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Chapter

New Sources of Pectin: Extraction,

Processing, and Industrial
Applications
Stefani Cortés-Camargo, Angélica Román-Guerrero,
Erik Alpizar-Reyes and César Pérez-Alonso

Abstract

One of the most important polysaccharides in the vegetal kingdom is pectin.

This class of natural polysaccharide is found primarily in citrus fruits and apple
pomace. Pectin has been used in different sectors of the industry, among which
the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and paper industries stand out. Today, there
is a growing demand for this type of hydrocolloid, where both the scientific and
industrial fields have focused on using new sources of pectin and developing novel
extraction methods. This chapter describes the chemical structure of pectin and its
main chemical characteristics. Then, the conventional sources from which pectin is
obtained are exposed as well as its main industrial applications. Subsequently, the
physicochemical and functional properties of pectins obtained from unconventional
sources are described and analyzed as well as the main technologies used for their
extraction. Finally, the most recent advances in the role played by pectin in the
industrial sector are described.

Keywords: pectin, extraction, functional properties, husks, hulls, Cactaceae,

new applications

1. Introduction

Pectin is considered one of the main polysaccharides found in plant sources;

it participates in the constitution of cell walls of higher plants, impacting the
physical and nutritional contribution of products of plant origin. Pectin is a
globally recognized polysaccharide with great relevance in the global biopolymer
market due to its inherent functional properties and vast applications in the food,
pharmaceutical, and biomedical industries [1]. It is a macromolecule capable of
forming flexible polymer chains that lead to forming hydrogel-type structures
[2]. Its functional properties are associated with the extraction conditions and
influenced by the source used. The primary sources of commercial pectin are citric
fruits and apples; however, non-conventional sources have been investigated, such
as agro-industrial sub-products and residues, pulps, husks, hulls, peels, Cactaceae,
and vegetables, among others [3]. Furthermore, pectin has been functionalized
1
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

through chemical or enzyme reactions that lead to changes and improvements in its
physicochemical properties, such as molecular weight, degree of esterification (DE),
and surface charge, which in turn contributes to the development of new functional
or improved properties, along with new approaches and applications [4].

2. Pectin structure

Pectin is a negatively charged branched heteropolysaccharide, composed of up to

17 different monosaccharides with more than 20 types of linkages [5, 6]. This polysac-
charide was first reported in 1825 by Braconnot and defined as a biopolymer rich in
galacturonic acid (GalA; up to 65%) [7]. Although the precise structure of pectin has
not yet been fully elucidated due to its complexity, three major polysaccharide domains
are recognized; as shown in Figure 1, the most abundant is based on a linear homo-
polymer of α-(1–4)-linked-D-galacturonic acid (GalpA, GalA) residues that can be
methyl esterified at the C-6 position and to a lesser extent O-acetylated in C-2 and C-3;
this domain is defined as homogalacturonan (HG) [5, 7]. In the rhamnogalacturonan I
(RG-I) domain, the rhamnose (Rhap, Rha) residues disrupt the HG structure to form
a preferably ramified structure of pectin (20–35%) due to the presence of the repeat-
ing disaccharide [→4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→2)- α-L-Rhap-(1-]. Here, the GalA residues
are not methyl esterified, and attachment of neutral sugar side chains [α-L-arabinose
(Araf, Ara) and β-D-galactose (Galp, Gal)] to the C-4 positions of Rha residues can
be suitable, leading to linear side chains (LC-A) when α(1→5)-L-Araf or linear type I
(β(1→4)-L- Galp) or branched side chains (LC-B) when α(1→2,3)-L-Araf or branched

Figure 1.
The schematic representation of the pectin structure contains the HG, RG-I, and RG-II domains. L-AcA: L-Aceric
acid. Adapted from [8].

2
New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

type II β(1→3,6)-D-Galp and arabinogalactans. The branching design of the structure

