ARCHITECTURAL MEANING
Gy. HAJNOCZI
Institute of History and Theory of A.rchitecture,
Technical University, H·1521 Budapest
Received March 4, 1985
Summary
Architectural meaning arises from a definite relation between several different elements
of meaning, different intensities of activity, as general ones are easier to understand than more
concrete ones, but for recognizing reality, these latter are the more valuable. Architectural
elements of meaning - from the general to the concrete - are: Expression and meaning of the
huilding as a huilding - existential (1); formal features of the work aesthetical (2); function
of the work - functional (3); circumstances of origin historical-ideological (4).
Special literature of the history of architecture has been much concerned
with questions of content and form without unambiguously defining either
the content or the relation of both concepts, attributable to mechanical adop-
tion and application. While in literary and artistic works the two items are
clearly recognizable and distinct, in architecture their meaning becomes
blurred, or even in this restricted dualistic formulation they become practically
unfit to study the history and theory of architecture. The category pair of
subject and expression may be an adequate help to understand and explain
sculpture and painting, but insufficient for architecture, it being more
but also less than the former, since it is not only art as such: the building has
a function. Of course, other arts have functions, too - they are made use of -
but this use remains within the realm of arts, or better, they integrate life
by their aesthetic, ideological impacts rather than as objects, as a building
integrating life anyhow. Thus, a building is a "commodity" with a claim on
artistic expression - this Janus-faced phenomenon is nearly impossible to
interpret by the ready-made pair of concepts content and form. In the light
of the above, it seems justified to attempt defining architectural content and
architectural form as special, unusually interpreted concepts, delimiting and
extending them to cope with the double face of architecture.
Preliminary to the analysis - aspiring to succeed but not convinced of
a safe solution - let us tackle the terminology, in particular, the term
"content" as used in architecture (and fine arts).
72 GY. HAJNOCZI
The term "content" has a tint disturbing its meaning. For instance. the
expression "content of form" raises the feeling - to be trivial - as if a prc-
existing form were stuffed ,,,ith something to make it what it is, rather disturb-
ing in architecture where effective "content" is due to spatiality. Besides,
the essential momentum of the concept - its activity - gets lost. "Content"
has something passive in it, hinting to immobility, although it refers to any-
thing that essentially contains action and effect, hence to motion. So it seems
more correct to speak of the meaning of form, a term integrating everything
that is artificially distinguished - in spite of the unity of the two, stated
to be a condition - rather than to try to find their dividing line. Let us con-
vene that form has no content but means something, of course not only
a single thing and in the same manner - just a possibility for analysis in the
specially interested field of architecture.
Motion, dynamics, even the continuous effectiveness of meanings of
form are confirmed already by the property of the meaning to "embrace"
the form chronologically, preceding it in time, but after realization, taking
shape, to track it. This fact becomes obvious from confronting actions pro-
ducing the structure: design, construction, - ,,,ith looking at, and appre-
ciating the completed work. Confrontation at the same time delimits the range
of action and effectiveness of the meaning.
The designing architect obtains beforehand a number of contentual
momentums of his work, to be before concretizing the material, the ideological
and artistic demands concerning the building material, through the screen
of his attitude and creativity determined by his age. Thus, realization is anti-
cipated by momentums of meaning to be embodied in material possibilities
and formal demands, rooted in the requirements of society, and in the architect
himself. This does not mean, of course, that "ideas" of the building are realized
by sticking to the idealist dualism of content and form, but that the work,
even 'when shapeless, is based on a widely undulating, rather than stahle
ground of meanings a priori impossible to be all crammed into the form.
