This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: C1894 − 19

Standard Guide for

Microbially Induced Corrosion of Concrete Products1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation C1894; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents

1.1 This guide discusses microbially induced corrosion 2.1 ASTM Standards:2
(MIC) of concrete products and laboratory test methods for C31/C31M Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
determining the resistance of concrete to MIC. Although the Specimens in the Field
guide is intended for concrete products, it also covers cemen- C33/C33M Specification for Concrete Aggregates
titious mortar and paste that are used in specialized applica- C42/C42M Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled
tions or laboratory investigations. Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
1.2 While this guide discusses concrete materials and C125 Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Ag-
admixtures, the document is not intended to specifically gregates
address field exposure conditions or sewage pipe, concrete C150/C150M Specification for Portland Cement
tank, or concrete riser network design. C192/C192M Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory
1.3 This guide does not cover live trial tests where concrete C260/C260M Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures
coupons or other specimens are monitored in sewers. for Concrete
1.4 This guide does not cover concrete deterioration due to C267 Test Methods for Chemical Resistance of Mortars,
chemical sulfate attack, which is caused by the reaction of Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings and Polymer Concretes
sulfate compounds that exist in wastewater with the hydration C294 Descriptive Nomenclature for Constituents of Con-
products of cement. Test methods for assessing sulfate attack crete Aggregates
are provided by Test Methods C452 and C1012/C1012M. C452 Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as Cement Mortars Exposed to Sulfate
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this C494/C494M Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
standard. Concrete
C497 Test Methods for Concrete Pipe, Concrete Box
1.6 The text of this guide references notes and footnotes that Sections, Manhole Sections, or Tile
provide explanatory material. These notes and footnotes (ex- C595/C595M Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
cluding those in tables and figures) shall not be considered as C618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
requirements of the standard. Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the C822 Terminology Relating to Concrete Pipe and Related
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the Products
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- C989/C989M Specification for Slag Cement for Use in
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter- Concrete and Mortars
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. C1012/C1012M Test Method for Length Change of
1.8 This international standard was developed in accor- Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard- C1017/C1017M Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the Use in Producing Flowing Concrete
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom- C1240 Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Mixtures
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee. C1600/C1600M Specification for Rapid Hardening Hydrau-
lic Cement
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee C13 on
2
Concrete Pipe and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C13.03 on For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Determining the Effects of Biogenic Sulfuric Acid on Concrete Pipe and Structures. contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2019. Published October 2019. DOI: 10.1520/ Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
C1894-19 the ASTM website.

