sustainability

Article
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Travel Behavior
and Travel Mode Preferences: The Example of Bosnia
and Herzegovina
Amra Čaušević

Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
amric.causevic@yahoo.com or amra.causevic@pmf.unsa.ba; Tel.: +387-33-723709

Abstract: This study aims to analyze the perception of travel, especially in the context of the pandemic,
when the measures are alleviated, as well as the citizens’ intentions and preferences for travel methods
during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of the study is to investigate the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on travel behavior and travel mode preferences in the example of the residents of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Five research questions were defined. A quantitative research approach was applied in
this study. The data were collected through a questionnaire (online survey) distributed to respondents
via e-mail and the social network Facebook. The convenience sample included 265 respondents. In
the study, a descriptive and quantitative comparative analysis was conducted. The results show that
the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced a change in travel behavior. The primary purpose of travel
during and before the pandemic was social activities. The most significant change in the primary
purpose of travel during and before the pandemic is reflected in a decrease in social activities and an
increase in recreational sports activities. In contrast, other activities remained proportionally the same
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The average distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
before the pandemic is greater than that for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The results of this study could be useful in traffic planning and making various policies during
various pandemics based on people’s travel needs. In particular, government bodies could use such
knowledge to plan partial and smarter lockdowns. Tourism and transport companies could use this
information to better plan their services and operations.
Citation: Čaušević, A. Impact of the
COVID-19 Pandemic on Travel Keywords: COVID-19; tourist behavior; travel mode preferences; Bosnia and Herzegovina
Behavior and Travel Mode
Preferences: The Example of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. Sustainability 2023,
15, 10701. https://doi.org/
1. Introduction
10.3390/su151310701
The literature review has pointed out that human interaction and mobility contribute
Academic Editor: Frank Witlox to the spread of infectious diseases, especially during pandemics [1–6]. Thus, travel
Received: 25 April 2023
is generally limited during a pandemic [7,8]. To control the spread of the virus, the
Revised: 18 June 2023
governments of different countries have imposed and recommended preventive measures
Accepted: 4 July 2023 and different controls depending on the local administration and socioeconomic conditions.
Published: 7 July 2023 Such strategies included closing schools, remote or online classes, closing shops and
restaurants, working from home, restrictions on public gatherings, social events, and
meetings, locking down countries or cities, closing international borders and airports,
imposing curfews, imposing social distancing, the suspension of public transportation and
Copyright: © 2023 by the author. taxi operations, as well as travel restrictions [6].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. In the period before the pandemic, tourism represented the fastest-growing economic
This article is an open access article branch in the world. The world economy and the tourism sector face a series of restrictions
distributed under the terms and and challenges in the general business environment due to the global health crisis. The
conditions of the Creative Commons COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global crisis, which has affected the economy and society,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
especially the service industry, which includes tourism. Declaring the outbreak of the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
COVID-19 pandemic at the beginning of 2020 left its mark on the economy of countries
4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310701 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 2 of 32

