Concept of Sports Training:

Sports training involves systematic and planned physical, mental, and technical
preparation aimed at improving an athlete's performance in a particular sport. It
encompasses a wide range of activities designed to enhance an athlete's skills, physical
fitness, tactical understanding, mental fortitude, and overall performance level. The
primary goal of sports training is to optimize an athlete's potential and prepare them for
competitive events.

Training for achieving something in a competition is not a new idea. With the passage f time, more time
and effort is being devoted to training and preparation for competitions. For example: Invention of new
techniques in the field of athletics and weight training methods has shown very encouraging results.
Training for any game or event has become very technical, and a scientific approach is needed to get the
desired results.

Sports training is based on specific individual care, improved fitness, scientific ways,

psychological feedback, technical help, sound machines and apparatus, climate,

diet, safety precautions, etc. Training methods are based upon scientific principles

in a systematic order. Thus, the training helps develop fundamental skills, advanced

skills, techniques, tactics, strategies, emotional stability during the competition,

motivational forces, etc. It gives the trainee practical and theoretical knowledge

regarding performance, and it also guides her/him on how to improve further in

different ways. We can say that these are methods to improve general and specific

performance in games and sports. The following definitions may be helpful in

understanding the meaning of sports training.

Definition

“Sports training is the basic form of preparation of sportsmen.”

‘Mathew’

“Sports training is a pedagogical (educational) process, based on scientific principles

to prepare sportsmen for higher performances in sports competition.”

‘Hardyal Singh’
“Sports training is a scientific-based and pedagogically organized process through

which planned and systematic effect on performance ability and performance

readiness aim at sports perfection and performance improvement as well as at the

contest in sports competition.”

“G. Thiess and G. Schnabel”

“Sports training is a targeted approach to training focused on your sport of

choice.”

“Todd Townes”

“Sports training is training designed specifically to increase performance and

minimize

injury of general sports performance as well as specialized sports performance.

“P. Garrison”

Physical

Principles of Sports Training:

For formulation, implementation, and development of players and guidelines for

coaches, certain principles of sports training are followed, which are given below:

a) Principle of Continuity: Training should be a continuous process. There should

not be any breaks. It should be a regular phenomenon. If there are long intervals

between training sessions, an individual’s fitness decreases, and the human

body adapts to reduced load.

b) Principle of progression load and overloading: The principle of overload states

that there should be greater than the average load on the body as required

for training adaptation. It means that the training load should be increased to

improve the performance of sportspersons. The load should be given carefully.

If more load is given to the trainee constantly, performance may decline.

c)Principle of Specificity of Training: General and specific training are equally

important to improve performance. Initially, general training should be given

to developing all components of fitness and later on the proportion of specific

training should be increased gradually. For example, speed improved through

running will also benefit football. All athletes need general fitness development,

but throwers need more strength training.

d) Principle of uniformity: Firstly, training is uniform to all players. But training

should have an individualistic approach with time. A coach should take into

consideration the following points:

i.Sex

ii. Age

iii. Psychological difference

iv. Training level

e) Principle of periodization: It prepares the sportsperson to give their best

performance in a particular competition. It has three phases:

  Macro-cycle,
 Meso-cycle and
 Micro-cycle.

Macro Cycle: Duration of three months to one year. The last macrocycle should

be aimed at recovery and relaxation.

Meso Cycle: Duration of three to six weeks. Here also, the last cycle should be

aimed at recovery.

Micro Cycle: Duration of three to ten days. The last training session should aim

at recovery and relaxation.

f)Principle of Warming up and Limbering Down: Warming up is a must before

any training session as it prevents muscle soreness and injury. After the training

session, gradual cooling down or limbering is also essential for returning to the

normal level.

g) Principle of Active Participation: Active participation means the player should

follow the principle of the law of readiness, which is very significant for getting

good results in various levels of competition. The player and teacher should

participate actively.

h) Principle of Variety: Training is a long-term process, and load and recovery

can become boring for both the athlete and the coach. So, a successful coach

should plan variety in the training programme to maintain the interest and motivation
of the athlete. Sometimes, change and variety may be achieved by

changing the nature of the exercise, time of the day of the session, training
group, and the environment.

i)Principle of Ensuring Result: The apex aim of sports training is to attain good

results. It can be said that sports training aims to enable the sportsperson

to put up a better performance in the competition. This principle cannot be

achieved without the implementation of other principles. So, stress should be

laid on the implementation of the other principles by the coach.

j)Principle of Rest and Recovery: The training programs should be designed in a

way that there is proper rest and interest in the training activities because the

body regenerates during rest and becomes better and stronger than before.

Components of Sports Training:

1. Physical Fitness: Training aims to improve components of fitness like strength,

endurance, speed, agility, flexibility, and coordination specific to the sport.
2. Skill Development: Athletes undergo skill-specific training to improve technical
proficiency in their sport.
3. Tactical Understanding: Training includes strategies, tactics, and game plans
specific to competitive situations.
4. Mental Preparation: Mental training focuses on aspects like concentration,
visualization, goal-setting, and resilience to improve mental strength and focus.
5. Nutrition and Recovery: Athletes require proper nutrition and recovery
strategies to support training, aid recovery, and optimize performance.