in RG-I depends on the pectin source, the extraction conditions, and the presence of
other sugars such as xylose (D-Xyl), fucose (L-Fuc), and glucuronic acid (D-GlucA),
among others [9]. The RG-II domain (1–8%) is constituted of around nine α(1→4)-
linked GalpA units partially methyl esterified with four heteropolymer side chains
attached, mainly composed of 11 monosaccharide residues, including apiose (D-Api),
2-O-methyl-L-fucose, 2-O-methyl-D-xylose. 3-C-carxy-5deoxy-L-xylose, 3-deoxy-D-
manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo), and 3-deoxy-D-lyxoheptulosaric acid (D-Dha), which
are linked with up to 22 glycoside bonds [10, 11].
Some investigations about the basic structure of pectin establish that although the
pectin source may influence the structure diversity by partially modifying the chain
conformation of the macromolecule, the RG-II region seemed to be well preserved
among the different sources [12]. Moreover, pectins contain functional groups besides
carbohydrate type, such as phenolic acids, methanol, acetic acid, and some amide
groups. Methanol and acetic acid are relevant in the esterification of galacturonic acid
residues for developing the inherent structure functionalities of pectin. The degree of
methylation (DM) is a helpful tool for describing the structure of pectin and potential
applications; high methoxy pectins (HM) contain more than 50% of carboxyl groups
in methylated form, while those with lower content are defined as low methoxy
pectins (LM). Most common native pectins are characterized by being methyl esteri-
fied. Likewise, acetylation in pectins rarely occurs in native pectins. The degree of
acetylation (DA) in pectins is defined as the percentage of galacturonosyl residues
that can be acetylated per unit of monosaccharide. DA can be larger than 100% and
is usually found in the branched RG regions. In pectins from citrus and apple, the
acetyl groups in the HG region are present in low content, rather than in pectins from
sugar beet and potato, where higher amounts have been found [13, 14]. Amidation of
pectins does not occur naturally; instead, it is induced chemically or enzymatically to
improve the functional properties such as solubility in water, gelling, and rheological
properties through modifying some non-esterified carboxyl groups into amide groups
by using various amino compounds [15–17].

3. Conventional sources of pectin and their applications

Commercial pectin is generally obtained from citrus peels (25% dry matter) and
apple pomace (15–18% dry matter), their processing subproducts, and sugar beet pulp
(25% dry matter) [18]. The most significant part of commercial pectins includes 85.5%
from citrus peels, 14% from apple pomace, and ~ 0.5% from sugar beet pulp [19].
Industrial processes for the extraction of pectin are based on the thermal hydrolysis of
the citric peels (mainly from orange, lemon, and lime), apple pomace, and sugar beet
pulp by using hot mineral acids like HCl, H2SO4, or HNO3 (~pH 1.5) at ~85°C [20],
where the control of the extraction conditions is of great relevance for minimizing
the de-esterification and depolymerization of the polysaccharide and improving the
functional properties of pectins as gelling, fiber enrichment, stabilizer, texture, and
rheology control agent [21]. Notably, these pectin extraction processes generate large
amounts of acidic industrial wastes and high energy consumption [22]. Hence, recent
investigations have explored the use of more green technologies to overcome these
environmental issues and enhance yield extraction [23]. Table 1 shows some physi-
cochemical properties of pectins obtained from conventional sources using different
extraction procedures.
3
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

Source Extraction conditions Functional Properties References

and yield

Citrus peel Lime HHP extraction DE: 75.7%; GalA: 82.8% [23]
Enzyme treatment MW:308.4 kDa; ηint 5.0 dL/g
pH: 4.5; 50°C, 4 h. Enhanced solubilization
Yield: 26.1% Shorter gel setting time

Enzyme treatment DE: > 82%; GalA:81–84% [24]

pH 3.5; 50 °C, 4 h. MW: 69 kDa; Gelling properties
Yield: 23%

Orange USE: 150 W, 20 kHz, GalA: 72%; DE: 37.5% [25]

10 min, 50 °C Surface tension: 42.1–46.6 mN/m
Citric acid pH 1.5 (0.1–0.5% wt.)
Yields: 28.1% WHC: 3.10 gwater/gpectin
OHC:1.32 goil/gpectin

Pomelo Conventional DE: 57.9%; MW: 353 kDa [26]

extraction Viscoelastic solution (<1% wt.)
Nitric acid pH 2.0; 90 Weak gelation (<1% wt.)
°C; 1.5 h Newtonian behavior (<0.4% wt.)
Yield: 23.19% Pseudoplastic behavior (>0.4% wt.)

Mandarin HHP: 500 MPa, 10 min GalA: 75.4–84.4%; DE: 67.7–70.4% [27, 28]
Citric acid pH 1.4 MW:1201–2626 kDa
Yield: 21.95% Pseudoplastic behavior (3% wt.)

Grapefruit USE:800 W;20 kHz; DE: 65.5%; GalA: 50% [29, 30]
58% amplitude ηint: 3.26 dL/g; MW: 109.5 kDa
67.8 °C; 30 min
Yield: 27.3%

Conventional DE: 71.7%; ηint: 18.36 dL/g [31]

extraction MW 2.3x105 kDa
H2SO4 pH; 80 °C 1 h.
Yield:33.6%

Apple Granny Chemical or enzyme GalA:18.0–67.9%*; DE:52.5–76.4% * [32–34]

pomace Smith; treatment DM:58–88%; MW:68–790 kDa *
Royal; and Yield:4.2–19.8%*
Golden
varieties
Pomace
used for
commercial
pectin

Sugar beet Conventional DE: 38.6–40.8% [35, 36]

pulp extraction Pseudoplastic behavior (2%wt.)
HCl, pH 1.2, 90 °C, 3 h. Emulsifying activity
HHP: High hydrostatic pressure; MW: Molecular weight; ηint: Intrinsic viscosity; USE: Ultrasound-assisted extraction;
WHC: Water holding capacity; OHC: Oil holding capacity.*Depending on the variety of pomace.