all over the world. The pandemic has slowed down the growth of world tourism. The
COVID-19 pandemic at the beginning of 2020 shocked the global community and surprised
the scientific and professional public, but answers in tourism and related studies were
found very quickly [9]. Studies published early in the pandemic explained that working
from home, reducing consumption, and limiting travel and socializing have been effective
measures for mitigating the spread of the virus [6,10]. These measures for mitigating the
spread of the virus affected people’s travel behavior [11].
Tourism is an activity that is sensitive to health and safety changes [12,13]. The
presence of risk affects travel plans and travel behavior [14]. A fear has developed among
tourists due to the long incubation period and the ease of disease transmission among
people [15]. Perceived risk as well as fear of infection significantly influence tourist behavior,
especially in transit, and the impact is different based on the infected area and people’s
demographic characteristics [16,17]. During the pandemic, people were afraid of traveling
and avoided traveling to destinations where they perceive a high or medium risk [18].
However, people have different travel needs during the pandemic, and such trips vary
from daily grocery shopping trips to work travel. The characteristics of such trips can
differ for different categories of employment. Also, different countries impose different
measures and levels of travel restrictions, and such measures can affect the general public’s
travel behavior. In addition, people’s understanding, perceptions, and attitudes may also
influence travel decisions and travel mode choices during a pandemic [6].
Predicting and understanding travel behavior is key to planning transportation, creat-
ing policies during the pandemic based on people’s travel needs, and, ultimately, making
decisions. Because the COVID-19 pandemic is a global health crisis compared to previous
pandemics, findings from previous research studies may not be directly applicable. There-
fore, this study aims to investigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on people’s travel
behavior. Factors influencing changes in travel behavior during and before the pandemic
are examined. This research focuses on primary travel, i.e., trips out of necessity for various
reasons. This study builds on the study “Exploring the impacts of COVID-19 on travel
behavior and mode preferences”, published at the beginning of the pandemic in 2020,
which explored the purpose of travel, as well as the choice of the travel mode, distance
traveled, and frequency of travel during and before the COVID-19 pandemic. This research
was conducted when measures were being alleviated both in the world and in Bosnia and
Herzegovina so that the data could be compared with those at the beginning of the pan-
demic. It is essential to conduct a similar survey two years after the start of the pandemic,
because numerous measures and restrictions have changed. This study will fill a gap in
the existing literature and bring final results that can be useful in traffic planning but also
policy making during future pandemics based on human needs. Also, the governments
of various countries can smartly plan partial closures based on these results. Data were
collected through a questionnaire distributed via e-mail and the social network platform
Facebook. In addition to the abstract and introduction, the paper consists of a literature
review, materials and methods, results, a discussion, a conclusion, and, finally, references.

2. Literature Review
The tourism industry is evaluated in terms of its ability to attract tourists and as
a platform for economic growth and sustainable development. The period since the
beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic has affected all human activities, but none of them
have been affected in the same way as tourism. Tourism is undoubtedly one of the sectors
that has suffered the most dramatic impact, caused mainly by the lack of human mobility,
although this was necessary for protection against COVID-19 [19]. The tourism context at
the beginning of the pandemic was very delicate, but tourism has always shown remarkable
adaptability and resilience in times of crisis. With alleviating measures in mid-2022, tourism
began to recover very quickly, as demonstrated by previous studies that analyzed the impact
of crises on tourism [16,17,20–24].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 3 of 32

The same tourist destination is perceived differently in conditions of an economic

