NOTES IN ETHICS

Introduction to Philosophy

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, the students must be able to:

1. Define Philosophy (general and particular).

2. Know the origin of philosophy.
3. Differentiate the different attitudes, Significance, Value and types of philosophy.

Sub-Topic 1
The Meaning of Philosophy
INTRODUCTION:

Everyday, we always engage in philosophy, however most people are not aware of it. There were
notions that philosophy belongs to the Ancient Greeks and to those people who have devoted themselves to
pondering the most intricate and hair-splitting problems and questions of life in the past and of the present. If
we go back to the time of the Ancient Greeks, we will come to know that their philosophizing started from
the simple experiences. Indeed, philosophy starts from and with wonder. It starts from wondering over the
simplest and most obvious experiences that we have.

PHILOSOPHY – it is derived from the Greek words PHILIA (love) and SOPHIA (wisdom) = the
LOVE OF WISDOM. Pythagoras = an early Greek Scholar who coined the word philosophy. Love involves
an intellectual desire, a choice and a commitment to pursue that which is loved. If Philosophy is a kind of
love, it will ultimately demand choosing wisdom as its beloved instead of surrendering to folly. Wisdom is a
knowledge which concerns man’s understanding of himself and the world.
The distinction between knowledge and wisdom is in order. It has been said that ‘WE CAN KNOW
MANY THINGS BUT WE CANNOT ALWAYS BE WISE’. Wisdom requires more than just knowledge. It
involves understanding the implications of that knowledge and its uses for oneself and others with some
purpose or value in mind. The value is found in the holistic understanding that raises the question of the
meaning of human life and the significance of the world in which man finds himself.
LOVE and WISDOM is intimately linked by a COMMITMENT – an act of choice to become a wise
person. The choice of wisdom requires that future choices be made under the light of HOLISTIC
UNDERSTANDING of experience. The wise person habitually makes good judgments by considering the
whole context of his/her decisions. The context includes such broad questions as our existential location in the
universe, the existence and source of this world including all its goods, our relationships with fellow humans,
trees, birds, oceans and mountains.
A suggested by our definition of philosophy, philosophers are not people who claim to possess wisdom
already. They are only lovers who are still in pursuit, they do not have yet wisdom. To Aristotle, the famous
philosopher, PHILOSOPHY IS A THINKING WHICH AIMS AT MAXIMUM CONNECTED TRUTH
ABOUT ALL AVAILABLE EXPERIENCE. This means that anyone who engages in philosophy does so, to
discover and explore the connections and relationships of all his experiences as exhaustively and
comprehensively as possible. The goal is to gain understanding of life, of his own self and of the world external
to him. Once a person is able to comprehend himself and the world, he gains an understanding of the meaning
of life; thus he finds reason to go on living.
In other words, PHILOSOPHY IS A SEARCH FOR MEANING. A search which is more than just
LOOKING FOR SOMETHING. It is a sort of QUEST. Philosophy is engaged in the search for the meaning
of life. Meaning in sense of importance, significance, value and relevance. All human persons should be so
engaged of life is just passing splendor, a senseless waste of energy a voice that is once heard and then fades
in the wind. In this sense, each intelligent human is a philosopher or has the capacity to be one.

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PARTICULAR MEANINGS OF PHILOSOPHY:

1. PHILOSOPHY is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe which are often held uncritically.
It refers to the informal sense of HAVING philosophy – the person’s informal personal attitude to
whatever topic is being discussed.
2. PHILOSOPHY is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and
beliefs. This is the formal sense of DOING philosophy. A genuine philosophical attitude is reflective,
searching the critical; it is omen minded and tolerant – willing to look at all sides of the issue without
prejudice. The mere accumulation of knowledge does not by itself lead to understanding because it
does not necessarily teach the mind to make a CRITICAL EVALUATION of facts that entail
consistent and coherent judgment.
3. PHILOSOPHY is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole. Philosophy seeks to combine the
conclusions of various sciences and human experience into some kind of consistent world view.
4. PHILOSOPHY is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosophers
always have sought answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human
existence.

