2 UNIT 2. BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY® Contents 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Physical/Biological Anthropology 2.1.1 History and Development 2.1.2. Current Fields of Study 2.2 Socio-cultural Anthropology 2.2.1 History and Development 2.2.2. Current Fields of Study 2.3 Archaeological Anthropology 23.1 History and Development 23.2. Current Fields of Study 24 Linguistic Anthropology 2.4.1. History and Development 2.4.2. Current Fields of Study 2.5 Summary 2.6 References 2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Learning Objectives After going through this unit, you will be able to: ‘+ understand the different branches of anthropology; ‘* critically evaluate the interrelationship among the different branches of anthropology; and ‘* understand the current fields of study within the subject. 2.0 INTRODUCTION Anthropology is a holistic and multi-faceted discipline dealing with the study of man in totality. It studies man not only as a part of nature but also as a dynamic creature in terms of biological and social features. Anthropology is holistic because all aspects of culture and society, for example, religion, social life, politics, health, and technology, are studied in an integrated and comprehensive manner. Anthropology is also referred to as a comparative study of man because it takes into consideration the similarities and differences in human body, behaviour and values of all human groups. The wide scope and vastness of anthropology necessitates its division into four branches. The four branches of anthropology are: © Contributed by Br Ramecza Hasan Assistant Profesor, Deparment of Anthropology, Madhab Choudhury (College, Barpeta Asse‘+ biological/physical anthropology ‘+ socio-cultural anthropology ‘+ archaeological anthropology ‘+ linguistic anthropology. Anthropology retains its holistic orientation by ensuring the interconnectedness and interrelationship among its four branches as well as with humanities, social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences. 2.1__PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Physical anthropology, now popularly known as biological anthropology, is the oldest branch of anthropology. Physical anthropology studies the human body, genetics and the status of man among living beings. As the name indicates, it studies the physical characteristics of man. It uses the general principles of biology and utilizes the findings of anatomy, physiology, embryology, zoology, paleontology and so on, Paul Broca (1871), the famous biologist, defined physical anthropology as the “science whose objective is the study of humanity considered as a whole, in its parts and in relationship to the rest of nature” (cited in Basu Roy: 2012: 5). According to Herskovits “Physical anthropology is, in essence, human biology.” Piddington says “the chief subject matter of the study of Physical Anthropology is the classification and characteristics of human races.” Another important field of study in physical anthropology is the process of human evolution which shows how human body has evolved through different stages (cited in Das: 1996:3). Physical anthropology was initially devoted to the study of measurements and observations on the human body and human skeleton, Today physical or biological anthropology encompasses the following: ‘+ the study of evolutionary biology and human genetics ‘+ hominid evolution to understand the origin of modern humans biological differences in human populations ‘+ a bio-cultural overview on human growth and development. 2.1.1 History and Development Although physical aspects of man have been studied since the time of Herodotus, “the Father of History,” it was only during the latter half of the 19% century that physical anthropology developed as a systematic science, Herodotus (¢.484 B.C - ¢.425 B.C) in his writings mentions the differences in human skulls of Egyptians and Persians and attributes them to environment. pocrates (c.460B.C ~ ¢.377 B.C), “the Father of Physic”, is the pioneer in the field of physical anthropology. He made several contributions, two of which, De naturahominis and De aeraacquiset loci, are of special interest to anthropologists. Aristotle (6.384 B.C ~ ¢.322 B.C) viewed man as a social animal and his study was based on biology. His work on the physical and mental set-up of ‘man was unaffected by the dogmas of religion and philosophy. Although he Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology m4 placed man among animals, he also noted their distinguishing features such as the relative size of the brain, the biped gait and the mental characters. Galen (131-200 A.D) in Rome brought out a series of monographs on muscles, nerves, foetus formation and so on. Andreas Vesalius (1514 — 1564) studied the different anatomical features of man and apes which created a revolution in the anatomical studies of those days. His study on human anatomy was based on direct observation and he was able to bring many new thoughts and ideas. He laid the foundation of modem anatomy Towards the close of the 17 century more studies were done from which Johann Sperling’s Physical Anthropologia (1668) and Samuel Haworth’s Anthropologia or Philosophical Discourse Concerning Man (1680) are worth mentioning. Around the same time Edward Tyson (1650 -1708), a fellow of the Royal Society whose main interest was on comparative morphology, conducted the first systematic research on anatomy. His work Orang-Outang, sive Homo Sylvestris: or, the Anatomy of a Pigmie Compared with that of 4 Monkey, an Ape and a Man (1699) is regarded as the first attempt in the analytical study on the anatomy of anthropoid ape. The 18* century is marked by outstanding contributions made by Linnaeus, Buffon and Blumenbach, Swedish Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in his immortal work Sytema Nature designated each living organism by two Latin names (binary nomenclature), one for genus and the other for species. From the days of Linnaeus man has been scientifically known as Homo sapiens. Buffon (1707-1780), the French contemporary of Linnaeus, discussed the changes in the organic world in his voluminous work Historic Naturelle. But it was the French Lamarck (1744 — 1829) who came forward boldly with observations on the descent of man from the anthropoid apes. Lamarck gave considerable importance to the erect posture of man, occasionally assumed by the apes, for