London is the capital and largest city of England, and the United Kingdom, with a population of

around 8.8 million,[1] and the largest city in Western Europe by metropolitan area, with a
population of 14,800,000.[9][note 1] It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head
of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea and has been a major settlement for nearly
two millennia.[10] The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by
the Romans as Londinium and retains its medieval boundaries.[note 2][11] The City of Westminster, to
the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament.
Since the 19th century,[12] the name "London" also refers to the metropolis around this core,
historically split among the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent,
and Hertfordshire,[13] which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London,[14] which is
governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.[note 3][15]

As one of the world's major global cities,[16] London exerts a strong influence on world art,
entertainment, fashion, commerce and finance, education, health care, media, science and
technology, tourism, transport, and communications.[17][18] Europe's most economically powerful
city,[19] it is one of the major financial centres in the world. With Europe's largest concentration
of higher education institutions,[20] it is home to some of the highest-ranked academic institutions
in the world—Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of
Economics in social sciences, and the comprehensive University College London.[21][22] London is
the most visited city in Europe and has the busiest city airport system in the world.[23] The London
Underground is the oldest rapid transit system in the world.[24]

London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.[25] The 2023 population of Greater
London of just under 10 million[26] made it Europe's third-most populous city,[27] accounting for
13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom[28] and over 16% of the population of England.
The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million
inhabitants at the 2011 census.[29][30] The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in
Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016,[note 4][31][32] granting London the status of
a megacity.

London has four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the combined Palace
of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and also the historic settlement
in Greenwich, where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, defines the prime
meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time.[33] Other landmarks include Buckingham
Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar
Square. London has many museums, galleries, libraries, and cultural venues, including the British
Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and
numerous West End theatres.[34] Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup
Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, and the London Marathon. In 2012, London
became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games.[35]

Toponymy
Main article: Etymology of London
London is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in
the Latinised form Londinium.[36] Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the
origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually Londinium), Old
English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known
developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came
into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic
form of the name as *Londonjon or something similar. This was adapted into Latin
as Londinium and borrowed into Old English.[37]

Until 1889, the name "London" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has
also referred to the County of London and to Greater London.[38]
History
Main article: History of London
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of London.

Prehistory
In 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream
from Vauxhall Bridge.[39] Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BC.[39] In 2010,
foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,[40] were found on the Thames's
south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.[41] Both structures are on the south bank of the
Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.[41]

Roman London
Main article: Londinium

Reconstruction drawing of Londinium in 120 AD

Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement
was founded by the Romans around 47 AD,[2] about four years after their invasion of 43
AD.[42] This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it
and burnt it to the ground.[43]

The next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as the principal
city of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London
had a population of about 60,000.[44]

Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London

The Lancastrian siege of London in 1471 is attacked by

a Yorkist sally.
With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively
abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued around St Martin-in-the-Fields until about
450.[45] From about 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west
of the old Roman city.[46] By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little
evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline.
Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.[47]

The Vikings applied Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running
roughly from London to Chester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by
the Viking incursions formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West
Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred "refounded"
London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a
revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic
increase in about 950.[48]

By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt
in Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in
Europe. Winchester had been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time London
became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view
of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political
self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital."[49]

Middle Ages

Westminster Abbey, as seen in this painting (by Canaletto,

1749), is a World Heritage Site and one of London's oldest and most important buildings.
After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in
newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.[50] William built the Tower of
London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city,
to intimidate the inhabitants.[51] In 1097, William II began building Westminster Hall, close by the
abbey of the same name. It became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.[52]

In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal
English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed,
for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in the Tower. While
the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City
of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under
its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was some
18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[53] With the Black Death in the mid-14th century,
London lost nearly a third of its population.[54] London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in
1381.[55]

London was a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290.
Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered
their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[56] In 1264 during
the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize
records of debts.[57]
Early modern

Map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across

the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.
During the Tudor period, the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism. Much of
London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business
in the city.[58] In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up a main trading base (kontor) of England in
London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities
of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway.[59] Woollen cloth
was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of
the Low Countries.[60]

Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The
commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean was normally through Antwerp and over
the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be
Italian or Ragusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565
spurred a burst of commercial activity.[61] The Royal Exchange was founded.[62] Mercantilism grew
and monopoly traders such as the East India Company were founded as trade expanded to
the New World. London became the main North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England
and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.[58]

