ACCULTURATION THROUGH COLONIALISMAuthor(s): Khamarunnisa. K.

K
Source: Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , Vol. 77 (2016), pp. 727-734
Published by: Indian History Congress

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 ACCULTURATION THROUGH COLONIALISM:
EXCHANGE OF FOOD HABITS IN MALABAR

Khamarunnisa. K.K

Food is considered as an inescapable necessity that all humans and other

living organisms must have in order to survive. Food constitutes an important
element in determining cultural heritage of a society. It plays a major role in
public nature of a region. Human existence is impossible without food and
that makes food an integral part of human history. More than a matter of
mere existence, it constitutes a source for pleasure, sorrow, safety and security.
The questions like what to eat? , how to eat? , what to serve? , how to cook?
and how to serve? All these are related to their cultural heritage. Men migrate
not only in search for religion, political freedom, individual-family safety,
adventure but also for searching new tastes. The concept of food could
transform the economic system of a country.1 Culturally speaking, in essence,
what one eats defines who one is and is not.2
Food in Indian culture is not only a means of sustenance but a way
of life. It is possible to identify the ways in which food and eating reflect
society and culture. Firstly, in whole human societies there are many fold
cultural meanings and discourses surrounding food-food is a symbolic medium
par excellence. Secondly, food habits mark boundaries between social classes,
geographical regions, nations, culture, gender, life-cycle stages, religions and
occupations. They are used to distinguish rituals, traditions, festivals, seasons
and times of day. Thirdly, food structures the ‘personalities’, for example,
dietary habit are used to establish and symbolize control over one’s body.3 In
a cultural frame work, T.S. Elliot in his Notes towards the Definition of Culture
claims that one of the indicators of the culture of a nation is its proper and
particular cuisine.4 Thus, good food, high quality music and excellent books
are essential for man of culture.5 Food is one of the ways human defines
themselves as civilized. Identities like religion, nationality, and ethnicity are
intensely bounded up with food.6
People of Malabar have evolved a specific cuisine. Malabar cuisine is
combination of vegetables, non- vegetables and sea food. It is blend of
indigenous dishes as well as foreign dishes. Among indigenous the Syrian
Christians, Mappilas, Kerala Jews, and Hindu communities of Thiyyas, Nairs,
Nambudiry and other lower castes are marked by their own identity in Food
culture. The cuisine is linked in all its richness to history, geography,
demography and culture of land. In the formation of food culture of Malabar
its geography had played very crucial role. From ancient times men of different

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728 IHC: Proceedings, 77th Session, 2016

faith and cultures settled in Kerala. Merchants from Arab world, Greece,
Rome, had contributed their share towards food culture of Malabar. Tamil
influence could be seen behind popularity of sambar, idli and dosa. European
influence is reflected in numerous bakeries, selling cakes, cream horn and
bread. The introduction of potato, tomato and chilli from Latin America also
became part of our taste. The vegetables like carrot, cauliflower, cabbage and
fruits like apple, pine apple, guava, etc are contribution of Europeans. Recently,
the migration to gulf from 1970s onwards has further brought a dramatic
change in tastes and cuisine of Malabar. The present paper tries to understand
impact of colonialism on food culture of Malabar not only in food items but
also in foodways.
European colonialism had made its impact on various aspect of culture
in Malabar including food. Colonialism has brought about a bilateral exchange
of foods: the import of staple products and other food stuffs from the colonized
to the colonizing countries and vice versa. In this developmental perspective
on food Goody Jack considers this as an example of development of ‘world
cuisine’. The course of the development of ‘world cuisine’ may be conceived
in terms of three phases in world history.7 The first is the geographical
discoveries and the founding of the new world consisting of the United States,
Canada, and Australia. These places were melting pots made of people from
diverse places on earth. People migrated here with their food items and cuisine.8
The second is the phase of industrial revolution facilitating colonialism and
empire building. With this phase the possibilities for exchange of people and
foods were enormously enhanced. After the Second World War, the third
phase, the colonial empires slowly crumbled away. With this the process of
migration did not come to an end. On the contrary, new waves of migration
and flow of people in the form of tours and travels took place and continue to
take place.9 He concludes with an examination of the worldwide rise of
‘industrial food’ and its impact on Third World societies, showing that the
ability of the latter to resist cultural domination in food, as in other things, is
related to the nature of their pre-existing socio-economic structures.10
These processes of colonization, decolonization and migration have
had implications for introduction of new food items and food ways. At least
for Malabar these changes have implications for evolution of unique culinary
practices, which are almost absent in other parts of India. Adding to
geographical location of this part of the subcontinent introduced several new
food and fruit varieties. The Portuguese brought goods to India for their own
consumption, or as a part of their trade. The carried them to other areas in
Asia. Food products and recipes came from such far places as Brazil. From
the routes discovered by the Portuguese came a host of plants/roots producing
fruits and vegetables never seen or heard before such as potato, tomato,

