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© Institute of Environmental Science & Meteorology,

College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman

Fig. 1. The historic city of Vigan in Ilocos Sur is one of the five sites in the Philippines
inscribed on the UNESCO’s World Heritage List (UNESCO). In 2019, it was hailed as one
of CNN’s 13 of Asia's Most Picturesque Towns (DOT). Some 1.4 M local & foreign
tourists visited this heritage city in 2017 (Galiste/ABS-CBN News). Photo by CLRingor.

Module 8
University of the Philippines Diliman

Sustainable
Tourism
Learning Outcomes

! Identify the negative environmental impact

caused by tourism & recreation

!
Explain how sustainable tourism in
developing countries can be achieved

© CLRingor

Tourism
Tourism is a social, cultural & economic phenomenon
which entails the movement of people to countries or
places outside their usual environment for personal or
business/professional purposes. These people are called
visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists;
residents or non-residents) & tourism has to do with their
activities, some of which involve tourism expenditure
(UNWTO).

Fig. 2. Tourists kayaking in El Nido, Palawan. Tourist arrivals in El Nido have

grown exponentially in the past 20 years. Municipal tourism data showed
that from 10,749 tourists in 1997, the number of visitors reached 144,257 in
2017, with an annual growth in tourist arrivals of about 15% since 2011
(Llanto/Rappler). Photo by CLRingor.
4
Direct Environmental
Impacts
⛰ Habitat or ecosystem alteration &
fragmentation

%
The cumulative effects of tourism over time are particularly
problematic because the developers & tourists in question
Impacts on wildlife
are often out of the picture before impacts become obvious.
A more subtle impact of tourist facility development is the
gradual yet persistent transformation from a natural to a built
environment. As the number of tourists in an area increases,
the demand for facilities increases, & thus their supply.

&
Eventually, the built environment almost wholly subsumes
the natural environment, that very often initiated the tourism Aesthetic & cultural impacts
& its replacement by conventional tourist architecture &
synthetic landscapes & pseudo-places (Davies & Cahill,
2000).

" Resource use (energy & water)

' Impact on gateway communities
outside national parks & other host
communities

# Pollution & waste outputs (water, air, &

land quality)
( Positive impacts (preservation)

Tourism & Water Use

Tourism accounts for a minor share of global water use, about
1% (Gossling, 2013). Yet, tourism is often a major user of
freshwater in areas where water is scarce or where renewal
rates of aquifers are limited, such as small islands. Its
contribution to water consumption can also be nationally &
regionally significant.

Direct water uses include kitchens, laundry, toilets, showers,

swimming pools, cooling, or the irrigation of gardens, as well
as water use for various activities such as golf, diving, saunas,
or spas. Water consumption rates as reported in the literature
are in the range of 84-2,000 L/tourist/day, & up to 3,423 L/ virtual water is imported. For instance, construction accounts
bedroom/day. Various factors influence water use. Hotels in for an estimated 17% of global water consumption, mostly for
the tropics are more likely to have irrigated gardens & cement production, & water use in fuel production can be as
swimming pools – the two most significant individual sources high as 18 L of water per 1 L of gasoline. Biofuels, often seen
of water demand in this sector – while hotels in rural areas will as the solution to future energy scarcity, are especially water
usually occupy larger areas than their urban counterparts. intensive. The production of 1 L of liquid biofuels is currently
Campsites are likely to consume considerably less water than estimated to consume 2,500 L of water (Gossling, 2013).
five star hotels, specifically hotels associated with golf
courses, which can consume up to 1 M m3 of water per year Food is another important issue because its preparation
(Gossling, 2013). requires large volumes of water. Specifically in tropical tourism,
food availability & provisions are an important part of the
Indirect tourism-related water consumption is even more image of abundance that characterizes the tropical tourism
relevant, creating water hinterlands, i.e. regions from where paradise. In such environments, considerable amounts of food
may be thrown away, while small islands in particular may
Fig. 3. Swimming pools is one of the most significant individual sources of water
demand in tourism. It is ironic that people would opt to swim in the pools when a very import a large share of foodstuffs by air, often over large
beautiful beach with clear, cool waters is right in front. Top: a hotel in Ilocos Norte distances. This generates ‘water hinterlands’, as both fuel &
(photo by CLRingor). Bottom: Google Earth satellite image of some hotels in Boracay
boasting several swimming pools.

6
 particular may import a large share of foodstuffs by air, often
over large distances. This generates ‘water hinterlands’, as
both fuel & food production require vast amounts of water. For
example, water requirements to support tourist diets are in the
order of up to 5,000 L/tourist/day (Gossling, 2013).