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 C1894 − 19
D4262 Test Method for pH of Chemically Cleaned or Etched 3.2.11 chemical oxidation, n—chemical reaction in which
Concrete Surfaces the atoms in a molecule lose electrons and the net valence of
D4783 Test Methods for Resistance of Adhesive Prepara- the molecule is correspondingly increased, commonly associ-
tions in Container to Attack by Bacteria, Yeast, and Fungi ated with addition of molecular oxygen to the chemical
G21 Practice for Determining Resistance of Synthetic Poly- composition of an ‘oxidized’ material.
meric Materials to Fungi 3.2.12 sulfate oxidizing bacteria (SOB), n—bacteria that can
2.2 Other Standards:3 convert hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into elemental sulfur (S) by
ISO 22196 Measurement of antibacterial activity on plastics partial oxidation, or sulfate (SO42–).
and other non-porous surfaces
3.2.13 sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), n—bacteria that can
3. Terminology obtain energy by oxidizing organic compounds or molecular
hydrogen while reducing sulfate to hydrogen sulfide. Most
3.1 Definitions:
sulfate reducing bacteria can also reduce other oxidized inor-
3.1.1 For definitions of terms used in this practice, refer to
ganic sulfur compounds, such as sulfite, thiosulfate/elemental
Terminology standards C125 and C822.
sulfur. A common mechanism for anaerobic bacterial for
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: respiration in the absence of oxygen.
3.2.1 antimicrobial admixture, n—EPA registered chemical 3.2.14 Thiobacillus species (for example, Thiobacillus
admixture that is intended to inhibit microorganism growth thioparus, Starkeya novella, Halothiobacillus neapolitanus,
(-static effect) or kill microorganisms (-cidal effect). Antimi- Thiomonas intermedia and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans.),
crobial admixtures are registered according to the organisms n—a genus of gram negative bacteria, known for using sulfur
they are effective against and typically, due to their chemical and sulfur compounds as part of their respiration cycle (sulfur
nature for industrial use, have broad spectrum effectiveness a.k.a. thio-).
against many organism types, including bacteria, fungi and
algae. 3.2.15 turbulence, n—violent or unsteady movement of air
or water, or of some other fluid.
3.2.2 aerobic bacteria, n—bacteria that have a metabolic
requirement for the presence of available oxygen to grow and 4. Microbially Induced Corrosion (MIC) of Concrete
thrive.
4.1 The MIC of concrete is considered to be a three-stage
3.2.3 anaerobic bacteria, n—bacteria that do not live or process (1-3)4 with the reduction in pH (Stage I) (for example,
grow when oxygen is present. 12.5 > pH > 9-10) (4, 5), the establishment of biofilms which
3.2.4 biofilm, n—a complex mixture of established further lowers the pH (Stage II) (for example, 9-10 > pH > 4-6)
microorganisms, microorganism components (extra-cellular (1, 4, 6, 7) and eventual deterioration due to biogenic acid
matrix) and environmental detritus. exposure (Stage III) (for example, < ~4 pH) (7-11). Fig. 1
3.2.5 biogenic (biotic) acidification, n—process of produc- illustrates these stages that have been observed in laboratory
tion of mixture of inorganic and organic acids from respiring testing. Testing procedures are described that simulate all three
organisms resulting in acidification of the microbial environ- stages or individual stages. This document clarifies the stages
ment. where each test applies.
3.2.6 chemical (abiotic) acidification, n—when compounds 4.2 This section provides a brief summary of the commonly
like ammonia, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxides are con- accepted chain of events that lead to the initiation and
verted in a chemical reaction into acidic substances. propagation of MIC in wastewater collection networks. Addi-
tional details are provided in 4.3.
3.2.7 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, n—anaerobic dissimila-
4.2.1 Abiotic lowering of the concrete surface pH takes
tory sulfate-reducing bacterium.
place before colonization by bacteria can occur. Carbonation,
3.2.8 dissolved oxygen (DO) content, n—oxygen (O2) mol- the process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with
ecules available for respiration to aquatic organisms. calcium hydroxide and water within the cement microstructure,
3.2.9 hydrogen sulfide (H2S), n—a colorless poisonous gas is typically credited with the initial reduction in surface pH of
made by the action of acids on sulfides. At low concentrations, the concrete. Leaching of calcium hydroxide through contact
H2S has the odor of rotten eggs, but at higher, lethal with wastewater may also lead to a reduction in pH near the
concentrations, it is odorless. concrete surface (12, 13). It is also claimed that H2S undergoes
3.2.10 microbially induced corrosion (MIC) of concrete, inorganic chemical reaction to lower the initial pH of concrete
n—a multi-stage deterioration process influenced by the pres- from pH ~12.5 to ~9 (14). However, H2S is not needed for
ence and activities of bacteria within wastewater collection, abiotic lowering of the concrete surface pH.
storage and treatment infrastructure. Also referred to as bio- 4.2.2 Sulfates in the waste stream are converted to aqueous
genic sulfuric acid (BSA) corrosion, and biological corrosion hydrogen sulfide (H2S) through the biological activity of
of concrete, hydrogen sulfide corrosion, microbial corrosion of anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) residing in biofilms
concrete. below the water line (15).

3 4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, http://www.ansi.org. this standard.

