Chapter 1 - Methods, Standards, and Work Design: Introduction Elements of Standards of Defi: the degree of wealth and material comfort available to a person or community. Food, Cloths, Education, Medical Insurance, Security. Productivity relationship with standards of living ~ If productivity increase, standard of living increase. ~ Increasing productivity companies way to success. (Productivity i, Profit i) - Productivity improvement / enhancement refers to increase of output over working hour constant Productivity VS. Production Production — - the action of making / manufacturing, Productivity - Special measure of efficiency, defined as relationship between output by a gi work system during a given period of time and the quantity of resources consumed to create the output. output Productivity=" input to increase productivity: ~ increase output and reduce input. ~ Both increase, but output increase at higher rate. ~ Both decrease, but input decrease at higher rate. Fundamental Tools for Improving Productivity + WSAD (Study) ~ Des ~ Select /reselect processes, tools, etc, ~ Methods Engineering, a.k.a: Operations analysis, WD, corporate re-engineering, in/ redesign the best methods, + WSAD (Measurement) ~ Time study, determine time for job. ~ Standards are results of time study. (used to implement wages scheme) Work system analysis and design Analysing, designing, creating, and selecting the best manufacturing methods, processes, tools, equiipments, and skills to manufacture @ product based on the working drawings that have been developed by product engineers, Work D As part of developing / maintaining the new method, the principles of WD must be used to the task and workstation ergonomically to the human operator. he overall procedure Defining the problem, breaking the job into operations, analyzing each operation to determine the most economical procedure for the quantity involved, applying proper time values. 4Objectives of WSAD Mainly, to increase productivity, and lower unit cost; allowing more quality goods and services to be produced for more people. = Minimize time required for tasks. = Continuous improvement to quality and reliability = Conserve resources. (Consider cost and power available) ~ Maximize safety, health, and well-being of employecs. = Produce with high concern to environment, ~ Follow management program, resulting in job interest and satisfaction Influence of Methods, Standards, and Work Design (MSWD) Sales Manager Costs largely determined by manufacturing methods Controller “Time standards are the bases of standard eos Manufacturing Manager Standards provide the bates fr measuring the performance of production departments Purchasing Agent ‘Time is common denominator for comparing competitive equipment and supplis Indust Relations (Good labor relations ae maintained with equitable standards anda safe work environment CChict Engineer Methods work design and processes strongly influence product design. Maintenance ‘Standards provie the bases for preventive maintenance, Reliability and QC Standards enforce quality Prodvetion Contol Scheduling is based on tine standards. Monutactring Department MSWD provide how the work i tobe done and how long twill ake WSAD and Time Study ‘Minimum work | Workcontent | Work content added ] Time aided due to Time added duc to ‘eonient of added dueto | dueby ineffective | shortcoming of management, | shortcomings of worker, product defects work design poor planning, ct, excensive allowance, et Goals oF methods ‘Opportunities for saving through MSWD “Total time of operation when MSWD not practised Standard8 are the end results of time study / work measurement. This technique establishes a time standard allowed to perform a given task, based on measurement of the prescribed method. Method Systematic Steps 1, Select Project new product, plan, ete. 2. Get and Present Data obtain production requirements, procure engineering data and cost. 3. Analyze Data use why, where, what, who, when, how + 9 Approaches. 4. Develop Ideal Method W&M process charts, eliminate, combine, simplify, ete. 5. Present and Install Method use decision-making tools, overcome resistance, implement. 6. Develop a Job Analysis job analysis and description. 