Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Chapter 1 – “Introduction to Chemistry”  We can try to produce more; oil from

“The Central Science” soybeans to make biodiesel.
 Fossil fuels, solar batteries (that store energy –
rechargeable?), nuclear (don’t forget
pollution!)
Medicine and Biotechnology
 Supply materials doctors use to treat patients.
 Vitamin C, penicillin, aspirin (C9H8O4)
 Materials for artery transplants and hipbones.
 Bacteria producing insulin.
Agriculture
Alchemy  Produce the world’s food supply.
In Europe, Alchemy was the quest for the  Use chemistry for better productivity – soil,
Philosopher’s Stone (the elixir, the Sorcerer’s Stone). water, weeds.
Allegedly, this substance would turn cheap metals into  Plant growth hormones.
gold.  Ways to protect crops, insecticides.
Alchemical Symbols for Substances…  Disease resistant plants.
The Universe
 Need to gather data from afar, and analyze
matter brought back to Earth.
 composition of the planets
Transmutation: changing one substance into  analyze moon rocks.
another  planet atmospheres
 life on other planets

Chemistry – is the study of the composition of “matter”

– (matter is anything with mass and occupies space),
In ordinary chemistry, we cannot transmute
its composition, properties, and the changes it
elements.
undergoes.
Antoine Laurant Lavoisier (1743-1749)  Has a definite effect on everyday life - taste of
“Father of Modern Chemistry”” foods, grades of gasoline, etc.
- French chemist: though he was not a great  Living and nonliving things are made of
experimental chemist for he used others’ matter.
result to propose many theories.
- To verify the work of others, he did very Pure and Applied Chemistry
careful quantitative experiments. Nylon
 In the early 1930’s, Wallace Carothers
Chemistry Far and Wide produced nylon while researching cotton and
Chemists design materials to fit specific needs silk.
– Velcro perfume, steel, ceramics, plastics, rubber,  A team of scientists and engineers applied
paints, nonstick cooking utensils, polyester fibers. Carothers’s research to the commercial
production of nylon.
The Environment Aspirin
 Both risks and benefits involved in  Long before researchers figured out how
discoveries aspirin works, people used it to relieve pain,
 Pollutants need to be (1) identified and (2) and doctors prescribed it for patients who
prevented. were ate risk for a heart attack.
 Lead paint was prohibited in 1978; Leaded  In 1971, it was discovered that aspirin can
gasoline? Drinking water? block the production of a group of chemicals
 Carbon Dioxide, Ozone, Global Warming that cause the pain and lead to the formation
Energy – we constantly have greater demands. of blood clots. This is an example of Pure
 We can conserve it; use wisely. Research.
Technology
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Technology is how a society provides its A hypothesis is a proposed

members with those things needed and desired. explanation for an observation.
 Technology allows humans to do some things 3. Experiment
more quickly or with less effort. An experiment is a procedure that is
 There are debates about the risks and benefits used to test a hypothesis. When you design
of technology. experiments, you deal with variables, or
Pure Chemistry is the pursuit of chemical knowledge factors that can change.
for its own sake.  The variable that you
Pure research can lead directly to an application, but an chance during an
application can exist before research is done to explain experiment is the
how it works manipulated variable, or
Applied Chemistry is research that is directed toward a independent variable.
practical goal or application.  The variable that is
observed during the
experiment is the
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. responding variable, or
Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter and dependent variable.
the changes that matter undergoes. 4. Developing Theories
Because living and nonliving things are made of matter, Once a hypothesis meets the test of
chemistry affects all aspects of life and most natural repeated experimentation, it may become a
events. theory.
 A theory is a well-tested
Areas of Study explanation for a broad set
(5 Traditional Areas of Study) of observations.
1. Organic Chemistry – is defined as the study of  A theory may need to be
all chemical containing carbon. changed at some point in
2. Inorganic Chemistry – is the study of the future to explain new
chemicals that, in general, do not contain observations or
carbon. experimental results.
3. Biochemistry – is the study of processes that Scientific Laws
take place in organisms. - Is a concise statement that summarizes the
4. Analytical Chemistry – is the area of study result of many observations and experiments.
that focuses on the composition of matter. - Doesn’t try to explain the relationship it
5. Physical Chemistry – is the area that deals describes. That explanation requires a theory.
with the mechanism, the rate, and the energy A law summarizes what has happened.
transfer that occurs when matter undergoes a A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it
change. happened – this changes as new information is gathered.