crisis [25] or a health crisis [26], and it is an entirely different perception in the case of
a terrorist crisis [27]. Some studies examined travelers’ risk perception during health
crises [16,21,28] (SARS, H1N1, Ebola) before this crisis. However, it is not yet known
how COVID-19 [29], a pandemic that defeats all previous tourism crises, influenced the
perception of risk of travelers as well as the behavior of travelers during a certain period of
time [30,31].
The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has affected tourists’ perceptions of
travel [32] and will change the way people travel for another long period of time, es-
pecially in terms of the intensity, pace, and spontaneity of travel [31]. Previous studies have
highlighted that travel behavior during a pandemic could be significantly different from
normal everyday life. Many factors (demographic as well as attitudinal) can influence such
changes in behavior and travel patterns [6].
In order to control and prevent the spread of the virus, countries implemented different
measures and degrees of restrictions during the pandemics. Such measures and restrictions
can greatly affect economic conditions, social interactions, and people’s lifestyles. Travel
and outdoor activities can be significantly affected by these restrictions [33,34]. Perceived
risk and fear of infection can also influence travel behavior and the choice of travel mode. A
review of previous studies showed that air travel could accelerate and amplify the spread of
respiratory viruses, e.g., influenza, SARS, MERS, and coronavirus [35]. Ref. [36] explained
in their study that international travel restrictions alone could not control disease outbreaks
but could delay the spread or flatten the curve. Ref. [37] indicated that travel restrictions
are less effective when the epidemic is widespread. Additionally, mobility restrictions
may not be effective when considering the overall size of the outbreak [38]. Previous
research has shown that people tend to delay and cancel travel and flights in order not to
get infected with the virus. Such behavior is conditioned by demographic characteristics
(mainly race and age) and the perceived risk of infection [22,23]. Accordingly, several
works of research have reported that, during the H1N1 epidemic, older travelers were more
willing to postpone their trip compared to younger travelers (aged 18–35) [21,22].
A study conducted in the United States of America analyzed the factors that caused
citizens to avoid domestic travel due to confirmed cases of the Ebola virus [16]. The
study states that vulnerability, perceived risk, self-efficacy, and subjective knowledge cause
citizens to avoid domestic travel. Gender and age, as demographic characteristics, also
significantly impact travel avoidance. Many studies have shown that, during the pandemic,
not only has domestic travel behavior changed, but the trips that must be taken have too,
such as going to work. Some people worked from home, some went to work occasionally,
and some did not work at all [6,10,11,39]. From the above, the first research question was
defined: Has the COVID-19 pandemic influenced a change in behavior when traveling to
work? [6,10,11,16,39].
Perceived risk is also a key consideration when choosing a tourist destination [40].
Therefore, the perception of risk and the feeling of safety during travel significantly influ-
ence the avoidance of destinations rather than the probability of traveling there [41]. A
study [39] showed that, during the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, behavior
changed in Huzhou in four aspects: travel demand, the purpose of the trips undertaken,
modes of travel, and convenience of travel. Most of the population, except for those who
work in basic jobs such as the police and doctors, minimized their travels. Travel for the
purposes of shopping and the number of trips for other purposes are reduced, such as
commuting or leisure. Based on the results of previous studies [6,39] indicating that the
primary purpose of travel, the distance traveled, and the number of primary outdoor trips
changed during pandemics, the second and third research questions were defined. The
second research question is: What is the primary purpose of travel before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic, and is there a change in the primary purpose of travel? [6,39].
Students, lower-income classes, and employees in tourism, catering, informal enterprises,
and transport-related sectors were more vulnerable to the interruption of their education
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 4 of 32

and career, economic losses, poor physical conditions, poor health, negative emotions,
and reduced well-being. Travel restrictions reduced existing social inequalities related to
transportation between people who live in rural areas and urban areas in Huzhou. On the
other side, vulnerable groups are likely to face more restrictions than others, considering
their choice of travel, due to their financial situation and physical condition, which can
potentially result in negative effects on them as well as their physical and mental health [39].
Like any other pandemic, COVID-19 has caused significant changes in all countries,
continents, regions, urban and rural communities, families, and individuals’ thinking and
lifestyles [42]. The study “Exploring the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic
and changes in travel behaviour: A qualitative study” analyzed the differences in the
behavior of individuals when traveling during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, using
Huzhou as an example. The results of the study showed that, initially, the demand for
travel was reduced. Participation in activities also decreased. The degree and duration
of such influences varied from person to person. Students, groups with lower incomes,
groups living in small communities with insufficient green areas, and those working in
tourism, hospitality, informal jobs, and transport-related sectors were more vulnerable
than others [39]. Globally, a major drop in mobility has been observed due to the fear of
COVID-19 and government orders to mitigate the spread. In cities that were hit the hardest,
mobility was reduced by up to 90% [43]. In the US, population mobility was reduced by
7.87% due to official stay-at-home orders. An increase in the local infection rate from 0%
to 0.0003% reduced mobility by 2.31% [6]. The third research question is: What distance
is traveled for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pandemic? What
is the number of primary outdoor weekly outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19
pandemic? What is the influence of socio-demographic factors on the distance traveled and
the number of trips for the primary purpose before and during the COVID-19 pandemic? Is
there a significant correlation between socio-demographic factors and the number of trips
for the primary purpose before and during the COVID-19 pandemic? [6,17,42–44]. Research
by [44] showed that, during the second week of March 2020, the average kilometers traveled
and the number of trips per weekday decreased by about 60%. This study, which was
conducted in Switzerland, further stated that women traveled less compared to men.
Ref. [45] investigated SARS and influenza risk perception in Asian and European
countries. The results showed that most respondents, as high as 75%, will avoid public
transport. A study conducted before and after the MERS outbreak in Seoul, South Korea
examined people’s travel behavior [17]. The authors came to the conclusion that fear
influences tourist behavior and that the frequency of travel was significantly reduced after
the MERS outbreak in Seoul in 2015. The results also show that the number of people over
65 years of age is a variable that significantly affected the reduction in travel frequency
during MERS. In a survey conducted at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong
Kong, 40% of respondents answered that they avoid public transportation [46]. Research
has also shown that people avoid domestic overland travel due to the perceived risk of
contracting viruses. Ref. [20], who conducted research at the beginning of the swine flu
outbreak, concluded that older people are more associated with avoiding large gatherings
and public transport. Ref. [47] concluded that 22% of respondents, citizens of Portugal
or England, intended to use public transportation less, and 20% planned to postpone or
cancel flights. The fourth research question is: What mode of transportation was used
for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, and is there a
change in the mode? [6,17,20,45–48]. The study “COVID-19 and its long-term effects on
activity participation and travel behaviour: A multiperspective view” discusses the possible
long-term effects of COVID-19 on activity–travel behavior. Making use of concepts and
theories from psychology, economics, geography, and sociology, the study came to the
conclusion that there can be lasting effects expected, and, specifically, the peak demand
among public transport users and car users may be lower than that if the pandemic never
happened. The magnitude of such effects at the aggregate level in terms of the total travel
time of all inhabitants of a state or country is likely limited. Such lasting effects imply that
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 5 of 32