human evolution. Lamarck is remembered for his doctrine that the characteristics developed during the lifetime of an individual are transmitted to the succeeding generation. J.P. Blumenbach (1752-1840) known as the “father of physical anthropology’ was the real founder of craniology. He won recognition as a craniologist through his publication Decades Craniorum. During the later part of the 19® century, anthropologists like Broca, Fowler and Turmer followed the path of Blumenbach in the craniological studies. J.C Pritchard (1786 — 1848), in his Researches into the Physical History of Man (1848), contributed some classified and systematized facts on the races of mankind. Samuel George Morton (1786 — 1848) used anthropometric measurements to study human physical variation. ‘The year 1859 is highly remarkable in the history of anthropology. With the publication of Charles Darwin’s book Origin of Species a revolution started in the line of thinking. The Societie de Anthropologie de Paris was established on 19 May 1859 and Paul Broca (1824 — 1880), the French anthropologist and physician, was appointed its secretary. He threw new light on the different lines of the study of cranial anthropometry, From 1880 onwards Joseph Deniker, a friend and associate of Broca, recognised 29 racial elements from his study on racial features in the world population. In Germany Virchow (1821-1902) contributed to the field of physical anthropology through his works on skull pathology. Landsteiner’s study of the blood groups of man opened a newvista in the analysis of anthropological data. Ales Hrdlicka’s (1860-1943) contribution towards the development of physical anthropology at the Smithsonian Institute in America can never be underestimated. It was solely due to his efforts that the American Journal of Physical Anthropology was established in 1918, He also encouraged the creation of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in 1930. In course of time the study of physical anthropology became more specialized and scholars like Weiner, Ashley Montagu, Hooton, Barnett, and Zuckerman contributed towards the study and development of the varied subfields of physical anthropological studies. The modern trend in physical anthropology started from the beginning of the 19% century. Franz Boas (1858-1942) laid emphasis on the study of human races in terms of culture. The problem of race has been treated from the different angles by anthropologists like Huxley and Haddon (We Europeans, 1935), Dahlberg (Race, Reason and Rubbish, 1942), Ashley- Montagu (Man's Most Dangerous Myth, 1945), Washburn (The Races of Europe, 1945), Boyd (Genetics and the Races of Man, 1950) ‘The UNESCO statement on the nature of Race and Race differences (1952) has presented an integrated view of a number of physical anthropologists and geneticists, which has resulted in a publication like. The Race Question in Modern Science, in the year 1956, in the study and analysis of Race. (Sarkar: 1997) In 1939, forensic anthropology developed as a specific branch of physic anthropology due to the pioneering contribution made by W.M. Krogman, In 1965, Kerley published a work on the estimation of age at death in skeleton This method was then revised and improved by Atilqvist and Damstem (1975), and Thompson (1979). In 1978, American Board of Forensic Anthropology was established. The efforts of Sherwood Washburn towards the reintroduction of field work tradition during the 1950s and 1960s paved the way for the development of contemporary anthropology. 2.1.2. Current Fields of Study The study of physical or biological anthropology has achieved new heights as much emphasis has been laid on the systematic orientation of various approaches for its development. Palaeo-anthropology Palaco-anthropology, or human evolutionary studies, focus in documenting the biological history of mankind. The human evolutionary history of man is reconstructed by a paleo-anthropologist on the basis of his study of fossilised skeletal remains collected from different layers of the earth. Paleo- anthropologists are thus specialists in comparative anatomy of man and apes and they evaluate the fossil remains found from different sites and establish their status and evolutionary significance. Palaeo-primatology Palaeo-primatology deals with the study of living and fossil primates. Primates are the most diversified of all animals and these include man- the focus of anthropological study. Hence an integrated study of the primates helps in understanding the position of man. Through such studies attempts are made for preserving the habitats of our closest living primates. Branches of Anthropology 28Understanding Anthropology 26 Osteology Osteology refers to the study of bones. An osteologist studies the bone structure, skeletal features and morphology and ascertains the age, sex, growth, development and death of the human remnants. ‘Human Genetics According to E.C. Colin, “genetics is that branch of biology which deals with laws of principles of heredity and variations as observed in plants, in animals and in man. Human genetics, the study of human heredity, understand the human physical characteristics transmitted through the process of he from one generation to another generation.” (Das, 1996: 3-4). Human genetics provides a theoretical framework for understanding the biology of the human species. The introduction of the study of human genetics resulted in designating physical anthropology as biological anthropology. Population Genetics A population in a genetical perspective is defined as “a reproductive community of sexual cross fertilizing individuals which share in a common gene pool.” (Cited in Sarkar: 1997; 53). Population studies provides an understanding of the processes of evolution ie, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and mutation, The process of development of new species and their adaptation through the study of the frequency, distribution and change in allele in populations are also taken into consideration in such studies, Molecular Anthropology Molecular anthropology is concerned with the comparative study of all existing populations. Through the use of molecular analysis and DNA sequence, attempts are made to understand the interrelationship between earlier and contemporary humans Human Variation Human biology essentially means the study of human variation. Variation is produced by the inheritance of particular characteristics