Ontological Models of Events

Fabrício H. Rodrigues

(fabricio.rodrigues@inf.ufrgs.br)
Outline

1 “Citzens” of an Ontological Model

2 What Events Are

3 Modeling Events

4 System-Invariant Events and Auxiliary Events

5 Substrate-Invariant Events

2
 “Citizens” of an
Ontological Model
Continuants vs. Events

Two types of citizen in the same world!

Continuants Events

“Snapshot” view of reality “Videoscopic” view of reality

4
 Continuants vs. Events Presence in Time

t4 t5 tn
Continuants t3
(totally present) t2
t1
T
IN
S JO t0
DI

Events
(partially present)
t0 ‘Race Start’
t1 ‘Race Develpment’
t2 ‘Race Finishing’
tn

Time
5
 Continuants vs. Events Presence in Time

t4 t5 tn
Continuants “Mary” t3
(totally present) t2
t1

different properties at
t0
different instants ti

t0 tn Time

hasHeight(Mary, 70cm , t1)

hasHeight(Mary, 157cm , t7)

hasHeight(Mary, 165cm , t4)

6
 t4 t5 tn
t3
“Mary” t2
t1

t0

Ocurrents “Mary’s life”

(partially present) (sum of all changes she underwent)

t0 “playful life” t1 “busy life” t2 “quiet life” tn

CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD OLD AGE

Time

Cannot Change: just

Have temporal
temporal parts with distinct
parts
properties

7
Continuants vs. Events

a flight

TAKING OF FLYING LANDING

a concert
1st SONG 2nd SONG 3rd SONG

a meeting
1st HALF OF THE MEETING 2nd HALF OF THE MEETING

8
Continuants vs. Events Summary

Characteristics

Continuants Ocurrents

Do not have Have temporal parts

temporal parts

Are fully present at Only one temporal parts is

every instant present at each time

Do change in time, Do not change in time, different their

while keeping identity. temporal parts

9
Continuants vs. Events Summary

Characteristics

Continuants Ocurrents

Stock Flux

Commodities Services

Product Production

Anatomy Physiology
(lungs, heart, stomach, ...) (breathing, circulation, digestion, ...)

10
What Events Are
 What Events Are

Event: a thing that happens in time

1) Transition through Situations 2) Manifestation of Dispositions

s1 s2

Ferromagnetism Time

12
 What Events Are

An event is a transition …

… from a situation gathering the

… to a situation that is the
stimulus conditions for
result of their manifestations
certain dispositions

s1 s2
ity
proxim

Ferromagnetism Time

13
What Events Are Participants

Participants

t0 tn Time

14
What Events Are Participants

Participants
Independent Continuants whose dispositions are
manifested during the occurrent

strength fragility

t0 tn Time

15
What Events Are Participants

Participation & Occurrent-bounded Roles

AGENT PATIENT

t0 tn Time

16
What Events Are Ways of Participating

Types of Occurrent-bounded Roles

AGENT PATIENT
e.g. sculptor in sculpting e.g. luggage in carrying

RESOURCE INSTRUMENT
e.g. stone in sculpting e.g. hammer in sculpting

AGENT-PATIENT RESULT
e.g. person in jumping e.g. sculpture in sculpting

...

17
What Events Are Causation

Causation (relation)

between
Cause and Effect
Binary Sucessive
(maybe composite relata) (causes preceed effects)

Events as relata

Cause causes Effect

Time

18
 Situation A

tri
gg
er
s
Cause

br
What Events Are

ab ings
ou
t

Link Situation

tri
gg
er
s
Effect

br
ab ings
ou
t
Causation

Situation B
Time

19
What Events Are Causation

s
ab ings

ab ings
er

er
gg

gg
t

t
ou

ou
br

br
tri

tri
Link Situation
Situation A

Situation B
Cause Effect

includes includes Time

Dispositions
Realizable entities / Causal properties

- Due to features of the bearer (categorical basis)

- Triggered by some event (stimulus,
reciprocal dispositions)
- Realized/Manifested by another event (manifestation)

- E.g. Fragility → Disposition to break

when suffering a schock
Flammability → Disposition to get on fire
when exposed to heat source

20
What Events Are Usual Names

a.k.a. Occurrents / Occurrences / Perdurants

Include usual notions such as ...

Events States/Stasis Processes Actions Phenomena

Change Keep Static Continued With Agent Natural,

Property occurrence, “Dynamic Spontaneous
States”

21
 Modeling Events
(and detail levels)
Modeling Events Why

Help in several tasks...

