How to use QUT cite|write

cite write
I S TO B E G
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Your introductory guide to
USE THIS A
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The booklet LL citing, referencing and

Explains the different
academic writing at QUT

TH
styles used at QUT and
why you need to
reference carefully.

ET
It also explains how
The website www.citewrite.qut.edu.au

2014

IME
to write academically. www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Provides you with reference
and citing examples
and writing guides.
Use it for:
planning your writing
citing your sources
compiling your reference list.

The people
www.library.qut.edu.au/help
At the Learning and Research
Desks you can ask questions
about referencing and writing
your assignment. You can
also chat with us online.

AS P
K FOR HEL

CRICOS No.00213J © QUT 2013 19995

Feedback
ask.qut.edu.au
We welcome your comments on this
booklet. If you have any suggestions
or advice you can provide feedback
via AskQUT. Go to AskQUT and
Ask a Question or give feedback.
 cite
Find specific
examples for QUT
referencing styles at
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
For specific
examples, go to
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Contents
Citing and referencing 3
Why do it? 3

QUT’s recommended reference styles 4

Which style should I use? 4

Citing in brief 5
In-text citation 5
Citation using an author–date style 5
Citation using a numbered style 6
Citing legal cases and legislation 6
Direct quotations: copying words exactly 7
Short quotations 7
Long quotations 8
Acceptable changes to the original wording 8
Indirect quotations/paraphrase: rewriting original words 9
Summaries: referring to the source’s main ideas 9

Reference lists 10
Build your own reference! 11

Bibliographic management tools 12

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 1
Citing and referencing
At university, you are expected to cite and reference all information you use in your assignments.
Citing is when you use and acknowledge someone else’s work to support your argument or
illustrate your point.
Referencing is when you give bibliographic information­—details such as author’s family name and
the date and title of publication—about the sources you used in your work.

Why do it?
We cite to acknowledge someone else’s work.
You need to cite when you:
• use a direct quote from someone else
• give a summary of someone else’s ideas
• paraphrase someone else’s ideas
• copy some information (such as a picture, a table or some statistics).

We reference to provide details about the sources that have been cited.
You need to reference in order to:
• acknowledge (give credit for) facts and ideas you have used
• help other readers find the original facts and ideas or works that you have used
• show readers the depth and quality of your reading and research.

Citing and referencing are essential to avoid plagiarism.

Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty that incurs severe penalties at QUT. Plagiarism is when
you do not give credit to the author/s for information you used in your work. You may have used it by:
• copying the work of another student
• directly copying any part of another person’s work (even if you bought it)
• directly copying and pasting information from the internet
• paraphrasing or summarising someone else’s ideas
• using the main idea or thesis from someone else’s work
• using experimental results from someone else’s work.

Did you know?

You can become familiar with your responsibilities by reading about academic integrity at
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/academic_integrity

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 3
QUT’s recommended
reference styles
Universities have standard referencing styles that help you to cite consistently and avoid
plagiarism. QUT recommends four referencing styles:
• QUT APA: an author–date style
• QUT Harvard: an author–date style
• QUT Numbered (Vancouver): a numbered style
• QUT Legal: a footnote style.

Which style should I use?

Your unit outline should indicate which style to use in your work. If you have any queries about the
style to use, ask your lecturer or tutor.
Go to QUT cite|write online www.citewrite.qut.edu.au to see examples of how to apply each
style to different types of resources. The online tool shows you how to format your reference list
and in-text citations. It also provides rules to follow if you have incomplete reference details (e.g. no
date or place of publication) or if you need to reference non-standard resources (e.g. an email or a
podcast).
Step 1.

QUT cite
QUT APA QUT Harvard QUT Legal QUT Numbered

Types of Books
Books Print
Journal articles Electronic book (ebook)
Newspaper articles Chapter in and edited book
Online materials Edition other than the first
Creative works Dictionary/encyclopaedia
Public documents Conference paper and proceedings
Figures Thesis or dissertation (unpublished)
QUT Resources and Personal Communications

cite write
Step 2.

QUT cite
QUT APA QUT Harvard QUT Legal QUT Numbered

Types of Books Example for QUT APA – Books – Print

Print In-text
According to Neal (2005, p. 32) ... OR “... this is not comparable” (Neal, 2005, p. 3)
Electronic book (ebook)
Reference List
Chapter in and edited book Neal, M. J. (2005). Medical pharmacology at a glance (5th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Edition other than the first
NOTE: For first editions, omit all edition information.
Dictionary/encyclopaedia
Conference paper and proceedings Authors? DOIs?
Thesis or dissertation (unpublished) Publication details? Page numbers?
QUT Resources and Personal Communications Need help? Ask a Librarian

cite write

4 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Citing in brief

In-text citation
Any information (words, ideas, statistics, tables, data, pictures, photos, etc.) obtained from another
author or source, whether it is used in a direct quotation or as a paraphrase, requires an in-text citation
that will later be provided in full in a reference list.
Facts and ideas that are considered common knowledge within a discipline do not need to be cited.
For example, Einstein’s theory of mass-energy equivalence (e=mc2) would not need to be cited.