7. Establish Time Standards stopwatch time study, work sampling, standard data, ete. 8. Follow Up verify savings, assure correct installation, repeat. S-GP-A-DM-PI-DJA-ETS-F AROULWAnAB AUMANAN SUTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITYChapter 2- Problem Solving Tools Using: Select project, Get & present Data, Develop Ideal Method. lerations (most important), involves new / existing products, simply “bottleneck operations”. ~ Technical considerations processing techniques, QC, product performance. ~ Human considerations highly repetitive jobs, work-related accidents, high-accident rat jobs, continuous workers complaints. Exploratory Tools + Pareto Analysis: items of interest are identified and measured on a common scale, then ordered in descending order (from highest to lowest) “y-axis cumulative frequency”. + Fish Diagram: a.k.a cause and effect. Head (Effect) ‘ain complaint Sub-cause ‘Cause + Gantt Chai against time on Horizontal axis. Shows the anticipated completion time for various project activities. Bar plot (PERT Chartiag: Program Evaluation and Review Technique. Referred to the critical path method (Critical path is the path where duration and time allowed are equal, in which if any delay in the critical activities, the whole project will be delayed). * Worksite / Job Analysis: identifies problems within a particular area, department, worksite. Before collecting data; analyst walks through the area and observe the workers, tasks, workplace, and work environment. Identify and administrative factors affecting behaviour / performance. Operation Process Chart ‘Shows chronological sequence of all operations, inspections, time allowances, and materials used. (from arrival of raw materials to packaging). The chart shows the entrance of all components and. subassemblies to main assemblies. Using the following notations: O 4 + 4 a Inspection Operation Junction No Junction Alternative Path Rework. xx” (seconds) D.W (day work)Flow Process Chart ‘ontains more details than OPC, But itis applied for each component of an assembly. It is valuable for recording non production hidden costs, such as distance travelled, delays, temporary storages, ASME Standard Icons © Operation [Inspection > Transportation D Detay YJ Storage Non Standard Icons © Record Created Info, added to record <> Decision making © inspection and operation © Operation and Transportation simultaneously simultaneously Flow Diagram is the pictorial plan of the FPC, helps visualising the real map, Worker and Machine Chart (W&M) Used to study, analyze, improve one workstation at a time. The chart shows the exact time relationship between working cycle (operator) and operation cycle (machine). Illustrates the practise of machine coupling, Gang Process Chart ‘An adapiation of worker and machine chart. A worker and machine process chart helps determine the most economical number of machines one operate, but the gang process chart shows the exact relationship between the idlé and operating cycles of the machine and the idle and operating times per cycle of the workers who service that machine. Quantitative Tools, Worker and Machine Relationships Synchronous Servicing Ideal case, but because n* is not an integer, we have two cases, nin*: weltm 1 (total loading and unloading) (machine running time).n* (ideal number of machines) l+w? For ni n*: 14 w)(K,4n.Ky (ew) gp ynit (60) TEC (Total Expected Cost) ‘The production rate: R, n, Te (cycle time “time / unit”) note: Production rate is units / hour. T+w new Tem ARDULWAHA ALMAIMAN SULTAN OABOOS UNIVERSITYRandom Servicing Completely random servicing situations are those cases in which it is not known when a facility needs to be serviced or how long servicing takes. The binomial expansion gives the approximate: P(m of n)= way P= a +m (otal numbers of machines), m (number of machines down) the hours lost can be calculated as; if m < w (number of workers) then hours lost = But if m > w, we use the following equation: hr lost = (m—w) «(Py 4))*(working hours" 8) oven g Proportion of machine time lost = (hr lost) / (total working time) total working time= ne(working hours), e.g: if'n = 3, and Shr /day, then total working time=24** Ky tnk, 1 and the Total Expected Cost TEC: +, and Produetion Rate Ry = =~ jay of Ro(l-hr26) ine Balancing > Precedence Chart. ~ Put up a table; RPW (Ranked Positional Weight), and Rank from highest RPW to lowest. - RPW=Y of Te of all units depending on the unit, ~ Work Stations: find the ideal Te using Rp; Divide work in stations such that Te is not exceeded, ~ Line Balancing Efficiency pe IC wT ** For manual; LBE (95-10%), but for automated (~85%) ** 100%, TWC (Total Workstation Content “Sof all w/s times ")Chapter 3 - Operations Analysis Objectives Question every detail + What - improves the method. + Why - Purpose of operation. (main question) + How - Design, materials, tools, tolerance, and processes, + Who - Operator and work design + When - sequence of manufacture, All these aim to éliminate, combine, rearrange operations. Lean Prineiples (Thinking) ‘TPS - Toyota Production System (7 mudas “wastes") + Over production + Inappropriate processing (over processing) + Waiting + Unnecessary transportation + Excess inventory Unnecessary motion + Defective products Waiting & transportagion wastes - elements to be examined and eliminated with flow process chart Wastes of motion - culminating (reaching highest level of dev.) the principles of WD & motion eco. Wastes of overproduction & excess inventory - in & out movement of stock. Wastes in defective products - producing scrap / require rework ‘The $8: Sort, Set in order, Shine, Standardize, Sustain. 