Training Load: Over Load, Adaptation, and Recovery

Physiological and psychological demands are placed on the individual through motor
stimulus (movement), resulting in improvement and maintenance of performance
capacity. Training load is of two types, namely

 Outer load and

 Inner load
Load is an inevitable result of athletic conditioning, training, and competition. Load
inactivity may be a stimulus experienced and responded to by an individual before,
during, or after participation. Load creates a demand or stress (both physiological and
psychological) and has internal and external components. Load that is safely managed may
improve athletic capacity and performance and reduce risk of injury and illness.
The following figure will provide a complete concept of various features of training
load.

Overload:
 Definition: Overload refers to subjecting the body to greater stress or intensity than it is
accustomed to. It's a fundamental principle in training to induce physiological
adaptations.

The normal development of the training state of a sportsperson is disturbed when the physical
and psychic daily load of life exceeds the loading capacity of the individual. Overloads,
administered over a more extended period, lead to decreased performance capacity. Modern
sports scientists consider the overloading phenomenon a disturbance in regular nervous activity.
Performance in sports is not only a matter of muscular metabolic efficiency but it also, to a large
extent, depends upon the efficiency of the nervous system. When the nervous system is
disturbed, optimum energy and metabolic process utilization also gets disturbed. The other
body systems can also not perform to the best of their efficiency. An excessive training load
causes incomplete adaptation, and the sportsperson will have problems recovering from
the training stimulus. These problems with recovery can also be cumulative. They occur when
the loading is repeatedly too tremendous or too closely spaced. The decline in performance
caused by incomplete adaptation is one of the most apparent symptoms of overtraining. In this
situation, the coach must allow time for proper recovery and should evaluate and reduce the
training loads used.

Thus, we can say that overload is a load that is excessive or a load that is not well
managed. It will result in anatomical, physiological, and psychosocial conditions
that manifest in altered performance, injury, and illness. Identifying and modifying
load and minimizing overload have been advocated as central parts of optimal
performance and injury and illness and prevention strategies.
The definition of overload chosen by the coach depends upon the particular physical
characteristics that need to be developed.

Strength: overload is increasing the resistance in terms of kilogram, etc.

Strength endurance: overload is increasing repetitions of activity with a

resistance ranging from the athlete’s own bodyweight to adding weighted
belts, etc. to the athlete, to light and sub-maximal loads. The lactic
anaerobic energy pathway has high involvement.

Aerobic/heart endurance: overload is increasing the amount of time

that the person can continue a low strength demand in a steady state of
work of low-intensity repetitions. The aerobic energy pathway is involved
exclusively.

Speed endurance: overload is increasing the number of high-quality

repetitions of an exercise per unit of time; or increasing the quality
of repetition while keeping the number at or above a fixed threshold;
although this may take place in a climate of the cumulative lactic
anaerobic pathway by-products, the alactic energy pathway has critical
high involvement.

Speed: overload is performing (and or selecting) a given task faster.

Elastic strength/power: overload is increasing the resistance without

loss of speed, or increasing the speed of moving a fixed sub-max → max
resistance.

Mobility: overload is taking effective joint action beyond its present limit.
Overloading is of two types.
a) Dominance of excitation process: This state occurs when the training load
suddenly increases without adequate preparation.
b) Dominance of relaxation process: This state results when an overdose of
training load is administered continuously over an extended period.

Causes of Overloading
The main cause which leads to overloading can be discussed under the following four
categories:
1. Faulty Training Method
(a) The recovery process may be neglected.
(b) There may be a rapid increase in the training load thus adaptation does
not take place.
(c) There is a high volume of load with maximum or sub-maximum intensity.
(d) There is forced technical training involving complicated movements
without adequate rest.
(e) There may be excess of competition with high demands.
(f) The training may be one-sided.
2. Life Factors
(a) The player may have had an insufficient night’s rest.
(b) The player’s daily routine is irregular.
(c) The player may have a luxurious daily routine.
(d) There may be an indulgence in alcohol and nicotine on part of the player.
(e) Bad living conditions of the player may be responsible.
(f) The player’s leisure time activity is faulty.
(g) There is a quarrel in the family or the community
3. Social Factors
(a) There could be excess of engagements.
(b) Friction in the family could also be a reason for overload.
(c) If the sportsperson is unsatisfied in her/his profession or studies, it may
lead to overload.
(d) A misunderstanding with colleagues could also be a reason.
(e) Overloading in professional work, studies etc. could also be a reason.
(f) The family could have an unfriendly attitude towards sports.
(g) Excess of entertainment programmes could be a reason.
4. Health Factors
The sportsperson could be suffering from any/either of the following.
(a) Fever
(b) Bad stomach
(c) Infectious disease
(d) Injuries