Tourism’s impact on fresh water availability & quality is

dependent on a wide range of factors, such as the relative
abundance & quality of water in the respective tourism region,
current & anticipated future water abstraction rates, the share
of non-consumptive versus consumptive uses, the seasonal &
spatial character of water abstraction, competing uses, & the
treatment of sewage & wastewater. It is also important to
Fig. 4. It takes a lot of water to prepare the food that we eat. Water requirements to consider that future climate change will significantly affect
support tourist diets are in the order of up to 5,000 L/tourist/day (Gossling, 2013).
Photo from wkadventures.com rainfall & water availability. Potential measures to manage
freshwater resources may include ‘win-win’ solutions, or
trade-offs between the different factors.
virtual water is imported. For instance, construction accounts
for an estimated 17% of global water consumption, mostly for
cement production, & water use in fuel production can be as
high as 18 L of water per 1 L of gasoline. Biofuels, often seen
Development & Land
as the solution to future energy scarcity, are especially water
intensive. The production of 1 L of liquid biofuels is currently Use
estimated to consume 2,500 L of water (Gossling, 2013).
The environmental impacts of the construction & development
Food is another important issue because its preparation of facilities needed to support the industry are both immediate
requires large volumes of water (Fig. 4). Specifically in tropical & gradual. Development associated with tourism includes
tourism, food availability & provisions are an important part of accommodations, roads, retail stores & restaurants, tourist
the image of abundance that characterizes the tropical attractions, tourists’ seasonal waterfront homes, water
tourism paradise. In such environments, considerable supplies, & waste disposal facilities. An example of a gradual
amounts of food may be thrown away, while small islands in impact is the leaching of nutrients from septic systems of

the excess can flow directly into water

bodies untreated, creating a potential
health hazard. The sewage problem
with tourist facilities is further
exacerbated by the seasonal nature of
many tourist areas. An area which off-
season may have the capacity (either
through septic systems or treatment
plants) to properly treat sewage may
be overburdened during the tourist
season (Davies & Cahill, 2000).

Sewage effluent can damage coral

reefs because it stimulates the growth
of algae, which cover the filter-feeding
corals, hampering their ability to get
food (Fig. 5). Furthermore, the algae
impede the transmission of sunlight to
the plant cells (zooxanthellae) living
within the corals’ tissue, hindering their
Fig. 5. Coral reefs are threatened by sewage effluent because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the ability to grow & provide the coral with
filter-feeding corals, hampering their ability to get food. Photo by CLRingor. needed nutrition.

tourists’ waterfront homes into the Tourist infrastructure can also Tourist facilities increase the amount of
waterbody, accelerating eutrophication adversely impact water quality impervious surfaces, causing more
(causing algal blooms) & depleting because more wastewater is created runoff to reach water bodies. This
dissolved oxygen supplies (Davies & in one place, putting more pressure on runoff contains nutrients, suspended
Cahill, 2000). sewage treatment plants or septic particles, & oil & gas. Excess nutrients
systems in the tourist destination. added to a water body can accelerate
When a sewage treatment plant the process of eutrophication, causing
receives more effluent than it can treat, an overgrowth of algae, which in turn

8
 A

uses up excess dissolved oxygen as the algae decays,

causing fish kills. The overgrowth of algae is also a nuisance
to swimmers. Furthermore, if masses of algae wash up on
shore, they can create a foul-smelling area & a breeding
ground for biting flies.

Construction of facilities supporting the tourism industry can

also damage vegetation cover, wetlands, mangroves, coral
reefs, & estuaries (Fig. 6). Such habitats have been destroyed
to make way for roads, airports, marinas, sewage treatment
plants, & recreational facilities. This destruction is problematic
because, for example, wetlands provide many crucial
functions, including acting as a nursery ground for a diverse
aquatic community, & helping to buffer the impacts of
pollutants to the water body.

Other adverse effects of development include construction of B

jetties, breakwaters, & groins built to create artificial harbors
(Figs. 6 & 7). These can increase erosion of those areas on the
downstream side of the littoral drift (i.e., the movement of
sand along the nearshore water propelled by the prevailing
current). In addition to their physical impacts, these structures
can detract from the aesthetics of an area. The construction
of marinas can alter water levels & nutrient concentrations, as
well as destroy habitat.

Fig. 6. An island in Culion, Palawan before (A, 2009) & after (B, 2018) the
development of a so-called eco-tourism island resort. Images from Google Earth.
You can look at Google Earth to see before & after images of small islands in the
Philippines that have been developed for tourism.

A B

90 m

Fig. 7. The effect of constructing marina & groins. Notice the offset in the shoreline, one side is more seaward while the other side is more landward. The more landward side is
experiencing land loss (erosion). A. Marina in Island Garden City of Samal (IGaCOS), Davao del Norte. Image from Google Earth dated 22 Mar 2015. B. Groin along
Matabungkay Beach, Lian, Batangas. Photo by CLRingor.