1¢ 9 Approaches of Operations Analysis, Operations Purpose Most important, 25% of operations being performed can be eliminated. 2. Product (part) Design To improve, look for reducing cost: + Reduce number of parts by simplified design. + Reduce number of operations & travelling for assembly. + Utilize a better material, and using tolerance. + Design for manufacturing / assembly. 3. Tolerance & Specification (olerance are related to quality. They are considered when reviewing the design. Designers may have a tendency to incorporate specification that are more rigid than necessary. Lack of knowledge of cost. Cost decrease as Tolerance increase. 4, Material Finding less expensive and lighter and easier to process. Using materials more economically, salvage materials, supplies and tools, standardising materials, finding the best vender for (stock & price). 5. Manufacturing Sequence & Process Rearranging operations, mechanising manual operations, utilising more efficient facilities, operating facilities more efficiently, manufacturing near net shape, consider use of robots. 6. Setup and Tools Most prevalent mistake of planners and tool makers is to tie up money in fixtures that may show a large savings when in use, but are seldom “rarely” used. This is done by: - RedugeSetup time (JIT), - Utilize full capacity of machines, - More efficient tools, and set the Ratio of setup to production run time to be low. Dividing parts to families of similar time interval, shape, process.7. Material Handling All materials moved periodically from location to location, Ensure no early nor late arrival of materials for production. Ensure materials delivered to the correct place and having no damage and in the proper quantity. Consider storage (temporary / dormant). Very high percent of total cost of bringing a produet to market related to MH (30-85%). Distance (small or large) should be examined (inspected), Reducing time spent by F + Reduce time spent in picking up material. a + Use mechanical and Automated tools, } = Make better use of existing handling facilites | + Handle materials with high care. + Gnas far coding Enwentary contra! end other applications The MH institute developed 10 principles: ( 1. Planning, 2. Standardization, 3. Work, 4. Ergonomics, 5. Unit load, 6. Space utilization, 7. System, 8, Automation, 9, Environmental, 10, Life-Cycle. + the less a material is handled, the better itis handled. ** Plant Layout Important element of an entire production system that embraces operations, MH, inventory control, scheduling, routing and dispatching. Poor layout can result in major costs (ost ae hens Tes) + Straight-Line layouts: machinery is located such that the flow from one operation to the next is minimized. + Process (Functional) layout: grouping of similar facilities into departments or building, This is ‘200d for appearance and promotes good housekeeping. 9, Work Design Includes manual work and the principles of motion economy, ergonomics principles, working and environmental conditions,cognitive (mental action of acquiring info.) ‘work with respect to informational input from displays, information processing, and interaction with computers, and workplace and systems safety.Chapter 10 - Time study is also know as Work Measurement me Study 3 Methods: - Estimates, - Historical Records, - Work measurement procedures. Before study is conducted «+ The operator should verify that he/she performs the correct method. + The operator should become familiar with all details of the operation. + The supervisor should check if the method follow standards as established. + Supervisor should check that there is no shortage during study. ‘Minimum equipments: + Stopwatch (decimal minute watch). + Pocket calculator. + Time study board, + Time study form. + Videotape cameras. + Time study software, Time study elements + Selecting the operator.