Symptoms of Overload
The symptoms of overload are grouped as follows and they also appear in the same
order:
1. Psychological symptoms
(a) Increased excitability.
(b) Tendency toward hysteria.
(c) Becoming quarrelsome.
(d) Less contact with the coach.
(e) Increased sensitivity towards criticism.
(f) Depression.
(g) Indifference.
(h) Loss of confidence.
(i) Loss of motivation.
2. Performance Symptoms
(a) Increased error in technique.
(b) Decreased concentration.
(c) Decreased differentiation ability.
(d) Decrease in strength, speed, and endurance abilities.
(e) Slow recovery.
(f) Decreased competition readiness.
(g) Increased tendency to surrender to competition.
(h) Uncontrolled behaviour in competition.
3. Somatic-Functional Symptoms
(a) Loss of sleep.
(b) Loss of appetite.
(c) Loss of weight.
(d) Disturbance in digestion.
(e) Frequent giddiness.
(f) Susceptibility to injuries
 Purpose: The body adapts to increased stress by improving its capabilities, such as
strength, endurance, or speed, to meet the demands placed upon it.
  Types of Overload: Overload can be achieved through increasing the intensity, duration,
frequency, or volume of training gradually.
 Example: An athlete gradually increasing the weight they lift or running longer distances
to progressively challenge their muscles and cardiovascular system represents the
principle of overload.
Adaptation:
 Definition: Adaptation occurs when the body responds positively to the increased stress
of training, resulting in improvements in performance and physiological changes.
 Types of Adaptation: Adaptation can manifest as increased muscle strength, enhanced
cardiovascular endurance, improved flexibility, or better motor skills.

In a literal sense, the word adaptation means to get adjusted. The human organism
can get modified (adapted) to the environment, and as the environmental conditions
change, the human organism also changes in due course. This adaptation process is
also applicable to sports training—the human organism can modify to a new state of
performance efficiency due to the administration of external load. Thus, load and
adaptation go side by side. This adaptation process is biochemical and applies to
improving conditional abilities (strength, speed endurance) only. As the sportsperson
is exposed to the training and competition demands, this results in a disturbance of
the homeostasis (internal body balance). The sportsperson makes an effort to restore
the state of homeostasis by causing the different systems and bodily functions to
adjust to the state of disturbance. In case the bodily homeostasis is disturbed again
and again for a certain period, the human body responds by causing structural and
metabolic changes, enabling the body to withstand the load more efficiently. This is
called adaptation.
The following three conditions are to be fulfilled for adaptation to the training load.
1. Training load has to be as per the loading capacity of the sportsperson.
2. Recovery period should be in proportion to the training load.
3. Loading and recovery process must be repeated for a certain period (10 to 20
days).

Conditions of Adaptation
To ensure the effectiveness of the training load in each training unit, the following
conditions of adaptation are to be strictly adhered to:
a) Adaptation is maximum when the training load is given on an individual
performance basis. To enable a sportsperson to have optimal benefit from
training, the limitations shall be administered keeping in mind the specific
character of an individual.
b) There should be a correct proportion between intensity and volume of training
load. The intensity of stimulus has an inverse relationship with the volume of
stimulus.
c) The adaptation process results from the correct proportion between phases of
load and recovery.
 Recovery and Adaptation: Adequate recovery is crucial for adaptation to occur. The
body repairs and rebuilds during the recovery phase, leading to improved fitness levels.
 Example: Muscle hypertrophy (growth) due to weight training is an example of
adaptation to increased resistance.
Recovery:
 Definition: Recovery is the period between training sessions when the body recuperates
and adapts to the imposed training stress.
 Importance: Proper recovery allows the body to repair damaged tissues, replenish
energy stores, and adapt to the stress, leading to improvements in performance.
 Types of Recovery: Active recovery involves light exercise or activities, while passive
recovery includes rest, sleep, and nutrition.

Both training and competition loads enhance sports performance. In the long-term
training process, the quantum of load is gradually increased, leading to improved
performance. A beginner adapts to training load faster, whereas, with the increase in
training age, higher loads are administered, resulting in slower growth in performance.
Sportspersons cannot effectively undertake very high loads of training unless proper means are
adopted to accelerate the process of recovery. Administering appropriate
means can ensure quicker recovery and enable a sportsperson to undertake more
frequent loads.
Recovery is the period and process during which the body responds to load. Adequate
recovery may result in positive adaptations for athletic capacity, performance, and
injury and illness risk. In contrast, inadequate recovery may maladapt for athletic
ability, performance, injury, and illness.
Recovery from training and competition loads requires a considerable amount of
time. Recovery can be divided into the following three stages:

Stage I:
In this phase, fatigue and recovery co-occur as the training or competition progresses.
This process occurs because of the resynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
Creatine phosphate (CP), and glycogen and the neutralization of lactic acid. For
activities, which continue for a long duration and for sports played for a considerable
period, the pace of recovery in this phase plays an important role. Recovery during
this phase largely depends upon the functional capacity and efficiency of different
systems and organs.