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 Modern India 729

chew nut, pimento, papaya, passion fruit, pumpkin, pineapple and guava.11
According to Nandakumar Kamat, a Botanist “Portuguese imported about
300 species of useful plants to India, and Goa was her chief emporium, For
example, cashew, chicko, papaya, and tobacco came to India through Goa.
Chilly came in via the Portuguese...as well as guavas and pineapples...Before
Vasco-da-Gama, India did not cultivate sweet potatoes, tapioca, tomatoes, or
pumpkins.”12
One of the seminal contributions of colonialist to Malabar food
culture is their chilli. The origin of chilli is believed to be as old as 7000 BC in
Mexico. Chillies were grown and cultivated from 3500 BC onwards. Mexicans
used it to spice up their food. Chilli was brought to the rest of the world by
Christopher Columbus. He had set from Spain to reach India to bring spices
such as pepper back to his country; Christopher not only mistook America
for India but also mistook chilli as black pepper. That is how chilli got the
name “chilli pepper”, He took the chilli pepper back to Spain where it became
a very famous spice. Chilli spread to the rest of the European countries. Chilli
became indispensable spice in European cuisine. In 1498, Gama reached in
Indian shores with chilli. According to Borland” it was probably the very first
plant that was globalised”.13 Chilli found its ways in Ayurveda, according to
Ayurveda, chilli had many medicinal properties such as stimulating good
digestion and endorphins, natural pain killer to relieve pains. Today it is
unimaginable to think of Malabar cuisine without hot spice. There are more
than 4000 varieties of chillies all over the world, cheeramulaku/ cheeraparangi
is famous chilli in Malabar. With coming of chilli they avoid their hot spices of
ginger and pepper. There are a number of preparations in Malabar in the name
of chilli such as fishmulakittacurry, chikkenmulakittacurry,
mulakuchammanthy, mulakachar, etc. Every house hold kept some dry roasted
chilli instead of pepper and ginger, if need they pasted it with help of ammi.
Packed chilli powder came later. There was no caste or class variation in the
use of chilli.
Another major introduction of ediblesly Europeans in Malabar were
potato, tomato, French bean, sweat potato, tapioca, cashew nut, capsicum,
maize, rajmah, papaya and more recently, cheese and cocoa, so were pineapple,
guava, chiku, cauliflower, carrot, beetroot, cabbage and radish.14 Among
them the notable one was the tapioca. It was came from Brazil and was first
introduced in Kerala by Portuguese in Travancore. The Travancore Raja namely
Visakam Tirunal Maharaja also encouraged his people to cultivate tapioca as
best method to deal rice famine.15 He also suggested the British Govt. to
introduce the cultivation of Tapioca in Malabar. As a result, they made declaration
on it. An advertisement had been found in Malabar District Gazetteer of 1872
depleting how it is cultivated, prepared, and preserved.16 As result of the