* + Analyze job and break into elements, + Record elapsed elemental values. * Performance rating (R) and allowance (%) operator should be above average, shows interest, and be familiar with time study. The analyst should be few fect away from operator, so he doesn’t interfere with the operator, analyst should also avoid conversations with operator while conducting time study. Number of Cycles in Time Study Su, = sample mean . n=no. of sample elements, t~dist ibutionvalue(t, s=standard deviatio k=acceptable error (fraction of X), 1—(Degree of freedom (C.D) us] v-[43] (number of cycles), I Note: if C.1is not given, take it as 95%, + as cycle time of the operation decreases, then number of cycles to be conducted increase ** Basie Variables Efficiency of Operator OT- Observed Time R-Performance rating He-HoursEamed — He~ Clock hr. on job NT- Normal time = OT x R / 100 e- Expected output Oc ~ Current Output ST- Standard Time = NT (1 + allowance(®%) ) Pathe eater) i, O, ABoUNWANIAB ALANA S44tah onBoOs UnveRSTYChapter 11 - Performance Rating and Allowance Performance Rating Standard Performance Rating (R) " b di distance of warm up, d2 - distance of end w speea | dn é eoihneh P. Rate | we Tobe measured | End u , then take average from readings farm up | To be measure Pp aul F_> Fundamental time Synthetic Rating 0, > Observed time Westinghouse System Includes:-Skill Effort - Condition _- Consistency R=[1+E (Skill + Effort+ Condition + Consistency) ]x 100% , Machines have R = 100%. Objective Rating R=PxD, — P: Pace rating factor, D: difficulty, Allowances ‘Three Types + Personal: (4.6 - 6.5 %) = generally 5%, + Fatigue + Basie: 4% + Variable: 10 classes, (Total Variable Fatigue = (10 classes)) Special: * Unavoidable delay. + Avoidable delay. + Extra, + Policy; added by the company. ** good conditions means lower allowance, and bad conditions will offer higher allowances ** AROULWAHA ALMIAMAN SULTAN OAB005 UNIVERSITYChapter 12 - Standard Data and Formula Sources: + Nomogram: intersection between lines and rules, + Standard recorded data. + Formulas: Drill To the left, if drilling is through-all, but to the right itis for hole of length (L), F,= feed (in.! min), f= feed (in.!rev), $,= feet/min, d=diameter of drill, 1 = lead. angle of drill np ney (S22) 2 382L Tee aapnns (2) ——.L=I4, wand r= min F, (in./min.) Bhat) = 0.25 ty + length of cut ** remember that T is the OT, for machines NT = OT, but ST \T(1+allowance (typ. 10%6)). **Methods-Time Measurement (MTM) MTM-1 Chapter 13 - Predetermined Time Systems Gives time values for the fundamental motions of reach, move, tum, grasp, position, disengage, and release, Each of the above motions are also categorised by distance, ease, or angle Special unit is used in the tables, TMU, which 1 TMU. .036 sec. fo 40593835 27 Reach to single object in location which may 5 use eso Soke ks ere em 8 79 Wt MS 93 65 72 grasp is required, ° BS tes eae hae E - Reach to indefinite location to get hand in 2 96 129 142 UB 81 100 acl MTM-1: Eye Travel Time and Eye Focus - ET and EF. r=15E ru with mason vf 2970 EF (Eye Focus Time) = 7.3 TMU 'D= the perpendicular distance T= distance between points fiom the eye tothe line of from and to ohich the eye eavel T eelMove - M(X)(Case)(Wt) Time (MU) ‘Weight Allowance ‘Moved Mand in Wed) Constant (Xin) A BC Motion upto Factor (TMU) Case and Descprition sos 20°20 20 «17 25 ° 0 12s 29 3423 2 36 46 «5229 78 1062 349 57 6736 4 61 69 80 43 ps om 39 5 73 80 92 50 6 81 89 10387 ms 1736 7 89 97 a 6S A-Move object to other hand eto ice meena ms 12274 OF against stop. eee B- Move object to 3 22 BS 86 27512891 approximate or indefinite 2129 134 182 100 Tocation 4 186 169 ase eae eee ee ee 16 60 Iss 187128 location ie 176 170 204 142 ys 139s 20 192 182 A186 2 wk 4 BR 170 2s 1a a3 m4 6 255 IBS % «MO 28 398 475150160 2% 8S BL wo 212 30 271 43 307-227 MTM-1: Turn and Apply Pressure -T and AP ‘TOWt angle) ‘Time (TMU) for Degrees Turned Weight 60 75 99 105 120 135 150 165 180 ‘Small: 0-2 10 41 48 54 61 68 74 61 87 94 Medium: 2.1 1018 65 73 85 96 106 6 127 137 148 Large: 1011-3518 123 144 162 183 204 222 263 26.1 282 ‘Applying Pressure Case A 10.6 TMU, and Case B- 16.2 TMU, suran oaBoos uuiversiTyTime Case (TMU) MTML-1: Grasp - G(Case) Description Pick Up Grasp 1A 20. Small, medium or lage object by ite, easly grasped 1B 38 Verysmall objec or object laying close against a fat surface ICI 73 Interference with grasp on bottom and one side of nearly cylindrical object Diameter larger than 0S" 1€2 8.7 Interference with grasp on hotom and one side of nearly cylindrical abject. Diameters 0.25" 0.5" 1€3— 108 _tmterference with grasp on hotom and one side of nearly cylindrical abject. Diameter less han 0.25" 256 Regrasp > _S6 ‘Transfer Grasp ‘Object jumbled “Search occurs™ 4A 73 Largerthan mx Phx 4B 9.1 Besween 0.25" x 0.28" 0.125" and Ex 1" I $C 129 Lessthan 0.25" x 025" x0.125" SO Contact, Siding oF Hook Grasp MTM-t: Position and Disengage P(Class)(Symmetry)(Ease) __D(Class)(Fase) Position Disengage Ease of Handle Base of Handle Class of Fit Symmetry Easy Difficult Eas Loose No pressure required 8 Te) 400059 ss 9. 