• Temporal Reasoning •

• Discrete Event Simulation •

• Providing Context •

23
Modeling Events Issues

Things to keep in mind

• Different ontologies/languages, different elements •

• Diff. ways to represent, diff. expressive power •

• Different purposes, different levels of detail •

24
Modeling Events UFO Support

25
Modeling Events UFO Support

26
Modeling Events UFO Support

27
Modeling Events UFO Support

28
Modeling Events UFO Support

29
Modeling Events UFO Support

30
Levels of Event Modeling Wood Combustion

31
Levels of Event Modeling Wood Combustion

“Level 0” - Implicitly acknowledges an occurrent]

(qualitative different snapshots in the knowledge base →
something happened, but it is not explicitly represented)

32
 Levels of Event Modeling

1.REIFICATION
- Inventory of occurrents (e.g., adverse events)

- Possibly in a taxonomy (subsumption

reasoning)

- Meaning: mostly implicit

33
Levels of Event Modeling
1.REIFICATION

34
Levels of Event Modeling
1.REIFICATION

it!
p lic
Im

35
 Levels of Event Modeling

1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS
- Inventory of occurrents (e.g., adverse events) - What is involved

- Possibly in a taxonomy (subsumption - Context for continuants (e.g., text mining)

reasoning)
- Meaning: “something that happens with those
- Meaning: mostly implicit participants”

36
Levels of Event Modeling
1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS

37
 Levels of Event Modeling

1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS
- Inventory of occurrents (e.g., adverse events) - What is involved

- Possibly in a taxonomy (subsumption - Context for continuants (e.g., text mining)

reasoning)
- Meaning: “something that happens with those
- Meaning: mostly implicit participants”

3. TRANSITION
- Succession of states

- Temporal reasoning

- Meaning: “what causes in the world”

38
Levels of Event Modeling
1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS 3. TRANSITION

39
 Levels of Event Modeling

1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS
- Inventory of occurrents (e.g., adverse events) - What is involved

- Possibly in a taxonomy (subsumption - Context for continuants (e.g., text mining)

reasoning)
- Meaning: “something that happens with those
- Meaning: mostly implicit participants”

3. TRANSITION 4.TRIGGERS
- Succession of states - Sufficient conditions to the happening of the
occurrent
- Temporal reasoning
- Causal reasnoing / Simulation
- Meaning: “what causes in the world”
- Meaning: “when to expect it to happen”

40
Levels of Event Modeling
1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS 3. TRANSITION 4.TRIGGERS

inheres in

inheres in

inheres in

41
 Levels of Event Modeling

1.REIFICATION 2.PARTICIPANTS
- Inventory of occurrents (e.g., adverse events) - What is involved
t it
u ch t ha ...
tm
- Possibly in a taxonomy (subsumption e
- Context for continuants (e.g., vtext n ed
n mining)
N o Gi ppe
reasoning)
- Meaning: “something that happensha with those
- Meaning: mostly implicit participants”

3. TRANSITION 4.TRIGGERS
- Succession of states it it the
- Sufficient conditions to the happening of
y
t h
t ha ... occurrent W
- Temporal reasoning e n ned e n/ ens
v h p
Gi ppe W hap
- Causal reasnoing / Simulation
- Meaning: “what causes in the h a
world”
- Meaning: “when to expect it to happen”

42
 Exercise

Coining
“Coining is the process of manufacturing a coin by stamping it. The
process starts by heating a piece of metal so that it gets malleable.
After that, the stamping process happens, with a hard coin die
(with the pattern that will be stamped on the coin) being pressed
against the malleable metal. As a result, it creates a metallic coin
exhibiting the shape corresponding to the used pattern matrix”

43
 Allowed,
Intended,
Non-Intended
Models
Allowed vs. Intended Models of Events

Cover a great variety of intended models of events

(successions of situations depict objects that are participating in the event at each time and the
changes in their properties)

! Lack of constraints for unintended models

Why certain successions of situations correspond to events but others

do not?
(e.g., Jam Session vs. People trying guitars in a store before buying them)

Why certain objects participate in the event at a time but other, related
ones do not?
(e.g., Soccer Match: Players vs. Medics on the field)

45
Delimitation/Unification Approaches

Spatiotemporal Boundaries
(what happens in a selected 4D region)

Causal Link
(each situation causes the following one)

Non-bounding Content Invariance

(selected object and surroundings)

Bounding Content Invariance

(set of selected objects or properties)

Bounding Structural Invariance

(variable embodiment, process)

46
Delimitation/Unification Approaches
Internal cohesion
among situations
Spatiotemporal Boundaries
(what happens in a selected 4D region)

Causal Link
(each situation causes the following one)