Stage II
This phase commences with the completion of the training schedule (cessation of
physical activity) and ends with the restoration of homeostasis of the body. This
phase lasts from a few minutes to 2 to 3 hours. The following active recovery means
can be adapted to make the recovery process faster.
1. Deep breathing exercises
2. Intake of drinks containing carbohydrates, vitamins, salts, and minerals.
Stage III
This phase of recovery can last from many hours to several days. In this phase,
the anabolic process facilitates recovery. Substances such as enzymes and proteins,
which get depleted in the process of undertaking the load, get resynthesized.
The pace of recovery is affected by the following factors:
Stimulus intensity and stimulus volume (factors of load).
a) Types of training load
b) Health and fitness status
c) Rest and sleep
d) Good diet
e) Daily routine
f)Total load of the day
 Example: Adequate sleep, proper nutrition, and hydration are vital components of the
recovery process.

Warming up and Limbering Down

Warming up is a process by which the human machine is brought to a condition at
which it safely responds to the nerve impulses of the person for quick and efficient
action. Warming up is heating the body’s muscles and preparing them to start
work. It helps the athletes prepare physically, mentally, and physiologically for
any training or competition. If warming up is effective, muscles become ready to
respond efficiently. In this process, muscles are warmed-up by running, jogging, and
performing freehand exercises before the training or competition. This preparation
before training or competition is called warming up. The following definitions may
help to know more about warming up.

 “Warming-up raises the body temperature by running and performing

exercises before the activity or competition.”

 “Warming up is a practice in itself.”

 “Warming up is a process by which human-machine is brought to a condition at which it
safely responds to the nerve impulses of the persons for quick and efficient action.”
 “Warming up is done to tone up the body to meet the ensuring activity.”
 “Warming up consists of a series of preparatory exercises either before a training session
or competition.”
Types of Warming-Up
There are the following types of warming up.
1. Passive Warming-up: In this, the player warms up his body through external
sources and not with actual participation in physical activity. It can be done by
sunbathing, using a heavy uniform, drinking hot water, massage, drinking hot
beverages (tea, coffee), etc. Performing Passive Warming-up by these means is
beneficial because there is no energy expenditure in warming up.
2. Active Warming-up: In active warming-up, the individual warms his body
through actual participation in physical activities. These activities improve his
efficiency and tone up the muscles for the training for competition. Its duration
is 10 to 30 minutes. Warming up is done slowly without spending much energy
just before the workout. In active warming up the body’s temperature increases
up to the required level. Jogging and stretching exercises are included in such
type of warming-up. There are two types of active warming up:-
(a) General Warming-up
(b) Specific Warming-up
(c) General Warming-up: General warming-up is usually performed in all types of activities. This
warming-up type includes jogging, jumping running, stretching, striding, wind sprints,
calisthenics, and other general exercises. It increases the mobility of all the joints and improves
the coordination of the body and mind. It also enhances muscle tone. It prepares the body
physically and mentally. The duration of general warming up depends upon the nature of the
work.
(d) Specific Warming-up: These particular exercises are performed after the activities of
general warming-up. The are of a particular type that vary from game to game. This type of
warming up increases the mobility of all joints and improves the coordination of the body and
mind. For example, a sprinter may take a few starts and run for a short distance before the
actual competition. A basketball player may practice for lay-up shots or free throws before the
match. The primary stress is practicing various skills in the game, in the specific warming-up.
Methods of Warming Up
There are various methods through which an athlete can warm up his/her body.
1. Physical Activities: These activities involve some set of exercises for the body
parts through which the body gets prepared to perform any task at an optimum
level. These exercises must be done at a slow pace and low intensity to prevent
fatigue or overload before the competition or sports event. Some of the best
physical warming-up activities include:
(a) Jogging – This is generally done at a slow pace for 5 to 10 minutes to
increase the body temperature.
(b) Bending and Stretching Exercises – These include limb and trunk exercises
like stretching of shoulder muscles, arm muscles, clavicle muscles, back
muscles, hip muscles, and leg muscles and include movements like flexion,
extension, abduction and adduction, circumduction, and rotation.
(c) Striding – Striding is best before events requiring explosive effort. The
athlete may run around 30 to 40 meters at sub-maximum intensity at
least 3-4 times with proper rest in between.
(d) Wind Sprints – Wind sprints are sprinting exercises performed for short
distance with spikes. The athlete moves from a walk or slow run to a
faster run and repeatedly reverses.
2. Massage: This method increases and regulates blood flow in the body, thereby
increasing the athlete’s body temperature for producing efficient movement.
Different techniques of massage include effleurage, petrissage, kneading,
friction, vibration, and percussion.
3. Drinking Hot Beverages: This method including warm water, tea, coffee, etc
stimulates the body’s functions. However, care must be taken to consume these
in limited quantities to avoid any discomfort.
4. Bath: Hot bath therapy is usually very common in sports in cold countries. It
can be performed before and after the task. A hot bath before the event may
improve the blood flow, and increase body temperature and muscle activation
of the athlete. After the task, it may help an athlete to cure muscle tension
and reveal relaxation to the body.

