Research is a systematic, objective, and 2.

Existing problems in the class/school/campus

comprehensive investigation of a certain which one may want to solve
phenomenon
3. Existing needs of the community or society
involves accurate gathering and recording, and critical
4. Area of interest, specialization or event from
analyses and interpretation of all facts about the
related fields
phenomenon for theoretical or practical ends.
5. Prevailing theories and philosophy

Research follows certain process

APPROACHES
What are the approaches of research?

Step 2: Read General Background Information

Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or
three topics you are considering
Reading a broad summary enables you to get an
Learning plan 1: brainstorming for RESEARCH overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to
TOPIC broader, narrower, and related issues.
◦ RESEARCH TOPIC- is a subject or a subject These keywords may be very useful to your later
matter of a proposed research study. research.
STEPS IN CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC Step 3: Focus on Your Topic
Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too
broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad topic such
Brainstorming is a way of inquiring ideas that will
as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some
help you to develop concepts
common ways to limit a topic are:
The potential ideas can be visualized for
▪ by geographical area
interpretations.
◦ Example: What environmental issues are most
The following are the things that may be considered important in the Philippines?
before starting the research activity: ▪ by culture
◦ Example: How does the environment fit into
1. A problem that is most interesting to you the Northern view?
▪ by time frame: Use the key words you have gathered to research in
◦ Example: What are the most prominent the catalog, article databases, and Internet search
environmental issues of the last 10 years? engines
▪ by discipline
You will need to do some research and reading before
◦ Example: How does environmental awareness
you select your final topic
effect business practices today?
▪ by population group Remember, selecting a topic is an important and
◦ Example: What are the effects of air pollution complex part of the research process.
on senior citizens?

Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords Step 8: Formulate a Research Statement

• Look for words that best describe your topic ◦ Write your topic as a research statement. This may
be the answer to your research question and/or a
• Look for them in when reading encyclopedia way to clearly state the purpose of your
articles and background and general research. Your research statement will usually be
information one or two sentences that states precisely what is
to be answered, proven, or what you will inform
• broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key
your audience about your topic.
concepts for key words to widen your search
The development of a research assumes there is
capabilities
sufficient evidence to support the research
• note of these words and use them later when statement.
searching databases and catalogs
◦ For example:
Step 5: Be Flexible
◦ A research statement could be: Frank Lloyd
Wright's design principles, including his use of
ornamental detail and his sense of space and
texture opened a new era of philippine
architecture. His work has influenced
contemporary residential design.
◦ The title of your paper may not be exactly the
same as your research question or your research
statement, but the title should clearly convey the
focus, purpose and meaning of your research.
For example:
Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research ◦ A title could be: Frank Lloyd Wright: Key
Question Principles of Design For the Modern Home
◦ You will often begin with a word, develop a
more focused interest in an aspect of
something relating to that word, then begin to Writing Research title based from research topic
have questions about the topic.
◦ For example:
◦ Ideas = Frank Lloyd Wright or modern
architecture
◦ Research Question = How has Frank Lloyd
Wright influenced modern architecture?
◦ Focused Research Question = What design
principles used by Frank Lloyd Wright are
common in contemporary homes?
Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic
 • specific questions, which are detailed
questions that study will answer.

Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
can be theoretical or conceptual
theoretical framework is the application of a theory
or theories
conceptual framework, on the other hand, uses
concepts from theories. The researcher finds a
variables in the study that corresponds to concept as it
was used in the theory from which it was taken.