Thinking like a Scientist

 In 1928, Alecander Fleming noticed that
bacteria he was studying did not grow in the
presence of a yellow-green mold.
 In 1945, Fleming shared a Nobel Prize for
Medicine with Howard Florey and Ernst
Chain, who led the team that isolated
penicillin.

The Scientific Method

- is a logical, systematic approach to the
solution of a scientific problem.
Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Making Observations
When you use your senses to obtain
information, you make an observation.
2. Testing Hypothesis
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Chapter 2 -
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Chapter 3 – Matter  Components retain their characteristic

The universe is made up of matter and energy. THERE properties.
IS NOTHING ELSE.  May be separated intro pure substances by
physical methods.
Matter – anything that takes up space (has volume) an  Mixtures of different compositions may have
has mass. (Ex: air, desk, dirt clod, chocolate chip widely different properties.
cookie.) Solution
Energy – the ability to make things move. (Ex: light, - Homogeneous
heat, sound, magnetic, electricity.) - Very small particles.
(Energy does not have mass, does not take up space, it - No Tyndal effect.
moves matter.) - Particles don’t settle. (Rubbing alcohol.)
Atoms – building block of matter. Colloid
The arrangement of these atoms determines the - Heterogeneous
properties of matter. - Medium-sized particles.
- Tyndall effect.
- Particles don’t settle (Milk)
Suspension
- Heterogeneous
- Large Particles
- Tyndall effect
- Particles settle (Fresh-squeezed lemonade)

Properties of Matter
Physical Properties – A characteristic of a material that
can be observed or measured without changing
the composition of the substances in the material.
- Observation based on 5 senses.
- Density (D = Mass/Volume) Phase (s, l, g)
Can be used to:
- Identify materials.
- Choose Materials.
Example:
Viscosity – measure of a material’s resistance to flow.
Conductivity – measure of a material’s ability to
conduct electric current.
Compounds Malleability – measures a solid’s ability to be pounded
 Law of Definite Composition into thin sheets.
o A given compound always contains Hardness – measures a solid’s resistance to scratching.
the same, fixed ration of elements. Melting Point – the temperature at which a substance
 Law of Multiple Proportions changes from a solid to a liquid state.
o Elements can combine in different Boiling Point – the temperature at which a substance
ratios to form different compounds. transition from a liquid to a gaseous state.
Slight differences in combinations of atoms can have Density – a property that describes the relationship
large differences in properties. between mass and volume.
H2O – Water
H2O2 – Hydrogen Peroxide

Mixture
 Two or more substance that are not
chemically combined.
 Do not have a fixed composition.
 Do not have constant boiling points or melting
points.
 Variable composition.
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Plasma – It is an ionized gas and the common state of

matter. It is a very good conductor of electricity and is
affected by magnetic fields. Plasmas, like gases have an
indefinite shape and volume.

States of Matter
- Based upon particle arrangement.
- Based upon energy of particles.
- Based upon distance between particles.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Chemical Property – the ability to produce a change in Matter is made up of particles which are in
the composition of matter. continual random motion.
- Can be observed only when the substances in
a sample of matter are changing into different
substances.
- How substances behave in chemical reactions
(always involves change in composition)
- Ex: Gas formed (bubbling, fizzing), solid or
precipitate formed, gain or loss of energy
(change in temperature, light emitted), new
color (not from dye)
Examples
Flammability – ability to burn in presence of O2.
Reactivity – how readily a substance combines
chemically with other substances.

Properties of Matter, two other terms

Extensive Properties – depend on the amount of matter
that is present.
Volume Mass Energy Content (think calories!)
Intensive Properties – do not depend on the amount of
matter.
Density Melting point Color Boiling point.