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 C1894 − 19

FIG. 1 Three-Stage Process of MIC of Concrete

4.2.3 H2S is released into gas phase under influence of structure and local conditions. For example, the thickness of
several factors including turbulence (16, 17). the biofilm present in concrete sewer pipes is typically between
4.2.4 H2S partitions into the moisture layer present on 0.3 and 1.0 mm, but it can also be several millimeters,
surfaces above the water line where it is converted to sulfuric depending on the velocity of flow and frequency of abrasion by
acid by aerobic sulfur oxidizing bacteria (SOB) (6, 16-19). solids in the waste stream (11). In the case of a waste stream
4.2.5 Sulfuric acid attacks the cementitious paste portion of with an appreciable dissolved oxygen (DO) content, the
the concrete matrix through dissolution of calcium hydroxide biofilm will contain aerobic SOB at the liquid/biofilm inter-
by the hydrogen ion and the formation of the expansive face. As oxygen diffuses into the biofilm it is consumed by the
corrosion products gypsum and ettringite from the reaction of SOB, resulting in a gradient of DO that approaches zero near
sulfate and calcium hydroxide (6, 12, 18, 19). the structure wall. Beyond the highly aerobic zone is a SRB
4.2.6 The surface area susceptible to attack increases as population that proliferates in the oxygen deficient conditions.
coarse aggregate is dislodged and the thickness of concrete
Nearest to the concrete surface resides a layer of inert
members is reduced as the attack proceeds into the structure.
anaerobic bacteria whose activity is limited by the diffusion of
4.3 Formation of Aqueous Hydrogen Sulfide—The presence organic food substances into the biofilm. Sulfates from the
of aqueous (dissolved) sulfides in the waste stream is required waste stream diffuse into the biofilm towards the anaerobic
for the formation of H2S(g), a component necessary to initiate zone where they can be reduced to sulfide as described in Eq
MIC in sewer networks. Although sulfides may be present in 1. Under conditions with sufficient DO, sulfides will be
wastewater as a result of industrial processes, the formation of partially or completely oxidized by SOB as they diffuse back
aqueous H2S(aq) is most commonly attributed to the activity of towards the waste stream. Any sulfides that escape the biofilm
anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) such as Desulfovi-
will undergo chemical or biological oxidation in the aqueous
brio desulfuricans, which is an obligate anaerobe that relies on
phase before release to the gas phase is possible. Under anoxic
the availability of organic substances for a food supply
conditions, sulfides will diffuse out the biofilm unimpeded and
(electron donor) and utilizes sulfate as an oxygen source
(electron acceptor). The presence of both organic substances partition into the waste stream.
and sulfates is therefore necessary for the biological production 4.4 Partition of Aqueous H2S into the Gas Phase—The
of sulfides. Eq 1 describes the formation of hydrogen sulfide biological oxidation of H2S(g) to sulfuric acid on concrete
through the reduction of sulfates by SRB where C represents surfaces is reliant on the availability of H2S(g) in the sewer
organic matter (15-17, 20): headspace. Oxygen is also needed in the headspace to enable
SO 22
4 ~ a q ! 12C1H 2 O→2HCO
32
~ a q ! 1H 2 S ~ a q ! (1) thiobacillus bacteria to thrive and produce sulfuric acid. Once
present in the waste stream, the release of H2S(aq) into the gas
4.3.1 The majority of sulfate reduction takes place in
phase will be heavily influenced by the pH of the wastewater,
anaerobic biofilm layers present on surfaces below the water
line. The thickness of the biofilm differs depending on the the equilibrium conditions between gas and liquid phases,