PHILOSOPHY is the comprehensive study of the truth about life, the universe and everything therein – beings,
events, relationships, experiences and meanings.
*** It is the science of all that exist in their ultimate cause through the aid of the human intellect alone.
It is a SCIENCE – a systematic body of knowledge which is not only based on opinions, hypothesis but on
ideal knowledge.
Of beings – i.e. of all, everything that exists or may exist, of everything knowable. It is the highest synthesis
of all sciences dealing with man, nature and God. It is also considered as the mother of all sciences because
of its very vast scope and subject matter.
In their ultimate cause – because it asks and answers not only facts and proximate causes but also the deepest
causes of things. Its task is to give answers not only to the question “WHAT” but most importantly to the
question “WHY”.
Through the aid of the Human intellect alone – because philosophy uses natural reason and not Divine
Revelation of the recourse to the Bible; It is the product of one’s own thinking and not of imagination or
fantasy.
***TRUTH AND WISDOM are the ultimate goals of philosophy which attained primarily by human reason.
*** According to Norris Clarke, PHILOSOPHY MAY NOT TELL US HOW TO MAKE A LIVING, BUT IT
SHOWS US THAT LIFE IS WORTHLIVING.

SUB-TOPIC 2

Origin and History of Philosophy

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, the students must be able to:
1. Trace and explain the history of philosophy
2. Discuss the ancient history of the beginning of philosophy.
3. Reflect on the object of philosophical inquiries of the Ancient Greeks.
4. Differentiate the four divisions of the history of philosophy.

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INTRODUCTION:

As a rational animal, a human being is different from the other organisms. S/he poses upon him/herself
various questions about the world and him/herself. According to ARISTOTLE, a human being by nature
DESIRES TO KNOW. It is this DESIRE that has propelled many investigations leading to different
discoveries about the world we live in and about ourselves as human beings. As a lover of wisdom, a human
being is not contended with what is given but aims at a deeper understanding of what is presented to him/her
as something given. It is this deep wondering and sense of curiosity that a human being always moves on
his/her search for the meaning of life.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY:

Man is an inquiring animal. Since the day he developed the power of reflection, he has always posed
questions about himself and the purpose and meaning of his existence. According to ARISTOTLE, MAN BY
NATURE DESIRES TO KNOW. Driven as though by a curiosity and an innate desire to know, man has never
stopped searching through the ages for an answer to his fundamental queries, to his doubts and perplexities.
It was out of these persistent questionings and never ending quest for knowledge and truth that the spirit of
philosophy was born. It is the unquenchable thirst of the human mind for deeper knowledge that led to the
birth of philosophy.

An understanding of the pre-Socratic philosophers requires an understanding of the Greek mythology

for it is in the high lights of Greek Mythology that these philosophers bloomed as critical thinkers. Life then
in the Ancient Greece was largely determined by MYTHOLOGY (myths, stories and traditions) that is
people’s lives were determined by the gods who were believes to have access to nature. This is why for one
to have a good life, i.e. safe travel in the sea, he must appease the god of the sea. In short, the life of ancient
Greece was determined by supernatural or divine interventions.

However in the 4th Century BC, some thinkers were born and have questioned the present atmosphere
of living. Rather than uncritically accepting things because traditions or stories told about how they came to
be, these thinkers began to explain why things are the way they are. They tried to give RATIONAL accounts
and explanations of nature. They did this by proposing that there is something constant in nature beneath or
behind the appearances of change. They proposed that there must be some reasons behind everything aside
from explanations via myths.

THE EARLY THINKERS:

1. THALES – He proposed that everything could be explained in terms of “WATER”. That in every
change there is always the component of ‘WATER” in it (a universal solvent)

2. ANAXIMANDER – He proposed the “APEIRON” or the UNLIMITED or INDETERMINATE.

This is in disagreement with Thales because he observed that in the case of things that are dry
water could not be the ultimate cause. It is this INDETERMINATE that encompasses everything
which cannot be experienced by itself. What is distinct here is that Anaximander moves beyond
sense of perception.
3. ANAXIMENES – He rejects the “unlimited” of Anaximander with the reason that we cannot say
any definite thing about such a principle even if it is the principle of sensible reality. He then
proposed ‘AIR’ because like water, it has the capacity to take different forms of material
expression. But more importantly, AIR gives life to living beings and is the formative force
breathes existence to inanimate beings. Anaximenes explains that individual things are
distinguishable through the process of condensation or rarefaction of air. Very fine air is fire; very
condensed air is stone; wind, clouds, water and earth (this order gives the stages that indicate
increasing condensation)
4. HERACLITUS – believed that to see the world in terms of its constant patterns of change is
central.