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730 IHC: Proceedings, 77th Session, 2016

migration of Christian cultivators from Travencore to Malabar in the first half

of 20th centaury tapioca turned out to be as popular food item of Malabar.17
During this period Malabar began to enjoy the taste of atta and maida.
Moreover, wheat began to import to Malabar from America in the background
of famine. As a result, unique preparations like puri, paratta, etc became
inevitable part of food culture of this region.
Yet another unique contribution of colonialism on Malabar cuisine
was their tea and coffee. Coffee is one of the important drinks in the world.
The standard account of history of coffee is traced back to its origins in
Ethiopia.18 By the 17th century coffee is said to have reached India. Coffee in
India began its career as a beverage of Europeans.19 Drinking coffee became
popular in the beginning of 20th century in Malabar. In Malabar it is called
‘kappi’, It was first attracted by younger members of richer classes. The
newly emerged Middle class Malayali was brought coffee culture to culinary
culture of Malabar. Coffee and tea were becoming cultural markers, which
distinguished the ‘high’ and ‘low’. Drinking coffee came to be tied to a whole
range of cultural practices. Coffee became touch stone of hospitality around
1950s and 1960s. The habit of preparing coffee with cow milk came from
Tamil Brahmins to Malabar. In the period between 1950s and 1980s new
institution of ‘coffee house’ with small snacks sprang up in the towns of
Malabar. This ‘coffee houses’ were not only an eating joint but also place of
discussion in village. There were different kinds of kappi drink in Malabar.
They are Kattan kappi, Karuppettikappi, and Palkappi.
Like coffee, tea was also brought to Malabar by Europeans. People
of Malabar cannot imagine of a day without tea. Undoubtedly, the tea is not
traditional drink of them; people of Malabar first enjoyed the taste of tea in
17th century as part of colonization of India. It did not take root until well
into late 19th century when Indians began to consume it in significant numbers.
The late 19th and early 20th century drinking tea becomes an elixir of Malabar
society. They called it Kattanchaya. In the end of 19th centaury the old practice
of taking kanji/Pazamkanji in the early morning gave way to the tea drinking
along with beedi. It was first attracted by the younger members of richer
classes. Some once considered it as kuppikallu. But in course, it became
every one’s and every day drink. During this period ‘tea shops’ / chayamakkani
for lower caste people began to appear on road sides of Malabar. There were
three types of tea in Malabar – Kattanchaya, Muttachay, and Palchaya.
Another major addition to drinking habit of Malabar by Europeans
was the juice, until people of Malabar know about it. Unlike tea and coffee
popularization of juice did not take place during this period. The colonialist
not only determined what to eat! but also how to eat. The people of Malabar
used to take food by sitting cross legged on mats. However, this was replaced

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 Modern India 731

by sitting on stool. As a result of colonial acculturation a great change took

place in old eating habits. The new concept of Tiffin, snacks, evening tea and
bed coffee were born in Malabar culinary system during the colonial period.
During this period the fast food culture began to grow in cities like Bombay,
Calcutta and Madras,20 but that culture did not reach in Malabar.
Another memorable contribution of Europeans is bakeries, bread,
biscuit and cakes. The people of Malabar learnt many new things about cooking
from the British who employed many people especially Thiyyas as butlers,
servants and cooks. Being important urban centres, Kannur, Thalassery, were
home to a large number of Europeans, Who had to depend on domestic
servants to get western food. These servants entered the coloniser’s kitchen
and learned western recipes, which they tried at home too. So the servants,
the cooks and the butlers played a significant role in colonising the food
habits of the natives, which could be constructed as an act of passionate
collaboration.21 It was at Thalassery the first bakery in Kerala was started by
Mampally Bapu, a member of Mampally Thiyya Family. Unlike Kerala people,
Europeans mostly, preferred baked items. So many natives were trained in
baking. Mampally Bapu, who started biscuit company namely, Mampally Royal
Biscuit Factory in 1880, attracted foreigners with his sweet products. He
studied the taste of cakes from bakers of England and made biscuits and
bread with the help of his neighbours.22 It was on that very day a British
planter at Anjarakkandy Cinnamon Estate, Murdoch Brown came to Royal
biscuits with a cake in his hand and asked Bapu to make one like that. Apart
from learning about major ingredients in making cake from Brown, Bapu just
smelt it and guessed its compositions and ingredients. Thus is how Bapu
baked, it was India’s first cake.23 Sweets from the Mampally Bakery were
sent to Egypt and to the troops during the First World War. From Thalassery,
the bakery industries spread to other parts of Kerala. The Mampally family
itself branched out into places like Kozikkode, where Mampally Gopalan, son
of Mampally Bapu started a modern bakery in Kochi and Trivandrum. Relatives
of Mampally Gopalan, M.P. Karunakaran and Kanari started Cochi Bakery. In
1940’sKanari went to Trivandrum and started Santha Bakery.24 In 1920,
Nakkedi Achuthan started first bakery at Kannur, Malabar Bakery. This bakery
was set up primarily to provide bread, biscuits and cakes to British troops
who were stationed in Kannur.25
As a result of confluence of colonial food habits with native taste, a
new food culture arose in colonial Malabar. F. Fawcett mentions in his work
Nayars of Malabar that “even the Nambudiries, the most traditional among
different communities of Malabar, succumbed to these changes...the celebration
of sambandam ceremony at Calicut where there was a cake and wine for the
guests, and a ring for the bride”. K.R.Achuthan in his biography of C. Krishnan