Citation using an author–date style

When you add a citation into your text using an author–date style (such as QUT APA or
QUT Harvard), you need to include the following information in the sentence or paragraph:
• Author’s family name or name of the source (organisation, government department, etc.).
• Year of publication—look for the copyright symbol © in the source. This is usually in the front
pages of a book or at the bottom of an internet page.
• Page number where you found the information (or paragraph (¶) number if there is no page
number on it). Summaries of information/sources often do not require page numbers if the
information comes from many pages. Check with your lecturer or tutor if you are not sure.
Example

“You must cite the sources of each idea

or item of information you use, whether
you quote, paraphrase or summarise or
merely refer to it” (Harris, 2005, p. 5).

author’s family name year page

This information can be included either at the beginning or the end of the sentence or paragraph.
Example

At the beginning:
Marras et al. (1995) note that peak load Go to
moment has been suggested to play a major
role in defining lower back disorder risk.
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
At the end:
to see examples in QUT APA,
Peak load moment has been suggested to play
QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered
a major role in defining lower back disorder risk and QUT Legal.
(Marras et al., 1995).

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 5
Citation using a numbered style
When adding a citation in your text, either place a superscript number (start at1) or a number in
brackets (1) at the end of the information you are citing.
Example

At the beginning:
Marras et al.1 note that peak load moment has
been suggested to play a major role in defining
lower back disorder risk.

This number is then used to indicate the bibliographic information in the reference list.

Citing legal cases and legislation

Legal writing employs a numbered note style to reference its footnotes. This refers the reader to
the relevant numbered note at the bottom (or ‘foot’) of the page where the information is provided.
Students studying Law units at QUT are required to use the citation standard Australian Guide to
Legal Citation, 3rd ed, (AGLC3), the most commonly used rules of which have been extracted in the
publication, Written Assessment to the Law School (WALS), referred to in citelwrite as QUT Legal.
The one major exception to AGLC3 is that in Rule 5.3, Books/Publication details, the place of
publication is added after the publisher details.
If you are using a ‘non-law’ reference style such as QUT Harvard for your writing, follow the
requirements for that style for referencing sources.

Go to
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
to see examples in QUT APA,
QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered
and QUT Legal.

6 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Direct quotations: copying words exactly
When directly quoting, remember to:
1. Copy the words exactly from the original source.
2. Include the author, date and page number as the in-text citation
3. Use no more than 10 per cent of the word count as direct quotes in your assignment.

Did you know?

Some students think it is okay if you copy and paste more than three words as long as you add
the author/source name. This is not true. If you copy more than three words you must also have
quotation marks.

Short quotations
Add quotation marks around the copied words.
Example

author’s family name

year page

Harris (2005, p. 5) writes “you must cite the

sources of each idea or item of information
you use, whether you quote, paraphrase or
summarise or merely refer to it”.

Note quotation marks to open

and close

If the quotation includes another quotation made in the original, use the opposite type of quotation
marks (i.e. ‘...’) to those (“...”) that you used first.

Did you know?

You can use your own judgement on what constitutes a short quote. As a general rule,
APA suggests fewer than 40 words and Harvard suggests fewer than 100 words.

Go to
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
to see examples in QUT APA,
QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered
and QUT Legal.

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 7
Long quotations
Long quotations use a different style to distinguish them from your normal text.
• Use a block quotation (i.e. not part of the sentence)
• Indent the block from the left and right margins
• Between the lines, use a single space only
• Do not use quotation marks for the block
• Include citation details either as a lead in to
the block or at the end (see example for
‘end’ placement).

Example

In Using Sources Effectively, Harris describes

many different ways students should reference
their work in academic institutions. The author
believes that students must understand the
importance of referencing:
An important part of using sources
effectively lies in distinguishing between
your own ideas and the ideas that
come from outside sources … When
you make use of words, ideas or any
information from a source other than
your own knowledge and experience,
you must give credit to the source in a
citation (Harris, 2005, p. 1).
Referencing is clearly an important skill for
students who wish to succeed in academic
courses.

Acceptable changes to the original wording

If the original source has a grammar or spelling mistake that might be confusing, you should copy
the mistake and add [sic] after the mistake. Note that [sic] must be in italics and in square brackets.
However, there are three situations where it is acceptable to change the original words
slightly:
1. You can change the capitalisation of the letter of the first word of the quotation to fit the flow
of your sentence. In the example below, the ‘A’ of ‘As’ has been changed to a lower case ‘a’:

Harris (2005, p. 35) says “as you work on your

paper visit your instructor to ask for input”.

2. You can add words in square brackets [ ] to make the meaning of the quote clearer to the
reader:

“Government [Queensland State] is

concerned about the cost of water”
(Courier Mail, 2007, p. 1).

3. You can use an ellipsis ( ... ) to show that you are leaving words out:

“There is one exception to the rule of citing

outside information. Common knowledge
does not need to be cited … whatever
an educated person would be expected
to know or could locate in an ordinary
encyclopedia” (Harris, 2005, p. 17).

8 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Indirect quotations/paraphrase: rewriting original words
Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another author in your own words.
• You may use technical words that cannot be substituted.
• Make sure you accurately represent the source/author’s ideas.
• If you paraphrase another author, you still need to provide an in-text citation.

• Page numbers are not always required for paraphrases. Check with your lecturer or tutor if
you are unsure.

Example

Direct quotation
Cope (2007, p. 21) says that “plagiarism, a
failure to acknowledge sources of material
correctly, is an offence against professional
standards and is a form of academic
dishonesty”. Go to
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Paraphrase
to see examples in QUT APA,
According to Cope (2007, p. 21) plagiarism
QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered
occurs when writers do not reference ideas, and QUT Legal.
and this is a very serious offence.