Importance of Warming Up
Warming up plays a vital role in sports training or competitions.
1. Psychological preparedness: Performing a set of routine or specific activities/
exercises before the training and competition helps an athlete plan and build
himself /herself to competing readiness, thereby eliciting optimum output.
2. Reduces anxiety and tension: Warming up reduces anxiety and tension and
increases the motivational levels of a sports person.
3. Facilitate optimum performance: Performance can be optimised by increasing
the speed of nerve impulses and metabolic rate improving the reaction time of
a sports person.
4. Prevents sports injuries: Adequate warming up before the training period or
competition prevents loosening and tearing of muscles and reduces muscle
cramping.
5. Assists flexibility: Warming up assists flexibility and increases the range of
motion helping a sportsman to exert force up to maximum reach.
6. Enhances mechanical: Suppleness of muscles is increased through warming
up.
7. Facilitates motor fitness components: Motor fitness components like strength,
endurance, flexibility, coordinative abilities, and speed are enhanced.
8. Increases muscle temperature: As a result of warming up, which muscles both
contract more forcefully and relax more quickly, the risk of over-stretching a
muscle and causing injury is reduced. It also improves muscle elasticity; this
can enhance speed and strength.
9. Increases blood temperature: Due to warming up, there is an increase of
blood temperature and build up of lactic acid, which leads to weakening of the
binding of oxygen to haemoglobin. As a result, oxygen is more readily available
to working muscles, which may improve endurance.
10. Blood vessels dilate: Warming up dilates blood vessels that increases blood
flow and reduces stress on the heart.
11. Increases range of motion: The increased range of motion allows large joints
such as shoulders and knees to reach their maximum movement potential.

Meaning of Limbering Down

Limbering down or cooling down is also called warming down. This is an easy exercise
that will allow the body to gradually shift from an exertional state to a resting or
near resting state. It is a necessary activity after training or competition. Depending
on the intensity of the exercise, cooling down can involve a slow jog or walk, or
stretching can be used with lower intensities. Players take a cooling bath, ice bath,
or cryotherapy for relaxing their muscles.
Some major static stretching exercises which are very important for cooling down
are described here.

 Ham Strings: Lying on your back, raise one leg straight directly, above
hips. Holding the calf or thigh, press the heel towards the ceiling as you
pull the leg back towards the chest. Repeat the same for the other leg.

 Chest: Standing straight, interlace fingers behind your back. As you

straighten out your arms, lift your chin towards the ceiling.

 Glutes: Lying on your back, cross your right leg over the bent left knee.
Then bring the left knee to the chest, holding onto the back of your thigh,
gently pressing the right knee wide.

 Quadriceps: Lying on your right side, pull left leg into the left glute,
feeling the stretch in front of the thigh.

 Triceps/Shoulders: Take one arm overhead, bend at the elbow joint,

and extend your palm down the centre of your back, gently pulling the
elbow with the opposite hand. Take the same arm across the chest, gently
pulling at the elbow joint to extend through the shoulder.
Benefits of Limbering Down
a) Regulating your heart rate. Exercising in general causes your heart rate to
increase and after exercising, your heart beats faster than normal. You need to
bring it to its normal rate, but stopping suddenly and quickly, without slowing
down gradually, can cause dizziness and light-headedness. So, for instance, if
you are running, the best way to slow your heart rate down is by walking.
b) Control body temperate: Exercising causes your body temperature to increase.
After exercising, body temperature needs to be normalized. A proper cooling
down or limbering down helps in reducing the body temperature to normal.
c) Preventing injuries: Like warming up, cooling down after exercises helps
prevent injuries such as muscle tears. Skipping cooling down and stretching
after a workout not only slows down muscle recovery but also reduces the
benefits gained from a workout.
d) Stress relief and relaxation. Exercising is as good for the mind as it is for the
body. As your body begins to slow down, you begin to get into a relaxed mood
and the brain begins to release dopamine and serotonin, the two hormones
that are responsible to make us feel good and less stressed.