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 5. DEMOCRITUS – suggested that the world is composed of ATOMS.
6. PYTHAGORAS – claimed that everything is ultimately mathematical, orderly and harmonic
(INCLUDING THE SOUL) .
7. PARMINEDES and his student ZENO – argued that only that which is UNCHANGING is really
real, so that changing sensible world is unreal.

*** What is very important to note is the development from Thales to Anaximenes (and the other thinkers).
Thales focuses on the natural rather than the supernatural explanation and he suggests that reality is different
from appearance. Anaximander moves beyond Thales for he describes ultimate reality is an abstract manner,
in terms not tied to our sensible experience. Anaximenes, on the otherhand has two significant advances. First
his doctrine of condensation and rarefaction makes things quantifiable and provide a mathematical basis of
talking about nature. Second,
living beings are distinguished from inanimate beings by virtue of rarefaction of air that defines them, not
some supernatural soul or mystical force; and the condensation and rarefaction of air is what explain their
activity……. All these thinkers gave a RATIONAL rather than a mythical explanation of reality and this
makes them philosophers.

FOUR DIVISIONS OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY:

1. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY – Brings back in the time the beginning of philosophy. It will start with a
brief survey of the thinking and writings of the pre-Socratics, but will concentrate on the works of the
greatest classical philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The students are introduced to these great
minds via their works and their influences throughout the history of philosophy.
2. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY – Helps us understand the personalities and philosophy during the
medieval period. It brings forth the thoughts and ideas of the famous saints of the church such as St.
Thomas, St. Augustine of Hippo, St. Anselm and others. It attempts to reconcile philosophy and
theology as well as faith and reason. It also paves for better understanding of Modern Philosophy.
3. MODERN PHILOSOPHY – Deals with the great philosophers of the Enlightenment period such as
RATIONALISTS (Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz) who attempted to prove
that philosophy can be as credible as mathematics and can have exactness of mathematical truths.
These rationalists tried to come out with rational principles that could be organized as a system of truth
from which other truths could be drawn. There are also the EMPIRICISTS (John Locke, George
Berkeley, David Hume), who in their separate ways challenged the continental rationalists who had
launched modern philosophy upon an optimistic view of man’s rational power. The course stresses
Kant’s philosophy that synthesizes the rationalists’ and the empiricists’ theories on knowledge.
4. CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY – Introduces the major currents of philosophy in the
contemporary world and time (after modern). The study introduces currents such as that of life
philosophies : IDEALISM, PRAGMATISM, CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN
PHILOSOPHIES, LOGICAL POSITIVISM, ANALYTICAL PHILOSOPHY, PHENOMENOLOGY
AND EXISTENTIALISM. Some of the philosophers are Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger,
Emmanuel Levinas, Wilhelm Dilthey, Bertrand Russel, Maurice Meleau-Ponty and others.

SUB-TOPIC 3

Attitudes Towards, Significance and Value of Philosophy

Objectives:

1. Discern and explain the perceived difficulties in philosophizing.

2. Give a critique to the negative attitudes towards philosophy.
3. Explain the different significance of philosophizing.
4. Appreciate philosophy through an understanding of its significance in our lives.
5. Formulate their own personal philosophy that would serve as their guiding principle in life.

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Introduction:

Why should be one interested in Philosophy? One of the earliest answer was given by Pythagoras who
said “WE SHOULD STUDY PHILOSOPHY FOR KNOWLEDGE’S SAKE, AND NOT FOR ANY
MATERIAL GAIN OR USEFULNESS. Indeed, this should be the sole motive in studying philosophy. Nut
if we look around us, a few people are interested in philosophy. In the academe itself if students were not
required to take philosophy as a course or as a subject they would not bother about it. Materialistic concerns
have really changed the attitudes of people towards acquisition of wisdom.