Although these momentums become a perceptible reality in the archi-
tectural 'work executed in its formal appearance, construction circumstances,
restrictions of materials, the fight for an artistic expression even 'with
a work of art - willy-nilly modify the original momentums of meaning,
making understanding of the form a complex problem even the instant it
arises. With increasing time distance, - looking at works from past ages -
the difficulties to spontaneously understanding the form increase. Also a per-
fect interpretation is impossible because of the inaccessibility of form-borne
but hidden elements of meaning. Essentials of the society producing the
creation are known but not everything is manifest; for instance, the applied
structure is understood but not why it has been applied, in spite of the avail-
ability of another structure more convenient for the problem; details of the
ARCHITECTURAL 1..fEANING 73
huilding emerging this moment did not jump to the eye for centuries; the
architect known only hy his name has long deceased, his workshop secrets
cannot he disclosed, etc. All these are meant to illustrate the rich flow of
meaning, evoking and then interpreting the form, and how the elements of
meaning universally known at the time of origin of the work get blurred with
time and forgotten, how often the most valuahle momentums of the past
hecome undecipherahlc due to theoretically complete, practically finitc
cognizahility.
The ahovesaid refers also to fine arts, not to architecture alone. A great
many sculptures and pictures represent unknown suhjects ulteriorly assigned
to hy the history of art merely as a mark or a reference to meaning.
Let us consider now the specificity of architecture, one of its twofold
faces.
At first, it seems a simple statement that an integer architectural creation
as an organism has a meaning, hut also huilding parts, details have their own.
A differentiation of meanings produces a peculiar architectural orchestration:
simultaneous homophony and heterophony "within a huilding, hence - without
expounding the occurring concepts - "ideology", the idea of the huilding
as a whole may he reflected in some detail, while another kind of meaning
- e.g. functional - may differ hetween details and the whole. Even if in a
work of art the meaning of the whole may act as a common ordinator bet"ween
details, integrating ramifying elements, forms ,vith multiple meanings may
be detached from the complex they were necessarily parts of - according
to the academic concept of a work of art, - and if an element of meaning
hecomes overwhelming, they may he self-contained either undeformed or
deformed, or, detached from the original context, they may change thpir
organism.
A "imilar process is, of course, to he imagined in fine arts, in architecture
it is an attempt to understand the essentials of historical monument;::. a;: it
ahout helps to explain phenomena in the history of architecture, those of fMm
migration and form change.
Thus the theorem that the meaning of an architectural creation is not
a simple "concept" hut composed of different momentums is acceptable.
The complex of meaning has the peculiarity - or at least, tendency that
its elements are attached to, or interpreting, the form with a differing intensity.
The attachment, or hetter, radiation ability is not accidentally more intensive
or more weak hut it has a definite order from general to concrete. Elements
of meaning v.ith a rather general validity strictly adher to the form, the more
concrete ones do so less, hence ahstract elements of meaning are always
accessihle to anyhody, while more concrete ones are often concealed, ineffective
because of a limited recognizahility. On the other hand, concrete, single ele-
ments are the most efficient and valuahle in approximating and reflecting
74 G Y. HAJ!WJCZI
truth; poor radiation intensity, and at the same time, the depiction of truth,
in concrete elements is an inherent contradiction of content and form - from
the aspect of the onlooker desirous to understand - over and above the other
fundamental contradiction that architecture is twofold: both a commodity
and an art.
This dichotomy of architectural creations, activity and differentiation
of the meaning of architectonic forms, as well as different intensities and
tendencies of radiation ability underlies the decomposition of the complex of
meaning and definition of its elements. The content of the form is assumed to
comprise existence, aesthetics, functional and historical-ideological compo-
nents, in this order, from general to concrete. This analysis refers to both the
building and its details. For instance, the building of the Parliament by Imre
Steindl can be interpreted as a whole in respect to the discussed set of meanings,
and so can be its staircase, cupola hall, or even its arcades, columns, turrets,
one by one. This discussion refers to the meaning of the building as an organ-
ism, referring here and there to the expressivities of architectural details.
1. A meaning of existence of an architectural work is understood as
accepting the object as a building. This is the element ",ith the most general
meaning, identical at any time, anywhere, for anybody, distinguishing the
object from natural things and also from other man-made things, as a building,
not a mountain or a bridge.