On top of that, tourism-related development has an impact on

wildlife, which can be indirect as well as direct. For example,
Impacts on National Park Gateway
automobile headlights, streetlights, & resort illumination on Communities & Other Host
beachside roads can disorient marine turtles. This Communities
disorientation causes them to head inland instead of towards
the sea. Tourism can also cause significant disturbances to
Communities adjacent to national parks that cater to tourists
animals in their natural habitats. This may frighten animals,
are called “gateway communities.” Development of these
especially at sensitive times of their life cycle, & have an
areas is often undertaken without consideration of the natural
adverse effect on breeding. Feeding of wildlife by tourists can
landscape. Indiscriminate & scattered development tends to
change social behavior patterns.
detract from the local character of such areas & homogenizes

10
the experience for the visitor (Davies & Cahill, 2000). These
areas are dominated by a gaggle of fast-food restaurants,
accomodations, trinket shops along the highway or
“pasalubong” centers, & transportation infrastructures. It is
important to note that development adjacent to national parks
is a trade-off for less development within the parks. If it is a
question of one or the other, then it is preferable to develop
outside of the parks. However, there is no reason why areas
adjacent to the parks cannot be developed in accordance
with the natural environment & local character.

Many resorts have ribbon or sprawl developments that are

unattractive & are not well assimilated into the surrounding
area, e.g. construction of several high-rise hotels in an attempt
to stimulate tourism. For example, visitors to Tagaytay, Cavite
initially went there to see the Taal Volcano & its caldera lake.
However, the increasing number of tourists every year led to
an expansion of the built environment, such as high-rise
buildings, malls, lines of restaurants & fast-food chains &
recreational facilities. One of the main attractions now is a 5-
hectare amusement park situated along the main road. It is
now impossible to see the volcano because the view has
been blocked by these establishments.

Tourism development can sometimes lead to displacement of

locals. The land where the beaches are considered beautiful
are being bought by developers. Since the locals living there
have no land titles, they have no choice but to relocate. This
affect not only their livelihood but their cultural connection to
the land. For example, in Nacpan Beach, El Nido, the land Fig. 8. Nacpan Beach, El Nido, Palawan. The land where the local community
where some of the locals reside is being contested (Fig. 8). settled is being contested. Photo by CLRingor. Satellite image from Google Earth
dated 18 Feb 2021.

11

Fig. 9. Mountain hiking can harm the ecosystem by trampling vegetation & by littering. It is best to remember the
Mountaineer’s creed “take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints, kill nothing but time”. Although
thousands of footprints will literally make an impact on the soil or rock. Photo by CLRingor.

Tourist
Activities
Many tourist activities occur in fragile
ecosystems, such as coral reefs. While
snorkeling & diving in & of themselves
do not cause much damage,
inadvertent related activities, such as
stepping on coral do cause damage.
With such activities, it is the cumulative
nature of the damage that is most
problematic. One or two tourists may
not cause much harm, but hundreds
of them over time can do considerable
damage to an ecosystem.

Coral reefs are also affected by tourism

as a result of the market for souvenirs.
Tourists break off pieces of coral by trampling vegetation. The greatest tourist activities. Hiking on the soil can
themselves, or the reef is dynamited by impact of tourists on vegetation usually also damage wildlife habitat (Fig. 9).
locals to sell the pieces. The occurs during initial contact with an
cumulative effect is relevant here as area, with the most sensitive species Recreational boating can cause
well, as one tourist may not affected first. The cumulative impact of damage to marine habitat & animals
understand the impact when tourists on vegetation gradually shifts such as coral by running aground or
aggregated with other tourists. species composition, because only the dragging anchor over the habitat.
most resilient plants can survive in an Marine mammals can also be
Tourists hiking along mountain ranges area under constant pressure from threatened by the propellers of
can harm the ecosystem by littering & powerboats & the wash generated by

12
 road vehicles (ORV) in sand dunes &
littering. Constant use of ORV can
cause increased erosion & accelerate
vegetation loss (Fig. 10). Trash thrown
by tourists has contributed much to
pollution (Fig. 11A) & in some
instances can harm wildlife. For
example, throwing plastics in the sea
can cause disturbing impacts on
marine life through ingestion,
suffocation, & entanglement.

Visitor & traffic congestion also exist in

many tourist destinations, resulting to
air pollution from vehicle exhaust &
Fig. 10. The use of off-road vehicles in sand dunes can exacerbate erosion & speed up loss of vegetation. Photo vegetation damage along overflow
by CLRingor. parking areas. The huge volume of
traffic is more than just an
motor boats can induce erosion of whales’ communications systems inconvenience. There are social
seagrass roots. The movement of (Davies & Cahill, 2000). impacts that also degrade the overall
tourists’ vehicles can also adversely experience, such as honking horns &
affect wildlife by separating the young Tourist activities can also alter the being stuck in the car for hours without
from their parents. It is possible that integrity of cultural resources. This knowing when it will be over. For
whale-watching boats have this impact damage includes vandalism & looting example, Baguio City has been
because studies have shown that, if of sites of cultural significance. experiencing severe traffic congestion
calves lose contact with their mothers, Damages to cultural resources is a because of high volume of tourist influx
they sometimes attach themselves to serious problem since it is like erasing (Fig. 11B). In 2017, during the ASEAN
the side of a ship. The noise made by a part of history & this is irreversible. summit, Baguio City was overflowed
these boat engines & propellers are with tourists from Metro Manila
also thought to interfere with the Other activities that can cause causing massive traffic jams that
environmental harm are the use of off- stranded for hours thousands of