Summaries: referring to the source’s main ideas

All ideas that are not your own should be cited (and later referenced). When you refer to general
ideas or just want to acknowledge that an idea came from a secondary resource, then your in-text
citation does not require a page number.
Example

Plagiarism is an issue that all students

should be aware of (Cope, 2007).

If you read from many sources and have written ideas in your own words, but you know that you
learned these ideas from other people, list their names alphabetically in your in-text citation using a
semicolon (;) to separate the sources.
Example

Academic writing is more formal and more

complicated than informal writing,
especially when authors need to consider
acknowledging referencing (Cope, 2007;
Oshima & Hogue, 1991; Putnis & Petelin,
1999).

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 9
Reference lists
A reference list contains details of every resource cited in your assignment. The reference list is
placed at the end of your assignment and should start on a new page.
When you research and prepare for assessment, it is important to take down the full bibliographic
details (including the page numbers) of the source from which the information is taken. It is very time
consuming to follow up references later.
Details could include:
You can usually find this
• Author
information at the beginning
• Date of a book or journal article.
• Title
• Digital object identifier (DOI)
• Volumes/numbers
• Journal title
• Date reviewed
• Database used
• Page numbers.

Did you know?

Bibliographies are different from reference lists. They include references used in the
assignment plus other relevant or useful sources not quoted from but used in the preparation
of the assignment.

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Build your own reference!
No style guide provides examples for all possible references. You may need to
construct your own using components of a variety of examples. If in doubt, ask at
the Library’s Learning and Research Desk.

Regardless of style, all references are essentially made up of four

key elements …

WHO WHEN WHAT WHERE

Who is When was the What is the Where can you

responsible for work created? work called? find the work?
creating the
• Year • Title • Where it was
work?
• In press • Journal title published
• Author(s)
•Y
 ear, month, date • Book and • Journal volume,
• Organisations issues and pages
(if continually chapter title
• Directors updated) • Where it is archived
• Website title
• Artists online

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 11
Bibliographic management tools
There are bibliographic management tools available to assist you with citing and referencing. These
online and software applications integrate with word processing applications to automatically insert
and format citations and references into your assignments.
Undergraduate essays or reports usually need only 10 to 20 references to scholarly information. In
these cases, it is often easier to format your references and citations manually, using the examples
in QUT cite|write online as a guide. Understanding the principles of correct referencing is an
important academic skill; so formatting your references will help you build your understanding,
accuracy and confidence.
Writing an extensive academic paper or report, however, means you must record many, sometimes
hundreds, of references. Using a bibliographic management tool may be a more efficient solution to
help you manage your references over an extended period of time. You will still need to understand
the principles of referencing and citing to be able to proofread carefully to ensure that there are no
mistakes in the final formatting.
If you are unsure whether to manually format your references or use a software application,
ask your lecturer or tutor for their advice about which method is suitable for your assessment,
or ask at the Library’s Learning and Research Desk for more information.
QUT Library has created a subject guide that lists some strengths and weaknesses
of various bibliographic management tools. It is available at the following link:
libguides.library.qut.edu.au/bibliographic_management_tools
For more help or information, ask at the Library—in person or online.

12 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
 write
Find guides for
note taking and
writing assignments at
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 13
Contents
Academic writing 17

Academic writing style 17

Precise expression 17
Impersonal, objective tone 17
Formal language 17
Tentative conclusions: definitive and qualifying words 18

Academic writing terms 19

Abstract 19
Active and passive voice 19
Argument 19
Authoritative source 19
Cite | citing | citation 19
Conclusion 19
Critical 19
Evidence 19
Introduction 20
Paraphrase 20
Peer reviewed (scholarly) article 20
Person 20
Point of view 20
Reference 20
Research 20
Scope 21
Thesis statement 21
Word limit 21

Academic writing structure 22

Overview 22
Introduction 23
Body paragraphs 24
Conclusion 25
Linking it all together 26
Useful linking words and phrases (transitions) 26
Useful words for integrating evidence 27
Task words commonly used in essay questions 28

Critical thinking 30

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Academic writing
At university you will be expected to write using academic style and structure.

Academic writing style

Academic writing style describes the language you use to clearly explain the ideas that you develop based on your
research. There are four main features of an academic writing style:

Precise expression
• Be concise. Every point should relate directly to your assignment topic.
• Use verbs rather than adverbs (e.g. ‘she argued’ is shorter than ‘she said forcefully’).
• Keep your sentences short. Each sentence should express a single idea.
• Use the specialist and technical language of your discipline.

Impersonal, objective tone

• Use non-emotive and non-judgemental language (e.g. the term ‘killed for food’ is more neutral in tone than ‘cruelly
massacred for meat’).
• Use non-discriminatory, inclusive language (e.g. the use of ‘all men’ for all people is not considered inclusive as it
leaves out any reference to women).
• Focus your sentences on the concepts you are discussing rather than the people involved (e.g. ‘sleeping patterns
are shorter’ rather than ‘people don’t sleep as much’).