e) Body restoration. Our bodies undergo several changes during working out, such
as increased secretion of adrenaline, increased temperature, and accelerated
breathing. Cooling down after a workout helps restore the body to its normal
condition.
f)Reducing the build-up of lactic acid. After intense workouts, lactic acid builds
up in our bodies which can lead to muscle cramping and stiffness. Cooling
down helps speed up the process of releasing the lactic acids in our body and
accordingly, the body recovers more quickly.
Concept of Skill, Technique, Tactics & Strategies.
Skill, Technique, and Style are essential attributes for an athlete to perform at an
optimum level on the sports field. Some people are born with a natural ability for
a particular game or sport such as speed, agility, coordination, flexibility, balance,
and reaction time. But they still need to develop and perfect their skills with
frequent practice to bring about the result they wish to achieve. In simple words,
skill is a learned and practiced ability that helps an athlete or sportsperson achieve
the desired result with maximum certainty and efficiency. Technique is the way of
performing that fundamental skill/activity in a sport involving a well-timed and
coordinated sequence of muscle actions so that the movements involved produce
the best performance and are least likely to cause injury. Style, on the other hand, is
the individual’s way of adapting skill and technique to develop his/her performance
in a smart way.
Skill
Skill can be defined as the capacity of the sportsman to realize the technique in
actual motor action. Skill is defined as the automatization of motor action. Skill
is sport-specific. It exists within all sports, but each sport needs different skills.
A skill is seen as a coordinated action involving a group of movements executed
consistently and smoothly. There are many interpretations of what constitutes
a skilful movement because views vary from novice to expert. Several different
experts have defined the skill. The following are some definitions: -
“An organized, coordinated activity in relation to an object or situation, which
involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms.”
“Galligan”
“Excellence of performance - the successful integration of a hierarchy of abilities
appropriate to a task under given conditions.”
“Prof. G.P. Meredith”
Technique
Technique is the mechanical model of doing any task through which an athlete
minimizes his energy expenditure and produces remarkable output. It involves a
well-timed and coordinated sequence of muscle actions that have been developed
through the experience of players, coaches, and the analysis provided by sports
science. These techniques have evolved and been refined so that the movements
involved produce the best performance and are least likely to cause injury. Using
good technique in sports is beneficial because it promotes high performance and
reduces the risk of injury.
Thus, technique means the way of doing a particular task scientifically. This way of doing a thing
should be based on scientific principles and effectively achieve an
aim. It is an essential movement of any sport or event. We can say that a technique
is a way of performing the skill. It is the basic movement of any sport or event.
For example, rolling the thumb over the cricket ball by the bowler in cricket is a
technique to get the extra spin. Several techniques are combined into a movement
pattern in the triple jump (running and then hop step and jump phases.)
“Technique is the most rational and effective form to perform exercises.” A technique
involves scientific and economic methods adopted to achieve top performance in
sports competitions.“Ozolin N.

Tactics
We can say tactics are the skills required in any game that allows a player or team
to effectively use their skills and talent to the best possible advantage, consisting
of tactical actions as well as other measures which are adopted before or during the
competition for successful participation.
Tactics have been defined as the following.
  Tactics are actions and strategies planned to achieve an overall
objective and, in the sport, that objective is predominantly to win.

 Tactics- It means the intelligent or creative application of skills during the

competition.

 Tactics are methods by which performers try to outwit (get the better of,
beat) an opponent.

Tactical preparation relates to measuring especially organized physical exercises,

trials, mental drills, modelling, etc. Its aim is to inspire and encourage cognitive
and competitive tactics. Tactical preparation enables athletes to make the most
effective utilization of their motor and technical abilities in competitions. Strategy
and tactics should not be used interchangeably. Strategy is the overall plan for
successful participation in the competition whereas tactics is the actual realization
of strategy in practice.
Factors affecting Tactics
a) Opposition – including their strengths and weaknesses.
b) Players available for selection.
c) The importance of the game/match.
d) Possibly even the weather.
Strategies
Strategy is basically laying down the goals and making a plan to get there. In short,
this is something like, having the goal to win the season or win the match as well
as making a plan to achieve this, such as developing an athlete’s power, working on
comradery, and selecting the right players.
It can be defined as “a plan of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall
aim.”
Strategy often requires a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats)
analysis. The coach might analyse the team and plan to utilise strengths and develop
weaknesses. She may also analyse the opposition to identify the best approach to be
used in the game to win. For example, the team has a weak tackler to target.
Strategizing is a great way to improve the team’s synchronicity. The process involves
aligning each member to the same end goal. Each of the players’ motivations are
combined and the team’s morale consequently improves. Having the same focus and
end goal will have them work as a unit in the game.
If the team has a strategy, improvements in players’ individual performances becomes
apparent. Each player will be more aware of their individual aims and their place
in the team as a whole. Formulating strategies will involve open conversations and
lots of set planning of techniques and tactics. As a result, players will be more
confident about what is expected of them on the field. Every player will have a
better understanding of their input in the team’s performance and will be more
motivated. For example: Football is a game of complex strategies and tactics. The
basic strategy that each football team devises for a game is called a game plan.
Each team has up to hundreds of diagrammed plays and strategies that are worked
out ahead of time for pre-determined situations. During the game and at half time
these strategies are worked on and altered to adjust for the other team’s strategies.
Often how well these adjustments are made will determine the outcome of the
game (offensive or defensive strategy).
Concept & Classification of Doping
Doping refers to an athlete’s use of prohibited drugs or methods to improve training
and sporting results. Steroids are the drugs that often come to mind when we talk about
doping. In addition, doping also includes an athlete’s use of other forbidden
drugs (such as stimulants, hormones, diuretics, narcotics, and marijuana), use of
prohibited methods (such as blood transfusions or gene doping), and even the refusal
to take a drug test or an attempt to tamper with doping controls. The IOC defines
doping as the use of any method or substance that might harm the athlete in a quest
to gain an unfair advantage over their fellow competitors.
Hence, training at altitude to increase the blood’s ability to carry oxygen is allowed,
but using drugs such as EPO to achieve the same result isn’t. The controversy in ‘Le
Tour de France’, and the Atlanta games of 1996, have shown the use of doping to be
widespread. However, doping isn’t a new trend bought on by the advent of modern
pharmaceutical agents. History shows that athletes in the ancient Olympic games
were willing to take plant extracts to better their competitors.
International Olympic Committee defines doping as “the use of any method or
substance that might harm the athlete, in a quest to gain an unfair advantage, over
his/her fellow competitors.” In other words, it can be said that doping is the use
of such substances or methods that are custom-made to increase the abilities of an
athlete, both physical and mental, and/or to cover the use of such substances while
in training.