Non-bounding Content Invariance

(selected object and surroundings)

Bounding Content Invariance

(set of selected objects or properties)

Bounding Structural Invariance

(variable embodiment, process)

47
Delimitation/Unification Approaches

Spatiotemporal Boundaries
(what happens in a selected 4D region)

Internal cohesion among

Causal Link participants
(each situation causes the following one)

Non-bounding Content Invariance

(selected object and surroundings)

Bounding Content Invariance

(set of selected objects or properties)

Bounding Structural Invariance

(variable embodiment, process)

48
Delimitation/Unification Approaches

Spatiotemporal Boundaries
(what happens in a selected 4D region)

Causal Link
(each situation causes the following one)

Non-bounding Content Invariance Discretionary

application
(selected object and surroundings)

Bounding Content Invariance

(set of selected objects or properties)

Bounding Structural Invariance

(variable embodiment, process)

49
Delimitation/Unification Approaches

Spatiotemporal Boundaries
(what happens in a selected 4D region)

Causal Link
(each situation causes the following one)

Non-bounding Content Invariance

(selected object and surroundings)

No variation of
Bounding Content Invariance participants during
(set of selected objects or properties) the event

Bounding Structural Invariance

(variable embodiment, process)

50
Alternative Delimitation

Devise a unifying/delimiting criterion...

… based on some internal cohesion of events,

related to their nature as such

… flexible enough to account for

variation of participants during the event

… strict enough to reduce the

discretionary component in its application
(working as a guide)

51
Alternative Delimitation

Based on this delimitation, explore implications...

… for determining the participants in an event

… for determining the situations in the course of an event

… for definition of types of events and modeling guidelines

52
System-Invariant
Events
 Systems What is a System?

Complex object composed of 2+ connected material objects

(e.g., a molecule, an imunological system)

Connection: relationship that changes the way the relata will behave in certain
circumstances (“either cutting out or opening up certain possibilities” [Bunge, 1979])
(e.g., “Exerting Pressure” vs. “ Larger Than”)

Environment

System
Object

Connection

54
 What
Dispositional is a System?
Connections
Dispositional Connection: relationship that
fulfills stimulus conditions of dispositions of its relata

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: contact with some oxygen

Conditions: c2: proximity of a heat source

temperature = low temperature = low temperature = high

flammability flammability flammability
(dormant) (activated) (activated)

fuel fuel fuel

contact contact proximity contact proximity

oxygen c1 oxygen
heat
source
c2 oxygen
heat
source

55
 What
Dispositional is a System?
Connections
Dispositional Connection: relationship that
fulfills stimulus conditions of dispositions of its relata

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: contact with some oxygen

Conditions: c2: proximity of a heat source

temperature = low temperature = low temperature = high

flammability flammability flammability
(dormant) (activated) (activated)

fuel fuel fuel

contact contact proximity contact proximity

Dispositional heat heat

oxygen Connections oxygen oxygen
source source

56
 What is a Connections
Events Presuppose System?

Manifestation of a disposition requires stimulus conditions

I) External object (with properties matching the disposition)

II) Relation to expose the disposition to matching properties

Disposition s i ti o nal Matching Property

Dispo ction
e
Conn

Dispos. External
Bearer Object

System

57
System-Invariant Events

System-Invariant Event

Transition among situations that are snapshots of a

system of dispositionally connected participants

Being a participant = being a component of the system

Situation = arrangement of system’s components that activates

dispositions that result in the following situations

58
System-Invariant Events

ity
proxim

s1 s2
magnet location = x magnet location = x

Magnetism Magnetism
proximity proximity

Magnetism Magnetism
metal metal
object location= x + y object location = x

t1 t2 Time
59
 Illustrative Example
Bacterial Culture
Bacterial Culture

Bacterial Culture: process of multiplying bacteria by letting

them reproduce in a culture medium.

Culture Medium: solid, semi-solid, liquid that can support

the growth of a population of microorganisms

61
Bacterial Culture

col size (colony with 1000 individual bacteria)

1000

62
Bacterial Culture

med

col size
1000

63
Bacterial Culture

med

col size
1000

64
 Bacterial Culture

med

contains

col size
1000

65
 Bacterial Culture

contains relation exposes two matching dispositions,

qualifying as dispositional connection.

med Nutritive Capacity

N
So, we have a
contains system
M Metabolic Capacity
col size
1000

66
 Bacterial Culture

contains relation exposes two matching dispositions,

qualifying as dispositional connection.

med Nutritive Capacity (enable a 2x growth)