Table 1.
Physicochemical properties of some pectin extracted from conventional sources.

Pectin is widely used in the food industry as an excellent thickener agent for
producing jellies and jams, a pH stabilizer in dairy products and low-calorie products,
and an emulsifier in pharmaceutics for the design of drugs to treat gastrointestinal
disorders, blood cholesterol reduction, and cancer treatment as well as good former
of edible films and coatings, foams, and paper substitutes [17, 24]. Because of the
4
New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

Figure 2.
Principal applications of commercial pectin in food, packaging, and pharmaceutical industries [17].

functional properties of pectins, both LM and HM, many applications in food,

industrial, and pharmaceutic sectors can be considered (Figure 2).
Most commercial pectins are facilitated to dissolution when a dextrose content is
present. An additional pectin classification is based on its gelling capacity, which is
relevant in product processing and preservation. Pectins are classified as rapid-set
pectin, when gels are formed, preferably at high temperatures, generally used for jams
because it reduces the possibility that the fruit rises to the surface before the pectin
gel is set, and slow-set pectin, which is preferred in jellies because it allows handling
the product before the gel setting without damaging the texture and firmness of the
product [25].
Despite the presence of extensive contents of pectin polysaccharide in fruit
subproducts, like citrus peels, apple pomace, or sugar beet pulp, it is not the most
critical parameter to define a lucrative extraction and the best functional properties
for this functional agent [17]; the exploration of novel sources of pectins is raising the
attention of scientists and technologists.

4. Vegetable sources of pectin

New sources of pectin that are receiving significant interest in the scientific field
are those obtained from different kinds of vegetables, such as pumpkin, eggplant,
chayote, and Opuntia ficus indica cladodes.
Several studies have been conducted on the extraction of pumpkin pectin using
different extraction methods, such as the chemical acid treatment (0.1 M HCl) or
enzymatic extraction, where the last has given much higher yields than the acid
extraction [26]. Pumpkin pectin fraction A was obtained from raw pumpkin with
an enzyme preparation of cellulase and α-amylase. Pumpkin pectin fraction B was
5
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

obtained by treating the solution of fraction A with pronase to reduce the protein
content. The pumpkin pectin fractions A and B yielded 10.03 and 8.08 g/100 g,
respectively.
The DE values of about 47% for pumpkin pectin fractions A and B were not sig-
nificantly different, while the GalA contents represent 75.02 and 78.22 g/100 g, respec-
tively. This finding indicated that both fractions are mainly composed of HG [27]. Small
amounts (about 10 g/100 g) of six different neutral sugars were found in both pectin
fractions, including rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose, and mannose.
FT-IR and 1D NMR analyses revealed that the pumpkin pectin backbone is mainly
composed of 1,4-D galacturonic acid, in which a considerable portion of galacturonic
acid residues is present as methyl esters, and L-rhamnose is involved in the linear
region of the backbone through α-1,2 linkages. The emulsifying capacity and stability
of pumpkin pectin fraction A were 63.7 and 58.3%, respectively. At the same time,
both properties were not detected in pumpkin pectin fraction B. Pectin fraction A
exhibited emulsifying properties in the water–oil mixture, evidencing the presence of
hydrophobic protein components in the pectin structure. In contrast, protein removal
in fraction B resulted in a loss of emulsifying properties [26]. Therefore, pumpkin
pectin could be used as an emulsifying agent in the preparation of oil-in-water emul-
sions for the beverage industry as long as residual hydrophobic protein components
are not removed.
Eggplant fruit (Solanum melongena L.), a popular vegetable with an elongated oval
shape and dark purple peels, grows worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropic
regions. Under optimal extraction conditions by the ultrasound-assisted extraction
method (UAE) (ultrasound power of 50 W, irradiation time of 30 min, and pH
of 1.5), the pectin extracted from the peels of this vegetable (EPP) indicated that
the EPP had a high GalA content (66.08 g/100 g) [28]. Considering the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and European Union recommendations, the GalA
content of pectin used as a food additive or pharmaceutical purpose should not be
lower than 65 g/100 g pectin. This pectin had a high DE (61.22%) and was categorized
as HM pectin (DE > 50%). EPP had a protein content of 2.53 g/100 g, which can be
attributed to the difference in raw materials and extraction techniques. However, FAO
suggests that the protein content of pectin should not be higher than 15.6 g/100 g
[24]. In addition, EPP showed good values in functional features such as water-
holding capacity (WHC) and oil-holding capacity (OHC). Under the optimal extrac-
tion conditions, EPP exhibited a WHC of 6.22 ± 0.21 g water per g EPP, while the
OHC was 2.12 ± 0.15 g oil per g EPP. The emulsifying activity (EA) and emulsifying
stability (ES) of EPP were evaluated, EA was about 56.16%, and the highest emulsion
stability was 96.36 ± 0.80 at 4°C. EPP also exhibited antioxidant activity, determined
by the DPPH radical scavenging method, reaching a highest antioxidant activity at a
concentration of 50 mg/mL (94%), which was still lower than the antioxidant activity
performed by the ascorbic acid, with an IC50 value of 1.39 mg/mL; this activity is due
to the higher total phenolic content (TPC = 96.81 ± 2.18 mg GAEa/g pectin) associ-
ated to the EPP. The GalA content of the extracted pectin can be also effective in the
antioxidant activity due to active portions in its structure [29].
Chayote is one of the most cultivated vegetables in the world. The major produc-
ing countries are Mexico, Brazil, and China [30]. The UAE method has been used
to extract chayote pectin (PEUO) [31]. Using a liquid/solid ratio of 50 mL/g, a tem-
perature of 70°C, and an ultrasonic time of 40 min as optimal extraction conditions.
The yield was around 6.19%. Under these extraction conditions, PEUO exhibited a
low DE (17.6%), indicating that the chayote pectin could be considered as LM pectin.
6
New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