2 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

AND ASKING THE QUESTION
Parts of the introduction of a research paper are the
following: Hypothesis

1. Background of the study a tentative prediction about the relationship between

2. Statement of the problem two or more variables under study.
3. Theoretical or conceptual framework
TWO MAIN ELEMENTS OF HYPOTHESIS
4. Research hypothesis
5. Definition of terms • First, it must state the relationship between
6. Significance of the study two variables.
7. Scope and limitation of the study
• Second, it must express a casual or cause-
effect relation between two or more variables.
Background of the Study
background information in the introduction of a
research paper Significance of the Study: The Benefits and
Beneficiaries of the Research
bridge that links the reader to the topic of your study.
• Study explains its relevance and
shows the issue or problem that leads to the necessity contribution to the filed.
of conducting a study about the topic
• explicitly state the contribution of the study to
the body of knowledge about the subject
matter
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Limitations of the Study
basically composed of the different questions that the
entire study will answer. • The scope refers to the specific topics or
coverage of the research, it includes the
• general or main question of the study, which
location of the study, the unit of analysis or the
indicates the main problem of the study.
people/population to be studied, the time
 period of the research, and the questions that Citation, in research, is defined as a means of
will be answered by the study. informing your readers that certain information came
from a specific source
• The limitations, on the other hand, are the
parameters of the research; they are the topics
that the researcher will not look into in his or
Citing of sources comes in two (2) manners,
her study.
namely: a) in-text citation and b) referencing list.
Definition of Terms
In-text citation refers to all of the citations that can be
it is imperative that the researcher clearly defines the found in all of the chapters in your research paper.
terms used in the study
1) Author’s name
• There are two ways of defining a term. A 2) Date of the publication of the source
researcher can give a conceptual definition, 3) The page number where you found the
the meaning given by a dictionary or can use information
operational definition, which explain the
term in a particular language. Referencing list refers to the bibliography and/or
references of your research paper. This holds the
summary of the information of all of your sources.
RELATED LITERATURE
1) Author’s name
- one of the major components of a research 2) Date of the publication of the source
paper. It gives an overview of all the 3) The page number where you found the
writings relative to a specific topic. information
4) Publisher
PRIMARY VS SECONDARY SOURCES 5) Place of Publishing
6) Volume
Primary sources - publications or writings wherein a 7) Edition
researcher reports the results of his studies.( Monthly, 8) Other relevant information
quarterly or annual journals_)
SECONDAry sources- publications or writings
In the in-text- citation of related literature, three (3)
wherein a certain author describes
guidelines should be considered, namely:
the work of another author. (Textbooks, encyclopedias, a) by author or writer
yearbooks) b) by topic and
c) chronological means of citation.
d)
In identifying a possible source of your RRL, you can Citation styles
refer to the following characteristics below: - format of the information needed during the
1. The sources that you should use must be citation.
updated and reliable.
2. It must be as fair and objective as possible. American Psychological Association (APA)

3. It must be relevant to your topic. - commonly used when a researcher works in social
science-related researches
4. It must provide accurately and enough
information on your topic. - follows an author-date format, wherein, the needed
information for its in-text citation is the author’s
surname and the year of publishing.
CITATION OF RELATED LITERATURE - follows different formats for varying authors and
their number.
- Proper citation of a source is important for
you to avoid complications and problems
with the authenticity of your data
- Modern Language Association (MLA)
- one commonly used citation style in research papers Guidelines for making a referencing list using the
usually used in liberal arts and humanities APA format from different sources
- follows an author- page format, wherein authors’ BOOKS
surname and the page number where it could be found
Format: Author’s last name, given name, and middle
is needed
name initials (Year of publication). Title of work:
- MLA format, the page number is always enclosed Subtitle. Location: Publisher
in parenthesis and can be found at the ending of each
JOURNAL ARTICLES
statement
Format: Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author C.C.
(Year). Title of the article. Title of Periodical, volume
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) number (issue number), pages.
citation style that presents two basic documentation ONLINE NEWS ARTICLES
systems:
Format: Author, A.A. (Year, Month Day). Title of
A. notes and bibliography and article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved from
http://www.address.com/full/url/
B. author-date.
ONLINE LECTURE NOTES AND
(The use of the two documentation systems differs
PRESENTATION SLIDES
from the subject matter and the sources cited.)
Format: Author, A.A. (Year). Title of article [file
format]. Retrieved from
http://www.address.com/full/url

3.1 Notes and Bibliography System

concerning the field of humanities such as literature, CATEGORIES OF SOURCES
arts, and history. In this system,
Documents- these sources include those materials that
II. CMS- Notes and Bibliography system citation for are written or printed. source can come in a published
works with two authors or non- published state.