N
contains
M Metabolic Capacity (eat and grow)
col size
1000

67
 Bacterial Culture

In fact, we have a system that triggers and delimits an event

cult1
med
N
contains
M
col size
1000

t1
68
 Bacterial Culture

In fact, we have a system that triggers and delimits an event

cult1 cult2
med med
N N
contains contains
M M
col size col size
1000 2000

t1 t2
69
 Bacterial Culture

In fact, we have a system that triggers and delimits an event

cult1 cult2 cult3

med med med
N N N
contains contains contains
M M M
col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000

t1 t2 t3
70
 Bacterial Culture

In fact, we have a system that triggers and delimits an event

cult1 cult2 cult3 cult4

med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 8000

t1 t2 t3 t4
71
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

How about we have the same system (same participants and

relations), in the same initial conditions…

cult’1
med
N
contains
M
col size
1000

t1 t2 t3 t4
72
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

How about we have the same system (same participants and

relations), in the same initial conditions…

cult’1 cult’2
med med
N N
contains contains
M M
col size col size
1000 2000

t1 t2 t3 t4
73
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

How about we have the same system (same participants and

relations), in the same initial conditions…
… but with some amount of antibiotics in its environment …

ac1
anti
contact
cult’1 cult’2
med med
N N
contains contains
M M
col size col size
1000 2000

t1 t2 t3 t4
74
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

How about we have the same system (same participants and

relations), in the same initial conditions…
… but with some amount of antibiotics in its environment …
… that contamines the medium

ac1 ac1
anti anti
contact part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3
med med med
N N N
contains contains contains
M M M
col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000

t1 t2 t3 t4
75
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

How about we have the same system (same participants and

relations), in the same initial conditions…
… but with some amount of antibiotics in its environment …
… that contamines the medium …

ac1 ac1 … and weakens

anti anti nutritive capacity
contact part of of the medium
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3
med med med
N N N
contains contains contains
M M M
col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000

t1 t2 t3 t4
76
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

Which leads to a distinct situation at time t4, such that this

culture event is distinct from an undisturbed culture event

ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
77
 Bacterial Culture … and Contamination

The occurrence of an antibiotic contamination

affected the way in which the bacterial culture, happened.

It contributes to make another event be what it is.

ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
78
Auxiliary Events
Auxiliary Events

Event that affects the unfolding of another event

How an Event can Affect another Event

Overlap Effect Causal Link

80
 Auxiliary Events Subject Overlap

Temporal overlap + Overlap of delimiting systems

Enabling participants in main and auxiliary events to interact

ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
81
 Auxiliary Events Subject Overlap

Temporal overlap + Overlap of delimiting systems

Enabling participants in main and auxiliary events to interact

ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
82
 Auxiliary Events Counterfactual Effect
cult4
At least one situation in the course of the med
N
affected event differs from the corresponding contains
situation in the alternative, undisturbed event. M
col size
8000
ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
83
 Auxiliary Events Causal Link

The distinct situation is brought about by the manifestation of a

disposition modulated by the change made by the auxiliary event

ac1 ac1
anti anti anti
contact part of part of
cult’1 cult’2 cult’3 cult’4
med med med med
N N N N
contains contains contains contains
M M M M
col size col size col size col size
1000 2000 4000 6000

t1 t2 t3 t4
84
Other Examples

Heating the fluid flowing inside a tubulation to increase

the flow rate

Cooling a reactor to decelerate an ongoing chemical

reaction

Exchange a player during a football match

85
Substrate-Invariance
Substrate-Invariance Constitution

Favorable
in
Circumstances
(e.g., shape)

Favorable
in
Circumstances
(e.g., metallic bond)

87
 Types of
Substrate-Invariance Transition

STASIS
statue statue

shape1 shape1
constituted of constituted of

scul scul
clay clay
ptor ptor

SIMPLE CHANGE
statue statue

shape1 shape2
constituted of constituted of

scul scul
clay clay
ptor ptor

Proposed in “What can happen - Occurrents as transitions between situations and the
upper-level types derived from this notion” (Rodrigues, Carbonera, Abel, 2020)
88
 Types of
Substrate-Invariance Transition

CREATION
statue

shape1
constituted of

scul scul
clay clay
ptor ptor

DESTRUCTION
statue

shape1
constituted of

scul scul
clay clay
ptor ptor

Proposed in “What can happen - Occurrents as transitions between situations and the
upper-level types derived from this notion” (Rodrigues, Carbonera, Abel, 2020)
89
 Types of
Substrate-Invariance Transition