from ancestors and by the action of environment. Thus the effects of genes and environment are taken into account in the study of human variation. ‘Human Growth and Development This field enables an understanding of the different perspectives of human growth and development. Growth and development are dependent on varied factors like heredity, nutrition, and environment. Alll these factors are taken into consideration in the study of human growth and development. Human Ecology Human ecology refers to the study of the relationship patterns between populations and their environment, and energy exchanges with other living organisms. The pattern of human adaptation and adjustment to the natural environment is an important aspect in the study of human ecology and therefore its study is of prime importance for a physical anthropologist.Forensic Anthropology Forensic anthropology deals with the identification of human skeletal remains for legal purposes. Forensic anthropologists are able to identify murder victims, missing persons or people who have died in accidents and disasters through a detailed study and analysis of the human remnants, In many instances forensic anthropologists have identified victims who died as a result of human abuses in different parts of the world, Demography ‘The study of demography is directly related to fertility and mortality and these two factors are specifically influenced by heredity and environment. Demographic study involves the use of various statistical data and their subsequent analysis. Demographic study is centred round the nature, growth, age-sex structure, spatial distribution, migration in addition to fertility and mortality of populations. Check Your Progress 1 1) What is physical anthropology? 2) Which book of Charles Darwin started a revolution in the nineteenth century thought? 3) What are the current fields of study in physical anthropology? 2.2. SOCLO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Socio-cultural anthropology, the second major branch of anthropology, focuses on the comparative study of human culture and society. The intensive study of social behaviour, customary patterns in human behaviour, thought and feelings and organisation of social groups are all included in the purview of socio-cultural anthropology. Socio-cultural anthropology is referred to as, social anthropology in Great Britain and cultural anthropology in America, In the nineteenth century the term ethnology was in use for similar studies. 2.2.1 History and Development Ever since man emerged on earth, there have been growing interests to know about themselves and the ways of other people across the globe. Social facts Branches of Anthropology 7Understanding Anthropology 28 and themes were discussed with methodical rationality by the Greek social thinkers and philosophers of the fifth century B.C The contributions of Greek scholars such as Herodotus, Democritus (¢.460 B.C - c. 370 B.C), Protagoras (c. 480 —c. 410 B.C), Socrates (c. 470 - c. 399 B.C) and Aristotle during the early stages of socio-cultural anthropology is worth mentioning, Herodotus considered his Greek culture to be superior to the prevailing primitive culture, Nevertheless he advocated the importance of studying all human habits and customs ~ a central theme in anthropological studies today. He provides a detailed account of ancient conventions, practices, natural habitats, political scenario etc. of various cultures and their conflicts in his book, The Histories, Due to his significant contributions in the study of socio-cultural anthropology, he is recognized as the “father of anthropology” by many. Democritus, who came after Herodotus, wrote on nature. He spent much of his life experimenting with and examining plants and minerals. The philosopher Protagoras is famous for his phrase: Man is the measure of all things. He explained how different social traits evolved. He suggested that early society was homogeneous, unified and undifferentiated, and some fundamental inventions such as language, family, justice, morality etc. were made in very early stages of human evolution, Socrates, another well-known Greek scholar, contributed towards the anthropological thinking on social facts. He opined that society is guided by rtain universal values which transcend various social customs. Among all Greek philosophers, Aristotle was the first to use the term ‘anthropologist’... who talks about himself. According to Aristotle, man (anthrdpos) is by its nature a sociopolitical (politikon) animal (zdion).As mentioned earlier he was first scholar to advocate that ‘man is by nature a social being’. His study on culture and society and his anthropological insight that culture is acquired by learning are similar to the present day study of socio-cultural anthropology. But proper systematic study of the subject began when the Europeans formed colonies and inducted their cultures. A good deal of information about people and their culture was derived from missionaries, travellers and diplomats. David Hume and Immanuel Kant revealed that the studies presented by travellers were highly imperialistic and racist in perception. The simple way of living of the primitives in the colonies under study prompted these traveller to claim racial superiority over them. The beginning of the seventeenth century presented a more developed theoretical framework as evidenced from the writings of philosophers, social thinkers and academicians. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) studied society in Leviathan (1651) and Herbert Cherberry (1583-1648) wrote anhistory of religion, which was an early work on comparative religion. The study of socio-cultural anthropology gained new heights in the second half of the nineteenth century as the evolutionary theory (inspired by Charles Darwin's book Origin of Species) developed simultaneously in Britain, ‘America and Germany. Sir Edward B. Tylor (1832-1917), one of the pioneers of the classical evolutionary school of thought, advocated the unilinearsequence of cultural evolution or unilinear cultural evolution (see Box 1). He also emphasised that similarities in cultures around the world, without known historical connections, were due to. mental unity or psychic unity of mankind (see Box 2). Box 1: Unilinear Cultural Evolution Postulated that culture or cultures of the world pass through different successive stages in continuity. As a result of which simple forms change into complex ones, homogeneity moves to heterogeneity and the state of uncertainty goes towards certainty, Tylor propounded his scheme in wi stages: jon evolved in the following 1) animism (worship of spirits, connected with simple societies) 2) polytheism (worship of many divinities). 