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732 IHC: Proceedings, 77th Session, 2016

writes that Krishnan liked the European life style and food habits. Krishnan
had preferred cutlet for lunch.26
Another invaluable influence of colonialism on Malabar culinary culture
was that the modern educated middle class began to question restriction on
food and Brahmanical domination in feast and celebrations. The social reformist
raises their voice for inter-dining between different castes. As a result of the
efforts of this social reformist the caste variation in food culture began to
disappear. And also develop public sphere in culinary culture.
The first intercaste dining in Kerala started in 1914 Manjeri Rama
Iyer and two students belong to the Theosophical Society conducted interdining
festival. Yet another intercaste dining held in 21st April 1917 as a part of
Second Malabar District Convention held at Kozikkode Annie Hall. Raichan
Moopan, C. Krishnan, K. Madhavan, etc were participated in this dining.
Inspirated this particular event many people organised similar dining festivals
in villages and cities. Another well known inter caste dining also conducted in
Cherayi in 29th May 1917 under the great leadership of Sahodaran Ayyappan.
C.V. Achutha Menon conducted an inter caste dining at his home on 1918 in
Thiruvananthapuram, as part of his son’s birth day.27 Some other Ezava youth
under the leadership of Thalasseri Achuthan organized a similar function at
Peringottukara.28 The news of inter dining inspired some young men of
Ochanthuruth in Vaipin Island to organize another misrabojanam under the
leadership of M.K. Narayanan. P.K. Deevar and his wife, Kannathodathu
Velayudha Menon and other a few lower caste people also participated in this
movement.29 E.K. Chami gave the leadership for inter dining ceremony at
Palakkad. Another one was held at Karimpadath under the banner of
Ezhavodayam. At Kayikkara, Ayyappan organized inter dining programme.
An interdining gathering was held at Alleppey under the initiative of Ezhava
Yuva Jana Samajam. In Calicut, under the auspices of Theosophical Society
inter dining became common affair. Sri Ramakrishna Mission also encouraged
inter dining. In their Ashramam at Harippad the members of high caste
untouchables took food in common gathering. The inter caste dining conducted
under the auspices of Atmavidyasangham at Azhikode south in 1927 was the
notable inter dining which much attention and participation of people
irrespective of caste and religion.30 Another exponent of inter caste dining was
Ananda Shenoy, one day he brought two Harijan children into his house and
demanded his mother to give them food. The Jatinasinisabha conducted a
number of inter dining in different part of Kerala under the leadership of T.R.
Krishnaswami Iyyer and K. Kelappan in which Brahmins, Nairs, Ezhavas,
Cheruman, Panars and other dined together. Leaders like Mrs. Sarojini Naidu,
C. Rajagopalajari and Devadas Gandhi also participated in the inter dining;
they shared food with Parayas and Nayadis on 1923 in Palakkad. As a part of