This property could be attributed to the harsh extraction conditions that would
promote the de-esterification of polygalacturonic chains. The GalA content in PEUO
accounted for 57.25%. To our knowledge, the ripeness, blanching, ultrasound, and
other effects may influence the GalA content in the extracted pectin [31], besides
the contribution to improve the depolymerization of polysaccharides, releasing the
water-soluble pectin from the plant tissue [32]. The molecular weight in pectins
significantly affects the emulsification, rheology, and their colloid stability. In this
sense, the weight-average molecular weight and number-average molecular weight of
PEUO were 2.47 × 106 g/mol and 1.29 × 106 g/mol, respectively, and the polydispersity
index was 1.91. Polydispersity index higher than 1 suggests that PEUO extracted by
UAE represents a heterogeneous natural polysaccharide with a broad range of poly-
mer size distribution [31]. The monosaccharide composition of PEUO indicated the
presence of five monosaccharides, where glucose (Glu) represents the most abundant
monosaccharide (90.6%), followed by Gal (8%), D-Xyl (0.6%), Ara (0.6%), and
Rha (0.2%). Besides, the content of Gal was significantly higher than that of Ara,
indicating that the RG-I region may have been highly branched with galactan or
arabinogalactan. Rheological properties of PEUO aqueous dispersions (<5%wt.)
exhibited a non-Newtonian behavior [31]. Other functional properties like WHC and
OHC for PEUO showed suitable values for both WHC (3.14 ± 0.42 g water/g PEUO)
and OHC (3.73 ± 0.30 g oil/g PEUO). High WHC in PEUO makes it suitable as a food
industry thickener. EA and ES were determined at 4°C and 25°C. The ES for PEUO
emulsions were 88.36 ± 5.63% and 81.28 ± 4.82% after 1 day, and these values changed
after 30 days to 85.33 ± 4.16% and 77.59 ± 5.19%, respectively. The lower temperature
(4°C) was presumably more suitable for storing the PEUO emulsion. These results
provide further evidence that chayote pectin may have great potential to be applied as
an emulsifier and stabilizer in the food industry [31, 33]. Regarding the antioxidant
activity of PEUO, it was higher when compared to pectin extracted from apples. Due
to its techno-functional properties, PEUO may be used as a gelling agent and preser-
vative in jam production or as a viscosity enhancer in beverages.
Another source of pectin that has received much attention is the Opuntia ficus
indica (OFI) cladodes. This pectin has been extracted by acid water, ultrasound, and
enzyme treatments [34, 35]. The pectin obtained by ultrasound under optimal condi-
tions (sonication time of 70 min, temperature of 70°C, pH of 1.5, and water:solid
ratio of 30 mL/g) reached an extraction yield of 18.14% ± 1.41%, with a GalA content
of 68.87%. This pectin had a DE of 41.42%, classifying it as an LM pectin [36]. This
DE value was higher than that achieved when the OFI pectin was extracted by the
chemical process, which was 30.67% [37]. WHC in OFI pectin was 4.84 g water/g OFI
pectin, ultrasound-induced cavitations in the pectin structure improving the water
penetration and its absorption [38]. WHC for OFI pectin extracted by the chemical
process was higher (5.64 g water/g OFI pectin) [34]. OHC for OFI pectin extracted
with ultrasound was 1.01 g oil/g OFI pectin, slightly lower than pectin extracted
by the chemical method (1.24 g oil/g OFI pectin) [34]. EA and ES were determined
at two pectin concentrations (2 and 4% w/v). EA values were 19.23% and 26.92%,
respectively, showing that the emulsion stability depends on the pectin concentra-
tion. OFI pectin at 4% maintained stability of more than 57% of the emulsion after
30 min of incubation at 80°C, unlike the 2% pectin solution, which could not retain
more than 40% of the emulsion. This stability of the emulsions could be attributed
to the rise of viscosities in the pectin solutions caused by the formation of a layer of
pectin around each oil droplet, delaying the coalescence phenomenon [39, 40]. This
stability was affected by the high pectin extraction temperature (> 45°C) [41]. ES in
7
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