TRANSFORMATION

statue statue

shape1 shape2
constituted of constituted of

scul scul
clay clay
ptor ptor

Proposed in “What can happen - Occurrents as transitions between situations and the
upper-level types derived from this notion” (Rodrigues, Carbonera, Abel, 2020)
90
Some References

What delimits an event: systems as invariant elements along events

(ONTOBRAS, 2021)

Auxiliary Events -Towards an Ontological Account of Events That Affect

Other Events (ONTOBRAS, 2023)

Upper-level types of occurrent based on the Principle of Ontological

Conservation (ER, 2020)

91
 THANK YOU!

Ontological Models of Events

Fabrício H. Rodrigues

(fabricio.rodrigues@inf.ufrgs.br)
Modeling Events in a System View
Think about the event

Fuel Burning

93
Modeling Events in a System View
Think about the involved objects

Fuel Burning

fuel

94
 Modeling Events in a System View
Think about the respects in which they change (or stay unchanged)

Fuel Burning

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

fuel fuel fuel

95
 Modeling Events in a System View
Identify the dispositions that must be triggered to cause (or prevent) such changes

Fuel Burning

Disposition: flammability

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

96
 Modeling Events in a System View
Determine the stimulus conditions that trigger them

Fuel Burning

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: proximity of a heat source

Conditions: c2: contact with some oxygen

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

97
 Modeling Events in a System View
Identify other objects required for establishing those conditions

Fuel Burning

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: proximity of a heat source

Conditions: c2: contact with some oxygen

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

heat heat heat

oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

98
 Modeling Events in a System View
Identify which of their properties play a role to trigger the dispositions

Fuel Burning

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: proximity of a heat source

Conditions: c2: contact with some oxygen

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

vol. = v vol. = u<v vol. = w<u

heat heat heat
oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

heating oxidizing heating oxidizing heating oxidizing

ability ability ability ability ability ability 99
 Modeling Events in a System View
Determine the connections required to expose the disposition to the stimuli

Fuel Burning

Disposition: flammability Stimulus c1: proximity of a heat source

Conditions: c2: contact with some oxygen

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

proximity contact proximity contact proximity contact

vol. = v vol. = u<v vol. = w<u
heat heat heat
oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

heating oxidizing heating oxidizing heating oxidizing

ability ability ability ability ability ability 100
 Modeling Events in a System View
Verify whether the participants compose a system

Fuel Burning
SYSTEM: Complex object composed of 2+ connected material objects
CONNECTION: relationship that changes the way the relata will behave in certain circumstances
(“either cutting out or opening up certain possibilities” [Bunge, 1979])

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

proximity contact proximity contact proximity contact

vol. = v vol. = u<v vol. = w<u
heat heat heat
oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

heating oxidizing heating oxidizing heating oxidizing

ability ability ability ability ability ability 101
 Modeling Events in a System View
Verify whether the participants compose a system

Fuel Burning

System as an arrangement of entities that allow the them to interact and the corresponding
event to proceed

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

proximity contact proximity contact proximity contact

vol. = v vol. = u<v vol. = w<u
heat heat heat
oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

heating oxidizing heating oxidizing heating oxidizing

ability ability ability ability ability ability 102
 Modeling Events in a System View
Verify whether the participants compose a system

Fuel Burning

System as an arrangement of entities that allow the them to interact and the corresponding
event to proceed

volume = x volume = y<x volume = z<y

flammability flammability flammability

fuel fuel fuel

proximity contact proximity contact proximity contact

vol. = v vol. = u<v vol. = w<u
heat heat heat
oxygen oxygen oxygen
source source source

heating oxidizing heating oxidizing heating oxidizing

ability ability ability ability ability ability 103
 Modeling Events in a System View
Think about other valid configurations for the system

Fuel Burning

Adding/Removing: Components, Connections, Properties, …

Check whether the succession of event stages can be characterized as variations of the system

flammability

additional more
heat source
fuel oxygen
proximity contact

proximity contact
heating oxidizing
ability ability
heat
oxygen
source

heating oxidizing
ability ability 104
 Modeling Events in a System View
Think about other valid configurations for the system

Fuel Burning

Adding/Removing: Components, Connections, Properties, …

Check whether the succession of event stages can be characterized as variations of the system

flammability

additional more
heat source
fuel oxygen
proximity contact

proximity contact
heating oxidizing
ability ability
heat
oxygen
source

heating oxidizing
ability ability 105
Overlapping Systems

Common Component Common Component Part Component Part

Overlapping System Overlapping System as

as a Component part of a Component
106
 Auxiliary Events Contextuality

Interaction
between certain
objects…

Contextual event
(some sort of “role”
played by an event)
… some of which
components of a
system…

107