This funny statement may incite one to wonder if a primitive question like
does a building seem a building is worth to be considered. Inherent functionality
of architecture justifies this ",ide interpretation of architectural creation, as
building spaces may have multiple uses, simply because of the artificial closed
space ",ithin the building. The refectory in the Milanese monastery Santa Maria
delle Grazie, containing Leonardo's Last Super, was an excellent stable for
horses of the occupying French army - as an extreme illustration. This train
of thought finally leads to the statement of the limitations in meaning of the
building. There are building forms hardly communicating more than existence
in this meaning, since in constructing it, the only problem arisen was useful-
ness, or because the attempt to formulate its function or underlying idea was
frustrated. These limitations of architectural meaning - irrespective of eva-
luation - are best apparent in buildings or building parts of different functions
but similar in form.
2. The next element of the meaning of building forms has been termed
aesthetic, it is the form itself according to the standard formulation, in the
pair of concepts content and form - paradoxically in this train of thought -
the formal meaning of the form. This element of meaning may comprise
categories of the mentally-sensationally developed form perception ability
of man, due, in final account, to nature itself, involving physiological and
psychical features of man. Categories of equilibrium, rhythm, consonance,
ARCIIITECTVRAL .\IEAXI.YG 75
dissonance, harmony, etc. would signify quite different phenomena in an
imaginary human condition assumed to have naturally developed in a different
way, - though we are what we are - hence these categories have been deter-
mined by our life process and tripa.rtition of our body; definite eye leveL
eye capacity, small lime particles in the ear, etc. - since times known.
Forms start speaking to an onlooker with form perception, they "begin
to mean something". Beyond trivial statements about impression, involving
extension, size, richness or roughness of the construction, deeper relationships:
proportions, coordination or subordination of the forms will be perceived,
form analogies emerge, etc., without needing to know the concrete function
of the building. Even from an aspect as sterile as this the building raises
a sensation even if built in times bygone so that many of its elements of meaning
remain hidden to us. Such a contact between the work and its onlooker may
arise at any time, its bases being rather general, and the aesthetic meaning is
never "worn off" the form. An evaluation as, e.g.: some building form is
depressive, overwbelming, or, on the contrary, attractive, elevating, remains
valid \vithin the wide limits of the history of arts. It may be considered con-
stant - of course, not absolutely, since also "aesthetics" has its history,
our sense of proportion is not the same as that of the Egyptians, etc. - as the
aesthetic meaning element is more abstract than are the consecutive ones,
and somehow it keeps its effectiveness in this sense or that of our aesthetics,
as against momentums becoming meaningless or mute.
One cause of the phenomenon of form migration already referred to is
exactly the more abstract aesthetic meaning, namely that aesthetics itself
may shift in form among means of expression of other ages, different arts.
On the other hand, form inevitably entrains the elements of meaning, too
(that may fade out but are not annihilated) trading its origin in the new sur-
rounding to the expert, or even may look dissonant with its "improper" saying,
resulting in formalism. This "unconscious formalism" is, however, not a fault
but only a mistake. Some consider the entire history of art a succession of
such mistakes, or even, these mistakes to impregnate the development. Of
course, the process of form migration may also be "initiated" by any other
but aesthetic element - with a similar result.
The abstractness of the aesthetic meaning of the form has a special posi-
tion in architecture, because of its limited expression possibilities, as men-
tioned. First, the greatest part of buildings and building parts are other than
descriptive, as against most fine-art objects. Architecture though applies by
far less abstract expressive means than generallybelieved, as architecture had
a strong imitative tendency both in primitive times, and later, hence also in
modern times. What is more, special, imitative architecture can be seen in
periods where there are important changes in structure or building materials,
and the new architecture acquired, in fact, part of its forms either from
76 GY. HAJNOCZI
outside - from nature, technology, crafts - or from its own past. In spite of
this, architecture is typically non-descriptive, and if some object or detail
was originally such, its form soon became conventionalized and its imita-
tiveness obliterated. Thus architectural forms and relations are left alone,
among them general relations as a system of proportion, a justification for
the expressiveness and effectiveness in itself of thc so-called aesthetical
meaning element may imprint other architectural periods.