Physical Changes – Some of the properties of a

material change, but the substances in the material
remain the same. (Melting or Boiling, Crumpling or
Slicing)
Chemical Change – occurs when a substance reacts
and forms one or more new substances.
Evidence for chemical changes:
- Color change, Production of gas, Formation
of precipitate.

4 States of Matter
Solid – Particles of solid are tightly packed, vibrating
about a fixed position. It has a definite shape and
volume.
Liquid – Particles of liquid are tightly packed but are
far enough apart to slide over one another. It has an
indefinite shape, and a definite volume.
Gas – Particles of gases are very far apart and more
freely. It has an indefinite shape and volume. Some places where plasmas are found:
1. Flames
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

2. Lighting
3. Aurora (Northern Lights)
The sun is an example of a star in its plasma state.
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Chapter 4 – Atoms Thomson called the negatively charged “corpuscles”,

The atomic model has changed throughout the today known as electrons.
centuries, starting in 400BC, when it looked like a Since the gas was known to be neutral, having no
billiard ball. charge, he reasoned that there must be positively
To Democritus, atoms were small, hard charged particles in the atom.
particles that were all made of the same material but But he could never find them.
were different shapes and sizes.
- Atoms were infinite in number, always Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
moving and capable of joining together. Charge of electron – very important application of
- He named the smallest piece of matter uniform electric field between two plate – Robert
“Atomos”, meaning “not to be cut”. Millikan (1868 – 1953)
This theory was ignored and forgotten for more than Purpose: to find charge of an electron
2000 years!
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air, and water In 1908, the English physicist Ernest
approach to the nature of matter. Their ideas held sway Rutherford was hard at work on an experiment that
because of their eminence as philosophers. The Atomos seemed to have little to do with unraveling the mysteries
idea was buried for approximately 2000 years. of the atomic structure.
Rutherford’s experiment involved firing
stream of tiny positively charged particles at a thin sheet
of good foil (2000 atoms thick).

Dalton’s Theory
- He deduced that all elements are composed of
atoms. Atoms are invisible and indestructible
particles.
- Atoms of the same element are exactly alike. Most of the positively charged “bullets”
- Atoms of different elements are different. passed right through the gold atoms in the sheet of gold
- Compounds are formed by the joining of foil without changing course at all.
atoms of two or more elements. Some of the positively charged “bullets”,
however, did bounce away from the gold sheet as if they
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model had it something solid. He knew that positive charged
- In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson repel positive charges.
provided the first hint that an atom is made of - This could only mean that the gold atoms in
even smaller particles. the sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were
- He proposed a model of the atom that is not a pudding filled with a positively charged
sometimes called the “Plum Pudding” model. material.
- Atoms were made from a positively charged - Rutherford concluded that an atom had a
substance with negatively charged electrons small, dense, positively charged center that
scattered about, like raisins in a pudding. repelled his positively charged “bullets”.
Thomson studied the passage of an electric current - He called the center of the atom the
through a gas. “nucleus”.
As the current passed through the gas, it gave off rays of - The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom.
negatively charged particles. Rutherford reasoned that all an atom’s positively
Thomson concluded that the negative charges came charged particles were contained in the nucleus. The
from within the atom. negatively charged particles were scattered outside the
A particle smaller than an atom had to exist. nucleus around the atom’s edge.
The atom was divisible!
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Bohr Model
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)
proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each - The unit of measurement for an atom is an
electron in a specific energy level. AMU.
According to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons - It is equal to the mass of one proton.
move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like - There are 6 x 1023 or
planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are 600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amus in
located at certain distances from the nucleus. one gram.
(Remember that Electrons are 2000 times
Wave Model smaller than one AMU.)
Today’s atomic model is based on the Atoms
principles of wave mechanics. - Made of three particles:
According to the theory of wave mechanics, o Protons (+)
electrons do not move about an atom is a definite path, o Neutron (N)
like the planets around the sun. o Electrons (-)
In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact
- It is the electromagnetic force of attraction
location of an electron. The probable location of an
between the positive protons in the nucleus an
electron is based on how much energy the electron has.
the negative electrons orbiting around the
According to the modern atomic model, at
nucleus that holds the atom together.
atom has a small positively charged nucleus surrounded
Atomic Number
by a large region in which there are enough electrons to
Elements contain one or more of the same
make an atom neutral.
types of atoms. All known elements can be found on the
periodic table.
Electron Cloud:
- Elements can be identified by their atomic
- A space in which electrons are likely to be
number.
found.
- The atomic number is the number of
- Electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of
PROTONS in the atoms of an element.
times in one second.
- It can be used like a social security number
- They are not moving around in random
for people.
patterns.
- It is used to IDENTIFY the element from the
- Location of electrons depends upon how
Periodic Table.
much energy the electron has.
Atomic Mass Number
- Depending on their energy they are locked
- The atomic mass number includes the number
into a certain area in the cloud.
of protons and neutrons, since they are the
- Electrons with the lowest energy are found in
two largest particles in the atom.
the energy level closest to the nucleus.
- Since they are both located in the nucleus, the
- Electrons with the highest energy are found in
mass of the atom is in the nucleus.
the outermost energy levels, farther from the
- Atomic Mass Number = protons + neutrons.
nucleus.
Ions
- Is an atom or group of atoms with a positive
or negative charge.
- A particle with a neutral charge has the same
number of protons and electrons.
- An ion does not have the same number of
electrons and protons.
Isotopes
- Atoms with the same number of protons, but
different numbers of neutrons.
- Atoms of the same element (same atomic
number) with different mass numbers.
- Because of the existence of isotopes, the mass
of a collection of atoms has an average value.
- Average Mass = ATOMIC WEIGHT
Atomic Mass
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