13

employees & students. This resulted to

cancellation of classes from preschool
to high school (Quitasol & Cabreza/
Inquirer). Traffic jams are also
happening on the way to Baguio City,
such as in expressways & in gateways.

There is another darker side to

tourism, & this is related to heavy
drinking by some tourists. It has a
substantial impact on many elements
in the host society, increasing
consumption levels particularly among
young people working within the
tourism sector. Tourist industry B
interests have often successfully
argued for policies that result in a
wider general availability of alcohol in
the society, & provision for tourists has
often served as an entry point in the
society for the global alcohol industry.
Most alcohol-related adverse effects
include traffic & assault injuries.

Fig. 11. A. Where there are tourists, expect an

overflow of trash. Most of the trash are containers of
drinks as shown here in Burgos, Ilocos Norte. Why
can’t we just take our litter home? B. Traffic
congestion in Baguio City during a night market.
Photos by CLRingor.

14
 The revenue generated from tourists & increasing awareness & appreciation of
Benefits of their activities allows these areas to
maintain sites & buildings that would
the natural world. For example, the
development of mountain railroads
Tourism not otherwise be as well kept. made it possible for people to visit &
appreciate a previously unknown area.
Another benefit is related to its role in
Although tourism has been the fostering an appreciation & There are also positive economic
impetus for much destructive understanding of nature. Tourism impacts associated with tourism in
development, it has also been the development can facilitate an gateway communities & host
motivation for preserving sensitive
ecosystems. Some of this motivation
stems from economic benefits, as
natural parks serve as attractions for
tourists. Another is through what is
called heritage tourism, which focuses
on sharing the historical & cultural
resources of an area with travelers,
while still maintaining the integrity of
each site. This type of tourism has
been the impetus for the rehabilitation
of existing historic sites, buildings, &
monuments such as the city of Vigan
(Fig. 1) & the old churches of the
Philippines (Fig. 12).

A related benefit of tourism can be the

revitalization of derelict urban areas.

Fig. 12. Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte. It is one of the

four baroque churches in the Philippines listed in the
UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photo by CLRingor.

15

has produced economic & employment benefits in many

related sectors - from construction to agriculture to
telecommunications. Tourism supports one in 10 jobs &
provides livelihoods for many millions more in both developing
& developed economies. Export earnings generated by
tourism have grown to USD 1.7 T in 2018.

The travel & tourism sector experienced 3.5% growth in 2019,

outpacing the global economic growth of 2.5% for the ninth
consecutive year (World Travel & Tourism Council). In 2019,
travel & tourism’s direct, indirect, & induced impact accounted
for:
USD 8.9 T contribution to the world’s GDP
10.3% of global GDP
330 M jobs, 1 in 10 jobs around the world
Fig. 13. Akagera National Park is Central Africa’s largest protected wetland & the USD 1.7 T visitor exports (6.8% of total exports, 28.3% of
last remaining refuge for savannah-adapted species in Rwanda. Tourism revenue
increased by more than 1,150% from 2010-2019, generating USD 2.5M & making
global services exports)
Akagera 90% self-financing (africanparks.org). Photo from holidaymigrations.com. USD 948 B capital investment (4.3% of total investment)

It is clear that travel & tourism is one of the best partners for
communities. More visitors can mean increased employment governments to generate employment.
opportunities & an improved standard of living. Other Tourism also provide opportunities for women, who make up
economic benefits of tourism include improvement of public 54% of the workforce (UNWTO). Women, including
utilities & transport infrastructure, & an increase in tax indigenous peoples, are at the forefront in creating &
revenues. producing handicrafts, souvenirs, food items, & other related
goods that tourists buy.
Tourism is a big business, both locally & globally. According to
UN’s World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), it is the third- Tourism revenues also enable funding for biodiversity
largest export category (after fuels & chemicals) & accounted conservation efforts such as in wildlife parks in Africa (Fig. 13)
for 7% of global trade in 2019. The global spread of tourism & marine protective areas in Small Island Developing States
(UNWTO).

