PROFESSIONAL STAGE V

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & CONSULTANCY

TOPIC 12

MANAGING DATA AND USE OF GRAPHICS

Learners being able to:-

a) Apply quantitative and qualitative data in research and consultancy

b) Interpreted data using graphs, tables and figures

Quantitative and qualitative study

The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present/ past tense and from the
third person point of view. It covers the following information:

 Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly
and concisely the research problem being investigated.
 Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and,
if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note
where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing
knowledge.

 Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis

underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or
ideas and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem
in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology
The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study
will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed
assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The
methods section should be presented in the past tense.

 Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note
where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
 Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify
the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if
the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you
gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no
data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.

 Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If
appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research
objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to
manipulate the data.

Results
The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In
quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to
help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation
from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help
clarify key points being made. Further information about how to effectively present data using
charts and graphs can be found.

 Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from
the data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order
 Discussion
Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld
together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed
within the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion
should be presented in the present tense.
  Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and
compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did
they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?

 Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables --

describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and
statistical insignificant findings.

 Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings
based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have
the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?

Conclusion
End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the
study.

 Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report
any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and
describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
 Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with
policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.

 Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or
to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems,

where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the
causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically
significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research
problems in the social sciences include:
  Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual
detail;
 The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and
false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of
the participating subject;

 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;

 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative
and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;

 The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of
control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in
place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world
results"; and,

 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in
some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is any which does not involve numbers or numerical data.

It often involves words or language, but may also use pictures or photographs and observations.

Almost any phenomenon can be examined in a qualitative way, and it is often the preferred
method of investigation in studies which tend to use quantitative methods, although this
distinction is by no means absolute.

Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives an in-depth picture and it is particularly useful
for exploring how and why things have happened.

However, there are some pitfalls to qualitative research, such as:

 If respondents do not see a value for them in the research, they may provide
inaccurate or false information. They may also say what they think the researcher
wishes to hear. Qualitative researchers therefore need to take the time to build
relationships with their research subjects and.
  It is generally harder for qualitative researchers to remain apart from their work.
By the nature of their study, they are involved with people. It is therefore helpful to
develop habits of reflecting on your part in the work and how this may affect the
research.

Sources of Qualitative Data

Although qualitative data is much more general than quantitative, there are still a number of
common techniques for gathering it. These include:

 Interviews, which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured;

 Focus groups, which involve multiple participants discussing an issue;

 ‘Secondary data, including diaries, written accounts of past events, and company
reports; and

 Observations, which may be on site, or under ‘laboratory conditions’, for example,

where participants are asked to role-play a situation to show what they might do.

Analyzing Qualitative Data

Because qualitative data are drawn from a wide variety of sources, they can be radically different
in scope.

There are, therefore, a wide variety of methods for analyzing them, many of which involve
structuring and coding the data into groups and themes. There are also a variety of computer
packages to support qualitative data analysis. The best way to work out which ones are right for
your research is to discuss it with academic colleagues and your supervisor.

It’s your research…

Finally, it is important to say that there is no right and wrong answer to which methods you
choose.

Sometimes you may wish to use one single method, whether quantitative or qualitative, and
sometimes you may want to use several, whether all, one type or a mixture. It is your research
and only you can decide which methods will suit both your research questions and your skills,
even though you may wish to seek advice from others.

INTERPRET DATA USING GRAPHS, TABLES AND FIGURES

Data can be presented in one of the three ways:

–as text;
–in tabular form; or
–in graphical form.

Text presentation
Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and trends, and
provide contextual information. Data are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences.

Table presentation
Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words or numbers in rows and
columns, have been used for nearly 2,000 years. Anyone with a sufficient level of literacy can
easily understand the information presented in a table. Tables are the most appropriate for
presenting individual information,

Graph presentation
Whereas tables can be used for presenting all the information, graphs simplify complex
information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or trends, and are useful for
summarizing, explaining, or exploring quantitative data.
A graph format that best presents information must be chosen so that readers and reviewers can
easily understand the information. In the following, we describe frequently used graph formats
and the types of data that are appropriately presented with each format with examples.

Bar graph and histogram

A bar graph is used to indicate and compare values in a discrete category or group, and the
frequency or other measurement parameters (i.e. mean). Depending on the number of categories,
and the size or complexity of each category, bars may be created vertically or horizontally.

Pie chart
A pie chart, which is used to represent nominal data (in other words, data classified in different
categories), visually represents a distribution of categories. It is generally the most appropriate
format for representing information grouped into a small number of categories
1. Example: Data Interpretation by using tables
2. Example of Data Interpretation by using graph
 PROFESSIONAL STAGE V
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & CONSULTANCY

TOPIC 13

REPORT WRITING

Learners being able to:-

a) Identify characteristics of report in different levels.

b) Describe different roles of reports and memorandums.
c) Differentiate memorandum from short reports.
d) Describe different types of a report such as Executive summary, main report, special
parts of report, oral presentation.
e) Demonstrate skills of composing a report.