Often the construction, gist of the building, has been unilaterally inter-
preted because of its aesthetical meaning; for instance, art historians other
than architects speak, instead of beam or vault systems, of architectonic forms
composed of straight and curved lines; what is more, in some periods, known
constructions suiting a given problem have been avoided from formal causes.
3. The third, functional component of the complex of meaning equals
content in its evcryday meaning: in relation to the whole it is function, genrc,
scope of the architectural work, comprising quite a number of minor parts
incumbent on building parts, elements with different functions. The functional
meaning is expected to let conclude on human activities accommodated by
the building looked at, for what it has been built,. how it copes or coped with
its function. The latter is easier, the former harder to meet by the architect,
because the mechanical satisfaction of demands, even the best solution, hardly
exceeds the professional skill and routine, the due formal expression of the
function, letting the building to "embody its purport" without any commentary
and explication, is a complex problem, having to do ",ith the essentials of
architecture as an art.
The demand for an artistic expression of the function has emerged long
ago in architecture, and has been realized in several works throughout the
history of architecture. Architecture in a work of art could be an art exactly
since it overrules practical needs - enriching rather than denying - making
use of the possibility of artistic expression, delivered, in turn, obviously by
the function itself. This problem could be never solved so as to disclose,
"declare" its function to everybody, at every time, to tell as soon as asked,
"I am more than a mere building, I am an office building, a church". This is
not due to the limitation of expressivity alone, as architectural restrictions do
not permit anything else but to let the form refer to the content, but to that the
functional meaning affects a sphere more restricted than before. It speaks the
language of a definite historical period, society, ethnic group, or plainly:
understanding the artistic expression of function assumes more concrete
knowledge than earlier, its range of radiation is narrower, while its intensity
- "with the decay of its fundaments - weakens "without fading off or dying
away, it being inherent as a component of the form. The Greek temple form
originally meant a temple only for the Greek, and so did it, duly trans-
formed for Christians - while within the defined sphere, when some problem
ARCHITECTURAL ,HEA1\-ING 77
matured its peculiar form, it became conventionalized, easing both artistic
expression and understanding. Nevertheless, several buildings are kno'wn in
the history of architecture the exact function of which cannot be reconstructed
because of the many concrete references by functional meaning.
The functional meaning of building parts and details is easier to under-
stand since they have a more general meaning than that of the organism:
primitive Christian basilicas incorporated cornices from different Antique
buildings without alteration, at places corresponding to their functions,
secondary application was permitted by their self-intended function. The
inverted building-in of an attic base as cornice, however - encountered in
mediaeval architecture - means a misunderstanding of the functional meaning,
form transfer may be due to formal (aesthetic) causes.
4. The most concrete momentum of meaning, of the greatest importance
for representing and understanding reality, is the historical-ideological one.
Both a historically concisely determined, and the more abstract aesthetic
functional meaning were seen to comprise historical elements - just as for
the indivisible content, sectioned here only to be relatable - thus, in fact
elements of meaning (including, in the final account, existential meaning)
are always "historical". There is, however, a range of the complex of expres-
sions, reaching far beyond the form, or rather, the form comprises meanings
not to be understood but through a thorough knowledge of history, society,
ideology, economy, technics, etc., thus indirectly, rather than directly, through
the form itself. Although the work willy-nilly comprises the attitude of society
to the world, to itself and to arts, although in addition to expressing the mechan-
ical function, the work represents the idea of the construction: its "spiritual
function", 'vith exact nuances setting it off among objects similar in form
and function - the form cannot tell itself for whom, for what, at what expense,
at what sacrifices and efforts the building arose; the building represents only
an instant of development - in spite of synthesising its past and future -
since in fact, it has only a present to be contacted. Thus, however valuable
these momentums of the architectural creation are, however truly they are
reflections of reality, - as fundamental causes of shaping - the historical-
ideological meaning of form is a function of historical "there" and "then"
to a degree that it cannot be fully understood spontaneously but only in
possession of a ramified knowledge involving a long chain of transmissions.