OFI pectin extracted with acid water at 2% displayed higher values (90.45%) [34].
Differences in the ES are due to differences in the extraction methods, which affect
the average molecular weight and the GalA content in the structure of pectin and
therefore influencing the long-term stability in the emulsions [42]. When enzyme
treatments were used for OFI pectin extraction, the optimal conditions were cel-
lulase/xylanase at an LS ratio of 22 mL/g, cellulase/xylanase ratio of 2 U/U, and
enzymes/matter ratio of 4 U/g, reaching an extraction yield of 17.91% [35], being
more effective than the chemical treatment, which resulted in an extraction yield of
6.13 ± 0.60% [34]. Enzyme-assisted extraction of pectin depends on the choice of
enzymatic activities based on the strength of pectin connection with cellulose and
xylan and their abundance in the cell wall of the plant source [43].
For OFI pectin, the total sugar content was 89.94%, the main monosaccharide was
GalA (66.66 ± 2.46%), with a DE of 35.04%, which was higher than that reported
by Lira-Ortiz et al. [44] for pectin from prickly pear fruits (Opuntia albicarpa; DE
30.7%). OFI pectin had a WHC of 5.42 ± 0.16 g water /g OFI pectin, slightly lower
than that for pectin extracted by the chemical process (5.64 g water/g OFI pectin)
[34]. Various intrinsic factors, like the chemical structure of the biomaterial, and
extrinsic factors, such as the pH, temperature, and ionic strength, can affect the WHC
[45]. The OHC value of pectins was 1.23 ± 0.42 g oil/g OFI pectin. It was like the OHC
of the OFI pectin extracted by the acid water method [34]. Thus, the oil retention
power depends essentially on the hydrophilic nature and the overall charge density
of the constituents [45]. EA values for OFI pectin emulsions at 2 and 4% were 26.9%
and 30.77%, respectively. These values were lower than the ones found by Bayar et al.
[34] for a 2% concentration of pectin extracted by the chemical process from the OFI
cladodes (35%), proving that the extraction process influences the functional proper-
ties of pectin macromolecules [46]. The ES rates were 14.31% and 87.48% for 2% and
4% of pectin hydrocolloid in the emulsions, this long-term stability when emulsions
were submitted to temperature treatment at 80°C is due to the high viscosity of pectin
solution and by the formation of layers around the fat globules by the pectin [39].

5. Unconventional sources of pectin: hulls or husks and seeds

It is well known that the primary sources of pectin extraction are those obtained
from citrus fruits or apples, due to their high yield and physicochemical properties
that make them useful for various applications in the food and pharmaceutical
industries. However, in recent years, new extraction sources have been sought that
may represent alternatives to overexploited sources and that also have the advantage
of allowing the use of organic by-products, such as the case of hulls or husks and
seeds, from which pectins with specific physicochemical properties of high utility for
multiple applications can be obtained.
Table 2 shows current research work regarding unconventional sources for
obtaining pectins, classified as hulls or husks that come from dry fruits (almonds,
pistachios, walnuts, and cocoa), pods, and legume seeds (soy, peas, faba beans, and
riang), cereal leaves (Zea mays) and seeds of different fruits (Nicandra physaloides
Linn., Gaertn, papaya, jackfruit, creeping fig and sesame). In addition, its extraction
methods and its most outstanding properties are also described.
The most widely used pectin extraction method for hulls or husk and seeds is the
conventional one, which consists of acidifying the sample, for which different types
of organic (citric and oxalic acid) and inorganic (HCl and HNO3) acids are used; the
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New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

type of acid used influences the extraction conditions and the properties of the pectin
obtained [30]. Subsequently, a heat treatment is carried out using a conventional
hot plate, or, for more efficient extraction, it can be assisted by microwaves [49] or

