. The boiling point of each sample is very close to the average, though the
boiling point of salt water is more consistent than the distilled water.

Paragraph 2

4. Discrepancy (error)

Remember: two values are inconsistent, or they do not agree if the difference between them is
greater than 3%.

a. Identify the discrepancy.

_________________________________________________________________________

b. How do you know it is a discrepancy?

_________________________________________________________________________

96
5. Reason for the discrepancy

What is the most likely reason for the discrepancy?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 3

1. Which sentence better describes the discrepancy?

A. The calculated density of the 3rd sample of copper (8.38 g/cm3) is anomalous.
B. There is a significant anomaly in the results that is easy to see.

2. Which sentence better explains why the result is an anomaly?

A. The density of the sample is much higher than the other samples.
B. This value is 6.68% lower than the average (8.96 g/cm3) and inconsistent with the other
samples.

3. Which sentence gives a better explanation of the anomaly?

A. The discrepancy may be the result of some problem in the experiment or human error.
B. The discrepancy may be the result of unobserved air bubbles in the sample.

Exercise 4

A. Read the given Aim and Results (table & graph) of an experiment carefully:
Aim
The aim of the experiment was to verify Hooke’s Law by applying force to a spring and measuring
elongation.
Results
Table Force Applied and Extension of a Helical Spring
Force (N) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Extension (m) 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.033

Graph Force vs. Extension

35

30

25
Force (N)

20

15

10
5

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
Extension (m)

97
B. Now, choose the most appropriate word for each option in the discussion section and
answer the questions that follow.

Discussion
The table and graph (showed / show / shows) the extension of a spring when regular increments of
force are applied. For every (decrease / increase / interval) in force, there is a corresponding
increase in the extension of the spring. The increase in extension is constant. It (is / was / could be)
0.005 m for each 10 N increase in applied force. The slope of the graph shows the proportionality of
the relationship.

The last data point, Trial 8, is not (agree / consistent / similar) with the others. The increase in
extension (.008 m) is greater than in all the other trials. This discrepancy (occurred / occurs / is
occurring) in the last trial, with the maximum load on the spring. The spring (could be / is / maybe)
at its elastic limit. In this case, Hooke’s Law would not apply, and extension would not be
proportional to force. Hooke’s Law is therefore found to be true.

Questions:

1. Which of the following should be the final sentence in the first paragraph?
a. That is just what Robert Hooke would have predicted.
b. In other words, the slope of the graph is a straight line.
c. Thus, Hooke's Law is verified.

2. What is the purpose of the first sentence in the second paragraph?

a. It supports the main finding.
b. It identifies a possible error in the results.
c. It explains why there is an error in the results.

3. What is the purpose of the last sentence in the second paragraph?

a. It is the main finding.
b. It ends the discussion with a strong general statement.
c. It has no purpose in this paragraph and should be deleted.

98
 Conclusion

The conclusion section is a short summary of the experiment, focusing mostly on the information
provided in the discussion section. It does not include new information. As the conclusion repeats
the information given in the report, it should be paraphrased, NOT copied.

The Conclusion should include:

1. Restatement of the aim
2. Summary of the main finding
3. Support for the main finding.
4. Error and its explanation ( if there’s an anomaly)

Language:

1. Restatement of the aim:

Present perfect passive is used.
e.g. has been verified, have been compared
2. Summary of the main finding:
• Past tense is used when referring to the experiment itself.
• Present Simple is used when stating general facts or conclusions.
e. g. It was concluded that salt water has a higher boiling point than distilled water.
3. Support for the main finding:
Simple Past is used.
e. g. The average time of the marble traveling through the sunflower oil (4.88s) was greater
than through the olive oil (4.3s).
4. Error and its explanation:
Modal verb + Present Perfect Passive are used.
e. g. may have been caused, could have been due to

All sentences are paraphrased. They should not be copied from other sections of the report.