16
 % PhP B
12.7
13 12.3 20,000
11.7
Share TDGVA GDP 10.4
9.9

It’s More Fun 10

7.7
8.1
8.9 15,000

in the
6.8
6.2 6.3 6.4 6.2
7 5.6 5.8 5.6 5.7 5.9 5.7 5.9 10,000

Philippines? 3 5,000

Economic Benefits
0 0
According to the Philippines Statistics 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Authority (PSA), the share of tourism to
Fig. 14. The Tourism Direct Gross Value Added (TDGVA) & its share to the GDP has been increasing from
GDP is 12.7% in 2019. The Tourism 2000-2019. Data from the Philippines Tourism Satellite Accounts (PTSA)-PSA.
Direct Gross Value Added (TDGVA)
amounted to PhP 2.48 T in 2019, higher
(expenditures of Filipino residents they differ in the other two main
by 10.8% compared to PhP 2.24 T in
outside the Philippine economy). products they spend on (Fig.15). For
2018. The contribution of tourism to
locals, the next top expenditures are
GDP has been increasing from 5.6% in
In 2019, domestic expenditure miscellaneous (foreign exchange
2000 to 12.7% in 2019 (Fig. 14).
was higher, PhP 3.14 T, compared to services & medical services), & country-
the inbound, which was PhP 548.76 B. specific tourism characteristic services
Direct expenditures of tourists is partly such as shopping (Fig. 15A). In
It is interesting to note that domestic
responsible to the TDGVA. There are comparison, non-residents spend more
tourism is growing & the related
three forms of tourism expenditures: 1) on food & beverage serving services, &
expenses represent 22% of the
inbound (expenditure of non-resident transport services (Fig. 15B). This has
household final consumption
visitors, foreign visitors & Filipinos several implications: residents travel
expenditure.
permanently residing abroad, within the more abroad & they travel either for
Philippines, 2) domestic (expenditures of health reasons or to shop, & that foreign
As expected, accommodation services
resident visitors within the country either visitors do not like to shop or we do not
for visitors is the top expenditure for
as domestic trip or part of an sell products they like to buy. For the
both domestic & inbound tourists, but
international trip), & 3) outbound

17

Accommodation services for visitors Food & beverage serving services

Transport services Travel agencies & other reservation services
Entertainment & recreation services Shopping
residents, having to go to another place Miscellaneous
to have medical treatment is a reflection 2%
of poor health services in the country; & A 22% B 11%

having to travel for shopping means that 27%

Filipinos like buying things or there are Employment in Tourism Industries 32%
not enough good choices locally. 12%

In 2019, the employed persons in tourism industries was registered at 5.7 million,
Employment in tourism related which was higher by 6.5 percent than the1%5.4 million individuals posted in the
industries was estimated at 5.71 M in previous year. It contributed 13.5 percent to the total employment of the country.
2019, higher by 6.5% compared to 5.36 Passenger
18% transport had the 8%
highest share of employment among the tourism
M in the previous year. The share of industries with 38.3 percent. This was followed by Accommodation and Food and
employment in tourism industries to Beverage and Miscellaneous with shares of20% 33.6 percent and 14.0 percent,
total employment in the country grew respectively.
6%
10%
from 13.0% in 2018 to 13.5% in 2019. 9% 22%
Passenger transport had the highest Fig. 15. Domestic (A) & inbound (B) tourism expenditures for 2019. Both residents & non-residents spend
share of employment among the FIGURE
more on expenses related7toEmployment in Tourism
accomodation services. Industries,
Data from Percent
the Philippines Share:
Tourism 2019
Satellite Accounts-
tourism industries (38.3%), followed by PSA.
accommodation & food & beverage
(33.6%), & miscellaneous (14.0%).

How do we compare with other

countries in terms of tourist arrivals? The
UNWTO reported that the top 10
destinations that receive 40% of
worlwide arrivals in 2018 are: 1) France
(89.4 M), 2) Spain, 3) USA, 4) China
(62.9 M), 5) Italy (61.6 M), 6) Turkey, 7)
Mexico, 8) Germany, 9) Thailand (38.2
M), & 10) UK (38.7 M). The Philippines
received 7.1 M international tourist
arrivals in the same year.
Fig. 16. Percent share of employment in touris industries for 2019. Adapted from the 2019 Philippines
Tourism Satellite Accounts (PTSA) Report.

18
Among the industries, Accommodation and Food and Beverage and Recreation,
Entertainment and Cultural Services recorded the fastest growths in 2019 at
10.9 percent and 7.3 percent, respectively.
 Fig. 17. Google Earth image of Boracay Island
dated 27 Apr 2020. This clearly shows that
almost the entire island has been modified
from a natural to a heavily built-up area.
The Case of Boracay
Island, Malay, Aklan
Boracay is one of the most visited
tourist destinations on earth. Its White
Beach was among the world's top 25
beaches in TripAdvisor's Traveler's
Choice Awards in 2018 (Zabal/Rappler).
An estimated 2,034,599 tourists arrived
in Boracay in 2019, an increase of
116% over the arrivals figure in 2018
(Patoza/PIA).