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 Modern India 733

inter dining movement the reformers began to rise their voice against
discrimination in temple dining hall. One among such persons was Anand
Theerthan, who stood for opening the dining hall of Guruvayur temple to all
devotees.31
In short, colonisation of Malabar in 15th century paved the way for
introduction of revolutionary changes in culinary culture. It not only brought
a number of vide varieties of vegetables and fruits but also it transformed
methods, time, concepts, habits and approaches towards food. The coming
of modernity marked a new phase in the annals of culinary system of Malabar.

NOTES AND REFERENCES:

1. M. Shilu Jas,’ Malabar Bhakshanaperuma’ in Dr. P.B. Saleem (ed.), et. al,
Malabar Paithrakavum Prathabavum (mal), Mathrubhumi, Kozhikode,
2011.p.585.
2. Gina M. Almerica,’ Food and Identity: Food Studies, Cultural, and Personal
identity’, in Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies, vol-8,2014,
p.5
3. Gonsalves, Food and Foodways in Transition: A Socio-Cultural Study on
Domestic Dinning in Goa (Ph.D), Goa University, 2014, p .5.
4. T.S. Elliot, Notes towards the Definition of Culture, London, Faber, 1948,
p.27.
5. Sheil Lahiri Choudhury, ‘Good Food Culture in India: A Society of Flavours’,
in Supriya Choudhari and Rimi B. Chatterjee (ed.), The Writer’s Feast: Food
and Cultural Representation, Orient Blackswan, New Delhi, 2011,p.9.
6. Gonsalves, Op. cit., p .10.
7. Goody, Jack, Cooking, Cuisine, and Class: A Study of in Comparative
Sociology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.130
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Gonsalves, Op. cit., p .10.
12. Quoted in Coelho, George, V., Sen., Promina, Coelho. 2001. ‘Cooking
the Goan Way: Indo-Portuguese Culinary Arts’, in Jose Pereira and Pratapaditya
Pal (eds.), India Portugal: Cultural Relations. Marg Publications, Mumbai,
p .149.
13. Jodi Ettenberg, A Brief History of Chili Peppers, December 10, 2015.p.1.
14. Ashis Nandy, ‘The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary
Notes’, South Asian Research, New Delhi, Sage Publication, Vol 24 NO1 May
2004, P.3.

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734 IHC: Proceedings, 77th Session, 2016

15. S.A. Rahman(ed.), The Beautiful India: Kerala, Reference Press, New
Delhi, 2005, p.10.
16. T.P. Seluraj, Ennelekalile Kozikkode (mal), Mathrubumi, Kozhikkode,
2015, pp.302-303.
17. Dr. Jhon Ochenthuruth,’ Malabarilekkulla Christian Karshaka Koodiyettam’
in Dr. P. B. Saleem (ed.), et. al, Malabar Paithrakavum Prathabavum (mal),
Mathrubhumi, Kozhikode, 2011, p.251.
18. A. R. Venkatachalapathy, In Those Day There Was No Coffee, yoda press,
New Delhi, 2006, p.9.
19. Ibid.
20. Ashis Nandy, op. cit, p. 3.
21. Sheeja, P.C, The Last Phase of Colonialism in North Malabar: Socio-
cultural Transformation, (Ph.D), University of Calicut, 2014, pp.167-68.
22. Ibid., pp. 167-68.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Dr. P. Shivadasan, ‘Navakeralam Srishticha Misrabojanam’ (mal), in
Yuvadhara, Sep 2008, p. 20.
28. K.R.Achuthan,’ Sahodahar K.Ayyappane Kurichu Chila Smaranakal’, in
Sahodara Saptadhi, SABAC, Ernamkulam,1960, pp. 161-162.
29. Ibid.
30. Madhavan. M, Social Reform Movement in Malabar, (Ph.D), University
of Calicut, 2013, pp. 157-158.
31. Ibid., p. 179.

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