Example

The viscosities of two liquids, olive oil, and sunflower oil, have been compared. (2) The average
time of the marble traveling through the sunflower oil (4.88s) was greater than through the olive
oil (4.3s). (3) It was concluded that sunflower oil is more viscous than olive oil. (4) An error in
one trial may have been caused by the presence of air bubbles on the surface of the marble.

99
 Exercise 1

Conclusion

The viscosities of two liquids, olive oil, and sunflower oil, have been compared. (2) The average
time of the marble traveling through the sunflower oil (4.88s) was greater than through the olive
oil (4.3s). (3) It was concluded that sunflower oil is more viscous than olive oil. (4) An error in
one trial may have been caused by the presence of air bubbles on the surface of the marble.

Read the conclusion from the viscosity experiment. What section of the report does each
sentence summarize? Match the sections (A-G) with the sentences (1-4). There are three
extra options.

A Support for the main finding D Important definitions

B The procedure E The main finding
C The aim F The error and its explanation
G Calculations

1. The viscosities of two liquids, olive oil, and sunflower oil, have been compared. ________
2. The average time of the marble traveling through the sunflower oil (4.88s) was greater than
through the olive oil (4.3s). __________
3. It was concluded that sunflower oil is more viscous than olive oil. ________
4. An error in one trial may have been caused by the presence of air bubbles on the surface of
the marble. _________

Have you noticed the change in verb tense in the conclusion section?
Examples

1. The boiling point of salt water is higher than the boiling point of distilled water.

It was concluded/ found that saltwater has a higher boiling point than distilled water.

2. Therefore, Newton’s Third Law is verified.

Newton’s Third Law was confirmed to be true.

3. The average boiling point of the saltwater samples is 100.53°C.

The saltwater samples boiled at an average temperature of 100.53°C.

4. The calculated density of the 3rd sample of copper (8.38 g/cm3) is anomalous. This value is
6.68% lower than the average (8.96 g/cm3) and inconsistent with the other samples. The
discrepancy may be the result of unobserved air bubbles in the sample.

An error in one sample may have been due to pockets of air in the sample.

100
 Exercise 2

Rewrite the following sentences for the conclusion

1. The gravitational acceleration constant (g) is confirmed to be true.

____________________________________________________________________________

2. The average density of the gold samples (19.3 g/cm3) is higher than the average density of the
silver samples (10.5 g/cm3).
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

3. The calculated density of the three samples of aluminum are in agreement with the average.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

4. The discrepancy could be due to an inexact calibration of the pressure gauge.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

101
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Title
Content
• Type of experiment
• Principal/ Law/ Property
• Subject

Language:
• Review three possible patterns on the action words.
a. Infinitive (e. g. to measure)
b. Noun (e. g. measuring)
c. Gerund (e. g. measuring)
• Think about capitalization rules. All words in the title should be capitalized except…
a. preposition
b. articles
c. Conjunctions
d. demonstratives
• Make sure if you need punctuations.

102
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Aim

Content
• Type of experiment
• Principal/ Law/ Property
• Subject
• Means / Method

Language:
• Choose one of the following patterns to write your aim.
a. The aim of the experiment was to verify……….
b. The purpose of this experiment was to verify………
c. The experiment was conducted to verify……….
• Do not repeat the experimental subject materials in the means.
• Include articles (a/an) where necessary in the list for the means.
• Use punctuations where necessary.

103
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Apparatus

Before you begin writing:

• Label the components of the apparatus in Fig. 1(see Power Point on Moodle).
• Consider the starting point in describing the apparatus.