Formal language
Most writing will follow these rules but there are exceptions, so check with your lecturer or tutor.
• Write in complete sentences that are structured into paragraphs (see p. 24 for more information on how to write
effective paragraphs).
• Write in third person, unless otherwise specified in your assessment guidelines (refer to p. 20 Person for
more detail).
• Do not use contractions (e.g. rather than ‘can’t’, ‘wouldn’t’ or ‘don’t’ , use ‘cannot’, ‘would not’ and ‘do not’).
• Do not use abbreviations such as ‘etc.’ ‘e.g.’ or ‘fig.’ Write these terms in full.
• In academic writing, however, there are different types of abbreviations and in some instances they are acceptable.
• Acronyms such as TAFE or Qantas (which are pronounceable words made up from the first letter of a series
of words) are generally acceptable as they are common usage terms.
• Initialisms contain the first letter of each word and are NOT pronounceable and not punctuated, such as
‘QUT’. Although technically QUT is an initialism, it is referred to as an acronym. When using initialisms for the
first time, write the name in full followed by the initialism in brackets—Queensland University of Technology
(QUT). Each time you refer to this again in your assignment, just use QUT.
• Do not use text abbreviations such as ‘lol’, ‘u’, ‘gr8’ or ‘IMHO’.
• Do not use colloquial or slang words or phrases.

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 Tentative conclusions: definitive and qualifying words
• The conclusions you make from the evidence in your assignment should be fair, reasonable and provable because
definitive statements are easy to disprove. For example, the statement that ‘men are physically stronger than women’
can immediately be disproved if any woman is shown to be physically stronger than any man.
• Qualifiers are words that limit or modify statements to make them less than absolute. Here are some examples
of qualifiers:

Definitive words Qualifying sentence starters

Everyone Several: ‘Several studies report …’

Numerous: ‘Numerous patients have reported benefits in the first round of trials’

Definitely Perhaps: ‘It may, perhaps, be considered …’

Often: ‘It often results in …’

Prove Indicated: ‘… as indicated in the data.’

Suggest: ‘The findings suggest that …’

18 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Academic writing terms
These are terms that are often used at university. They may be unfamiliar or convey a different meaning from their common
usage. (See also the Glossary in Study Smart www.studysmart.library.qut.edu.au/help/glossary.jsp)

Abstract
A summary of an article or paper, often appearing at the beginning of the paper.

Active and passive voice

In English, this refers to the way the verb is used in a sentence (the form of the verb).
• An active voice means the focus of the sentence is on the person, animal or thing that is doing the action described
by the verb, e.g. ‘The dog crossed the road’.
• The passive voice means the focus of a sentence is on the person, animal or thing that is being acted upon,
e.g. ‘The road is being crossed by the dog’.

Argument
An argument is a writing structure where you state your point of view and then outline the evidence that backs that point of
view. The statement of your point of view is called the thesis statement and it is the direct response to the question or task
of your assignment. The evidence is outlined logically, in a series of points, written in paragraphs in the body of your essay.

Authoritative source
Information used as evidence (references) in an assignment should only come from authoritative sources. (See also the
entry below on Evidence.)

Cite | citing | citation

To cite is to acknowledge the author or source of the information or idea you have used as evidence to support your
argument in your assignment. You must cite when:
• you quote someone else in exactly the same words
• you summarise someone else’s ideas
• you paraphrase someone else’s ideas
• you copy or reproduce information or data (such as a picture, a table or statistics). (See also p. 5 of Cite and Study
Smart module 4.5 for more information www.studysmart.library.qut.edu.au/module4/4_5/)

Conclusion
The end of your assignment, which should repeat the topic, summarise the structure and restate the thesis statement of
your essay. (See also p. 25.)

Critical
To be critical in an academic context does not mean being negative. It means to consider an idea, a reading, a website or a
solution to a problem, examine all the different aspects, and then evaluate how good the information or idea is in terms of its
purpose. A critical analysis may include some positive as well as negative points. (See also p. 30.)

Evidence
Evidence is a piece of information that supports a conclusion. Evidence for academic assignments comes from research
in authoritative books, journals, websites and other sources. It may take the form of quotes from experts, data from
experiments, statistics, pictures, graphs and tables.

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 19
 Introduction
The beginning of your essay should introduce the topic, state the thesis and outline the structure of the essay.
(See also p. 23.)

Paraphrase
This involves expressing the same meaning as a text using different words from the original. Paraphrased text should be
referenced. (See also p. 9.)

Peer reviewed (scholarly) article

A peer reviewed article is information written by an academic or expert in the field or discipline that has been reviewed by
her/his peers to ensure that it has been properly researched and developed.

Person
Person refers to the perspective of the writing, and the writer’s ‘voice’.
• First person refers to the writer. This style of writing uses the pronouns I, me, myself, my, mine, we, us, ourselves,
our and ours. You might use this style when you are writing a reflection, or a report on an experiment where you are
required to present information from a subjective or personal viewpoint.
• Second person refers to the one being spoken to, using the pronouns you, yourself, your and yours. You might use
this style when you are writing a review on someone else’s work, production or presentation.
• Third person refers to the one being spoken about, and uses the pronouns he, she, it, him, her, himself, herself,
his, hers, its, they, them, themselves, their and theirs. This style is used to present information from an objective or
detached viewpoint.

Most academic writing uses third person, however there are exceptions. Seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you
are unsure.