Pectin source Extraction conditions and Yield Functional properties Reference

Hulls or husks

Almond hull First part: acidification with citric Extraction of LM pectin [28]
acid of almond hull pectin whose DE: 26.4%
optimal conditions were pH = 1.4, Forming forms gels using Ca2+ at a
liquid-solid ratio (LSR) 20.13, 90°C pH 3–7
for 58.65 min followed by filtration. Do not need sugar to form gel
Second part: a mixture of pectin High polydispersity due to the
supernatant with 96% ethanol at a small chains formed during the
ratio of 1:1 v/v, then the precipitate extraction process.
obtained was dried in an oven at
50°C.
Yield: 26.32% wt.
Pistachio hull Conventional and Extraction of LM pectin [47]
ultrasound-assisted, DE = 19.29%
Acidification with a citric acid Maximum emulsifying capacity
solution with 6% wt. pectin, EA index:
Yield: 32.3%. 172.85 ± 0.59 m2/g ES index:
158.28 ± 3.41 min, High creaming
stability
Shear-thinning behavior.

A green husk of Walnuts husks from different The soil and climate conditions [48]
walnuts (Juglans regions of cultivation. where the walnut husks were
regia L.) Walnut husks powder heated in an obtained caused variations in the
acid medium. properties of the pectins obtained.
Ethanol precipitation. DE: higher 65%.
The pectin was decolorized using Lamellar and leaf-shaped
acetone. structures, depending on the region
of cultivation
Cocoa pod husk Microwave-assisted extraction The decrease in pH during [49]
(Theobroma cacao) using an acidified medium with extraction produced a decrease
oxalic acid. in the esterification degree which
pH 1.16 reduced the gelling ability of pectin.
15 min. This could be observed by FTIR
Liquid/solid ratio:25 spectroscopy.
Yield: 9.64%.
Legumes (from seeds or pods)

Soy hull Thermal treatment by microwave The pectin extracted with SC [50]
irradiation had better stability of emulsions,
Acidification 0.6% wt. citric acid smaller droplet sizes and greater
or sodium citrate (SC). emulsifying capacity.
Pectin precipitation with ethanol. Applied into mayonnaise, achieving
uniformly distributed drops and
high stability.
Soy hull Pectin extraction was carried out Low uronic acid content. [51]
from milled soy hulls, from which Low yield.
galactomannan was removed. Xylogalacturonan and
Acid medium, HCl followed by rhamnogalacturonans as major
HNO3. components.
Cannot form gels by adding Ca2+.

9
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

Pectin source Extraction conditions and Yield Functional properties Reference

Pea hull To optimize the extraction, a LM pectin [52]

central composite design was Mainly composed of
carried out where the effect of xylogalacturonan.
pH, temperature, and time on the
yield and purity of the pectins was
evaluated using two different acid
media: citric acid and HNO3.
pH 2.0
Yield: 3.5–9.8% with citric acid
Yield: 1.4–8.0% with HNO3.
Purity: >65%, related to the high
uric acid content.
Faba bean hull Microwave assisted extraction HM pectin [53]
(640 W). DE: 54.08%.
pH = 1.5 with 1 M HCl, 9 min.
Ethanol precipitation.
Yield: 14.86%
Riang (Parkia Acid water HM pectin [54]
timoriana (DC.) pH = 2 with HNO3, heated to 90°C DE: ~66%.
Merr.) pod husk for 90 min. Pseudoplastic behavior at a
Final pH adjusted to 4.5. concentration > 2%w/v,
Yield: 15.0% Newtonian behavior at
concentrations <2% w/v.
High antioxidant activity and high
content of phenolic compounds
(mainly tannins).
Cereal

Zea mays husk Extraction with high-power Formation of thermo-irreversible [55]

ultrasound (US) application. and soft gels at pH = 6 in the
Pretreatment in a primary presence of Ca2+
medium, followed by enzymatic Interaction with the iron (II) ion to
hydrolysis with cellulase form thermo-reversible weak gels.
(pH = 5.2), precipitation of pectin LM pectin and high-water solubility
with ethanol, and subsequent due to the ultrasound treatment.
lyophilization to obtain the MP
fraction.
Second treatment consisted of
high-power ultrasound at 20 kHz,
plus the steps of the first treatment
to obtain the MP-US fraction.