Fig. 1 ______________________

Content:
• Reference to the figure
• A topic sentence including the main components
• Description of the apparatus in the same order as given in the topic sentence
• Description of arrangement and functions of the components
• Details of other materials used in the experiment: stopwatch and measuring tape

Language:
• Present tense (active and passive voice)
• Prepositions of location and motion
• Adjectives and adverbs describing spatial relationships
• Action verbs showing relationships between parts
• Infinitives of purpose
• Relative clauses

104
 Useful Vocabulary
show consist include connect position
fix suspend hang vertical cross
use measure have horizontal shorten
place Pass over Run down lengthen attach

105
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment

In-Class Writing
Title, Aim & Apparatus

Name: ___________________________________
Section: ____________

______________________________________________________________________________

Aim

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Apparatus

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

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 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
____________________________________________________________________________________

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107
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Procedure

Before you begin writing:

• Remember that you must write about the steps you have taken to conduct the experiment.
• Don’t forget to write about
a. measurements
b. calculations,
c. recording results.
• Use your results table to guide your writing (see Power Point on Moodle).
• Think about how you set the pendulum in motion.
pivot point

string

Content:
• Reference to the Apparatus section and its diagram
• Measurements for one trial
a. measure length of pendulum A
b. measure time of 20 oscillations
• Repeat for two more trials
• Change the length of the string twice and repeat the process (pendulum B & C)
• Describe the repetitive steps in short sentences.
• Calculate Period (T) and calculate g using the formula
• Percentage difference between the calculated values of g and the standard value
• Calculate the average value of g and the % difference
• Result table
Language:

• Most of your writing will be in the past tense and passive voice.
• Sequence words (not too many)
• Prepositions
• Action verbs

108
 Useful Vocabulary for Procedure
measured set up calculate note use stop
angle parallel pull displace steps trials
divide period start record oscillations obtain
shorten procedure preceding previous simultaneously release

Useful Vocabulary for Describing Values

observed accepted
calculated standard
measured theoretical
average

109
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment

In-Class Writing
Procedure

Name: ___________________________________
Section: ____________

Procedure

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

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110
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
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111
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Discussion

Before you begin writing:

• Identify the main finding, support, and discrepancy (See Power Point on Moodle)
• Two patterns are possible: The main finding >> Support or Support >> The main finding
• Remember that the Discussion is written in the present tense

Content (Paragraph 1):

• What does the results table show? List only the important sections that you will discuss.
• Support for the main finding
a. Are the values consistent in each trial? (Less than 3% from the accepted value)
b. Does the average g agree with the accepted value?
• Main Finding
*Remember that the main finding is connected to the Aim.

Content (Paragraph 2):

• Identify a discrepancy
a. Where is the discrepancy?
b. What is the value?
• Why is it considered a discrepancy?
• What is the reason for the discrepancy?

Language:
1. Discussion is mostly written in the present tense ( except for the main finding).
2. The language of comparison is used to express findings or support for findings.
3. Cause and effect language is useful for findings
4. Modal verbs and expressions of possibility are used for error justification.
5. Use adjectives in describing values.

112
 Useful Vocabulary for Discussion
anomaly anomalous discrepancy error in agreement with
consistent inconsistent determine within as can be seen in..
due to as a result of slightly significantly variation
approximately concluded conclude therefore difference

Useful Vocabulary for Describing Values

observed accepted
calculated standard
measured theoretical
average

113
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment

In-Class Writing
Discussion

Name: ___________________________________
Section: ____________

Results:

Table:

Discussion of Results

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
114
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
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115
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment
Writing Guide

Conclusion

Before you start writing:

• Identify the information you have to paraphrase. (see PowerPoint on Moodle)
• Do not include any new information

Content:
• Restatement of the aim
• Summary of the main finding
• Support for the main finding
• Error and its explanation

Language:
• Present perfect passive (restatement of aim)
• Past tense & Present Simple (summary of the main finding)
• Simple Past (support for the main finding)
• Modal verb + Present Perfect Passive (error and its explanation)

116
 Lab Report: Pendulum Experiment

In-Class Writing
Conclusion

Name: ___________________________________
Section: ____________

Conclusion

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

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117
 Language Use in Lab Reports

Title: measure, compare, verify, determine

Verification of the Gravitational Constant

An Experiment to Measure the Friction in a Simple Pulley
Comparing the Compressive Strength of Three Types of Omani Limestone