3) monotheism (worship of one divinity, connected to advanced societies). ‘Thinkers such as Henry Maine, James Frazer, L.H. Morgan, Bachofen, W.H.R. Rivers, Carlos Seligman, and A.C. Haddon supported the use of evolutionary scheme as a methodology to reconstruct the cultural history of mankind. They were also convinced that culture had undergone progressive and development-oriented changes but always in a sequence. They explained similarities in culture in terms of psychic unity of man. Based on this school of thought Morgan presented the evolutionary model of humans going through the stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization. Box 2 Psychic unity of mankind: Refers to similar mentality of human beings to react and think similarly with like environmental situation at a particular period of time. The evolutionary school of thought faced severe criticisms from contemporary scholars who claimed to be anti-evolutionists or diffusionists. They advocated that culture not only developed but also degenerated through cultural diffusion. They were convinced that man was basically uninventive, and important inventions were made at a particular place from where it was diffused, migrated, borrowed to other parts of the world. Thus, cultural diffusion the process by which culture traits, discovered or invented at one place ot society, is spread directly or indirectly to other societies. The School of Diffusion has been divided into British, German and American based on the geographical and national identity of the supporters. Main propounders of this school are Schmidt, W.J. Petry, Robert Lowie, Franz Boas, Clark Wissler, and A.L. Kroeber. Franz Boas was one of the most influential figures in the history of socio cultural anthropology. As a critic of the evolutionary school of thought he completely rejected the unilinear evolutionary theory and stressed upon the necessity of conducting extensive field work. He conducted extensive field studies to free anthropology from its amateurs and armchair specialists. He also opined that all cultures were distinctly different and therefore they must bee studied on the basis of their worth and not in comparison to other cultures. This concept came to be known as historical particularism. Branches of Anthropology 29Understanding Anthropology 30 2.2.2 Current Fields of Study The tradition of fieldwork in anthropology came into existence towards the beginning of the twentieth century. The early twentieth century scholars also denounced the unilinear evolutionary theory. Brownislaw Malinowski was the main advocate of this. He was the first anthropologist to conduct study in native language. He insisted that a researcher should collect data through the medium of native language and undertake intensive fieldwork. He also developed a methodology for the scientific analysis of culture by which existing cultures could be compared, analysed and interpreted. ‘This methodology of Malinowski was known as functionalism. Malinowski believed that every aspect of culture has a function and they are interdependent and interrelated. According to his theory of functionalism, institutions of a culture operate to satisfy the needs of the individual and the society as a whole. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, another British anthropologist and contemporary of Malinowski, developed the concept of social structure. According to Radcliffe- Brown, social structure deals with the network of social relations within an institutional framework. For Radcliffe-Brown, social structure is an ‘empirical’ entity, constituting the subject matter of socio-cultural anthropology. He stressed on the idea that social organizations are made of parts and each part functions in a way to form a complete whole. This model of Radcliffe- Brown is known as structural functionalism. The anthropological fieldwork conducted by Boas in the Baffin Islands, Malinowski in Trobriand Islands and Radeliffe-Brown in the Andaman’s inspired many scholars and intellectuals. Boas also encouraged his students to build up on a theory in the study of socio-cultural anthropology in the early twentieth century (1930s). Around this time Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Linton, Cora-Du-Bois, A. Kardiner and others criticised the theories of evolution and diffusion, They felt the necessity of studying interaction between culture and personality or vice versa on the basis of psychoanalysis. This school of thought was known. as Culture and Personality School. This school is also known as School of Psychological Anthropology. The pioneers of Psychological School were inspired by Gestalt psychology which deals with the total perception of behavioural pattern of human beings. Psychological anthropology as a sub- part of social anthropology is today a highly recognized field of study. Another school of thought emerged in the late 30s of the twentieth century when V. Gordon Childe, Leslie White and Julian Steward advocated the revival of evolutionary approach. The trio came to be known as neo— evolutionists. Julian H. Steward (1902-1972) in his Theory of Culture Change (1955) discussed about the powerful effect of ecology on culture, Leslie A. White (1900-1975) and archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) discussed about the influence of means of production on society's behaviour. The introduction of linguistic, symbolic and cognitive anthropology in the 1950s widened the horizons of the study of socio-cultural anthropology. Eminent French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss is closely connected to his method of structuralism for undertaking the study of social behaviour (Celations and experiences). Thus LevieStrauss’s structuralism has becomeconcerned with understanding cultural and social patterns in terms of the universal mental processes that are rooted in the biochemistry of the human brain, In America, Emile Durkheim, Victor W. Turner, Mary Douglas and Clifford Geertz works on symbolic anthropology based on magico-religious concerns of society became more popular than structuralism, From the beginning of the study of socio-cultural