Point of view
In assignments, you are often asked to defend your point of view or develop your argument relating to your topic. This does
not mean that you are expected to write your personal feelings about the topic. In academic terms, developing a point of
view or argument means to research the evidence known on that topic and develop and present your conclusions based
on the evidence. Your personal ideas are not considered relevant in this context.

Reference
A reference is when you give detailed information­—such as author, date, title and publishing details—about a source used
in your work. A reference list usually appears at the end of your assignment. (See also p. 10.)

Research
For undergraduates, to research a topic means to write your assignment based on knowledge that has already been
investigated, reviewed and accepted by the academics in your professional field. This knowledge is found in academic
books, journals and other sources that are considered authoritative or scholarly.

20 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Scope
Scope refers to how widely a topic is covered in an essay and is dependent on the word length of the assignment, with
longer essays expected to cover the topic in more depth. Also, the scope reflects the extent to which the evidence can
justify your argument. For example, if all your evidence is related to Australia, you can argue that your point of view may be
relevant in Australia, but you cannot argue that it can be generalised to all the countries of the world.

Thesis statement
This is the most important sentence in the introduction. It is often the main sentence in the introduction and indicates
your point of view (position or argument) on a topic. The thesis statement should be a direct answer or response to your
assignment question or task.

Word limit
The word limit provides you with a guide as to how much work you are expected to present in your assignment.
If you have exceeded your word limit, reread and remove any unnecessary language. If you have not reached your word
limit you might need to broaden your research. Always read the assignment instructions to make sure you understand the
expectations—for example, if it specifically states ‘no more than 500 words’ then do not go over that limit or you may be
penalised in the marking.
There are variations as to what is included in the word count. Appendices, abstracts, executive summaries and reference
lists are not usually counted as part of the word limit. Quotations in the body of your paper are usually counted. A margin
of 10 per cent over or under the word length is often acceptable. Always seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor on
these variations.

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 Academic writing structure
Academic writing structure is the format used to clearly express the ideas that you develop based on your research. It may
take many forms such as essays, reports, literature reviews, annotated bibliographies or reflective journals.
This section focuses on essay writing as this is the foundation of all writing at university. An essay is composed of an
introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.

For more information on structure for other writing genres go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au

Overview
The essay structure can be seen as a diamond with the introduction and conclusion at the top and bottom and the body
paragraphs fitting into the middle of the diamond in a series of smaller diamond shapes.

Introduction Introduces the topic

States the thesis
Outlines the essay
structure

Body Topic sentence:

Introduces
paragraphs paragraph topic
Evidence
sentences:
Diamond Provide Diamond
reasons and
shape of evidence that shape of
whole support the each body
topic sentence
essay paragraph
Concluding
sentence:
Summarises
paragraph
Conclusion
Repeats the topic
Summarises the
essay structure
Restates the thesis

This shape may need to be modified depending on the aspects you need to cover in your task. For example, you may have
fewer or more than the four body paragraphs, or the assignment may have separate sections.
It is essential that you check your unit details on QUT Blackboard or ask your lecturer or tutor for clear instructions about
how to structure your assignment.

Note: Before you start researching and writing your assignment it is important that you understand what the question is asking
you to do. For more information on assignment tasks refer to p. 28: Task words commonly used in essay questions.

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Introduction
An introduction is a map for your reader and should be approximately 10 per cent of the total word count of your essay.
An introduction should:
1. Reword the assignment topic to set the context of the essay.
2. Provide background information on the topic. This may include definitions of any important terms and the scope
defining the limits of what you will discuss in the essay.
3. State your thesis. This is the main point of your essay. The thesis statement is usually the answer to the question or
main response to the task.
4. Outline the main points of the essay that back up your thesis statement. These should be listed in the order in which
they are addressed in the essay.

Example of an introduction
The assignment question

Tourism is the third largest industry in Australia in terms of contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Much of
its success is due to Australia’s unique geography. Analyse the geographical factors that both contribute to and hinder the
success of tourism in Australia.

Introductory paragraph

Paragraph
Purpose Example
element

1. Topic The first sentence should introduce the topic—in Australia’s tourism industry contributes 3.9 per cent
introduction this case the success of Australia’s tourism industry. of the country’s gross domestic product and
It should reflect the first sentence of the question to Australia has been in the top ten of most desirable
set the context for your response. places to go on holiday 2000–2004 (Department of
Resources, Energy and Tourism (RET), 2009).

2. Background This outlines the main factors involved in this There are many reasons for this success but two
information discussion about Australian geography and tourism major factors are Australia’s distinctive geography,
success. The scope of the essay will only cover particularly its unusual landforms (Georgiou,
these factors. They are landforms, flora and fauna 2007) and unique flora and fauna (Zeehan, 2008).
and Australia’s distance from other parts of the However, a complication for the success of
world. Australian tourism is the tyranny of distance and the
high costs involved for travellers, particularly those
from the Northern hemisphere (Proctor & Thomas,
2004).

3. Thesis This next sentence is the main point of the essay. It will be argued that although logistical concerns
statement It defines the relationship between these geographic warrant consideration, the value of the unique
factors and tourism success by stating how and to geography and wildlife outweigh the difficulties of
what extent these factors influence tourist numbers. Australia’s remote location.
This statement is the main response to the
assignment task outlined in the last sentence of
the question.

4. E
 ssay outline This needs to be a summary of the main points In this essay the role of these three geographic
of your essay in the order in which they will be factors—landscape, wildlife and distance—will
addressed in the body paragraphs. be analysed.