Aim: Means Aim: Method

using + noun phrases by + gerund phrase

by means of + noun phrases

The experiment was conducted to verify the The purpose of this experiment was to
gravitational constant using an inclined plane, a measure … by applying tensile stress and
car, and a timer. measuring elongation.
The purpose of this experiment was to The experiment was conducted to verify
compare…by means of a bottle, a marble, and a Newton’s Second Law by measuring the
stopwatch. acceleration of a system…

Apparatus

Content points Useful phrases

A. Topic sentence w Reference to figure and a It consists of /it includes ...

list of main items - in order of discussion It runs from … to …, it hangs down..
(1) … is shown in the figure to the right It is suspended from/by...
(2) It includes ... It is attached to
…vertically / horizontally
B. A detailed description of items At the end of the cross arm
Shape, size, material, function, position It weighs 500 grams.
It is used to measure/adjust ...

Present tense / Active voice Present tense / Passive voice

Consist of, contain, measure To place, to hold, to position

It consists of a beaker, a test tube, a thermometer, The apparatus to determine boiling points is
and a Bunsen burner. shown in the figure to the right.
It contains 400 ml of mineral oil to ensure even The 400 ml beaker is placed on a ring
heating. attached to a retort stand.
The thermometer measures the temperature. The thermometer is positioned vertically
inside the test tube.

118
 Procedure

Content points Useful phrases

A. Topic sentence w Reference to figure X was set up as shown

B. A detailed description of all 15 steps X is shown
Set up, Measurements, Calculations X …was shortened by 20 cm
C. Reference to the table
was calculated for each trial/for each
length

Repeating the same steps Past + Passive

Weights totaling 2.5 kg were added in 500 g The apparatus was set up as shown …
increments. The extension of the spring was
measured each time. The percentage difference between averages
was calculated and recorded.
The previous steps were repeated 5 more times,
for a total of 6 trials. Density was determined for each coin
sample using Formula 1…

Discussion and Conclusion

A discrepancy (noun) Discrepant (adjective)

This discrepancy could be the result of…. The observations are discrepant from the
this discrepancy may be due to … average.
This discrepancy occurs in the last trial…

an anomaly anomalous

An anomaly could have been the result of… The value in trial 4 (32 s) is anomalous.

Consistent Inconsistent

The observed value (--) of...is consistent with the The value of …in the first trial of pendulum
accepted value of --- B (10.41 m/s2) is inconsistent with …

119
 Agree (verb) ...in agreement with (noun)

The average boiling point of water (99.9°C) The value for the average π (3.15) is in
agrees with the standard value of 100°C. agreement with the standard value with a
slight difference of only 0.32%. …
The observed boiling point of water in sample 3
(96.9°C) does not agree with….

Similarity or Difference

Significantly greater/higher/etc. Slightly greater/higher/etc.

The freezing point of the 5% saltwater solution is The experimental boiling point of purified
significantly higher than that of the 24% water (98.9°C) is slightly lower than the
solution. standard value of 100°C.
It is 19.5% greater than all the other trials. The resistance of the aluminum wires is
slightly higher than that of the copper
A key has a greater density than a pencil. wires.

A pencil is less dense than a key. There was a difference of only 5 cm

A key is denser than a pencil.

The coefficient of sliding friction is higher on

wet asphalt than on wet concrete.