In the 16th century, William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London during English
Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was constructed in 1599 in Southwark.
Stage performances came to a halt in London when Puritan authorities shut down the theatres in
the 1640s and 1650s.[63] The ban on theatre was lifted during the Restoration in 1660, and
London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now the West
End theatre district.[64]

By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination
attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605.[65] In 1637, the
government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for
the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas
around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, coupled
with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to
share power, caused the Corporation's "The Great Refusal", a decision which largely continues to
account for the unique governmental status of the City.[66]

In the English Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an
initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham
Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of
Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two
months.[67] The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in
1647,[68] and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.[69]
 The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city
in 1666.
London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century,[70] culminating in the Great Plague of
1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.[70]

The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through
the wooden buildings.[71] Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert
Hooke.[72] In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed. During
the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the
Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded
downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the
18th century.[73]

In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years.
During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,[74] and the Bow Street
Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.[75] Epidemics during the 1720s
and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.[76]

Coffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of
the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the
British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to
London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time,
the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential
economic adversaries. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening
Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial
centre.[77]

Late modern and contemporary

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, an unprecedented growth
in urbanisation took place, and the number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain)
rapidly grew.[78][79] London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population
density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).[80] In addition to the growing number of stores selling
goods, such as Harding, Howell & Co.—one of the first department stores—located on Pall Mall,
the streets had scores of street sellers.[78] London's overcrowded conditions led
to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.[81] Rising traffic
congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board
of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was
abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of county areas surrounding
the capital.[82]

From the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across
London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops
in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way.[83] The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly,
became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.[84] The city was the
target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and
1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's
Cathedral bombed.[85]
British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914, during World War I

A bombed-out London street during the Blitz, World War II

London was bombed by the Germans in the First World War, and during the Second World
War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners,
destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.[86] The tomb of the Unknown
Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was
buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.[87] The Cenotaph, located in Whitehall, was
unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the National Service of Remembrance held
annually on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November.[88]

The 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, while London was still
recovering from the war.[89] From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily
from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,[90] making
London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on
the South Bank.[91] The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea
soup fogs" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the "Big
Smoke".[92]

Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide youth culture,
exemplified by the Swinging London sub-culture associated with the King's
Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street.[93] The role of trendsetter revived in the punk era.[94] In 1965
London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a
new Greater London Council was created.[95] During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London
was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[96] These attacks
lasted for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing.[96] Racial inequality was highlighted
by the 1981 Brixton riot.[97]

Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an
estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.[98] The principal ports for
London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming
a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was born out of London's
increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.[99] Located about 2 miles (3.2 km)
east of central London, the Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London
against tidal surges from the North Sea.[100]
The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central
administration until 2000 and the creation of the Greater London Authority.[101] To mark the 21st
century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed.[102] On 6 July
2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage the Olympic
Games three times.[35] On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus
were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.[96]

In 2008, Time named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing
them as the world's three most influential global cities.[103] In January 2015, Greater London's
population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.[104] During the Brexit
referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but most London
constituencies voted for remaining.[105] However, Britain's exit from the EU in early 2020 only
marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.[106]

On 6 May 2023, the coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the
United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at Westminster Abbey,
London.[107]

Administration
Local government
Main articles: Local government in London, History of local government in London, and List of
heads of London government

Arms of the Corporation of the City of London[108]

The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier.
Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local
administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.[109] The GLA consists of two elected
components: the mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which
scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each
year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its
functional arm Transport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire
services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.[110] The
headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has been Sadiq Khan, the
first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital.[111] The mayor's statutory planning strategy is
published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.[112]

The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London
Corporation.[113] They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools,
libraries, leisure and recreation, social services, local roads and refuse collection.[114] Certain
functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010
the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over
£22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).[115]

The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London, run by
the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the
world.[116] National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance
Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in
the world.[117] The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where
required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on
the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington
Lock to the sea.[118]

National government

10 Downing Street, official residence of the Prime Minister

London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as
well as the prime minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of
Westminster, particularly along Whitehall.[119] There are 73 members of Parliament (MPs) from
London; As of December 2019, 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three
are Liberal Democrats.[120] The ministerial post of minister for London was created in 1994 and as
of 2020 is held by Paul Scully.[121]

Policing and crime

Main article: Crime in London
Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by
the Metropolitan Police ("The Met"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for
Policing and Crime (MOPAC).[122] The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of
its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The City of London
has its own police force – the City of London Police.[123] First worn by Met police officers in 1863,
the custodian helmet has been called a "cultural icon" and a "symbol of British law
enforcement".[124] Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue police telephone box (basis for
the TARDIS in Doctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in
the UK.[125]