According to World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA, “Doping is defined as the occurrence

of one or more of the anti-doping rule violations set forth in Article 2.1 through
Article 2.8 of the anti-doping code (WADA code effective from 1 Jan 2021). These
are as follows:
I. Presence of a prohibited substance or method.
II.Use or attempt to use a prohibited substance or method.
III. Refusing to submit sample collection after being notified.
IV. Failure to file athlete’s whereabouts after being notified.
V.Tampering with any part of the doping control process.
VI. Possession of a prohibited substance or method.
VII. Trafficking a prohibited substance or method.
VIII. Administering or attempting to administer a prohibited substance or method
to an athlete.

Thus, according to the anti-doping code, doping is not only about using a prohibited
substance or method to improve performance but also about breaking any of the
rules listed by WADA.
Following are some of the substances and methods used for doping in sports:
“The use of any support or practice that improves athletic performance or physical
work capacity. It can be achieved through physical, pharmacological, psychological, nutritional
or mechanical means” (Katch et al. 2007).
SUBSTANCES & METHODS PROHIBITED AT ALL TIMES

 S0: Non-approved substances

 S1: Anabolic agents
 S2: Peptide hormones
 S3: Beta-2 agonists
 S4: Hormone and metabolic modulators
 S5: Diuretics and masking agents
 M1: Manipulation of Blood and Blood Components
 M2: Chemical and Physical Manipulation
 M3: Gene and Cell Doping
SUBSTANCES & METHODS PROHIBITED IN-COMPETITION

 S6: Stimulants.
 S7: Narcotics.
 S8: Cannabinoids
 S9: Glucocorticoids.
SUBSTANCES PROHIBITED IN PARTICULAR SPORTS

 P1: Beta-blockers
Anabolic Steroids:
Anabolic steroids, also known more properly as anabolic-androgenic steroids, are
steroidal androgens that include natural androgens like testosterone and synthetic
androgens that are structurally related and have similar effects to testosterone.
Anabolic steroids include testosterone, the male sex hormone, and structurally
similar compounds. In addition to increases in muscle mass and bone maturation,
these compounds promote the production of creatine phosphate, which allows the
athlete to train harder. Other desired effects of anabolic steroids include increased
fat-free mass, strength, aggression, and ability to sustain and recover from high intensity
workouts.
The side-effect of Anabolic steroids
a)High blood pressure,
b)Acne,
c)Abnormalities in liver function,
d)Alterations in the menstrual cycle,
e)Decline in sperm production and
f)Impotence in men,
g)Kidney failure and heart disease, and
h)Heightened aggression.

Human Growth Hormone

Human growth hormone (hGH)- also called somatotrophin or somatotrophic hormone
is naturally produced in the body. It is synthesized and secreted by cells in the
anterior pituitary gland located at the base of the brain.
The primary role of hGH in body growth is to stimulate the liver and other tissues to
secrete insulin-like growth factor IGF-1. IGF-1 stimulates the production of cartilage
cells, resulting in bone growth, and plays a crucial role in muscle and organ growth.
All of these can boost sporting performance. Human Growth Hormone
Human growth hormone (hGH)- also called somatotrophin or somatotrophic hormone
is naturally produced in the body. It is synthesized and secreted by cells in the
anterior pituitary gland located at the base of the brain.
The primary role of hGH in body growth is to stimulate the liver and other tissues to
secrete insulin-like growth factor IGF-1. IGF-1 stimulates the production of cartilage
cells, resulting in bone growth, and plays a crucial role in muscle and organ growth.
All of these can boost sporting performance.
Side effects Human Growth Hormone
a)Diabetes in individuals prone to it
b)Worsening of heart disease and muscle, joint, and bone pain
c)Hypertension
d)Cardiac deficiency
e)Abnormal growth of organs
f)Accelerated osteoarthritis and
g)Enlargement of the extremities, such as hands and feet.