B
ul
The island is quite small, only 10.32

ab
km2, about twice the size of UP Diliman
Campus. It is approximately 7 km long &

og
W
its width varies from 1-3 km. There are

hI
roughly 339 hotels & tourism

B
te

ea
establishments in Boracay in 2019,
accounting to more than 12,000 rooms

ch
B
(Servallos/Manila Times). Resorts (both

ea
accredited & otherwise), golf courses &

ch
other tourist attractions, retail stores &
restaurants, roads, shopping centers &
market places, residential areas, etc
share the 10.32 km2 land area (Fig. 17).
Rampant tourism growth, which
accelerated in the 1990s, resulted in
unplanned infrastructural & tourism
management practices.

19

Aside from solid wastes, there are also problems related to

flooding in Boracay. Increased in impervious road network &
poor drainage systems, or lack thereof, have caused localized
impoundment of water (Fig. 18). This kind of flooding are
normally experienced in urban areas.

The coastal waters of Boracay have also been reported to have

high levels of coliform bacteria (these bacteria are commonly
found in the feces of all warm-blooded animals & humans).
Coliform bacteria in water do not cause ailments, but it could
be a sign that other pathogens are present that if ingested, can
lead to diarrhea, cholera, & other sicknesses. In 2018, Boracay
underwent a 6-month closure from April-October due to poor
water quality. The level of coliform was nearly 900 mpn (most
Fig. 18. A flooded portion of a road in Boracay Island. Photo by CLRingor. probable number per 100 ml) in April; the standard water
quality for swimming is 400 mpn (Domingo/ABS-CBN News).
After the rehabilitation closure, the coliform level at White
Taking into account the number of tourists flocking the island, Beach went down to 8.1 mpn (as reported on 24 Oct 2018). At
we can estimate the amount of solid wastes generated by Bulabog beach, where the island’s treated waste water is
tourists only. Typically, a hotel guest can produce 1 kg of waste discharged (Fig. 19), coliform also dropped by 20-30% but is
per day (Zorpas et al. 2015). Assuming that each guest stayed still around 20,000-30,000 mpn.
for two days in the island, about 4,069 tonnes of waste was
produced in 2019 or around 11 tonnes per day. Increases in the coliform concentration in Boracay’s seas
happen periodically. In Feb 2015, coliform bacteria in the
In January to June 2019 alone, payment for the garbage waters in Bulabog Beach reached 47,460 mpn (GMA News); &
collection & hauling services amounted to PhP 95 M (Zabal/ in 1997, it was reported that the swimming area & groundwater
Rappler). The Malay government has an annual budget of Php were contaminated with coliform bacteria (Lujan/PCIJ). The
50 M to cover collection & hauling costs. From Jan-Jun 2019, incident in 1997 resulted to a 70% drop in tourist arrivals
between 60 - 70 tonnes of trash per day were transported (Vanzi/Newsflash). Ironically, it was also found that the average
from Boracay & dumped in a sanitary landfill in Barangay total coli & fecal coli counts exhibit an increasing trend as the
Kabulihan in mainland Malay. number of tourist arrivals increase during the same period

20
 Fig. 19. Outfalls along Bulabog Beach, east of Boracay Island. These pipes directly discharge wastewater into the sea. Photos by CLRingor.

from 2003 to 2012 (San Diego-McGlone, 2018). For example, there were massive algal blooms in Apr 2009 &
Dec 2012. Algal blooms occurrence is tied up strongly with
How can we prevent the increase in coliform counts from excess nutrients (nitrogen & phosphorous) & high temperature
happening repeatedly? We cannot always close Boracay every (San Diego-McGlone, 2018). Nutrient enrichment is linked to
time the bacteria levels go up. It is best to prevent this from human activities such as agriculture, industry, & sewage
happening. The DENR will have to closely monitor, at least disposal. In Boracay, it is clear that one of the major causes is
weekly, the coastal waters of Boracay. The DOT will have to discharge of wastewater into the coast.
regulate the influx of tourists. It will take commitment &
dedication from all stakeholders to sustain the cleanliness of Another problem with Boracay is that the beaches are actually
Boracay’s waters. eroding (Fig. 21). Beach erosion is the loss of beach sediments
(e.g. mud, sand, pebbles) or the landward retreat of the
In addition to coliform bacteria, which we cannot see, there is shoreline beyond the seasonal changes. This makes the beach
also a periodic occurence of abnormal ‘green tides’ (Fig. 20). width narrower, which makes the area prone to coastal

21

Fig. 21.Expose roots of coconut trees in along White Beach in Boracay. This
indicates that the beach is eroding. Photo by CLRingor.

flooding. Erosion is caused by natural processes & human

activities. Natural processes include changes in the wave
action brought by season, such as the monsoons, & also
during tropical cyclones. During tropical cyclones, the waves
are stronger, hence they remove some of the beach sediments.
However, during quiescence, the beach usually recover if man
does not interfere. Another is sea level rise due to global
warming. Human activities that cause beach erosion is the
alteration of the sources & transport of sediments. In the case
of Boracay, the main source of the sand are the coral reefs
fringing around the island. In Boracay, there have been reports
of coral reefs that are being damaged & some actually
Fig. 20. A. Green algal bloom in Boracay Island. Photo by Rhys Buccat, ABS- disappeared (San Diego-McGlone, 2018). Also, the periodic
CBN News; posted 22 Mar 2017. B. No algal bloom. Photo by CLRingor. algal bloom is harmful to the coral reefs.