Fruit seeds

Papaya seeds Acid medium (citric acid) LM: 9.22%. [56]

80°C, pH 1.5, 60 min
Yield: 8.66%

Jackfruit seeds Pectin extraction was from the Total phenolic content: 65.7 mg [57]
sheats slimy sheats of the jackfruit seed GAE/g
(JS). Antioxidant activity:
Water acidified with oxalic acid DPPH method: 25.29 ± 4.03%
90°C, 1 h. FRAP: 10.4 μM
Yield: 35.52%

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New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

Pectin source Extraction conditions and Yield Functional properties Reference

Creeping fig fruit Chemical extraction in acid LM pectin [58]

seeds conditions. DE: ~20%.
Form gels at low pH values with the
addition of glucono-δ-lactone
Viscous solutions are obtained at
pH = 4.5 with Na+ and K+ ions for
favoring the formation of the gel.
Gel strength depends on the type of
salt added and its concentration.
Nicandra Enzyme inactivation of the NPG LM pectin [59]
physaloides (Linn.) seeds were inactivated with DE = 46.93%.
Gaertn seeds heating. Spontaneous gel formation at 1.5%.
Aqueous extraction at 60°C. Gel formation at <1.5% in the
Different fractions of pectin were presence of NaCl and KCl.
obtained.
Yield: 9.17–10.56%

Sesame seed hull Defatted seed High antioxidant activity [60]

Acid medium (HCl). Fractionation Able to stabilize emulsions.
with ethanol (30%, 50%, and
90%).
Maximum yield: 75.6% at 30%
ethanol

Table 2.
Unconventional sources of pectins: Hulls or husks and seeds.

by high-power ultrasound [61]. Finally, separation is carried out using the ethanol
solvent, and the pectin obtained is dried.
Among the properties shared by pectins obtained from hulls or husks and seeds
is that they are primarily LM pectins, with very varied DEs, and they also can form
gels in the presence of ions such as calcium, sodium, or potassium [28]. However,
the esterification degree influences the properties of the gels formed [49]. Besides,
this type of pectin regularly achieves the formation of stable emulsions [24, 62], a
shear-thinning rheological behavior and can even, in some cases, present antioxidant
activity [14, 54, 63].
One of the main disadvantages of obtaining pectin from hulls or husks and
seeds is its low yield (regularly less than 15%), since the extraction is carried out by
conventional methods, where conditions such as the type of acid influence the yield
obtained. However, research is currently being carried out on new methods that allow
a more efficient extraction and higher yield to encourage the use of unconventional
sources of pectin.

6. Applications of new sources of pectin

Nowadays, green chemistry leads to environmentally friendly bioproduct extrac-

tion approaches. Because bioproducts are biocompatible, they have a wide range of
applications [33]. The synthesis and production of bioproducts use substantially less

11
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

energy and solvent, and they can now be scaled up with a small initial expenditure
[14, 40]. Biomaterial formulations, sometimes inspired by biomimicking nature’s
behavior, are specifically tailored for applications involving human consumption
products and innovative biobased materials [64]. In the field of biomaterials, hydro-
gels have gained popularity owing to their specific properties, such as biodegrad-
ability, biocompatibility, a soft-wet feel, and resemblance to organic tissue. Hydrogels
with tridimensional crosslinked polymeric structures made from natural polymers
have been extensively studied because of the increasing need for biomaterials with
novel features for human consumption-related applications [65]. Pectin, a biopoly-
mer found in the cell walls of fruits and vegetables, is extensively employed in the
food, pharmaceutical, and textile sectors due to its ability to produce a thick gel-like
solution [65]. Pectin is a gelling ingredient in the production of jams, jellies, and
marmalades. Over the past decade, intense new research has yielded a new under-
standing of its molecular structure and physiological function, opening the gate to
novel manufacturing techniques and entirely new applications, such as new advanced
biomaterials, for example, calcium phosphate pectin for bone restoration and bio-
based construction, and building materials, for example, pectin aerogels for thermal
insulation [64, 66].
According to the scientific literature, we can classify applications of pectins in two
ways: first, according to their physicochemical properties, and last, according to their
field of application. The specific application of each of the novel pectin sources is inti-
mately linked to their particular physicochemical characteristics; please see Figure 3.
For example, LM pectin is believed to be a helpful stabilizer for dairy products. This
is due to low methoxyl pectin gels in the presence of divalent cations, in this specific
instance, calcium ions. The capacity of HM pectin to gel at moderately lower pH val-
ues (pH 2–3.5) in the addition of soluble substances, such as sucrose, makes it suitable
for use in the preparation of jams and jellies [67]. An LM pectin is an attractive option
for use as a gelling agent in manufacturing low-calorie jams due to its ability to form
a gel without added sugar. Unlike gums, which impart a slimy mouth feel, the use of
pectin to increase the viscosity in soft drinks and beverages gives a clean mouth feel;

Figure 3.
Different classifications for pectin.