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 C1894 − 19
temperature, and the turbulence of the flow. Ventilation condi- posed to acidic conditions. The volume occupied by hydrated
tions above the water line will influence the sustained concen- cement paste is generally composed of the following propor-
tration of H2S(g) in the headspace. tions of four solid products: 50-60 % calcium silica hydrate
4.5 Oxidation of H2S(g) to Sulfuric Acid—Once present in (C-S-H), 20-25 % calcium hydroxide (CH), 15-20 % calcium
the sewer headspace, H2S(g) is free to partition into moisture sulfoaluminates, and varying amounts of unhydrated cement
films present on surfaces above the water line. Back in grains. Exposure to acid results in the decalcification of these
solution, H2S(aq) is subject to both biological and chemical hydrated products, beginning with CH, and the eventual
conversion to multiple oxidation states, ultimately leading to breakdown of the microstructure resulting in increased porosity
the production of sulfuric acid and the corrosion of the cement and decrease in mechanical properties. After decalcification,
paste portion of the concrete matrix. Sulfur oxidation states are calcium ions either diffuse out of the microstructure or com-
dependent on the local pH and the type and activity of SOB bine with the salt of the acid to form insoluble calcium salts of
present. Several Thiobacillus species have been identified as little structural value. The presence of these products results in
contributors to MIC in concrete wastewater networks. Multiple the formation of a porous layer on the concrete surface.
species may be present on sewer walls at pH values of 3.0-8.0. Degradation continues as hydrated products become more
Thiobacillus thioparus makes use of sulfides, elemental sulfur unstable with decreasing alkalinity in the system. The degra-
and thiosulfate in the production of sulfuric acid. Thiomonas dation mechanisms and severity of acid attack on concrete are
intermedia and Starkeya novella are the next species to dependent on the type of attack, strength and type of acid. The
colonize the surface, relying mainly on thiosulfate as a sub- ability of concrete to resist acid attack is related to acid
strate. As pH is reduced to below 7, Halothiobacillus neapoli- neutralization capacity, composition of hydrated products, and
tanus becomes prevalent until surface pH is reduced to around porosity.
3. Being highly acidophilic, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans 4.6.2 The following reactions summarize the decalcification
thrives at pH values below 3 where it oxidizes both sulfides and of C-S-H gel (Eq 2) and the dissolution of calcium hydroxide
elemental sulfur to sulfuric acid. Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans by sulfuric acid (Eq 3) to form gypsum, as well as the
continue to lower the surface pH until acid production becomes formation of ettringite (Eq 4 and 5) (21):
self-inhibitory at pH values from 0.5 to 1.0. Preferred sub- 3CaO·2SiO 2 ·3H 2 O13H 2 SO 4 →3 ~ CaSO 4 · 2H 2 O ! 12SiO 2 (2)
strates and pH ranges for SOB involved in MIC in concrete Ca ~ O H ! 2 1H 2 SO 4 →CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O (3)
sewers are given in Table 1.
3 ~ CaSO 4 · 2H 2 O ! 13CaO·Al 2 O 3
4.5.1 Fresh concrete is highly alkaline, often exhibiting pH
between 12.5 and 14 (13). Abiotic lowering of the concrete 126H 2 O→3CaO·Al 2 O 3 ·3CaSO 4 ·32H 2 O (4)
surface pH is therefore necessary before colonization by 2 ~ CaSO 4 · 2H 2 O ! 13CaO·Al 2 O 3 ·CaSO 4 ·12H 2 O
Thiobacillus can occur. Carbonation, the process by which 116H 2 O→3CaO·Al 2 O 3 ·3CaSO 4 ·32H 2 O (5)
atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide and
water within the cement microstructure, is typically credited 5. Test Methods for Evaluating Concrete Resistance to
with the initial reduction in surface pH of the concrete. MIC
Leaching of calcium hydroxide through contact with wastewa-
5.1 Laboratory Investigations:
ter (12, 13) or inorganic reaction of H2S on the concrete surface
5.1.1 General—Reproducing MIC in the laboratory is one
(14) may also lead to a reduction in pH near the concrete
way to investigate specific mechanisms of attack or evaluate
surface. Once the concrete surface reaches a pH value of 9-10,
the corrosion resistance of cementitious materials; however,
colonization by SOB can potentially begin. After SOB are
the complex nature of MIC makes laboratory reproduction and
established, abiotic lowering of the concrete pH is no longer
the design of straightforward testing techniques difficult. The
relevant as biological production of sulfuric acid governs the
use of microorganisms requires knowledge of microbiology
surface pH. Initial SOB colonization is followed by a succes-
and introduces a level of variability that makes repeatability of
sive establishment of more acidophilic species of Thiobacillus.
experimental conditions difficult to achieve.
4.6 Acid Degradation of Cementitious Systems: 5.1.2 Materials:
4.6.1 The end product of the oxidation of H2S by SOB is 5.1.2.1 Materials that are described here are intended to be
sulfuric acid. The chemical composition of hydrated portland used with both chemical and biogenic acidification tests.
cement makes concrete susceptible to degradation when ex- Modifications and exceptions to these sections are provided
under each test method.
TABLE 1 Preferred Substrates and pH Ranges for SOB Involved 5.1.2.2 Concrete—Unless otherwise specified by a specific
with MIC in Concrete Sewers test method, concrete can be prepared following Practice
Species Preferred Substrate Preferred pH Growth C192/C192M, Practice C31/C31M, or obtained from existing
Range structures following Test Method C42/C42M, Test Methods
Thiobacillus thioparus H2S, S0, S2O32– 5-9 C497. Other methods of concrete production or extraction from
Starkeya novella S2O32– 2.5-8
Thiomonas intermedia S2O32– 2.5-8 existing structures are possible, as long as these procedures and
Halothiobacillus S0, S2O32– 3-7 applicable standards are specified as part of the reporting
neopolitanus process. Mixture proportions and curing methodology shall
Acidithiobacillus H2S, SO 0.5-3
thiooxidans also be documented if procedures described in the cited
standards are not followed.