Headquarters of MI6, the UK's foreign intelligence

service, at the SIS Building. Scenes featuring James Bond (the fictional MI6 agent) have been
filmed here.
The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London
Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services.[126] The Ministry of Defence
Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing
the general public.[127] The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered
in Thames House on the north bank of the River Thames, and the foreign intelligence service
(MI6) is headquartered in the SIS Building on the south bank.[128]

Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available
nationally at Local Authority and Ward level.[129] In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5%
increase over 2014.[130] Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and
murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to
mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though
other factors are involved.[131] However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the
year, and the murder rate in London is much lower than other major cities around the world.[132]

Geography
Main article: Geography of London

Scope
London, also known as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top subdivision
covering most of the city's metropolis. The City of London at its core once comprised the whole
settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to
amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing "London" to be defined several ways.[133]

Satellite view of London in June 2018

Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, in which 'London' forms
part of postal addresses.[134] The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar
in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside
included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.[135]

Further urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up
area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined Greater London
Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.[136] Greater London is split for some
purposes into Inner London and Outer London,[137] and by the River Thames into North and South,
with an informal central London area. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London,
traditionally the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar
Square and Whitehall, are about 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W.[138]

Status
Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the
City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of
lieutenancies.[139] The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic
counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.[140] London's status as the capital of
England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in
written form.[note 5]
Its status as a capital was established by constitutional convention, which means its status as de
facto capital is a part of the UK's uncodified constitution. The capital of England was moved to
London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries
to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the
nation.[143] More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this
context is known as London.[144]

Topography

London from Primrose Hill

Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a
population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile
(4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London
Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a
population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile
(1,510/km2).[145]

Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which
crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded
by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically
London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much
broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times
their present width.[146]

Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its
London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable
to flooding.[147] The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high
water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result
of post-glacial rebound.[148]

Climate
Main article: Climate of London
London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the
city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4
inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and
July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.[149] The wettest year on record is
1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1
inches (308 mm).[150] The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half
the annual rainfall of New York City.[151] Despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still
receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. However, London is vulnerable
to climate change in the United Kingdom, and there is increasing concern
among hydrological experts that London households may run out of water before 2050.[152]

Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022
down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981.[153][154] Records for atmospheric
pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8
millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.[155]
Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F).
On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above
30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-
related deaths.[156] A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in
1976 also caused many heat related deaths.[157] A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in
August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.[158] Droughts can
also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with
much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.[159] However, the most
consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.[160]

Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually
falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a
considerable urban heat island effect,[161] making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer
than the suburbs and outskirts.[162]