12
New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

Application Source Extraction technique Reference

Pectins for food Stabilizer for dairy Grapefruit peel Acid hydrolysis [68]
products products

Food films, gelling Lime peel Citric acid-microwave [69]

agents, and extraction
plasticizer

Food packaging Lemon waste peel Microwave extraction [70]

Films and emulsions Citrus — [71]

Antioxidants in food Jackfruit peel Ultrasonic-microwave [72]

formulations extraction

Pectins for drug Drug delivery Citrus — [73]

and therapeutic systems
applications
Drug delivery Fig skin Ultrasonic-microwave [74]
systems extraction
Tissue engineering Lemon peels Acid hydrolysis [75]

Bioprinting of 3D Citrus peels — [76]

scaffolds

Wound healing Akebia trifoliata Acid hydrolysis [77]

fruit peel

Accelerated wound Cyclea Barbata Cold acid hydrolysis [78]

healing Miers

Skin wound healing Papaya fruit — [79]

Table 3.
Applications of novel pectins.

this may be due to the low viscosity of low-concentration pectin solutions at the shear
rate of the mouth [67].
From the viewpoint related to their field of application, pectins may be catego-
rized into pectins for food products and pectins for drug and therapeutic applica-
tions. Please see Table 3. Current research trends in food packaging promote the
development of biodegradable, renewable, and environmentally friendly materials.
Pectin-based edible coatings are among the most recent advancements in the world
of food packaging. Including additional biopolymers, such as cellulose and natu-
ral compounds with antioxidant and antibacterial properties, has enhanced and
strengthened these coatings.
Additionally, researchers have discovered the biological functions of pectin,
consequently increasing its application in the pharmaceutical industry, including drug
delivery systems, skin and bone tissue engineering, and wound dressings [65, 76].
Pectin is most widely used in the formulation of drugs for oral administration, such
as tablets, gels, hydrogels, beads, aerogels, and coated and compression-coated doses.
The ability of pectin to withstand acidic conditions and higher temperatures allows for
the development of drug delivery systems able to load and release drugs at a specific
location. Pectin has primarily been considered a colon-specific drug delivery vehicle
that reduces systemic toxicity while increasing bioactivity and medication stability.
Pectin also has significant potential for use in tissue engineering. Pectins may
promote mineral nucleation in this application if immersed in the appropriate physi-
ological conditions, resulting in biomimetic structures that more closely resemble the
13
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

natural architecture of bone. Furthermore, pectins are responsible for wound healing
treatments’ gelling protection and anti-inflammatory effects [76]. By crosslinking
pectins, calcium ions aid in its gelation. Solubilized pectin forms an acidic environ-
ment that acts as a bacterial or viral barrier, and pectin hydrogels allow for the loading
and release of drugs such as antibiotics, analgesics, and tissue repair agents. Other
physiological effects of pectin have been described, such as prebiotic, antimicrobial,
antiglycation, and antioxidant. Pectin has also been used to nano-encapsulate bioac-
tive substances, thereby increasing their shelf life and stability.
The exploration of new sources of pectin, involving the introduction of cleaner
and new sustainable extraction techniques, demands more research to guarantee that
an industrial application is sustainable and competitive in the current market.

7. Conclusions

Pectin is one of the primary polysaccharides present in plants; it contributes to

the physical and nutritional value of plant-based goods. It’s a macromolecule that
can create flexible polymer chains. Source and extraction circumstances affect its
functioning characteristics. Citric fruits and apples are the principal sources of com-
mercial pectin, although non-conventional sources have been examined, including
agro-industrial sub-products and wastes, pulps, husks, hulls, peels, Cactaceae, and
vegetables. Pectin has been functionalized by chemical or enzyme processes that
affect its physical characteristics, such as molecular weight, degree of esterification
(DE), and surface charge, leading to new functional or enhanced qualities as well
as new techniques and applications. Pumpkin, eggplant, chayote, and Opuntia ficus
indica cladodes are new sources of pectin. Due to their high production and physico-
chemical qualities, citrus fruits and apples are the principal sources of pectin extrac-
tion. In recent years, new extraction sources have been sought that may represent
alternatives to overexploited sources and that allow the use of organic by-products,
such as hulls or husks and seeds, from which pectin with specific physicochemi-
cal properties can be obtained for multiple applications. Intense new research has
yielded a new understanding of its molecular structure and physiological function,
opening the door to novel manufacturing techniques and entirely new applica-
tions, such as calcium phosphate pectin for bone restoration and pectin aerogels for
thermal insulation.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the partial financial support of this research to
the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México through project 6661/2022SF.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

14
New Sources of Pectin: Extraction, Processing, and Industrial Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109579

Author details

Stefani Cortés-Camargo1, Angélica Román-Guerrero2, Erik Alpizar-Reyes3

and César Pérez-Alonso4*

1 Nanotechnology Department, Technological University of Zinacantepec,

Zinacantepec, Estado de México, México

2 Biotechnology Department, Metropolitan Autonomous University-Iztapalapa,

CDMX, México

3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, LabMAT, Bio Bio University,

Concepción, Chile

4 Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering, Autonomous Mexico

State University, Toluca, Estado de México, México

*Address all correspondence to: cpereza@uaemex.mx

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
15
Utilization of Pectin in the Food and Drug Industries

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