Agree (verb) ...in agreement with (noun)

The average boiling point of water (99.9°C) The value for the average π (3.15) is in
agrees with the standard value of 100°C. agreement with the standard value with a
slight difference of only 0.32%. …
The observed boiling point of water in sample 3
(96.9°C) does not agree with…

Speculating (Present) Speculating (past)

The discrepancy may be the result of…. The anomaly could have been the result
of….
The discrepancy is probably due to a problem in
the experiment. The error may have been due to…

120
The Physics of Why Timekeeping Failed in the Americas
Reference
Siegel,E. (2018) The Physics of Why Timekeeping Failed in the Americas. Retrieved from
https://3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2018/09/the-physics-of-why-timekeeping-first-failed-in-the-
americas.html

Bee Robots
References
Ackerman, E. (2020). Drone With Bubble Machine Can Pollinate Flowers Like a Bee. Retrieved from
https://spectrum.ieee.org/drone-bubble-machine-pollinate-flowers-like-a-bee

Bukowska, M. (2016). B-Droid – a robot that's busy as a bee. Retrieved from

https://www.pw.edu.pl/engpw/Research/Business-Innovations-Technology-BIT-of-WUT/B-Droid-a-robot-that-
s-busy-as-a-bee

Petruzzello, M (n.d..) What Would Happen If All the Bees Died? https://www.britannica.com/story/what-
would-happen-if-all-the-bees-died

Ponti, C. (2017). Rise Of The Robot Bees: Tiny Drones Turned Into Artificial Pollinators. Retrieved from
https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/03/03/517785082/rise-of-the-robot-bees-tiny-drones-turned-into-
artificial-pollinators

Prisco, J. (2017). Researchers use drone to pollinate a flower. Retrieved from

https://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/09/world/artificial-pollinator-japan/index.html

Schaft, P. (2018). Pollination Drones Seen as Assistants for Ailing Bees. Retrieved from
https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/agriculture/pollination-drones-assist-ailing-bees/

Sorrel, C. (2016). These Robot Bees Might Save Us From The Bee-Pocalypse. Retrieved from
https://www.fastcompany.com/3066318/these-robot-bees-might-save-us-from-the-bee-pocalypse

Vega, N. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/bee-drone-pollination-japanese-

researchers-2017-3

Driverless Cars
References

Cusack, J. (2021) How Driverless Cars Will Change Our World. Retrieved from
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211126-how-driverless-cars-will-change-our-world

All You Need to Know about Driverless Cars. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.globalcarsbrands.com/driverless-car

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 Unit 3-Page 21- Picture- Mcity Test Facility at the University of Michigan
Copyright: Copyright 2015, © Michigan Photography. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. (734) 764 -9217. photography.umich.edu

Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster

References

Challenger Disaster United States History [1986] Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/event/Challenger-disaster

Howell, E. (2019) Challenger: The Shuttle Disaster that Changed NASA. Retrieved from
https://www.space.com/18084-space-shuttle-challenger.html

Lucchesi, E.L.B (2021) Looking Back at the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster. Retrieved from
https://astronomy.com/news/2021/10/looking-back-at-the-challenger-disaster

STS-51-L Space Shuttle Challenger Explosion.(n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.challenger-o-ring.com/

U.S. Government Printing Office. (1986) Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle
Challenger Accident Chapters 3, 4. Retrieved from https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/explode.html

Smart Construction Materials

References
Goyal,A., Patel,J. (2018) Smart Materials in Construction Technology. Retrieved from
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8537256

Mannan, R. (2021) What Are Smart Construction Materials? Retrieved from

https://newengineer.com/blog/what-are-smart-construction-materials-1509336

Smart Construction Materials- Applications in Civil Engineering.(n.d.) Retrieved from

https://theconstructor.org/building/smart-construction-materials-applications/13/

3 Smart Materials for Construction that are not Science Fiction(n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.redteam.com/construction-smart-materials/

Cybersecurity

References

Klosowski,T. (2019) How to Protect Your Digital Privacy. Retrieved from

https://www.nytimes.com/guides/privacy-project/how-to-protect-your-digital-privacy

Shea,S., Gillis,A.S., Clark,C. (n.d.) What is Cybersecurity? Retrieved from

https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/cybersecurity

The Dangers of Hacking and What a Hacker can do to your Computer. (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.webroot.com/us/en/resources/tips-articles/computer-security-threats-hackers

What is Cybersecurity?(n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.ibm.com/topics/cybersecurity

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