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 Body paragraphs
These paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay. They outline the points that link the main idea of the thesis to the
evidence found in your research.
Each paragraph (or group of paragraphs) should:
1. Start with a topic sentence that links the point of the paragraph with the main thesis statement of your essay.
2. Provide extra information to clarify or define terms or ideas related to this topic.
3. Cite evidence from your research to support the point you are making.
4. End with a concluding sentence that links the paragraph back to the main thesis or on to the next paragraph.

Example of a body paragraph

This paragraph supports the third point made in the essay previously outlined.

Paragraph
Purpose Example
element

1. Topic This sentence starts by referring to the Australia’s geography accounts for much of its success as
sentence thesis that Australia’s geography accounts a tourist destination, yet it is also one of the most remote
for much of its tourism success. However, countries on earth.
it continues to include the main point of
this paragraph, which is that one aspect
of Australia’s geography, its remoteness,
reduces that success.

2. Additional This explains further the point made in the Both the proximity and the availability of other competing
information topic sentence. destinations put pressure on the Australian tourism industry.

3. Evidence These are essential to justify your point. Overseas visitors take an average of 17 hours to reach
sentences Your evidence comes from your research Australia, twice as long as travel to other geographically
and may include examples, data, quotes, unique locations (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). Physical
statistics, graphics and illustrations. landmarks such as The Grand Canyon, Mount Fuji and
All supporting evidence must be from the Amazon Rainforest are all more accessible than Uluru
authoritative sources and correctly cited in for the majority of world travellers (Proctor & Thomas,
your essay. 2004). Wildlife tourism such as in Tanzania and Kenya or
the biodiversity of Costa Rica provide travellers cheaper
experiences than visiting Australia (Proctor & Thomas,
2004). Also, international zoos frequently enable people to
see Australian wildlife without leaving their home countries
(Proctor & Thomas, 2004).

4. Concluding Again, this sentence links the main thesis It is likely that Australia misses out on potential tourism
sentence of the essay with the main point of the dollars due to physical separation from world population
paragraph. hubs.

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Conclusion
The conclusion is similar to the introduction except that the elements are placed in a different order.
A conclusion should:
1. Restate the topic by paraphrasing the question.
2. Sum up the main points made in your essay.
3. Link these back to the thesis statement that is the main point of your essay.

Example of a conclusion
This is the conclusion of the example essay above.

Paragraph
Purpose Example
element

1. Topic This paraphrases the language of Australia’s abundant and unique geographical features
restatement the question. make it a very desirable tourist destination.

2. Summary of Include a brief summary of the main points in Tourists visit Australia for its incredible landforms, beaches
main points your essay. These should be in the order in and rainforests. They are captivated by Australia’s distinctive
which they were addressed. wildlife both in the wild and within zoological gardens.
While it is true that Australia is one of the more remote
tourist locations on earth, this distance offers an additional
component to a traveller’s experience and sense of
adventure.

3. Thesis Link these points back to the main thesis Australia’s tourism benefits from geographic features, both
restatement statement made in your introduction. geological and ecological, that set it apart from any other
destination on earth. The distance from other countries
mostly enhances the unique travelling experience offered by
the land ‘Down Under’.

For an example of a completed essay go to ‘Writing Structure Overview’ in the Writing section
of studywell.library.qut.edu.au

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 Linking it all together
As well as structuring each individual paragraph in the body of your essay, you need to ensure that there is a logical flow to
your essay.
This is done by using transition signals, which are words and phrases that show the relationship between the information
of one paragraph and the information of the next. These transition signals are mostly found in the topic and concluding
sentences of the paragraphs.

Useful linking words and phrases (transitions)

Continuing an idea or introducing another idea Showing cause and effect

In addition … Consequently … Following … In response …

Similarly … Because … Therefore … As a result of ...
Furthermore … Also … For this reason … The result …
Continuing this idea … In the same way … Thus ... Due to this ...
Pursuing this further … Moreover … Consequently ... The reaction …
Additionally … Clearly then …

Providing a contrasting or alternative view Showing sequence or time relationship

On the other hand … While … Firstly … Then …

Or … In contrast … After … Finally …
Yet … Nonetheless … Later … In the meantime …
In opposition to … Even though … Sometime … Next …
Whereas … Contrary to these findings … Thereafter … Eventually …
Unlike the previous In spite of … Secondly … Soon …
example … Despite these findings … As soon as … In the first place …
Instead … Meanwhile … Afterwards …
Although … Presently …
However …

Restating a point or giving an example

In other words … To demonstrate … For example … One such occurrence …

For instance ... Specifically … To illustrate … Also ...

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Useful words for integrating evidence
In addition to ensuring logical flow in your writing, it is important to incorporate evidence from academic sources to support your arguments.
Example

According to Proctor and Thomas (2004),

it is Australia’s isolation that is a key factor in
tourists’ decision making.

Example

Harris disputes this argument, noting

that “ . . .” (2009).

Example

Proctor and Thomas’ (2004) rationale is

supported by Brown and Clark (2012)
who state that . . .