anthropology till date any theories were formulated in the study of human society and culture, 1e middle of the twentieth century witnessed newer perspectives and dimensions related to studies on women, class and power structure, caste, employment, migration, urbanization, etc. The works of social scientists like Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), Miche! Foucault (1926-1984), Jacques Lacan (1901-1981), Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905— 1980) were influenced by theories like marxism, feminism, post-modernism, post-colonialism, post-structuralism. Contemporary socio-cultural anthropology encompasses research-oriented studies in all parts of the world. Socio-cultural anthropology ensures the study of cultural traits and social activities of humans round the globe by using the anthropological field methods and comparative analysis. But such studies are conducted while maintaining the holistic orientation of the discipline. Globalization, transnationalism, multiculturalism, and diaspora studies are becoming a major trend in the study of socio-cultural anthropology. Nowadays, socio-cultural anthropology also includes the following studies: ‘© gender and other sub-areas like sexuality involving lesbian, gay and transgender, © human rights, ‘© corporate and public sector, ‘+ health sector. Hence the study of socio-cultural anthropology will help us to understand human society and culture. Check Your Progress 2 4) Define social-cultural anthropolo; 5) What is psychic unity of mankind? 6) What is role of unilinear cultural evolution in anthropology Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology 32 2.3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Archaeology studies human cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data, Material products scrutinised by archaeologists include tools, pottery, hearths, and enclosures that remain as traces of cultural practices in the past, as well as human, plant and animal remains, some of which date back 2.5 million years. (Havilland et al 2008: 26) Archaeology is best regarded as the science which concems itself with the recovering and studying the relics of Man’s past; it has its own techniques, of which excavation is only one, though a highly specialised and important one, (Roe: 1971: 21). Nelson defines archacology as “the science devoted to the study of the entire body of tangible relics pertaining to the origin, antiquity, and development of man and his culture.” (Das: 1996: 35). Although archaeology exists as a separate discipline, in its study of humans it gets connected to anthropology and thus making it a humanistic science. In archaeology the time period covered are prehistoric, proto-historic and also later periods like civilization. In recent times studies like new-archaeology, processual archaeology and post-processual archaeology have helped the researcher to understand the history of cultures and its processes. The study of palaeo-anthropology, ethno- archaeology and settlement archaeology is all included within the framework of the archaeological study. Initially the study of archaeological anthropology involved the application of absolute and relative dating methods to ascertain the physical and material cultures. With the passage of time demographic conditions and environmental order, subsistence pattems, economy ete. were all included in archaeological study. 2.3.1 History and Development Prehistory is the immensely long period of Man’s existence before written records, and in the absence of writing, there are various special kinds of evidence, with which the prehistorian, the student of prehistory, has to concern himself (Roe:1971: 21) Paul Torunal (1833) used the term “pre-historique” after findings were made in the caves of Southem France. However, the exact term “prehistoric” was used by Daniel Wilson in 1851. Prehistoric stages are studied by archaeologists with the help of substances like stone, wood, bone, metals, earthenware, tools, omaments and outfits The Prehistoric Period is too vast and varied to be studied without divisions. The original and classic division was eminently simple. It divided prehistory into three parts, successive technological stages, which are not by any means of equal length, thus: © The Stone Age © The Bronze Age © The Iron Age. Later on Bronze Age also included copper in it, thus calling it the Coppet/ Bronze age. However, the Stone Age being so vast was further sub-divided into lower palaeolithic, middle palaeolithic and upper palaeolithic. The other stages after the three palaeolithic stages are called mesolithic and neolithic stages or cultures,Some pre-historians not satisfied with classifications based on the use of technology classified the prehistoric era on the basis of subsistence economy. ‘They used the following stages: © barbarian or food gathering stage, © food producing stage © urbanization stage. ‘After prehistory comes the stage of protohistory, which is the period between prehistory and history. This period is marked by the presence of some form of writings. In India the pre-Harappa days to the time of Maurya rule, can be said to fall under proto-historic category, ie. from 3500 to 300 B.C Civilization is marked by the presence of large complex societies, existences, domestication of animals, plants, specialist occupations, of labour and trade. In India, the Indus valley civilization (2500 B.C.), with its two cities Mohenjodaro and Harappa, is considered to be one of the oldest civilizations of the world. Other important civilizations known at that time are Egypt, China and Mesopotamia. The fact that Indus Valley civilization disappeared from history while the others continued is one of the major concerns for an archaeologist. Archaeological anthropology tries to find and explain the origin, growth and development of cultures in the past. Though the main method employed by the archaeologist is excavation, surveyance and data analysis also form important methods. The main aims of archaeology are to recover, record, analyse and classify material collected. 