ATTITUDES TOWARDS PHILOSOPHY:

*** There are some persons who belittle, discredit and dislike philosophy for one reason or another. Some
describes its as nothing but play of words and ideas. Four reasons are often cited to justify the attitude of
dislike and belittling philosophy:

1. PHILOSOPHY IS DIFFICULT.
2. PHILOSOPHY IS IMPRACTICAL OR OUT OF TOUCH WITH REALITY.
3. THERE IS NO PROGRESS IN PHILOSOPHY, FOR EVEN PHILOSOPHERS DISAGREE WITH
ONE ANOTHER.
4. CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IS HARMFUL TO THE
INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY.

SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY:

*** Why should anyone be interested in Philosophy? It was Pythagoras who gave one of the earliest answers
to this question. He said WE SHOULD STUDY PHILOSOPHY FOR KNOWLEDGE’S SAKE, NOT FOR
ANY MATERIAL GAIN OR USEFULNESS.

1. Philosophy has an intrinsic value or importance.

2. Philosophy does not only give additional knowledge but also deepen and broaden our understanding
of it.
3. Philosophy promises its faithful student a better understanding of himself, his fellow human beings,
the real world and the meaning of life.
4. Philosophy would help students develop their own personal philosophy which would give the
necessary direction to their lives.
5. Philosophy will provide a person a strong foundation in meeting the demands of his profession and in
facing the problems of life.

SUB-TOPIC 4
Branches of Philosophy

Objectives:
1. Familiarize themselves with the different branches of philosophy.
2. Enumerate the different branches of philosophy.
3. Explain the different branches of philosophy.

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 4. Compare and contrast the different branches of philosophy
5. Analyze special issues in the different branches of philosophy.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY:
1. METAPHYSICS/ONTOLOGY – (being in its most general form) the study of being as being while
taking into consideration that ESSENCE and EXISTENCE constitutes of being. It helps us to discover
the essential, universal and the ultimate laws of intelligibility of beings as beings. It seeks basic criteria
for determining what sorts of things are real. Are there mental, physical and abstract things.
2. COSMOLOGY – the philosophical study of the material world with regards to its order in the
universe.
3. THEODICY – the philosophical study of God with consideration to its nature and existence as
absolute.
4. ANTHROPOLOGY – the philosophical study of man with regard to the union of the body and the
soul.
5. RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – the philosophical study of the immaterial soul and its faculties with
consideration to it as the life principle of every living being.
6. LOGIC – the science and art of correct thinking. It is concerned with providing sound methods for
distinguishing good from bad reasoning. It helps us recognize that reason can be applied in every
aspect of human affairs. It guides us in evaluating the arguments of others and in constructing correct
arguments for ourselves. It heightens our abilities in expressing our ideas clearly and concisely.
7. EPISTEMOLOGY – the philosophical study of human knowledge with regard to certainty of truth.
It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. What does it mean to know (the truth) and what is the
nature of truth? What sorts of things can be known and can we be justified in our beliefs about what
goes beyond the evidence of our senses,such as the inner lives of others or events of the distant past?
Is there knowledge beyond the reach of science? What are the limits of self-knowledge?
8. ETHICS – the philosophical study of the morality of the human act that distinguishes good from
evil and right from wrong. It takes up the meanings of our moral concepts such as right action,
obligation and justice and formulates principles to guide our moral decisions, whether in private or
public life. It also exposes various ethical principles for us to learn and apply, if appropriate.
9. PHILOSOPHY OF MAN – the inquiry into man as a person.
10. SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY – the study of the relationships between man and society.
11. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION – the study of man’s relationship with God. It also treats various
topics and related subjects such as the relation between faith and reason, the nature of religious
language, the relation of religion and morality and the question of how a God who is wholly good
could allow the existence of evil. It also presents perennial sources and origins of atheism, arguments
or reasons why contemporary human beings find it difficult to talk about God and why are there so
many religious movements emerging during our time.
12. AXIOLOGY – the study of man’s values.
13. AESTHETICS – the study of beauty and perfection.
14. ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY/EASTERN PHILOSOPHY – the study of Oriental ways of life and
mind. Filipino philosophy will be dealt on this field of philosophy.
15. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION – the philosophical approach to teaching and learning processes.
16. EXISTENTIALISM – Aims at the knowledge and understanding of the authentic existence of the
human person as EXISTENZ. It intends to understand the human person in reference to his nature as
free and rational; his eagerness to find ways and means to know the truth and the nature of things.