- Is the weighted average mass of all the atomic

masses of the isotopes of that atom.
Electron Configurations
- Tells us in which orbitals the electrons for an
element are located.
- Electron configuration of an atom is a
shorthand method of writing the location of
electrons by sublevel.
- The sublevel is written followed by a
superscript with the number of electrons in the 1 = 1 (p orbitals)
sublevel.
- If the 2p sublevel is contains 2 electrons, it is
written 2p2.

- The arrangement of the electrons in the atom.

- Electrons are arranged in Energy Levels or
Shell around the nucleus of an atom.

1 = 2 (d orbitals)

f-orbitals

Writing Electron Configurations

- First, determine how many electrons are in the
atom. Iron has 26 electrons.
- Arrange the energy sublevel according to
increasing energy:
o 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d…
- Fill each sublevel with electrons until you
have used all the electrons in the atom:
o Fe: 1s1 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
- The sum of the superscripts equals the atomic
number of iron (26).
Atomic Mass – the sum of protons and neutrons.
Atomic Number – number of protons.
Number of Protons – number of electrons
Number of Neutrons – Atomic Mass – Atomic
Number, Atomic Mass – Proton, Atomic Mass –
Electron.

1 = 0 (s orbitals)
According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, no two
electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

The Aufbau Principle states that electrons are added to General rules for writing electron configurations:
the lowest energy orbitals first before moving to higher 1. Electrons will reside in the available orbitals
energy orbitals. of the lowest possible energy.
2. Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of
two electrons.
3. Electrons will not pair in degenerate orbitals if
an empty orbital is available.
4. Orbitals will fill in the order indicated in the
figure.

According to Hund’s rule, the most stable arrangement

of electrons is the one in which the number of electrons
with the same spin is maximized.

Electron Configuration Exceptions

Sometimes the electron configuration of an
element is not what you expect it to be. This is due to
the need for stability.
An atom will change its configuration to
become more stable. An electron may move from one
sublevel to another if it makes the atom more stable.
IN ORDER OF STABILITY: Full shell > full
subshell > ½ filled subshells > no arrangement.
These exceptions occur in the transition
metals where the d subshells are incompletely filled.
 1 electron from 4s is shifted between 2 very
closely spaced sublevels 4s and 3d.
 The atom assumes the new configuration
because 2 half-filled subshell are more stable
than 1 full subshell and one subshell with no
special arrangement.
 These exceptions normally occur only in the
3d and 4d sublevels because the 4s and 3d and
the 5s and 4d sublevels are very close in
energy level.
 Exceptions do not occur in the 5d and 6d
sublevels (Except for Au #79) because 6s and
5d are not close in energy levels.
 There is a 4f sublevel between them which
shields the 6s electrons and prevents them
from shifting to a much higher energy level.
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