What is a report?

A report is a systematic, well organized document which defines and analyses a subject or
problem, and which may include:

 the record of a sequence of events

 interpretation of the significance of these events or facts

 evaluation of the facts or results of research presented

  discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action

 conclusions

 recommendations

Reports must always be:

 accurate
 concise

 clear

 well structured

A report or account is any informational work (usually of writing, speech, television, or film)
made with the specific intention of relaying information or recounting certain events in a widely
presentable form.

Written reports are documents which present focused, salient content to a specific audience.
Reports are often used to display the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry. The
audience may be public or private, an individual or the public in general. Reports are used in
government, business, education, science, and other fields.

Importance of report

1. Report gives consolidated & updated information

A report provides consolidated, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter or
subject. Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future planning and
decision making.

2. Report as a means of internal communication

A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides

feedback to employees. It is prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with
the matter / problem.

3. Report facilitates decision making and planning

Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. It
acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.
4. Report discloses unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members
collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all concerned
parties. Even new business opportunities are visible through unknown information available in
the reports.

5. Report gives Information to employees

Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by the
departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-
improvement.

6. Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the
office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today for
reference purpose.

7. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as
promotion policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.

8. Report gives information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual report for
example, is prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM. It gives information about the
progress of the company.

9. Report gives information to the Registrar

Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the Registrar every year for information. Such
reports enable the government to keep supervision on the companies.

10. Report solves current problems

Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems faced by the company. They
provide guidance while dealing with complicated problems.

11. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to directors
in decision making and policy framing. Reports give reliable, updated and useful information in
a compact form.

your recommendations, and be positive about the expectations.

Preparing memorandum and short reports

Characteristic of report

A lot of reports are written daily. Some of them are intended to document the progress of some
activities, feasibility reports, investigation reports, some of the reports are for monitoring
purposes, some are evaluation reports but it is clear that all the reports have some objective and
purpose behind it. That objective and purpose can only be achieved if a report has the following
qualities and characteristics:

1. It should be factual: Every report should be based on facts, verified information and valid
proofs.
2. Clear and Easily understandable: Explained below

3. Free from errors and duplication

4. Should facilitate the decision makers in making the right decision:

5. Result focused and result oriented

6. Well organized and structured

7. Ethical reporting style

8.Timely Prepared and Dispatched

Tips for Report Writing

here are a few of my personal quick tips to deciding which type of report you need to write:

 Be sure to remember who your audience is.

 Make sure whether or not you can use jargon in the report.

 Make sure all the information you are using is correct and from reliable sources.

 Focus on making sure you are using the right tone.

Skills of report
  Knowledge/familiarity of the study.
 Literature searching skills depending on the nature of study
 Analysis skills
 Writing skills
 Computer skills
 Planning and time management skills
 Oral presentation skills

Parts of reports

Unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which are usually
numbered. Below are the possible components of a report, in the order in which they would
appear.

1. Title page (always included)

This should normally include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being
submitted, date of submission, your course/department, and if applicable, the name of the person
and/or organization who has commissioned the report.
Avoid “fancy” fonts and effects and don’t include any clipart.

2. Acknowledgements (usually just in long reports)

A list of people and organizations both within and outside Birmingham City University who
have helped you.

3. Contents page
A clear, well-formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the report. Don’t forget to put
the page numbers! If applicable, there should be a separate list of tables, figures, illustrations
and/or appendices after the main index.
Make sure that the headings in this list correspond exactly with those in your main body. It is
best to do your list of contents right at the end.

4. Materials and methods (included if applicable)

Similar to procedure, but more appropriate to scientific or engineering report writing.

i. List the equipment used and draw anything that requires description (unless this is
very simple).
ii. State the conditions of the experiment and the procedure, with any precautions
necessary to ensure accuracy and safety. However, when several experiments are
reported, some details may fit better in the appropriate parts of the Results section.
 iii. Write the stages in any new procedure in the right order and describe in detail any
new technique, or modifications of an established technique.

iv. If necessary, refer to preliminary experiments and to any consequent changes in

technique. Describe your controls adequately.

v. Include information on the purity and structure of the materials used, and on the
source of the material and the method of preparation.

5. Summary (usually included in longer reports; may be called Executive Summary, Abstract or
Synopsis)

An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference

proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used
to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose.

 This is a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea
of what it’s about. A statement of: overall aims and specific objectives (unless
included in terms of reference)
 method/procedure used (unless included in separate section)

 key findings

 main conclusions and recommendations

6. Introduction (always included)

This should show that you have fully understood the task/brief and that you are going to cover
everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report.
You should include just a little background/context and indicate the reasons for writing the
report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure/research methods if not covered
elsewhere.
Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report.