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 C1894 − 19
5.1.2.3 Cementitious Materials—Concrete may contain They are intended to simulate all three stages of MIC; that is,
ASTM C150/C150M portland cements (non-air entrained), reduction in pH (Stage I), the attachment of biofilms with a
ASTM C595/C595M blended portland cements, and ASTM lowering of the pH (Stage II), and the rapid deterioration
C1600/C1600M rapid hardening hydraulic cements. process at low pH (Stage III).
Additionally, supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) 5.2.1.1 Accelerated Chamber Tests—Some biogenic acidifi-
may be added to non-air entrained portland cements following cation tests emulate field conditions and the main stages of
Specification C150/C150M. These SCM include ASTM C618 MIC in controlled breeding chambers, in which H2S is pro-
coal fly ash and raw and calcined natural pozzolans for use in duced by bacterial activity and acidification is the result of the
concrete, ASTM C989/C989M slag cement for use in concrete conversion of this H2S to sulfuric acid. Because H2S(g), the
and mortars, and ASTM C1240 silica fume used in cementi- precursor to production of sulfuric acid by SOB, is highly
tious mixtures. Material specification reports for all cements toxic, it presents an immediate risk to human health even at
and SCM shall be part of the reporting process. low concentrations. Safety concerns are therefore an important
5.1.2.4 Admixtures—Concrete may contain admixtures in- consideration in design of these experiments. The desire to
cluding those that are intended to increase the resistance of accelerate corrosion conditions requires the control of
concrete to MIC. The type, dosage and application procedure temperature, adequate nutrients, and humidity. With these
must be specified as part of the reporting process (Specifica- considerations combined, laboratory systems designed to simu-
tions C260/C260M, C494/C494M, C1017/C1017M). Available late MIC in breeding chambers are inherently custom built,
material specification reports for the admixtures should be cumbersome, and time intensive to operate.
provided. (1) The results obtained by these test methods should serve
5.1.2.5 Antimicrobial Admixtures (integrally or topically as a guide in, but not as the sole basis for, selection of a
applied)—Concrete may contain antimicrobial admixtures that MIC-resistant material for a particular application. No attempt
are added in concrete during mixing or topically applied on the has been made to incorporate into these test methods all the
surface of concrete after hardening to increase the resistance of various factors that may affect the performance of a material
concrete to MIC (22, 23). The type, dosage and application when subjected to actual service.
procedure must be specified as part of the reporting process. (2) The breeding chambers can be constructed in different
Available material specification reports for the antimicrobial sizes and configurations as long as they can provide the
admixtures should be provided. required conditions for the growth of biogenic acidification
5.1.2.6 Aggregate—The composition of aggregate is conditions and satisfy the safety requirements related to the
thought to have an effect on the sulfuric acid resistance of production, use and purging of H2S(g) and associated toxic and
concrete. Calcareous limestone aggregates are soluble in acid hazardous conditions. This, however, is not recommended for
due to their high calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content whereas standardized evaluation due to issues associated with testing
siliceous aggregates are highly resistant to acid degradation. repeatability, cost, and safety.
Calcareous aggregates are thought to have a local neutraliza- (3) The exact simulation of MIC in laboratory conditions is
tion effect near the surface of the concrete that increases the extremely difficult due to complex deterioration and microbio-
surface area of the acid attack, hence, slows down the thinning logical processes (20). The use of H2S gas requires extra
of the concrete wall thickness. Due to these confounding precautions and special permissions and as such should be
factors, the type of the aggregate used in concrete must be avoided. The construction of an environmental chamber can be
specified as part of the reporting process (Specification C33/ very expensive and complex for standard labs. These tests can
C33M, Terminology C125, Descriptive Nomenclature C294). require many months or years to perform (22).
5.1.3 Specimens: (4) Testing protocols for the accelerated chamber tests are
5.1.3.1 Specimens for each test will be prepared following described in (22).
the procedures described in respective test methods.
5.2.1.2 Benchtop Biogenic Immersion Tests—In these tests,
5.1.3.2 All specimens will be conditioned in environments
the biogenic acidification is achieved by SOB which can
as described in respective test methods before exposed to the
convert elemental sulfur or thiosulfate to sulfuric acid without
acidification conditions.
the use of H2S gas. The tests can be performed in simulated
5.1.3.3 Mass of each specimen will be recorded with a
exposure solutions containing well-controlled bacterial strains
balance accurate to 0.1 %.
that are grown in the laboratory (23) or bacterial cultures (for
5.1.3.4 Volume of each specimen will be recorded using a example, activated sludge samples) obtained from sewers (24).
needle point caliper capable of accounting for surface rough- The cementitious samples are immersed in (23) or exposed to
ness created by exposed aggregates, or other techniques, such (24) the media where biogenic acidification occurs. The
as immersion in water, as long as the measurement process will
bacteria are applied to the sample surface, not in the solution,
not affect subsequent measurements or test procedures.
to stimulate bacterial attachment (23, 24). Because H2S is not
5.1.3.5 Laser profile measurements might be used to char- used, the tests are safer and easier to operate than breeding
acterize surface loss. chamber tests.
5.2 Test Methods: (1) Biogenic immersion tests enable the user to simulate
5.2.1 Biogenic Acidification Tests—In these tests, the acidi- MIC relatively easily and safely without the use of H2S gas and
fication of the media is achieved by the bacterial activity; sophisticated chambers used for research purpose. A biogenic
therefore, they represent field conditions more realistically. immersion test is more realistic than an acid immersion test