The format for this system is the same as those with Numerical records- This source is considered a
one author. subcategory of documents. written form such as census
reports.
Example:
Oral statements- Stories, myths, legends
In-text Citation: Levi and Charles discussed that
today’s tap water is not suitable for drinking anymore. Relics- this source commonly composes information
1 about the past.

Endnote: John Levi and Thomas Charles, Our water of

today, (New York, LMR Publishing, 2016), 305
Review of Related Literature Structure
three major sections:
a) Introduction
Referencing list is the other means of citing sources.
- composed of a single paragraph wherein
information about the general topic of your
research
APA Citation Style (Referencing) - referencing list is - provides the overall statement of knowledge
found at the end of the paper. - gives an overview of the contents of your RRL
highlighting the points (main idea)
contains all information of the literature that are cited b) Main Body
in the paper
- focuses on presenting all the relevant
Listed alphabetically according to their surnames. information that you have gathered.
- relevant information must follow a logical
manner
c) Conclusion ▪ Ethics bind different experts together in the
spirit of important values such as
- single paragraph that functions in providing a
accountability, cooperation, coordination,
summary of the overall state of knowledge
mutual understanding, respect, and fairness,
about your topic
among others.

Ethics in research follow eight (8) principles

1) Honesty- a researcher must secure honesty in
producing his/her study. Transparency is the
key of upholding honesty in research.
Researchers must see to it that all borrowed
intellectual property must be cited accurately.
2) Objectivity- Researchers must see to it that
she/he is free from any form of bias in all
aspects of his/her research paper.
3) Integrity- The researcher must secure that the
study holds sincerity and consistency. The
researchers must see to it that all of the parts
promised and presented during the
presentation of the proposal must be kept.
4) Carefulness- The researcher must see to it
that the conduct of the study must be free from
any carelessness and errors of negligence. All
important data must be kept for future uses.
Use of Ethical Standards in Citing Related Literature 5) Openness- Researches must see to it that they
Ethical standards- help researchers in maintaining are open-minded persons wherein they can
accept suggestions from others and they can
their integrity.
handle constructive criticism.
, it is defined as a means of making rights decisions
relating to the conduct of the study. 6) Respect for intellectual property- A good
researcher must see to it that she/he practices
respect for intellectual property. This principle
can be executed upon proper citation of
The Relationship of Ethics and Research
borrowed statements and giving due credit to
Ethics the owner.
- the norms for conduct that distinguish between
7) Trustworthiness- The researchers must see to
acceptable and unacceptable behaviors
it that any data or information in the research,
- a process of applying moral standards and principles
especially those data from surveys and other
in any undertaking
data gathering procedures, must be used
used so that a researcher will be able to define right according to its proper and allotted usage
from wrong. only. The researchers must also keep the
confidentiality of every data gathered and must
Importance of ethics in research protect its privacy.
▪ It can keep the researcher from committing 8) Social and legal responsibility- A researcher
misconduct while seeking knowledge and truth, must abide by the legalities, rules, policies,
and respecting and protecting the rights of the and regulations set by his/her partner
respondents-humans and animals. institution or organization.
▪ To promote essential values that help
researchers to have a common understanding
and work on a topic harmoniously
 Terms type of review within qualitative, quantitative, and
mixed methods approach that provides specific
❑ Ethical relativism- this refers to the view that
direction for procedures.
values are relative in the sense that a person
feels his/her value is better than any other collection of data, research timeline and respondents
person’s value. used.
❑ Ethical principles- this term refers to values Types of Qualitative Research Design
that are translated into rules or standards of
Case Study
conduct.
❑ Ethical dilemma- this refers to situations - conducts an up-close or in-depth study of an
where there is an evident conflict between individual, an organization, a behavioral
condition, an event, or a contemporary
values and principles and the choice of action
phenomenon in its social context.
needs to be decided.
- allows researchers to have deeper insight and
3 ETHICAL PROBLEM understanding of the problem or issue.
1. USE OF ANIMALS (Testing/Rights) Ethnography
2. USE OF HUMANS(Participation)
3. SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT cultural patterns of people and their perspective as a
group
Scientific misconducts
also involves their beliefs , values, and attitudes.
1) Fabrication and falsification of data
Grounded Theory
- also known as “cooking of data”. This scientific
development of theory directly based and grounded in
misconduct involves producing data without actual
data collected by the researcher
experimentation or altering data in recording for the
intention to fit them to what is expected. generates and modifies a theory.
2. Non-publication of data
Narrative Inquiry
- In contrast with fabrication and falsification,
nonpublication of data involves choosing not to researcher makes use of field notes, interviews,
include data because they do not conform to the well- autobiographies, and photos of the human experience
established body of knowledge or are unsupportive of
the research hypothesis. Only the results that do not gives background to create a deeper, richer
reject the hypothesis are reported and published. understanding for the audience.