7. Main body/findings (always included)

This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the
material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different
sections (unlike an essay). A "situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be
appropriate.
It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation. Your tutor will be looking for analysis and for a
critical approach, when appropriate.
Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce your arguments, although sometimes it may
be better to include these as an appendix (particularly if they are long or complicated).
Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.

8. Results (possibly included in scientific/engineering reports)

This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally include statistics,
tables or graphs.

9. Conclusion (always included)

Your conclusion should draw out the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the
facts described in your main body. Don’t include any new material here.

10. Recommendations (sometimes included)

These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and
achievable. They should propose how the situation/problem could be improved by suggesting
action to be taken. A “statement of cost” should be included if you are recommending changes
that have financial implications.
Recommendations can be numbered if you wish.

11. Appendices (sometimes included)

An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your
findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets
etc. It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not
quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your
reader.
Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an
appendix if it is not discussed in the main body.

11. References (always included)

This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference within
your text. By far the most common method in use at Birmingham City University is the Harvard
method.

Preparing Memorandum

What is a memo?

A memo is:

 A hard-copy (sent on paper) document

 Used for communicating inside an organization.
  Usually short

 Contains To, From, Date, Subject Headings and Message sections

 Does not need to be signed, but sometimes has the sender's name at the bottom to be
more friendly, or the sender's full name to be more formal. If in doubt, follow your
company style.

Why write memos?

Memos are useful in situations where e-mails or text messages are not suitable. For example, if
you are sending an object, such as a book or a paper that needs to be signed, through internal
office mail, you can use a memo as a covering note to explain what the receiver should do.

How to write a memo

Memos should have the following sections and content:

1. A 'To' section containing the name of the receiver. For informal memos, the receiver's
given name; e.g. 'To: Andy' is enough. For more formal memos, use the receiver's full
name. If the receiver is in another department, use the full name and the department
name. It is usually not necessary to use Mr., Mrs., Miss or Ms unless the memo is very
formal.

2. A 'From' section containing the name of the sender. For informal memos, the sender's
other name; e.g. 'From: Bill' is enough. For more formal memos, use the sender's full
name. If the receiver is in another department, use the full name and the department
name. It is usually not necessary to use Mr., Mrs., Miss or Ms unless the memo is very
formal.

3. A 'Date' section. To avoid confusion between the British and American date systems,
write the month as a word or an abbreviation; e.g. 'January' or 'Jan'.

4. A Subject Heading.
 5. The message.
Unless the memo is a brief note, a well-organized memo message should contain the
following sections:

a. Situation - an Introduction or the purpose of the memo

b. Problem (optional) - for example: "Since the move to the new office in Kowloon
Bay, staff have difficulty in finding a nearby place to buy lunch."

c. Solution (optional) - for example: "Providing a microwave oven in the pantry

would enable staff to bring in their own lunchboxes and reheat their food."

d. Action - this may be the same as the solution, or be the part of the solution that
the receiver needs to carry out; e.g. "we would appreciate it if you could authorize
up to $3,000"

e. Politeness - to avoid the receiver refusing to take the action you want, it is
important to end with a polite expression; e.g. "Once again, thank you for your
support.", or more informally "Thanks".

6. Signature
this is optional.

Role of a memo

Conveying information

For better performance, organizational members require information. Memos are the tools to
convey information to various internal parties of an organization. This information may be a new
policy, new decision, revision of an existing programmed, the appointment of new managers and
announcement of special events, like a picnic, excursion schedule etc.

Making request

Memo is the medium of making requests for internal parties. Through memos, concerned
authority can request someone to attend a meeting to supply information or to perform any
function.

Providing response

Memo is also used to respond to any request made by memo. Memo conveys the requested
information, one’s intention, whether to attend a meeting or in a program.
Presenting information report

Memo is a helpful tool for presenting informal reports. Informal reports are written in memo
form to present facts and recommendations that assist managers in making decisions.

Solving problems

Memo is also very useful in solving routine and day-to-day operational problems. Memo
indicates the ways of performing the job and solving problems. This acts as the guide to action.

Disadvantages of a Memo

As memos are used within an organization, its scope is limited. There are some limitations which
are as follows:

1. limited scope
The major demerits of a memo are its scope is limited. Detail information cannot be provided by
a memo.
2. Lack of secrecy
In case of memo secrecy is not maintained, thus secret messages cannot be transmitted through
memos.
3. Not suitable for external communication:
Another shortcoming of memo is it cannot use for external communication.

What is referencing? When you are writing a piece of work and use someone else's words or
ideas you must reference them. This means that you need to include detailed information on all
sources consulted, both within your text (in-text citations) and at the end of your work (reference
list).