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 C1894 − 19
because acidification is achieved by the action of bacteria. It is Despite being frequently used, it is important to note that
also more practical and safer than H2S chamber tests. The sulfuric acid immersion cannot mimic the complex three-phase
methods involve the use of bacteria that can consume elemen- nature of MIC in the field. Chemical acid immersion tests are
tal sulfur or thiosulfate, instead of H2S, to biogenically acidify useful in assessing material resistance to the acid attack within
the exposure environment for concrete. These tests do not Stage III of MIC (during microbial production of sulfuric acid).
require an environmental chamber, and can be completed This requires that the sample has progressed from Stage I to
within weeks. Biogenic immersion tests that use bacterial Stage II to Stage III; however, this may not be the case as there
strains that are grown in the laboratory are suitable for is growing evidence that specific materials may disrupt the
simulation of Stage II and III because the pH range of the attachment process preventing the sample from reaching Stage
solution can be controlled within the ranges of each stage (23). III due to their specific chemistry and associated bio receptivity
When bacterial strains are grown in the laboratory, biosafety (examples of such materials may include calcium aluminate
Level I laboratory conditions can be achieved. cement or antimicrobial materials in specific conditions). As
(2) Testing protocols for Stage II and Stage III benchtop such, the acid immersion tests are not suitable for the complete
biogenic acidification using bacterial strains that are produced evaluation of MIC as they do not represent the initial lowering
in the laboratory are described in (23). of pH associated with Stage I, or more importantly the
5.2.2 Reduction in pH associated with carbonation and attachment phase associated with Stage II. Chemical acid tests
biofilm attachment (Stage I and II). may be used in assessing material resistance to pure sulfuric
5.2.2.1 This test method describes the laboratory determi- acid attack.
nation of the pH at the surface of a paste, mortar or concrete.
5.2.3.5 Testing protocols for acid immersion are described
This can also be used for a ground powder.
in Test Methods C267. The standard, however, suffers from a
5.2.2.2 Testing protocols for pH testing are described in Test
lack of specificity that limits comparability of test results and
Method D4262 and (25).
presents the opportunity for manipulation of the test method to
5.2.3 Acid Immersion Test (Acid Damage in Stage III at Low
influence the outcome. It has been pointed out that this
pH):
standard requires improvements to describe the sample volume
5.2.3.1 This test method describes the laboratory determi-
to acid solution ratio and the frequency of acid solution
nation of the resistance of paste, mortar or concrete to acids.
This is only applicable to concrete in Stage III. refreshment (2).
5.2.3.2 There are several methods to improve concrete’s 5.2.4 Tests for Screening Antimicrobial Products:
resistance to acids: 5.2.4.1 These tests assess the effectiveness of antimicrobial
(1) choosing the correct mixture of constituents and com- products for screening and qualification purposes. However,
position to reduce the acidic dissolution, they are not specifically developed for concrete; therefore, they
(2) choosing the correct mixture of constituents and com- should be used with caution.
position to reduce the permeability of concrete, 5.2.4.2 Examples of testing protocols for the assessment of
(3) isolating the concrete from the acidic environment by antimicrobial products are described in Test Methods D4783,
using a suitable coating or Practice G21, ISO 22196, and (23).
(4) modifying the environment to make it less aggressive to 5.2.5 Summary of the Test Methods:
the concrete. This method can be used to evaluate aspects of
5.2.5.1 Table 2 provides an overview of the test methods
1-3.
used for assessing MIC as well as the stages most associated
5.2.3.3 Acids attack concrete by dissolving both hydrated
with these tests. Limitations and benefits of the tests are
and unhydrated cement compounds as well as calcareous
provided.
aggregate. In most cases, the chemical reaction forms water-
soluble calcium compounds, which are then leached away.
Siliceous aggregates are resistant to most acids and other 6. Keywords
chemicals and are sometimes specified to improve the chemical 6.1 concrete; mortar; portland cement; wastewater; sewage;
resistance of concrete. Calcium carbonate aggregates are some- concrete pipe; concrete boxes; three-sided structures; man-
times specified to provide a sacrificial source of calcium to holes; microbially induced corrosion (MIC) of concrete; bio-
improve the chemical resistance of concrete. genic (biotic) acidification; chemical (abiotic) acidification;
5.2.3.4 Sulfuric acid immersion tests are frequently used as sulfate oxidizing bacteria (SOB); sulfate reducing; bacteria
a surrogate test for assessing concrete resistance to MIC. (SRB); hydrogen sulfide (H2S); biofilm