'*
Let us demonstrate correctness of this theory by a concrete example,
actually, that of the Parthenon, partly, since it is a well-known monument
and partly, since circumstances of its origin are known from the descriptions
of contemporaries.
78 G Y. HAJXOCZI
Evidence of an existential meaning is foHo'wed by quite a set of aesthet-
ical ones: the sculpturc likeness of the building, its sculptural position, land-
scape effect, perspicuity from any point of the environment; human dimensions
and elaboration of the smallest details to be perceptible to man: that is an
endeavour to an anthropocentric, humanistic expression involving optical
corrections etc., - without heing aware of it to be a temple, what is more,
a Greek temple, exactly thc Parthenon. Of course, even these meanings hint
to being Greek - essentially recapitulating the Greek architectural concept -
but it can be spontaneously felt without knowing ·why. Lnderstanding this
building as a temple, thus, its functional meaning, requires, however, some
knowledge of history of architecture, while it is still insufficient to understand
its idea: that of the open character of the Greek temple. that of the peripteros,
depends on the Greek divinity concept. It is the hall of gods descf'nding from
Olympic heights among men, an attractive, magnificent building for a god
incessantly wandering - remember Nike apteros ! - awaiting with arms wide
open the passer-by having left at some time, in some form, a celestial sign
of an encounter with his (her) protege.
Mentioning after all this, that this Greek temple differs from the others.
its ground plan is other than typical, and also details differ from the usual
ones, the Parthenon itself cannot be expected to disclose the causes. Only
history can give an aswer, namely that all these forms and deformations art'
due to a grandious effort of the Greek people at last to bring about national
unity, so much longed for, and to unite dispersed economic, religious, artistic
forces; but in vain: Parthenon is like a fully-blown flower that having devel-
oped anything available to this art, in full bloom already tends to wither.
With the important projects of the Acropolis, Pericles - as said by his ene-
mies - only wanted to create work opportunity for his workless seamen and
soldiers to delay an imminent catastrophe.
The difference of elements of meaning in the effectivenes could also be
illustrated by analysing architectural details such as cornices, columns, doors, etc.
Let us conclude, instead, with the extreme example of Erechtheion standing
on the Acropolis of Athens beside the Parthenon. Female figures of the prostasis
or Caryatids of the Erechtheion are spoken of as personifications of the column
function, i.e. supporting. This is true but stone lips of Korai do not speak
of the ideology of this personification: slavery and shame, that of the people
of Carya, traitors to the Hellenic cause, and allying Persans, punished for it
by letting their hetaeras walking the streets of Athens wearing their national
costumes, despised as renegades. This tradition relegated by Vitruvius is either
true or etymologized by himself, this example illustrates how rather unique
building parts like descriptive Caryatides have a limited power of expression.
let alone have abstract architectural forms.
Rather than to represent some artistic agnosticism or to make look
A.RCHITECTURAL JfEASE'iG 79
true understanding of architecture like a privilege of a restricted circle of an
aristocratic ally overdifferentiated culture, the above is merely attempting
to point out differences between features and effects of contentual moments
in the process of artistic cognizance. In reality, meanings do not become mani-
fest in the described rigid order but as flashes, here and there becomes some-
thing clear, due not only to the education of the onlooker but also to the indi-
visibility of contentual elements, permitting the artistic content of historical
works to be accessible, in spite of different expression intensities.
Those actually engaged in architecture need not consider many of the
enumerated moments in their creative work - because of the meaning preced-
ing form - they being self-intended in the consciousness of the surroundings,
society of the architect, his contemporaries - as against the aTt historian,
reconstructing rather than constTucting. But his cTeation can be aTt an inva-
riahle demand of man - only if he consideTs that he is expected not only
some sterile aesthetics, a mechanically peTfect function craftmanship -
or fOTmulation and expTession of generalized architectuTal statements hut an
artistic shaping of his project, in conformity with hinc et nunc concrete histor-
ical-social-national requirements.
Prof. Dr. Gyula HAJNOCZI H-1521 Budapest