47 NS os 16.0 2-Close Light pressure required. s 162218 75° 118 ss 197253 NS 210-266 3-Tight Heavy pressure required. s 30 486 29 347 ss 465 521 NS 418 534 MTM-1: Release - RL(Case) Case ‘Time (TMU) Description 1 20 ‘Normal release performed by opening fingers as independent motion, 2 0 Contact releaseChapter 14 - Work Sampling It is a method for analysing work by taking a large number of observations at random times. Theory of work sampling Itis the fundamental law of probability; at a given instant, an event can be either present or absent. Statisticians have derived the following expression to show the probability of x occurrences of an event in n observations. (p+4q)" =1, p (probability of single occurrence), q (probability of an absence occurrence = | - p), and n (number of observations). Normal Distribution is a satisfactory approximation of this binomial distribution when n is large. pl We have a mean of p, then the standard deviation, = |? jp-(l=) For the confidence interval (C.1) consider z,). 6, as the acceptable limit of error “I”, (1.96) pg _(3-84)p-g F e Work Sampling Chart Control Chart Pp ta39, = 32-2 3,2 : 7 n 4 UCL=3+I, LCL=X-I, UCL - Upper Control Limit, Le LCL - Lower Control Limit. Standard Time using work sampling OF = observed time= 1 number of occurences per element i", n" number of observations" R NT=0Tx 100 P, T "total time of the sample", P, “total production rate”, NT (1+allowance%). ABDUL ANAS ALMAINAN sutran oagoos univeRsiTYAppendix A Worker and Machine Chart The first step isto draw the heading rove Tine of Start Operation Machine Machine2—_ | Mn Write the time of | Here you write what does the | In here you include the | This will start loading which the operation | operator do, eg: loading and | Loading and unloading, | and unloading after stars. unloading MI, or Walking. | and also the running time. | operator finishes ‘write the start and end loading and unloading time of LIUL and Run | MI, and walks to M2 has stopped. Total idle time can found by summing all the idle times in one cycle i= (L+m) - (n+ (Liw), Mi= (n+ (Léw)) - (Lm), Example: ‘The machines take 1 min, to load and unload, and then 1.5 min. to run, the operator takes 0.08 min. to walk between the machines. Time Operation MI M2 Ma © | Coading and Untoading Nt o-LUL- 1 Walking 2 é Loading and Unloading M2 1.08 - LUL- 2.08 1 - Running -2 Walking _ 5 216 | Losing and Unloading M3 216- LUL- 3.16 fe 208 - Running 3.58 316 Walking _ ) ite == 3.16- Running - 4.65 3.24 Loading and Unloading M1 | 3.24-L/UL-424 From the above chart, we can calculate the cycle time, which is 3.24 min., and we can observe that M1 finishes Running at Time = 2.5, while the operator return to MI at Time = 3.24, therefore, there is machine idle time = 3.24 - 2.5 = 0.74 min, How about having only 2 machines? Time Operation MI M2 (© | Loading and Unloading M1 0-LWUL-1 1 Walking 1.08 | Loading and Unloading M2 1.08 - LIUL- 2.08, 1 - Running 2.08 Walking 2.16 idle 2.08 - Running -3.58 25 | Loading and Unloading Mi | 2.5-L/UL-3.5 38 Walking 3.5 Running - 5.0 ‘we can see that after loading and unloading M2, operator walks back to M1, but M1 is stil running, this an operator idle, which can be calculated as 2.5 - 2.16 = 0.34Line Balancing Work Estimated Work | Work Estimated Work Example will illustrate the procedure, ee ee) © 076 6 oe HOrOO+OHO+D 1 24 7 216 2 os s ars 3 207 ° 065 0~6°0~0) 4 a 10 as 5 240 Rp= 90 unit! day At beginning we should construct a table with all the elements of the assembly. ok Ra ie ane geome oa Perajpem|s 0 | indicates thatthe column element fs depending on the row clement. Second Step; rewrite them ina table while ranking them, We should also calculate the eyete time ‘The eyele time for this example is $.33 min, (calculated from Rp with Shr. / day Work Unit | RPW Te | Precedence Cumulative Te Workstation | _ idle /w.s 1 14128 : 124 7 2 1287 | 084 1 2.08 1 0 942 076 : 2.84 1 7 sor 216 2 5 1 033 3 8662.07 0 2.07) 2 4 659) 1a7 3 354 2 19 & 68s | 495 7 475 0.58) 5 S12 | 240 42 2.40 4 6 2m 02, 5 3.02 4 9 24 06s 68 3.67 4 wo | 14s Las 9 5.12 4 021 > e inerchanged the place of 8so we minimize the lle tine af wa this cam only be done fhe precedence s completed ‘Total number of workstations is 4, and total idle time is 2.91. The LBE will be 86.4%. + Special case where Te is more than Te, we break the element into two part with parallel workstations. ASDULWANAS AUMANHAN SUUZAN GA00S UNIVERSITY