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 C1894 − 19
TABLE 2 Overview of the Test Methods Assessing MIC of Concrete
Test Acidification Stage Limitations (L) and Benefits (B)
Accelerated chamber tests Biogenic I, II, III L: Difficult to perform; long (months); expensive; requires large
investment in testing infrastructure; involves risks and safety
concerns due to presence of H2S gas; although possible, not easy
to use it as a Stage II test due to reduced ability to control the pH
of the environment by adjusting the H2S concentration.
B: Realistic
Benchtop biogenic immersion Biogenic I, II, III L: Less realistic than accelerated chamber tests in representing
tests field conditions as it does not use H2S gas; requires the cultivation
of bacteria.
B: fast (weeks); easier to perform and less expensive than
accelerated chamber tests; biosafety Level I when appropriate
bacterial strains are grown in the laboratory; can be used to
simulate all stages of MIC; Stage II tests can be used to assess
antimicrobial presence and performance in concrete.
Acid immersion test Chemical III L: Not a biogenic test; does not reflect field conditions; cannot be
used in Stage I or II of MIC; cannot be used to assess the
presence and performance of antimicrobial products in concrete.
B: Easy to perform; fast (weeks); can be used to assess various
concrete mix modifications in Stage III, albeit with some exceptions
(for example, CAC).
Tests for screening antimicrobial Biogenic II, III L: Not specifically developed for concrete.
products

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