3. Faulty data gathering procedures Phenomenology

- It is referred to as negligence or carelessness that experience as a person (sensory)that makes you

leads to errors in measurement or faulty research perceive or understand things that naturally occur
instruments. An Error may also be caused by aims at getting a thorough understanding of an
inappropriate application of treatment to the subjects individual’s experience for the same person’s realistic
and poor data recording. dealings with hard facts of life.

Types of Quantitative Research Design

4) Plagiarism INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - are utilized to determine
- It is a fraudulent act that involves claiming another the results of the study.
person’s ideas, work, or publication. It is a form of Survey Research
intellectual property stealing and dishonesty that - provides a numerical description of trends, attitudes,
usually happens in scientific publications. or opinion of a population by studying a sample
4 Understanding ways to collect data population.

Research Design
Experimental Research helps researchers find and recruit participants that
may otherwise be hard to reach.
can determine if a particular form of intervention can
influence a particular outcome.
does something to one group and none to another
group then examines the differences between the
outcomes.
Content Analysis
technique for gathering and analyzing the content of a
text.
text refers to anything written, or in visual or oral form
that serves as medium of communication. Quota Sampling

SAMPLE DESCRIPTION FOR QUALITATIVE Researcher selects cases from within several different
RESEARCH subgroups.

• the aim of sample is not to be representative researcher is attempting to gather data from a certain
of the population. number of participants that meet certain characteristics

• The validity, meaningfulness and insights CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

generated from such studies have more to do conducts a study at his convenient time, preferred
with the information richness of the cases place or venue
selected, and the analytical qualities of the
researcher than with the sample size.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE FOR QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Non-Probability Sampling-
There are several types of nonprobability samples that
researchers use. These include purposive samples,
quota samples, and convenience samples.
Purposive Sampling
Researcher seeks out elements that meet specific
criteria
participants are selected or sought based on pre- Basic sampling concepts for Quantitative research
selected criteria based on the research question. Population
begins with specific perspective in mind that he wishes entire group of persons or elements that is of interest to
to examine and then seeks out research participants the researcher.
Snowball Sampling Sampling
Researcher relies on participant referrals to recruit process of selecting a portion of the population to
new participants. represent the entire population.
chain referral sampling Sample
refers to a subset of observations selected from the
population.
sample represents the population
Determining the sample size of the population, using
Slovin’s formula
 𝑁 Stratified Random Sampling
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
❑ involves dividing your population into
homogenous subgroups and then taking a
simple random sample in each
• Where: n= number of samples
• N= population ❑ It is also called proportional or quota
• e= sampling error sampling..