 Only other exceptions in the transition

element are Cu (29), Mo (42), Ag (47), and
Au (79).
Quantum Numbers
Principle: n (Energy Level)
The distance the orbital is from the nucleus 1,
2, 3, 4…
Angular Momentum: l shape.
s = 0, d = 2,
p = 1, f = 3.
Magnetic: ml spatial orientation
0 for s; -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 for d, -1, 0, +1 for
p; etc.
Spin: ms spin +1/2 or -1/2

Block and Sublevels

 We can use the periodic table to predict which
sublevel is being filled by a particular
element.

Noble Gas Core Electron Configurations

 Recall, the electron configuration for Na is:
Na: 1s1 2s2 2p6 3s1
 We can abbreviate the electron configuration
by indicating the innermost electrons with the
symbol of the preceding noble gas.
 The preceding noble gas with an atomic
number less than sodium is neon, Ne. We
rewrite the electron configuration:
Na: [Ne] 3s1
Valence Electrons
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

 When an atom undergoes a chemical reaction,

only the outermost electrons are involved.
 These electrons are of the highest energy and
are furthest away from the nucleus. These are
the valence electrons.
 The valence electrons are the s and p electrons
beyond the noble gas core.

Predicting Valence Electrons

 The roman numeral in the American
convention indicates the number of valence
electrons.
o Group IA elements have 1 valence
electron.
o Group VA elements have 5 valence
electrons.
 When using the IUPAC designations for
group numbers, the last digit indicates the
number of valence electrons.
o Group 14 elements have 4 valence
electrons.
o Group 2 elements have 2 valence
electrons.
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

Chapter 5 – Periodic Table of Element Lead Plumbum Pb

Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
The History of the Modern Periodic Table Potassium Kalium K
During the nineteenth century, chemist began Silver Argentum Ag
to categorize the elements according to similarities in Sodium Natrium Na
their physical and chemical properties. The result of Tin Stannum Sn
these studies was our modern periodic table.
Tungsten Wolfram W
Areas of the Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 – 1907)
Three classes of elements are:
“Father of the modern periodic table”
1. Metals
In 1869 he published a table of the elements
2. Nonmetals
organized by increasing atomic mass.
3. Metalloids: border the line-2 sides
 Predicted the physical properties of three
elements that were yet unknown.
Elements
 Science has come along way since Aristotle’s
theory of Air, Water, Fire, and Earth.
 Scientist have identified 90 naturally
occurring elements and created about 28
others.

Properties of Metals
 Metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity.
 Metals are shiny.
 Metals are ductile (can be stretched into thin
Symbols wires).
 All elements have their own unique symbol.  Metals are malleable (can be pounded into
 It can consist of a single capital letter, or a thin sheets).
capital letter and one or two lower case letters.  A chemical property of metal is its reaction
Symbols for Elements with water which results in corrosion.
 Symbols derived from the capitalized 1st letter Properties of Non-Metals
of the English name of the element.  Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
 Symbols derived from the 1 st 2 letter of the electricity.
English name. The 1st letter of the symbol is  Non-metals are not ductile or malleable.
capitalized but the second letter is in lower
 Solid non-metals are brittle and break easily.
case.
 They are dull.
 Symbols based on the first letter of the
 Many non-metals are gases.
English name and one other letter (written in
Properties of Metalloids
lower case), which is not the 2 nd letter.
 Metalloids (metal-like) have properties of
(Because there 2 or more elements whose
both metals and non-metals.
names have the same 1st 2 letters.
 They are solids that can be shiny or dull.
 A few symbols are based on the Latin (or
other foreign) names.  They conduct heat and electricity better than
non-metals but not as well as metals.
Name Latin Name Symbol
 They are ductile and malleable.
Antimony Stibnium Sb
Copper Cuprum Cu
The Periodic Law says:
Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)

When elements are arranged in order of

increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition
of their physical and chemical properties.
Horizontal Rows = periods
There are 7 periods.
Vertical column = group (or family)
Similar physical & chemical properties.
Identified by number & letter (IA, IIA)