hide

• v
• t
• e
Climate data for London (LHR),[a] elevation: 25 m (82 ft), 1991–2020 normals
Ma Ap Ma No Yea
Month Jan Feb Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Dec
r r y v r
17. 21. 24. 29. 32. 35. 35. 29. 21. 17.
40.2 38.1 40.2
Record high °C 2 2 5 4 8 6 0 5 1 4
(104 (100 (104
(°F) (63. (70. (76. (84. (91. (96. (95. (85. (70. (63.
.4) .6) .4)
0) 2) 1) 9) 0) 1) 0) 1) 0) 3)
11. 15. 18. 21. 20. 15. 11.
8.4 9.0 23.9 23.4 8.8 15.7
Mean daily 7 0 4 6 2 8 5
(47. (48. (75. (74. (47. (60.
maximum °C (°F) (53. (59. (65. (70. (68. (60. (52.
1) 2) 0) 1) 8) 3)
1) 0) 1) 9) 4) 4) 7)
10. 13. 16. 15. 12.
5.6 5.8 7.9 19.0 18.7 8.4 5.9 11.7
Daily mean °C 5 7 8 9 3
(42. (42. (46. (66. (65. (47. (42. (53.
(°F) (50. (56. (62. (60. (54.
1) 4) 2) 2) 7) 1) 6) 1)
9) 7) 2) 6) 1)
12. 11.
2.7 2.7 4.1 6.0 9.1 14.2 14.1 8.8 5.3 3.1 7.8
Mean daily 0 6
(36. (36. (39. (42. (48. (57. (57. (47. (41. (37. (46.
minimum °C (°F) (53. (52.
9) 9) 4) 8) 4) 6) 4) 8) 5) 6) 0)
6) 9)
−16 −13 −8. −5. −3. −0. −5. −7. −17
3.9 2.1 1.4 −17.
Record low °C .1 .9 9 6 1 6 5 1 .4
(39. (35. (34. 4
(°F) (3.0 (7.0 (16. (21. (26. (30. (22. (19. (0.7
0) 8) 5) (0.7)
) ) 0) 9) 4) 9) 1) 2) )
58. 45. 38. 42. 45. 47. 49. 65. 66. 57. 615.
45.8 52.8
Average precipita 8 0 8 3 9 3 6 1 6 1 0
(1.8 (2.0
tion mm (inches) (2.3 (1.7 (1.5 (1.6 (1.8 (1.8 (1.9 (2.5 (2.6 (2.2 (24.
0) 8)
1) 7) 3) 7) 1) 6) 5) 6) 2) 5) 21)
 Average
11. 10. 11. 10. 111.
precipitation 9.5 8.5 8.8 8.0 8.3 7.9 8.4 7.9
5 8 2 8 7
days (≥ 1.0 mm)
Average relative
80 77 70 65 67 65 65 69 73 78 81 81 73
humidity (%)
3 2 2 4 7 10 10 9 6 3
Average dew 12 12 7
(37 (36 (36 (39 (45 (50 (50 (48 (43 (37
point °C (°F) (54) (54) (44)
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
Mean
61. 78. 124 176 207 208 217. 202. 157 115 70. 55. 1,67
monthly sunshine
1 8 .5 .7 .5 .4 8 1 .1 .2 7 0 4.8
hours
Percent possible
23 28 31 40 41 41 42 45 40 35 27 21 35
sunshine
Average ultraviol
1 1 2 4 5 6 6 5 4 2 1 0 3
et index
Source 1: Met Office[163][164][165] Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute[166][167]

Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index) [168] CEDA Archive[169] TORRO[170] Time and Date[171]

See Climate of London for additional climate information.

1. ^ Averages are taken from Heathrow, and extremes are taken from stations across
London.

Areas
Main articles: List of areas of London and London boroughs
Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such
as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations,
reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded
administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.[172]

The West End theatre district in 2016

Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own
distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been
divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.[173] The City of London
is the main financial district,[174] and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and
commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.
The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.[175] West
London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of
pounds.[176] The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a
similarly high outlay in most of central London.[177][178]

The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant
population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.[179] The surrounding East
London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites
throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London
Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012
Olympics and Paralympics.[179]

Architecture
Main articles: Architecture of London, List of tallest buildings and structures in London, and List of
demolished buildings and structures in London

The Tower of London, a medieval castle, dating in part to

1078
London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly
because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National
Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west
of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in
central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains,
the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example,
the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace.[180]

Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Christopher Wren,
neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the
early 20th century Old Bailey courthouse and the 1960s Barbican Estate. The 1939 Battersea
Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are
excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington.[181] The
density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf,
high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.

The east wing public façade of Buckingham Palace was

built between 1847 and 1850; it was remodelled to its present form in 1913.
 Trafalgar Square and its fountains, with Nelson's
Column on the right
The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while
commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington
Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do
the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column (built to
commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square,
one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the
yellow London stock brick.[182]

In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's
skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe (dubbed "The Gherkin"), Tower 42, the Broadgate
Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London
and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would
obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings.[183] This protective
policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since
1937.[183] Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London, including the 95-
storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom and Western Europe.[184]

Other notable modern buildings include The Scalpel, 20 Fenchurch Street (dubbed "The Walkie-
Talkie"), the former City Hall in Southwark, the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus
the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James
Stirling. The BT Tower stands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen
near the top. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary
Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena.[185]

The Houses of Parliament and Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben) on the right foreground, the London Eye on the
left foreground and The Shard with Canary Wharf in the background; seen in September 2014

Natural history
The London Natural History Society suggests that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities"
with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of
flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of
fish.[186] They state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members
have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around
London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds.
London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and
76 local nature reserves.[187]

Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern,
and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand,
native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly
only seen in Outer London.[188]

A fox on Ayres Street, Southwark, South London

Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every
square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found in Greater
London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel.[189] In wilder areas of
Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European
hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew,
and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The
Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have
begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.[190] Ten of England's
eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common
pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-
eared, Natterer's and Leisler's.[191]

Herds of red and fallow deer roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes
place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.[192] Epping Forest is
also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A
rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary
near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed
to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started
becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to
take advantage of London's green spaces.[193]