• Sampling Plan: It is the formal plan of the

researcher specifying and identifying the sampling Systematic sampling
methods, sample size and the procedures he/she ❑ where members of a sample are chosen at a
will be undertaking for recruiting the subjects. regular intervals of a population.
• Sampling Frame: A list of all the elements in the ❑ used to select study participants such that every
population from which the sample is drawn. nth person of element in a sampling frame is
• Sampling Unit: This refers to the specific area considered.
which can be used throughout the sampling Cluster Sampling
process.
where the researchers divide the entire population into
• Sampling Bias: This is the distortion that arises sections or clusters that represent a population.
when a sample is not a representative of the
populations from which was drawn. MULTI – STAGE SAMPLING

• Sampling Error: According to Lindquist (1968), combination of sampling methods is called multi
sampling error is defined as the deference between sampling.
a parameter and an estimate of that parameter
useful in conducting a nationwide survey or any survey
which is derived from a sample. It is also called as
involving a large universe.
standard error.
• Sampling Distribution: This refers to the
theoretical distribution of a statistic, using the DATA COLLECTION METHODS
values of the statistic computed from an infinite
also called as the research instruments.
number of samples as the data points in the
distribution. instruments aid the investigators in collecting a reliable
information of data towards developing a valid
Types of Sampling Design of Quantitative research
conclusion in the inquiry.
Probability Sampling
also called random sampling, is a selection process
Qualitative Self- Reporting Approach
that ensures each participant to have the same
probability of being selected. Observation
simple random sampling, Stratified random Structured- the researcher possesses prior knowledge
sampling, and cluster sampling. of the phenomenon under investigation.
Instructed - the researcher attempts to describe the
events or behavior with no prior knowledge of what
Simple Random Sampling
will be seen and observed. needs an increased alertness
method of collecting data where every single member and concentration while conducting the investigation.
of a population is chosen randomly.
Types of Observers
each individual has the same probability of being
Non- participant Observer-
chosen to be a part of a sample.
researcher/observer does not participate in the
activity being observe. “sits on the sidelines” and
watches the subjects.
Participant Observer C. Cafeteria Question
allows the study participants to answer according to
assumes two roles: observer and participant (covert their own viewpoint given with multiple alternatives
and overt). participates as much as possible while D. Rank- order question
arefully observing everything allows the study participant to rank answers from
the most to least vital, satisfying, important, or
rewarding.
Interview E. Checklist
presented in a two- dimensional pattern. Questions
1. Structured interview-used when he has are written horizontally while the response
no preconceived view of the content or alternatives are written vertically.
flow of information to be gathered. F. Forced Choice Question
requires the study participant to choose between two
2. Semi- structured- uses a list of topics of statements that represents polar positions or
broad questions that must be addressed in characteristics.
an Examples:
interview . Topic guide is used by the 1. Which statement best describes your
interview to encourage study participants to personality?
a. What I want, I get.
express freely about all the topics in the
b. I should not want that.
guide.
G. Rating Question
3. Unstructured- No list of questions. On the the study participants are asked to evaluate
spot Questions something along an ordered dimension.

4. Focus Group Interview- done with groups

of five to ten people whose opinions and
experiences are solicited simultaneously.
5. Life History Interview- This is done to
explore the individual life experiences.

Think Aloud Method

gather data on cognitive processes such as problem
solving and decision- making.
Narratives from diaries. These have been a major
source of data in historical research.
Critical incident techniques. This approach of
collecting data is done to examine specific incidents
relating to the behaviour under investigation. This
focuses on a factual incident.
Quantitative Self- Reporting Approach
Question Forms
- study participants are asked to respond to the same
questions in the same order and are given the same
options or conditions for their responses.

A. Dichotomous Question
allows the study participant to choose between two
alternative such as yes or no.
B. Multiple Choice Questions
question allows the study participant to choose from
multiple response- alternatives.