2.3.2 Current Fields of Study Archaeology exists as a humanistic discipline as well as a science. As a humanistic discipline, it tries to understand things like evolution of culture, people, ideology, power and anything and everything that has effected in the changes that societies go through. As a science it tries to reconstruct events on the basis of whatever evidence is available with them. It uses scientific methods like relative and absolute dating for reconstructing man’s past. Archaeological anthropology has the following different areas: + Palaeo-anthropology ‘© Environmental archaeology ‘+ Ethno-archaeology ‘+ New archaeology or processual archaeology ‘+ Settlement archaeology ‘+ Post-processual archacology Palaeo-anthropology is the study of people of palaeolithic times. In this study, human lineages and evolution is reconstructed on the basis of the study of fossils and skeletal remnants excavated from burial grounds etc. Comparative studies are undertaken through the study of primatology. Ethnographic details are also used to draw definite conclusions, Hence, the Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology 4 methods used for reconstruction can be termed as historical, comparative and survivals. Environmental archaeology is the study of environmental evidences in an attempt to understand the impacts of environment on culture and vice versa. It uses geological and biological methods to study the fossilised remains of plants, animals, and pollen cores etc. In order to study the environments of the past human societies. :thno-archaeology is the use of ethnography in the study of archaeology. This study helps in deciphering the life ways, religious belief’ and social structure of the past. It is a recent form of study. New archaeology or processual archacology involves studying the processes by which humans lived, ie. how humans in the past did things like create artifacts and how they finally got decayed. The archaeologist studies how artefacts are created and what natural or cultural reasons made the archaeological site look like the way it does during time of study. This is termed as a site formation process. Processual archacologists made use of the cultural historical method in the study of past human societies. This trend set in from the 1960s in the U.S. especially after Sally R. Binford’s and Lewis Binford’s book on New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) came out, where they suggested the use of computer technology for the analysis of information gathered. Settlement archaeology deals with the study of settlements in landscape and the impact of environment on the work done by humans, how they build themselves according to some principles. It also concerns itself with relationships shared between urban and rural spaces. All these concems are studied but situated in past circumstances. The traditional issues related to cultural anthropology were given prime importance as a result of the use of archaeological and ethnological expertise in studying social occurrences. Settlement archaeology, hence, is one of the cote areas of archaeology and it is sometimes also called non-site archaeology as it also investigates bigger areas instead of just focusing on a single site. This form of archaeological study was first carried out extensively by Gordon R. Wiley in the Vriu Valley of Peru, Post-processual archaeology, also known as interpretative archaeology, is a controversial process. It is often referred to as a movement which started in archaeological theory. The theory of post-processual archaeology came into existence as a reaction and critique of processual archaeology. Post-processual thinkers are influenced by theories of society, more specifically by nco- marxism, post-modemism, feminist archacology, critical theory, structuralism, ele. Around the late 1970s and early 1980s post-processual archaeology made its appearance in the United Kingdom followed by United States. The main propounders of post-processual archaeology in the United Kingdom are Ian Hodder, who also coined the term, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Peter Ucko. Post-processual archaeology displays any archaeological knowledge as open to interpretations which emphasizes on reflexivity (being aware of one’s own position relative to the material) and multivocality (accepting multiple interpretations and approaches as being complementary in understanding archaeological material).Thus the study of archaeological anthropology is conducted through reconstruction of history with the help of material remains along with skeletal remains, pollen, etc, The different areas of archaeological anthropology like new-archaeology ot processual archaeology, settlement archaeology, ethno- archaeology, paleo-anthropology, environmental archaeology, and post- processwal archaeology came into existence as a result of using varied methods of reconstruction, Check Your Progress 3 7) What is the concept of civilisation? 8) What are the main aims of archaeology anthropology? 9) What is use of ethnography in the study of archaeology? 2.4 LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY Linguistic anthropology deals with the study of human languages. A linguist jonship between language and culture behaviour. Language is an important aspect of human behaviour and the transmission of culture has been possible only through language. Due to this fact language is often referred to as the vehicle of culture. Language enables ‘man to preserve the traditions of the past and to make provisions of future. Linguistic anthropology studies the emergence and divergence of languages over time, Initially this branch was concerned with the study of origin, evolution and development and salvaging of languages which were on the verge of disappearing. With time the various facets of language and its effect ‘on social life were also taken into consideration, Today linguistic anthropology as an interdisciplinary science works in collaboration with anthropological linguistics, ethno-linguistics and socio-linguistics, 2.4.1. History and Development During the later part of the nineteenth century and early decades of the twentieth century Franz Boas (1858-1942) made anthropology field-based and stressed upon the need of studying the linguistic aspects in anthropolos study of culture. He was particularly interested in the study of Native American Indian languages and encouraged his students to analyse the emergence and divergence of language over time. Eventually linguistic anthropology came Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology 36 to be recognised as an integral part of anthropological study. Boas started documenting the language of almost extinct tribes in an attempt to preserve and retain it for further research, This