Diuretics
Diuretics, sometimes called water pills, help rid your body of salt (sodium), and
water and inhibit the re-absorption of water in the kidney. Most of these medicines
help kidneys release more sodium into the urine. The sodium helps remove water
from blood, decreasing the amount of fluid flowing through veins and arteries. This
reduces blood pressure. Diuretics can be used in a sport as a masking agent to
prevent the detection of another banned substance.
As well as masking other drugs, diuretics can also help athletes lose weight, which
they could use to their advantage in sports where they need to qualify in a particular
weight category
Side Effects include:
a)Headaches
b) Muscle cramps
c)Dizziness
d)High blood sugar levels
e) Abnormal heart rhythm
f)Fatigue

Stimulants
Stimulants are a group of drugs that result in increased activity in the body.
Sometimes referred to as “uppers,” these drugs are frequently abused due to their
performance-enhancing and euphoric effects. This type of drug speed up messages
traveling between the brain and body.
Stimulants speed up mental and physical processes, which can produce desirable effects in the
short term by increasing dopamine levels in the brain. While users may feel great due to the
short-term effects of stimulants, long-term abuse of these drugs can have significant
consequences. Generally, those who abuse stimulants experience heightened energy levels and
enhanced focus. They can make a person feel more awake, alert, confident, or energetic.
Stimulants are usually snorted, swallowed, smoked, or injected. Prescribed stimulants are
typically taken orally, and the duration of their effects differs depending on the type.
Side effects of stimulants include
a) Anxiety
b) Tension
c)Increased body temperature
d)Nausea
e) Tremor
f)Seizures
g)Coma
h)Death
Narcotics
Narcotics are drugs that can change a person’s psychic and physical status through
a wide range of symptoms, from sleep to euphoria and excitation. Narcotics are a
type of drug injected into a human’s bloodstream, muscles, or under the skin and
can also be swallowed. The main effect of narcotics is to reduce, eliminate, and
hide the pain.
Side effects of narcotics are
a)Nausea
b) Vomiting
c)Constipation
d) Sweating
e) Mental confusion and drowsiness
f)Affect Cardiovascular, respiratory, and central nervous systems.
Blood Doping
Blood doping or “blood manipulation” is a prohibited method of improving an
athlete’s performance by artificially boosting the blood’s ability to bring more
oxygen to muscles.
The three widely used types of blood doping are:
a)Blood transfusions
b)Injections of erythropoietin (EPO)
c)Injections of synthetic oxygen carriers

Blood transfusions
The most basic method of increasing the amount of haemoglobin of an athlete is
through blood transfusion. There are two forms of blood doping: autologous and
homologous.
Autologous blood doping is the transfusion of one’s blood, stored, refrigerated, or
frozen until needed.
Homologous blood doping is the transfusion of blood that has been taken from
another person with the same blood type.
Although blood transfusions for blood doping date back several decades, experts say
its recent resurgence is probably due to the introduction of efficient EPO detection
methods.
Injections of Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin EPO is a peptide hormone produced naturally by the human body. EPO
is released from the kidneys and acts on the bone marrow to stimulate red blood cell
production, and this hormone regulates the number of red blood cells in the body.
Athletes inject EPO to increase the concentration of red blood cells and their aerobic
capacity.
Injections of Synthetic oxygen carriers
These are chemicals that can carry oxygen. Athletes use synthetic oxygen carriers
to achieve the same performance-enhancing effects of other types of blood doping:
increased oxygen in the blood that helps fuel muscles. Synthetic oxygen carriers
include perfluorocarbons and haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers. These agents
effectively transport and deliver oxygen to tissues and have been explored as
oxygen carriers in blood-substitute products for purposes such as emergency blood
transfusion.
Side effects of blood doping include
a)Quick increases in blood pressure
b) Convulsions
c)Influenza-like symptoms
d)Increased cancer risk
e)Liver damage
f)Increased viscosity of blood
g) Thickening the blood,
h)HIV
i)hepatitis B
j)hepatitis C
k)Heart disease, stroke, and cerebral or pulmonary embolism.

Gene Doping
Gene doping is a form of drug abuse in sport in which genetic material is injected
into the muscle to improve someone’s performance or make their muscles grow
stronger. According to World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Gene doping is the transfer
of nucleic acids or nucleic acid sequences and the use of standard or genetically
modified cells.
Advancements in gene therapy for medical reasons mean potential cheats might
seek to undergo procedures to modify their genes to enhance their physical
capabilities. Genetic enhancement includes manipulating genes or gene transfer
by healthy athletes to improve their performance physically. Genetic enhancement
includes gene doping and has the potential for abuse among athletes. It is said that
gene doping could be used to increase muscle growth, blood production, endurance,
oxygen dispersal, and pain perception.
Side effects of Gene Doping include
a)Cancer
b) Autoimmunization
c)Heart attack.
d)Increased blood viscosity
e)Difficult laminar blood flow through the vessels
f)Severe immune response
g) Abnormal vision
h)Headache
i)Nausea
j)Vomiting