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 17. HERMENEUTICS – It is the science of interpretation. Its main emphasis will be on the interpretation
of meaning and understanding. It delves on the main strands of contemporary hermeneutic thought.
18. PROCESS PHILOSOPHY – Focuses on the beginning, developments and justifications of the
principal thoughts of several process philosophers such as Friedrich Hegel, Teilhard de Chardin, Alfred
North Whitehead etc…

Sub-topic 5
Definition, importance, Material & Formal Objects of ETHICS
and Historical Overview of ETHICS

Objectives:

1. Explain the meaning of ethics.

2. Differentiate the 2 objects of ethics.
3. Relate the historical overview of ethics.
4. Appreciate the importance of ethics.

ETHICS – is derived from the Greek word “ETHOS” which means a characteristic way of
acting.
-It also refers to the principles or standards of human conduct.
-It is also called as MORAL PHILOSOPHY (Latin MORES meaning CUSTOMS) that
involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. It
is sometimes referred to as the study of MORALITY.

*** ETHICS – is a philosophical and practical science that deals with the study of the morality of a human
act or human conduct.

AS SCIENCE – It includes data on the morality of human acts that are put
together and arranged in order. Such order along with the causes
and reasons by which said data are considered factual, makes it a
systematized body of knowledge.

AS PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCE
- It deals with the ultimacy of the cause and principle concerning the morality
of the human act in the light of human reason alone. It does not only explore
the truth by asking the question ‘HOW” which is the concern of empirical
science but most significantly by asking the question WHY – viewed from
what can ultimately be known about the morality of a human act as far as
human intelligence can afford.

AS PRACTICAL SCIENCE
- It provides a body of knowledge which is not only an intellectually
stimulating knowledge source but is also applicable in daily human conduct
and activity. Hence, that which is to be acted upon in the study of ethics is
the learning of what a human act is in accordance with the very knowledge
the study provides.

**** Now as a philosophical and practical science, ethics is a systematized body of knowledge that deals
with the study of the ultimate cause and principle of the morality of the human act performed by means of
human reason alone.

VARIOUS WAYS OF DEFINING AND DISCUSSING ETHICS:

1. Ethics is a subject matter with content.
2. Ethics is a process of decision-making.

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 3. Ethics refers to well based standards or right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do.
4. Ethics refers to the study and development of one’s ethical standards.
5. Ethics involves the study and application of “right” conduct.

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS:
1. It serves as guide towards our goals rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-serving
motives, accidental occurrences, customs, feelings or our impulses.
2. It helps us deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life and can also help us think better about
the concerns of morality.
3. It offers us a wider perspective on how to live life to the fullest, taking into consideration that we do
not have the luxury of eternal time in this cosmos.
4. It reminds us of our duties, responsibilities and accountabilities to ourselves, to our fellowmen, to our
society, to our nation and to the world in general.
5. It encourages us to examine our life and honestly evaluate how we are responding to the challenges
and demands of this contemporary times.
6. It increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant moral issues that deserve consideration
in making our choices that will have significant impact on ourselves and to others.
7. It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our value priorities in life which will make us better
and happy individuals.
8. It helps us realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging yet beautiful world.

FORMAL AND MATERIAL OBJECT OF ETHICS:

*HUMAN ACT or HUMAN CONDUCT – This is the material object of ethics with
which it deals in its study referring to the act done by a human
person in which his rational and higher faculties of intelligence and
freewill are utilized contrary to those acts in which said faculties are
not used.

*MORALITY or MORAL RECTITUDE OF THE HUMAN ACT

-This is the formal object of ethics.

ETHICS AND THE HUMAN ACT

HUMAN ACT – These acts are under the control of the will and therefore done knowingly
And willingly; not acts which happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as
growing, buts acts performed by choice, that is after deliberation and
decision. They are imputable to their human author to the extent that he has
knowledge of his own activity and its import and to the extent that he has
freedom of election.