Useful words for integrating Useful words for integrating Useful words for integrating
references and quotes into your additional sources into your work additional sources into your work
assignments to agree with existing evidence to refute existing evidence

Articulates Demonstrates Affirms Argues

Asserts Explains Corroborates Challenges

Claims Hypothesises Supports Contradicts

Comments Observes Substantiates Contrasts

Indicates Predicts Verifies Debates

Reports Reasons Disputes

States Doubts

Suggests Rejects

Refutes

Opposes

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 Task words commonly used in essay questions

Account for • Explain why something has occurred.

Analyse • Take apart a concept or statement in order to consider its elements.

• Answers should be very methodical and logically organised.

Argue • An argument means to clarify, prove or accuse (see Critical thinking, p. 30).
• You must have a particular point of view supported by evidence from reliable sources.

Assess • This requires a judgement about an idea or subject.

• You may need to state whether the idea or subject being discussed is valuable or relevant after
acknowledging points for and against it.
• Your judgement should be influenced by other authors’ views as well as your own opinion (similar
to Evaluate).

Comment on • State your opinion on a topic or idea.

• You may explain the topic or idea more fully.
• Your opinion must be supported by evidence from reliable sources.

Compare and • Requires a balanced answer that sets items side by side and shows their similarities and
contrast differences.

Contrast • Requires an answer that points out only the differences between two or more topics.

Critically • Often used in conjunction with other directive words, such as critically discuss, critically examine or
critically analyse.
• It does not mean criticise.
• Requires a balanced answer that points out mistakes or weaknesses and indicates any favourable
aspects of the subject of the question.
• The decision or overall judgement you make must be supported with evidence from reliable sources.

Define • Requires an answer that explains the precise meaning of a concept.

• A definition answer will include a discussion of a concept and may also state the limits of a
concept.

Describe • Requires you to identify and outline the attributes or characteristics of a subject.

Differentiate • See Contrast.

Discuss • Explain the item or concept, and then give details about it with supporting information, examples,
points for and against, plus explanations for the facts put forward from various points of view.
• This can be one of the most difficult types of essay question.

Enumerate • Requires you to list or specify and describe items or ideas one by one.

Evaluate • See Assess.

Examine • Requires you to investigate a topic thoroughly.

Explain • Offer a detailed and exact rationale behind an idea or principle, or a set of reasons for a situation
or attitude.
• The explanation should increase the reader’s understanding of a topic or idea.

Explore • See Examine.

Generate • This often requires you to come up with new ideas or interpretations on a subject.

Hypothesise • A hypothesis is a theory regarding particular occurrences. You confirm hypotheses through testing.
• Suggest the reasons for and processes by which something has occurred.

28 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Illustrate/ • Requires an answer that consists mainly of examples to demonstrate or prove the subject of the
demonstrate question.
• It is often accompanied with further instructions.

Interpret • Very similar to Explain.

• Describe what your subject means.
• Examine the key components of a topic or idea and evaluate it.

Investigate • Research, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject.

Justify • Give only the reasons for a position or argument.

• The proposition to be argued may be a negative one.
• It should convince the reader of your point of view.

Outline • Summarise information about a subject.

• Only the main points and not the details should be included.
• Questions of this type often require short answers.

Prove/disprove • Both of these require answers that demonstrate the logical arguments and evidence connected
with a proposition.
• Prove requires the points ‘for’, and disprove requires the points ‘against’.

Relate (relationship) • Make links or connections between two or more ideas, and show how these ideas are associated,
as well as the nature of the relationship.

Review • Analyse, criticise and comment on the main ideas of a topic.

State • Requires an answer that expresses the relevant points briefly and clearly, without lengthy discussion
or minor details.

Summarise • See Outline.

Trace • This is frequently used in historical questions (but not only in History courses).
• Requires a statement and brief description—in logical order—of the stages in the development of a
theory, a person’s life, a process, etc.

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Critical thinking
Critical thinking is a questioning process that is central to writing, reading and thinking at university.
Critical thinking is required when an assignment asks you to:

Analyse Argue Assess Justify

Criticise Evaluate Examine Prove

Explore Interpret Disprove

Critical thinking is a skill used to develop new knowledge or understanding about a subject. When you are asked to ‘be critical’, this
means you need to question the arguments being made, either by yourself in your own writing, or by others in your readings. The
following are options to consider when thinking critically.

Consider strengths
and weaknesses
of the argument

Relate theory Question

to your field Critical thinking and evaluate
of practice the evidence

Consider
alternatives

30 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Critical thinking model
Improve your critical thinking by separating the thoughts you wish to convey in your writing into three sections.
This enhances clarity for your reader.

Claim = What?
What is the main point or thesis you
want to convey to your audience?
To address your assessment task adequately,
you need a series of logical arguments
or reasons to support this main point.

Your
assessment
task

Evidence = How?
How will you support Relevance = Why?
your claim (main points) How does this evidence
with research? support your claim?
This may include authoritative books,
journals, data and statistics.

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 Critical thinking model: example

Claim = What?
Australia’s isolation
is attractive.

The impact
of geography
on Australian
tourism

Relevance = Why?
• Landmarks such as The Grand Canyon, Mount
Fuji and the Amazon Rainforest are all more
accessible than Uluru for the majority of world
Evidence = How? travellers (Proctor & Thomas, 2004, p. 36).
Tourists are willing to pay extra to • Thus, even though Australia appears to present
experience a sense of adventure a physical obstacle, tourists compensate by
and distance from their normal lives allocating more of their vacation budget to have
(Georgiou, 2007, p. 30). a unique experience (Georgiou, 2007, p. 30).