additional infrastructure extensions for reducing congestion on roads and crowding in

public transport might have a lower benefit–cost ratio than what would be the case without
these impacts [48].
Ref. [49] concluded in a study conducted in Turkey that one of the most accepted
preventive behaviors during COVID-19 is avoiding public transport. In his study, Ref. [11]
concluded that, because of the pandemic, people would prefer to use a car rather than
public transportation and reduce their travel. A study conducted in Budapest, Hungary
showed that the use of cars is at 65% compared to the previous 43%, while the demand
for public transport has decreased by about 80% [50]. The fifth research question follows
from the above: Has the mode of transportation changed for primary outdoor trips during
the COVID-19 pandemic for people who own cars, and has the mode of transportation
changed for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic for people who do not
own a car? [6,11,17,20,45–50].
All these previous studies emphasize that travel behavior during a pandemic may be
significantly different compared to normal everyday life. Many demographic and attitudi-
nal factors can influence such changes in behavior and travel patterns. Gathering insights
from these studies, an online data collection questionnaire was designed and distributed to
explore critical differences in travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study
is mostly based on and built on the research [6] published in 2020. Building on the previous
study, this study aims to analyze the perception of travel, especially in the context of the
pandemic when the measures are relaxed, as well as citizens’ intentions and preferences
for travel methods during the COVID-19 pandemic. Special attention is paid to the mode
of transportation. This study analyzes whether the mode of transportation for primary
outdoor travel has changed during the COVID-19 pandemic for people who own cars and
whether the mode of transportation for primary outdoor travel has changed during the
COVID-19 pandemic for people who do not own a car.