ACTS OF MAN – These are bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the absence
of will. Examples are blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns, sneezing
etc…

Characteristics of Human Acts:

1. Acts which are free and voluntary

2. Acts done with knowledge and consent
3. Acts which are proper to man as man (Intellect and freewill – freedom of the will)
4. Acts which are under man’s control and for which he is responsible of its consequences.
5. Acts which man is the master and has the power of doing or not doing as he pleases.

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 Essential Elements of Human Acts:

1. KNOWLDEGE – It is an awareness or being conscious of one’s actions including all

possible consequences. The act of knowing is always
consciousness of something which is inevitably liked to the
subject who is the knower.

Ex. A.) An insane person and a three year old child

B.) College student

• According to ARISTOTLE, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. THIS

KNOWLEDGE PROVIDES A FRAMEWORK FOR DELIBERATING ABOUT THE
MOST APPROPRIATE TECHNIQUES BY WHICH THE GOOD CAN BE
ATTAINED.
• But it should be noted that although knowledge is a requirement for considering an act
to be human act, being knowledgeable or being aware of what is ethical or moral is not
a guarantee that the person is already considered as an ethical or moral person.
• It is not enough for an individual to know what is good. What really count are his good
acts.

2. FREEDOM OF THE WILL – According to ST. THOMAS, this is the power which
human beings have in determining their actions according to the judgment of
their reasons. This always involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not
to do a certain action.

• Without this freedom of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the
individual would be meaningless.

Example: A) Insane, Children who have no idea on what they are doing
B.) Matured people, college students and professionals

3. VOLUNTARINESS – This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it is done

whole-heartedly, half-heartedly or non-heartedly.

• `According to ARISTOTLE, the moral evaluation of an action presupposes the attribution

of responsibility to a human agent; thus responsible action must be undertaken
VOLUNTARILY (Nicomachean Ethics III).

Types of Voluntariness:

a.) PERFECT VOLUNTARINESS – This is actualized by a person who is fully aware and
who fully intends an act. The person under perfect
voluntariness is fully convinced of his action including its consequences.
Ex.:
A politician

b.) IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS – This is seen in a person who acts

without the full awareness of his action or without fully intending the act.
Ex.: A drunken person who jumps from the ten-storey building

c.) CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARINESS – This is manifested by a person

who is forced by his circumstances beyond his control to perform
an action he would not do under normal condition.

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 Ex.: A freshman who was forced by his parents to enroll in a course against his will.

d.) SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS – This is exhibited by a person doing an act

willfully regardless of whether he likes to do or not to do.

A) Positive Simple Voluntariness – When an act requires the performance of an act.

Examples – Studying lesson, Participating in class

discussion, engaging in sports.

B.) Negative Simple Voluntariness – When an act does not require the
performance of an act. Example – Remaining silent, choosing to be alone,
deciding not to go on drinking spree, avoiding to take illegal drugs…..
TYPES OF HUMAN ACT

1.) ELICITED ACTS – acts performed by the will and are not yet bodily externalized.
a.) WISH – This refers to the tendency of the will towards something whether this is
realizable or not. The object of wishing may include the impossible or that which is
remotely impossible.

a.1. POSITIVE example: World lasting peace, free from hunger

a.2. NEGATIVE example: cursing, policemen to be eaten by crocodile.

*** Our wishes reflect our inner self. It is a reflection or mirror of who we are.

b.) INTENTION – This is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but
without necessarily committing oneself to attain it.
b.1. GOOD INTENTION example: Government’s intention to eradicate
jueteng, drugs, stop corruption etc.
b.2. BAD INTENTION example: Terrorist’s intention to dispose a bomb
in a mall, politicians’ intention to confuse
the constituents.
c.) CONSENT – This is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the
Intention.
c.1.) GOOD CONSENT example: Parents allowing their children to
engage community service
c.2.) BAD CONSENT example: Gov’t. allowing the illegal loggers
continue their destructive
activities.
d.) ELECTION – This is selection done by the will of those means effective enough to
carry out the intention. Since man is confronted with choices,
then he has to choose according to the dictate of his reason. It
needs prudence to make the right decision.
Example:
▪ A student is confronted with the options to review his lesson or to cheat.
▪ Continue to study or to marry.
• If the chosen means is good, then the election, per se, is considered good; if not then the
election is bad.

Example: 1.) a student to review his lesson to pass

2.) a student who will cheat rather than to review

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