22
 A B

Cases of Habitat or
Ecosystem Alteration or
Fragmentation
Ecosystems & natural habitat have been
altered or destroyed in order to build
tourist-related infrastructures (hotels,
resorts, marina or pier, airport, shopping
centers, restaurants, roads, fast food
chains, recreational sites, parking
spaces, etc). Rapid site development in C D
the coastal areas may result in coastal
areas more prone to storm damage. In
the mountain areas, damage is done to
the vegetation & soils & as a
consequence may lead to erosion &
increase flood risks. This sudden built-
up means high ecological footprint in
terms of resource requirements &
pollution & waste. Although tourism
rarely directly kills off species, tourism-
related developments & land use
contribute to species range contraction
& extinctions through habitat loss &
fragmentation. These Google Earth
satellite images (Figs. 22 & 23) will show
you how some of the famous tourist
destinations in the Philippines have
Fig. 22. The so-called Blue Lagoon in Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte in 2010 (A) & 2018 (B). Barangay Buena Suerte in El Nido,
modified the natural setting of the area. Palawan (C & D) is the gateway to island hopping & nearby beaches in the area. The images were taken in 2008 (C) &
2020 (D). In both places, you can evidently see the transformation of the green spaces to built-up area in just about 10
years. Images are from Google Earth.

23

A C

Fig. 23. Balesin Island in Polillo, Quezon (A); Cloud 9 surf area in
General Luna, Siargao Island (B); & Pamalican Island in Cuyo,
Palawan (C, this island is known for the name of the resort there,
Amanpulo). These top tourist spots in the Philippines are starting to
show signs of total habitat or ecosystem alteration or fragmentation.

24
 Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing
Sustainable Tourism socio-economic benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly
distributed, including stable employment & income-earning
opportunities & social services to host communities, &
contributing to poverty alleviation.
Tourism that takes full account of its current & future economic,
social & environmental impacts, addressing the needs of
visitors, the industry, the environment & host communities Sustainable tourism development requires the informed
(UNWTO). It should: participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong
political leadership to ensure wide participation & consensus
building. Achieving sustainable tourism is a continuous process
Make optimal use of environmental resources that
& it requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the
constitute a key element in tourism development, maintaining
necessary preventive &/or corrective measures whenever
essential ecological processes & helping to conserve natural
necessary.
heritage & biodiversity (Fig. 24).
It should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction &
Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host
ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their
communities, conserve their built & living cultural heritage &
awareness about sustainability issues & promoting sustainable
traditional values, & contribute to intercultural understanding &
tourism practices amongst them.
tolerance.

25 Fig. 24. How can we preserve or at least conserve this landscape? Photo by CLRingor.

Challenges of Sustainable Tourism in

Developing Countries
In the past year, the global travel industry has slowed, or worst
stopped, due to the coronavirus pandemic. This severely
impacted those economies that rely mostly on tourism
contribution to GDP. It is worth knowing which countries these
are. 2018 data from Knoema & The World Bank analyzed
by official-esta.com showed that the top ten countries that
create the most jobs per 100 visitors are: (1) Bangladesh – 9
jobs per tourist (944 per 100), (2) India – 2 jobs per tourist (172
per 100), (3) Pakistan – 2 jobs per tourist (154 per 100), (4)
Venezuela – 1 job per tourist (101 per 100), (5) Ethiopia – 1 job
per tourist (99 per 100), (6) Madagascar – 1 job per tourist (93
per 100), (7) Philippines – 1 job per tourist (83 per 100), (8)
Guinea – 1 job per tourist (77 per 100) (9) Libya – 1 job per
tourist (68 per 100), & (10) Nigeria – 1 job per tourist (66 per
100). All of these countries, classified by UN as developing, are
heavily dependent on tourism for revenue. It is not surprising
that tourism, as a primary source of foreign currency earning &
employment generation, is perceived as a national priority that
pre-dominates over secondary objectives & wider issues such
as preserving cultural heritage, environment, fair distribution of
economic growth, etc. all of which comprise the principles of
sustainable tourism development (Tosun, 2001). Very heavy
dependence on tourism as an economic sector increases the
economy’s vulnerability. Interestingly, none of these countries
are in the top ten tourist destinations.