3. Materials and Methods

A quantitative research approach was applied in this article. The data were collected
through a questionnaire (online survey) distributed to respondents via e-mail and the
social network Facebook. Previous studies have also used social media and e-mails to
distribute questionnaires [6,34,42,46,51]. The study used email and social networks such
as Reddit, Facebook, ResearchGate, and LinkedIn [6]. The final questionnaire in the
study [51] was sent to respondents via email and social media such as Facebook, Instagram,
Telegram, and WhatsApp. The research [34] relied on surveys that were distributed via
e-mail, social media, and professional networks. The questionnaire in the study [42] was
also distributed through social media channels and via email. In accordance with the
mentioned previous studies and the measures and restrictions due to the pandemic at the
time, it seemed appropriate to distribute the questionnaire via the social network Facebook
and e-mail. The questionnaire was taken from similar research [6] and adapted to this
research. Data were collected through an online questionnaire. The questionnaire was
created using Google Forms in the Bosnian language since the respondents are residents
of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The research lasted a month and a half, during the period of
the alleviation of restrictions and measures adopted due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the
world, but also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 2 March to 17 May 2022. The convenience
sample included 265 respondents. Respondents from the sample were randomly selected.
Regarding the demographic data of the sample of respondents: most of the respondents
are men (35.5%) and women (64.5%); most of the respondents (54.7%) are between 18 and
30 years old, while 31.7% of respondents are between 31 and 50 years old, and 13.6% of
respondents are over 50 years old; only one respondent has primary school education,
34.0% of respondents have secondary school education, 49.8% of respondents have college
or university education, and 15.8% of respondents have post-graduate education; most
respondents (48.7%) are employed, 38.5% of respondents are students, and the same
number of respondents (6.4%) are retired or “other”; most respondents have incomes
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 6 of 32

between BAM 500 and BAM 1500 (34.3%), 6.0% have monthly incomes below BAM 500,
32.8% of respondents have monthly incomes between BAM 1500 and BAM 2500, and 26.8%
of respondents have a monthly income of more than BAM 2500; most respondents live
in a household with three to four members (59.6%); a motorcycle is owned by 6.4% of
respondents, while a car is owned by 70.6% of respondents; most respondents are single
(55.1%), 37.0% of respondents are married, 2.6% of respondents are widowed, 3.4% of
respondents are divorced, and 1.9% of respondents did not want to answer the question
about marital status.
In the study, a descriptive and quantitative comparative analysis was conducted.
Nonparametric tests were mainly used in this study for inferential statistical analyses
unless otherwise stated.
The purpose of the article is to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
travel behavior and travel mode preferences among the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

4. Results
Table 1 shows changes in respondents’ behavior when traveling to work due to
COVID-19.

Table 1. Change in travel behavior due to COVID-19.

Frequency Percent
I never go to the office/college and work/study at home 7 2.6
I go to the office/college/workplace less often (less than
53 20.0
three times a week)
Nothing has changed 136 51.3
I go to the office/college a few days a week, and the rest of
60 22.6
the time, I work/study from home
I lost my job/I am not studying anymore 4 1.5
I go to work by invitation only 5 1.9
Total 265 100.0
Source: Research results, 2022.

A total of 136 (51.3%) respondents state that nothing has changed, 60 (22.6%) state
that they go to the office/college several days a week and that, the rest of the time, they
work/study from home, 53 (20.0%) state that they go to the office/college/workplace less
often, 7 (2.6%) state that they never go to the office/college and work/study at home,
5 (1.9%) state that they go to work by invitation, and 4 (1.5%) state that they are left
unemployed or do not study anymore. Of course, it should be noted that traveling to work
and college cannot be considered tourism.
Table 2 shows the primary purposes of travel before and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic, where it is evident that, before the COVID-19 pandemic, most of the respondents,
namely, 90 (34.0%), stated social activities as the primary purpose of travel, 57 (21.5%) stated
work, 55 (20.8%) stated studying, 39 (14.7%) stated “other”, 14 (5.3%) stated recreational
sports activities, and 10 stated (3.8%) shopping. During the pandemic, it is evident that,
still, the largest number of respondents, namely, 69 (26.0%), stated social activities as the
primary purpose of travel, 63 (23.8%) stated work, 53 (20.0%) stated studying, 43 (16.2%)
stated “other”, 26 (9.8%) stated recreational sports activities, and 11 (4.2%) stated shopping.
Figure 1 shows the results in order to present the changes before and during the pandemic
more clearly.
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of

Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 7 of 32

shopping. Figure 1 shows the results in order to present the changes before and duri
the pandemic
Table 2. Primary purposes ofmore
travelclearly.
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Table 2. Primary purposes of travel before and during the COVID-19

