Updated September 12, 2023
Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Overview position. In 1999 (P.L. 105-65 §532), Congress added a
The U.S. military service academies are tuition-free, four- requirement that the superintendent must retire from service
year degree-granting institutions operated by the military at the end of the appointment, although waivers are
departments. The academies are a major officer available in some cases.
commissioning source, along with the Senior Reserve
Officer Training Corps and Officer Candidate School. The Admissions
military service academies include the Admission to the service academies is competitive. To be
appointed to a service academy, an applicant must meet
• U.S. Military Academy (USMA), West Point, New certain eligibility requirements and be nominated by an
York, under the Department of the Army; authorized person. Categories of nominations include
congressional, service-connected, academy superintendents,
• U.S. Naval Academy (USNA), Annapolis, Maryland, and others. Allocations for nominations are governed by
under the Department of the Navy (Navy and Marine law. The military academies use a “whole person” approach
Corps); and to admissions by assessing candidates in three areas:
academics, physical aptitude, and leadership potential. A
• U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA), Colorado Springs, candidate must also meet medical standards for service. To
Colorado, under the Department of the Air Force (Air matriculate, a nominated applicant must be a U.S. citizen,
Force and Space Force). between 17 and 23 years old, unmarried, without a legal
obligation to support any dependents, and not pregnant.
There are two other federal service academies, the U.S.
Coast Guard Academy, in New London, Connecticut, under Foreign National Students
the Department of Homeland Security; and the U.S. Limited numbers of foreign national students are admitted
Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York, under each year. Under 10 U.S.C. §347(a), a maximum of 60
the Department of Transportation. While graduates of these students may be enrolled at each academy. Candidates must
service academies may also receive an officer commission exhibit proficiency in English and high marks on
upon graduation, they differ from the military service standardized academic tests. The Department of State and
academies in many respects (e.g., statutory authorities, DOD determine eligible countries, and invite these nations
application and acceptance processes). to nominate promising candidates. Foreign students return
to their host nations following graduation and may incur a
Academy Oversight and Leadership service obligation with their countries’ militaries.
The military academies are overseen by three entities: the
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Preparatory Schools
Readiness (OUSD/P&R), the service Secretaries, and the Each military department operates a preparatory school that
Board of Visitors (BoV) of each academy. OUSD/P&R is offers a 10-month curriculum of instruction, in English,
responsible for assessing academy operations and mathematics, science, and other academic areas, tailored to
establishing policies and guidance for uniform oversight a student’s needs and entrance requirements for each
and management of the academies. The BoV serves as an academy. Individuals do not apply directly to the prep
independent advisory body on matters related to morale, school; they are selected from the pool of applicants to the
discipline, social climate, curriculum, instruction, physical service academies. Initially conceived as a program to help
equipment, fiscal affairs, and academic methods. By statute, selected enlisted soldiers and sailors prepare academically
the BoV for each military academy includes three Members to meet the entrance standards, Congress and DOD have
from both the House and Senate, and the Chairs of the also considered the prep schools as avenues to increase
Armed Services Committees or their designees. Two of the access to the academies for historically disadvantaged
Senate appointees must be members of the Committee on demographic groups.
Appropriations. The President appoints six additional
members to each Board. Enrollment
The student limit for each academy is 4,400; each of the
All of the academies are led by a superintendent—a academies admits between 1,100 and 1,350 students per
military officer who is a general or admiral detailed year. Women first entered the academies in 1976 and now
(assigned) to the position by the President. By law, the account for 23%-29% of each academy’s student body.
superintendent serves for a minimum of three years in the Table 1 shows demographics by race and ethnicity.
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Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Table 1. Service Academy and U.S. Undergraduate Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity (Fall 2022)
White Black Hispanic Asian Multi Other/Unk.
USMA 61% 11% 12% 9% 2% 4%
USNA 59% 6% 14% 9% 10% 2%
USAFA 63% 6% 12% 7% 8% 3%
Source: National Center for Education Statistics, College Navigator, at https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/.
Notes: Percentages may not add to 100 due to rounding. “Multi” includes two or more races; “Other/Unk.” includes U.S. nonresidents, Native
Hawaiian or other Pacific Islanders, and American Indian or Alaska Natives (accounting for 1% or less in each category).
Academic Curriculum and Student Life accounts of each respective service. For example, pay and
While enrolled at the academies, students have the rank of allowances for military staff and cadets and midshipmen are
midshipman (Navy) or cadet (Air Force and Army) and are part of the Military Personnel (MILPERS) appropriations.
considered to be on active duty (10 U.S.C. §101(d)). They Operations and Maintenance (O&M) funds provide for
live in military barracks, wear uniforms, and participate academy programs, security, facility maintenance and
daily in military training and professional development. In upgrades, training, and other operational expenses. Military
addition, academy students participate in approximately six Construction (MILCON) appropriations provide for
weeks of basic training in the summer prior to their first construction of academic buildings, and barracks/lodging
academic year and specialized training in subsequent and can vary from year to year.
summers between academic years. The academies also have Issues for Congress
elements similar to civilian colleges and universities (e.g., Oversight of the military service academies poses complex
varsity sports programs, social and professional clubs and challenges for Congress. From a budget perspective, there
associations, and alumni-focused programs and is significant campus infrastructure to maintain and
fundraising). upgrade, including numerous historical buildings and
The core curriculum at all academies includes professional monuments. On the personnel side, as undergraduate
development (e.g., military leadership and ethics) and institutions, the academies have experienced similar
service-specific technical courses (e.g., Naval weapons disciplinary issues and problematic behaviors as seen in
systems, aeronautical engineering). While students may civilian college campuses (e.g., sexual misconduct, hazing,
select from several majors, including those in the binge drinking, and cheating incidents).
humanities and social sciences, all successful graduates are
awarded a Bachelor of Science degree due to the technical Some in Congress have expressed interest in issues related
content of the core curricula. to demographic diversity in academy appointments,
particularly for historically underrepresented groups.
Service Requirement
Upon graduating, cadets and midshipmen are required to As the academies are a primary commissioning source for
accept an appointment as a commissioned officer, if the military departments, Congress may also consider
tendered, thereby incurring a military service obligation whether the academies’ curricula and professional
(MSO) in the active/reserve component. The MSO is development programs adequately prepare cadets and
typically eight years total with a minimum of five years on midshipmen for the responsibilities and challenges of 21st
active duty. Congress has modified the active duty service century military service.
requirement in the past, most recently in 1989 (P.L. 101-
189) when the requirement was raised from five to six years
for the class of 1992. It was reduced again to five years in Other CRS Products
the FY1996 NDAA (P.L. 104-106). Arguments for CRS Report RL33213, Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service
modifying the MSO typically stem from return on Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and
investment and force-sizing concerns. Management, by R. Eric Petersen and Sarah J. Eckman
Students who voluntarily leave the academies or are Relevant Statute
dismissed for substandard conduct or performance may be Title 10, United States Code, Chapters 753 (USMA), 853
required to complete a period of active duty enlisted (USNA), and 954 (USAFA)
service, to reimburse the federal government for the cost of
DOD Guidance
their education. Those who fail to complete the MSO might
also be required to reimburse the government. DODI 1322.22, Service Academies, September 24, 2015.
Funding
Students at the academies receive fully-funded tuition,
room and board, and some military pay and benefits. Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
Congress authorizes and appropriates funding for the
IF11788
service academies through multiple appropriation titles and
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Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11788 · VERSION 6 · UPDATED