Despite the revenues, the poor spread of the benefits of

tourism is still reflected in high levels of inequality (Fig. 25).
Fig. 25. Poverty-stricken communities, such as this one, are often found in nearby beach
resorts. It remains a challenge to have socio-economic benefits from tourism that are fairly
26 distributed to all stakeholders. Photo by CLRingor.
Fig. 26. A common scene in tourist areas are children selling tourist souvenirs. This girl is
one of them. Aside from environmental degradation, the greatest challenge to sustainable
tourism is poverty alleviation especially in developing nations. Photo by EPicar.

It is not uncommon to see affluent tourists being pampered in

luxurious surroundings while impoverished locals struggle to
eke out an existence (Fig. 26). This is because most developers
or owners of tourist establishments are not locals. Most of the
local residents do not have the financial capacity, especially
those who are residents in small islands. You can typically see
poor communities surrounding palatial beach resorts or hotels.

Another major concern has been the close connection between

the political & economic elite, whereby family & allies, along with
foreigners, run all aspects of the economy (Scheyvens, 2011).
They dominate ownership of resorts & reap much of the
financial benefits.

In archipelagic countries or Small Island Developing States

(SIDS), targeting of the luxury market & the ‘one island, one
resort’ model has prevented most of the locals from being able
to develop products or services for tourism (Scheyvens, 2011).
Moreover, the islands are more prone to severe ecosystem
modifications that may not be reversed.

Additionally, the structure of the public administration system on

sustainable tourism is not clearly defined. There is lack of
environmental monitoring during & after resort construction, &
oftentimes regulations are flouted both by tourists & the
government personnel themselves. Regulations on developing
tourist establishments & their activities are also lacking because
of the notion that the more there are, the more profit there will
be. Most of the stakeholders in the tourism industry is geared
towards profit, hence investment related to environmental
protection, such as solid waste management, is not a priority.

27

Summing Up
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) biodiversity; respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host
defines tourism as “a social, cultural & economic phenomenon communities; & ensure viable, long-term economic operations,
which entails the movement of people to countries or places that are fairly distributed to help alleviate poverty.
outside their usual environment for personal or business/
professional purposes”. Most developing nations are heavily dependent on tourism for
economic development, which increases the economy’s
Tourism is an important sector of economic development. The vulnerability in times of pandemics.
main benefits of tourism are income creation & generation of
jobs. It has also been the motivation for preserving sensitive
ecosystems, such as national parks, & cultural heritage sites.

While there are numerous economic benefits to tourism, it also

has several direct environmental impacts. These are: resource
use, pollution & waste output, habitat or ecosystem alteration &
fragmentation, impacts on wildlife, aesthetic & cultural impacts,
& impacts on gateway & host communities.

A more subtle impact of tourist facility development is the

gradual yet persistent transformation from a natural to a built
environment. There are many tourist places in the Philippines
where this is clearly happening.

Sustainable tourism takes full account of its current & future

economic, social & environmental impacts, addressing the
needs of visitors, the industry, the environment & host
communities (UNWTO). It should make optimal use of
environmental resources while conserving natural heritage &

28
Study Questions

What are the benefits of tourism

How do tourism activities result to
What is tourism? to the society, economy, & the
environmental degradation?
environment?

How can we achieve sustainable

tourism?

29

Learning Activities
These activities are not compulsory but please take time to do
COVID-19 & Tourism it. This will indicate how much we value, at least from an
economic perspective, our tourist sites.
To know the economic & environmental impact of COVID-19
on global tourism, go to the UNWTO (United Nations World
Tourism Organization) Tourism Data Dashboard Reflection Paper
https://www.unwto.org/unwto-tourism-dashboard Write a reflection paper about this topic discussed in the class
& in this module. Write what you used to think about or know,
List some of the ways in which this pandemic is beneficial or what you know now, and what you are not sure of or what you
detrimental to the environment & economy. want to learn more. Be specific.

This paper is worth 5 points and should be done individually.

Valuing Tourist Destinations Your answer should not exceed 300 words. Save your file in
pdf with this format SURNAME_Reflection paper3.pdf. Submit
The Municipality of Malay (Aklan) mandates that every guest or in the designated dropbox in UVLE.
tourist going to Boracay pay an Environmental Fee &
Admission Fee in the amount Php 300.00 for foreign nationals
& Php 150.00 for local tourists (but not Aklanon) (Municipal
Ordinance No. 431, Series of 2020). The ordinance was put
forward because “the big influx of tourists in Boracay imposes
environmental concerns which must be properly addressed in
order to sustain the Island as a premier tourist destination in
the country. To attain this desired sustainability, substantial
funds must be raised for logistical purposes” (Section 1). Do
you think that we should impose such fees? Why? If your
answer is yes, do you think that this fee is enough to help
sustain Boracay as a tourist destination? Support your answer.

30
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