model of Boas was then called “salvaging anthropology” and now more commonly known as ‘anthropological linguistics’. The term ‘anthropological linguistics’ can be traced back to Edward Sapir (1884-1939), a student of Franz Boas. He defined language as a purely human and non-instinctive way of communicating ideas, emotions and desir by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. Inspired by Sapir his students devoted themselves solely to the study of anthropology and language and referred to themselves as anthropological linguists. Around this time Leslie A. White in his book The Science of Culture (1949) mentioned that all behaviours originated and was based on man’s capacity to use symbols. In fact use of symbols paved the way for communicable speech. Nineteenth century linguists were engaged in describing the languages and classifying them into families and sub-families on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities Sapir was interested on comparative studies of cultures on the basis of language. Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941) further advanced a hypothesis on linguistic relativity which is popularly known as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. It suggests that language influences thought which in turn affects cultural behaviour. This hypothesis is an extension of Boas’ concept of cultural relativism. In simple words they bel behaviour will vary among groups speaking different languages. Therefore a single language can never form the basis for understanding the effect and influence of different languages on society. In the 1950s Whorf developed his own methodological and conceptual framework (termed as metapragmatics) based on the use of grammar for understanding the speaker's sensitivity. Inspite of severe criticisms in the 1960s and 70s, their role in the study of linguistic anthropology cannot be denied. Sapir and Whorf"s concepts ‘were utilized by scholars in the 1980s especially in the contemporary study of language ideology. eved that human Sapir and Whorf’s concept of literary relativity and Sapir-Whorf hypothesis were put forward after being inspired by the works of German scholars, Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) and Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767— 1835).In the United Kingdom anthropologists stressed on the use of native language during fieldwork, with Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) setting a benchmark by providing the theoretical and methodological framework for it. He was the first anthropologist to conduct study in native language. During the course of his field work among the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia he was able to converse in the native’s language. Malinowski emphasised the necessity of learning the language of the people under study in order to interpret their way of life in totality. Malinowski insisted on documenting the native mentality through the native language. In the 1950s, the study of ethno-linguistics gained ground where linguistics was studied in relation to anthropological issues. In the United States, linguistic anthropology was developing at a rapid pace. Whorf's studies paved the way for theoretical understanding in the use of language and by 1960s the study of languages came to be known as linguistic anthropology.At this stage more emphasis was laid on the aesthetics of language and its effect on culture. Dell Iymes (1927-2009), a sociolinguist and anthropologist, may be regarded as the petson who introduced this name, Ie along with linguist John Gumperz (1922-born) postulated that language can be considered as a cultural activity and can be investigated only through ethnographic methods. Though the earlier model of anthropological linguistics delved on issues like ‘cultural organisation of speaking’ it ignored the concept of language evolution. In the late 1980s the students of Hymes and Gumberz, conducted studies on social life of speech, language diversity, and use of language in social interaction. At present anthropologists and linguists differ in their theme though both of them study languages. Linguistic anthropology which is concerned with the relationship between language and cultural behaviour can be divided two parts. ‘+ Historical linguistics deals with the emergence and divergence of languages, ‘+ Structural linguistics or socio-linguisties deals with the role of language in the context of social behaviour. Structural linguistics also discovers the rules that reveal how sounds and words are incorporated in actual speech, ‘The pattern of speech varies from society to society on the basis of action, behaviour and communication. Cognitive anthropology is the outcome of linguistic anthropology, which employs the principles on which speakers of a particular language classify and conceptualize the phenomena. Anthropology in one way has leamt from the linguistics: on the other way has contributed to it 2.4.2 Current Fields of Study Fieldwork still remains an integral aspect in the study of language. The use of anthropological methods and techniques in linguistic enquiry enables a researcher to comprehend the relationship between language and cultural behaviour. Since the 1980s language socialisation has become an important aspect in the study of linguistic anthropology. It has been adapted from the term socialisation which in anthropology refers to the process of rearing and teaching an individual the basics of social life and its various aspects. Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin, who are both linguistic anthropologists, are the pioneers of this concept. They defined language socialisation as the process of getting socialised through and to language. In the 1980s again, the concept of language ideologies gained ground with earlier works of scholars like Valentin Voloshinov (1895-1936), Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) and Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) being discussed with newer ideas by many linguist intellectuals. Among them, Michael Silverstein (1945-born), a student of Roman Jakobson’s tried to elaborate on language ideology, which is now considered to be a significant field in linguistic anthropology. Language ideology implies ideas that are related to language and its connection with social, economic and political ethies of society. This occurs because Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology 38 Ianguage as a sign system allows its use to convert itself into a social reality Throughout the years, linguistic anthropologists have also been concentrating oon studying languages as a system of power play i.e. how language can be used to control actions and behaviour. In theory of politeness formulated in 1978, Penelope Brown (1944-born) and Stephen Levinson (1952-born), both socio-linguists, stressed that polite speech can be used to ease “face threatening acts’. This theory has been further analysed by many scholars. Maurice Bloch’s (1939born) work exhibits how a speaker in power is able to maintain authority and leadership through sheer use of words. Linguistic anthropology has come a long way site the days of its inception. We have come to realize the importance of the study of linguistic anthropology in understanding the principles on the basis of which speakers of a particular Ianguage will behave in human societies and the emergence and divergence of languages. 2.5 SUMMARY The interrelationship and interconnectedness between the four branches of anthropology ensures the holistic orientation of the discipline of anthropology. The subject matter of the study of the four branches of anthropology reveals the multidimensional aspects of the study of man in totality. All the following four branches deal with human biology, culture and language: ‘© physical or biological anthropology, + socio-cultural anthropology, + archaeological anthropology and ‘linguistic anthropology. Physical or biological anthropology studies human body, genetics and the status of man among living beings. It studies the physical characteristics of man, It uses the general principles of biology and utilizes the findings of anatomy, physiology, embryology, zoology, palacontology and so on. Socio-cultural anthropology includes an intensive study of social behaviour, customary pattems in human behaviour, thought and feelings and organisation of social groups. Archaeological anthropology involves both physical and social aspects of human lives but of what is bygone. It deals with the reconstruction of history with the help of material remains along with skeletal remains, pollen, ete. The different areas of archaeological anthropology like new-archaeology or processual archaeology, settlement archaeology, ethno-archaeology, paleo- anthropology, environmental archaeology, post-processual archacology, ete. came into existence as a result of using varied methods of reconstruction. Linguistic anthropology deals with the study of human languages. Anthropologist who specialise in this area is particularly concemed with the relationship between language and culture behaviour. Language is an important aspect of human behaviour and the transmission of been possible only by language. ullure hasTo sum up, the theoretical and conceptual framework of each branch of anthropology, while maintaining a distinct identity, aims at studying about ‘man in totality over time and space — thus keeping intact the uniqueness of the study of anthropology. 2.6 REFERENCES Das, 6.1996. Anthropology (Physical, Social and Cultural). Delhi. Published by Manu Rastogi. Havilland, William, Harold E.L. Prins and Dana Walrath. 2008. Introduction to Anthropology. California: Cengage Learning (Wadsworth), Jha, Makhan.1983. An Introduction to Anthropological Thought. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. Roe, Derek. 1971. Prehistory. London: Granada Publishing Limited, Roy Basu, Indrani, 2012. Anthropology: The Study of Man. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. Sarkar, R.M.1997. Fundamentals of Physical Anthropology. Calcutta, Published by Smt. Rina Chattopadhyaya on behalf of Vidyodaya Library Private Limited. Shukla, B.R.K and SudhaRastogi 1990. Physical Anthropology and Human Genetics: An Introduction. New Delhi: Palaka Prakashan. Upadhyay,V.S., and Gaya Pandey.1993, History of Anthropological Thought. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. 2.7_ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Cheek Your Progress 1 1) Physical anthropology is that branch of anthropology that studies the human body, genetics and the status of man among living beings. 2) The publication of Charles Darwin's book Origin of Species started a revolution in the line of thinking. 3) Current fields of study in physical anthropology are Human Ecology, Forensic Anthropology, Demography, Human Growth and Development, Human Variation, Molecular, Anthropology, Population, Genetics, Human, Genetics, Palaco-primatology, Osteology and Palaco- anthropology. heck Your Progress 2 4) Socio-cultural anthropology is the second major branch of anthropology. It is a discipline which focuses on the comparative study of human culture and society. The intensive study of social behaviour, customary patterns in human behaviour, thought and feelings and organisation of social groups, are all included in the purview of socio cultural anthropology. 5) Psychic unity of mankind refers to similar mentality of human beings to react and think similarly with like environmental situation at a particular period of time Branches of AnthropologyUnderstanding Anthropology 40 6) Evolutionary scheme as anthropology to reconstruct the cultural history of mankind, They were also convinced that culture had undergone progressive and development oriented changes but always in a sequence. They explained similarities in culture in terms of psychic unity of man, Based on this school of thought Morgan presented the evolutionary ‘model of humans going through the stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization. Check Your Progress 3 7) ‘The concept of civilisation. Civilisation is marked by the presence of large complex societies, settled existences, dome plants, specialist occupations, division of labour and trade. ication of animals, 8) Archaeological anthropology tries to find and explain the origin, growth and development of cultures in the past. Though the main method employed by the archaeologist is excavation, surveyance and data analysis also form important methods. The main aims of archaeology are to recover, record, analyse and classify material collected. 9) The use of ethnography in the study of archaeology is termed as ethno- archaeology. This study helps in deciphering the life ways, religious beliefs and social structure of the past lived. It is a recent form of study and is not free from complications.