Remember these critical thinking elements from p. 30:

Consider strengths
and weaknesses
of the argument

Relate theory Question

to your field Critical thinking and evaluate
of practice the evidence

Consider
alternatives

When:
• reading and selecting evidence
• explaining the relevance of your evidence to your claim.

32 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
 Critical
thinking Purpose Example
element

1. Claim The claim is the argument you want your It will be argued that although logistical concerns
audience to accept. You summarise your warrant consideration, the value of the unique
argument in the thesis statement of an essay. geography and wildlife outweigh the difficulties of
Australia’s remote location as a tourist destination.

2. Data Data is the evidence that supports your claim. Australia’s Tourism Commissioner states that
You should source data from academic sources 87 per cent of tourists (2000–2004) cited
such as peer reviewed articles, government extraordinary natural phenomena as a significant
publications or other types approved by your motivating reason for their visit to Australia
lecturer and available via the library. (RET, 2009).
A study with Australia Post found postcards
featuring Australian animals were sent overseas
more frequently than all other postcard types
combined (Zeehan, 2008, p. 52).
... tourists often cite remoteness as a positive
reason to travel to Australia. A British backpacker
claims that he, ‘came to Perth because it was the
most isolated city on earth’ (Georgiou, 2007, p. 30).

3. Warrant Warrant is what explains why the data supports What people say actually influences what they do.
the claim. International postcards are most frequently sent by
Thinking about warrant can improve your tourists.
argument, helping you to avoid simplistic or The experience of a British backpacker is
invalid thinking. representative of tourists more broadly.
Sometimes you need to explain your warrant
explicitly in your essay, or sometimes it can be
assumed depending on your reader.

4. Backing Backing is the principle or underlying authority 87 per cent is a statistically significant number of
that grounds the warrant. tourists.
Backing can be a rule, theory, law or fact that Tourists do not choose their postcards randomly.
persuades your audience to accept that the Tourists chose their postcards based on their own
warrant is reasonable. preferences, rather than the preferences of the
Just like warrant, backing can be part of your people they are sending the postcard to.
critical thinking process and may or may not end Backpackers spend 68 per cent of total tourist
up explicitly discussed in your essay. dollars in Australia.

5. Rebuttal Rebuttal is any evidence that counts against the Overseas visitors take an average of 17 hours to
data, warrant or backing of an argument. reach Australia, twice as long as travel to other
geographically unique locations (Proctor & Thomas,
2004, p. 35).

6. Qualifier A qualifier is used to alter the strength of a claim. While it is true that Australia is one of the more
remote tourist locations on earth, this distance offers
an additional component to a traveller’s experience
and sense of adventure.

Use the critical thinking elements to:

• Summarise the argument structure of an author.
• Evaluate the claims made by an author.
• Structure your own assignment.
• Assess your own assignment for logical weaknesses.

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 cite|write
TEMPLATES
Templates to use
when studying for
your assignments:
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Referencing and notetaking template
First, record all the important reference details for the information sources you use for your study and assignment, such as books, book chapters,
journal articles and websites. Once you have these details, you can easily adapt the information to suit the referencing style you are required to use for your
assessment (QUT Harvard, QUT APA, QUT Numbered or QUT Legal).
Next, record extra details about those sources so that you can find the information again and recall particular facts or details about the information that
might assist you in your writing task. Note down keywords you used to find the information, and other details such as a call numbers or web addresses.
Then, use the lower section of the template to write notes from your reading and research, organising them into the three columns:
• 1st column: record themes or key ideas from your reading.
• 2nd column: record the page number that the key idea was on and some notes or a direct quote.
• 3rd column: record your own comments and questions about the key idea/s. This may be how you will use the idea in your assignment, or how this
idea relates to other ideas you have found in your research. Also, list new questions the idea raises that might need further clarification or investigation.
This column helps you to think critically about the information you are finding for your assignment.

cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au 37
Details Tip Your notes

WHO? Record the name of the person,

people or organisations that have
written, compiled or produced
the article, book, book chapter,
website, DVD, etc. These may
be authors, producers, editors,
directors, government bodies or
companies.

WHAT? Record the title of the information.

This might be a single title, such
as a book, government report or
Act, or you might need to record
two titles—e.g. a book title and
the title of a book chapter, or a
journal article title and the title of
the journal.

WHEN? Record the date the information

was published, released or
produced. For websites, this is
the date you visited the site and
retrieved the information. If there is
no date, make a note so you know
you have not forgotten this detail.

WHERE? Record the place the information

was published, released or
produced. For websites, this is the
site address of the information.

WHAT ELSE? Record other details that

you might need to use in your
referencing, citing and writing.
These might include page
numbers, volume and issue
numbers of journal articles, DOI
numbers and names of databases.

KEYWORDS Record key words and concepts

you used to find this information.
This will help you find the
information again or to search
for related information in other
sources.

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Extra notes:

Themes/key concepts Notes/quotes (and page numbers) Your comments, questions or new ideas

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Critical thinking template
Use this template to:
• Analyse the argument of an author.
• Evaluate the claims made by an author.
• Structure your own assignment.
• Edit your own assignment for reasoning weaknesses.

Claim = What?

Task

Evidence = How? Relevance = Why?

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NOTES:

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42 cite|write www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
 How to use QUT cite|write

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