Before Duringpandemic.
COVID-19 COVID-19
Before During
Frequency Percent
Frequency Percent
COVID-19 COVID-19
Job 57 21.5
Frequency 63
Percent 23.8
Frequency Percent
Studying 55
Job 20.8 57 53
21.5 6320.0 23.8
Shopping Studying
10 3.8 55 20.8
11 53 4.2 20.0
Social activities Shopping
90 34.0 10 3.8
69 1126.0 4.2
Recreational Social activities 90 34.0 69 26.0
14 5.3 26 9.8
Recreational sports activities
sports activities 14 5.3 26 9.8
Other Other
39 14.7 39 14.7
43 4316.2 16.2
Total Total
265 100.0 265 100.0
265 265100.0 100.0
Source:
Source: Research Research
results, 2022. results, 2022.

90
90
job
80
69
70 63 studying
57 55
60 53
50 43 shopping
39
40
26 social activities
30
20 14
10 11 recreational and sports activities
10
0
others
before COVID19 during COVID19

Figure 1. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Figure 1. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The most significant change in the primary purpose of travel before and during the
COVID-19 pandemic The most significant
is reflected in achange
decreasein the primary
in social purpose
activities of travel
(from 34.0%before and during
to 26.0%)
and an increase in recreational sports activities (from 5.3% to 9.8%), while other activities to 26.0
COVID-19 pandemic is reflected in a decrease in social activities (from 34.0%
and an increase
remained proportionally theinsame
recreational
before andsports activities
during (from 5.3%
the COVID-19 to 9.8%), while other activit
pandemic.
remained proportionally the same before and during the
Table 3 shows that the primary purposes of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic.
for
Table 3 shows that the primary purposes of travel before
women were social activities and study, namely, 61 (35.7%) and 44 (25.7%), respectively, the COVID-19 pandemic
women
while for men, thesewere
weresocial
work activities
(30) (31.9%)andandstudy, namely,
social 61 (29)
activities (35.7%) and 44
(30.9%). On(25.7%),
the otherrespective
while for men, these were work (30) (31.9%) and social
hand, the primary purposes of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic for women were activities (29) (30.9%). On the oth
hand, the primary purposes of travel during the COVID-19
study (47) (27.5%) and social activities (42) (24.6%), and for men, these were work (31) pandemic for women w
study (47) (27.5%) and social activities (42) (24.6%), and for
(33.0%) and social activities (27) (28.7%). There was a noticeable decrease in the social men, these were work (
(33.0%) and social activities (27) (28.7%). There was a
activities of women before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (from 35.7% to 24.6%).noticeable decrease in the social
Table 4tivities
shows of women
that before purposes
the primary and during of the COVID-19
travel before the pandemic
COVID-19 (from 35.7% to
pandemic for24.6%).
respondents aged 18–30 were studying (37.9%) and social activities (37.2%); for respondents
aged 31–50,Table
these3.were
Primary purpose
work (39.3%)of travel before activities
and social and during(30.9%);
the COVID-19
and for pandemic, by gender. Gro
respondents
statistics—Gender.
over the age of 50, these were work (38.9%) and social activities (27.8%). On the other
hand, the primary purposes of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic Gender for respondents
aged 18–30 were study (35.9%) and social activities (30.3%); for respondents Male aged
Female31–50, Total
it was work (46.4%), and for respondents aged over 50, these were work (33.3%), “other”
Job 30 27 57
(25.0%), and social activities (22.2%). There is a noticeable decrease in social activities
Studying
among respondents aged 31–50 before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (from 30.9% 11 44 55
to 20.2%).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 8 of 32

Table 3. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, by gender. Group
statistics—Gender.

Gender
Total
Male Female
Job 30 27 57
Studying 11 44 55
Primary purpose Shopping 2 8 10
of travel before
the COVID-19 Social activities 29 61 90
pandemic Recreational
7 7 14
sports activities
Other 15 24 39
Total 94 171 265
Job 31 32 63
Studying 6 47 53
Primary purpose Shopping 2 9 11
of travel during
the COVID-19 Social activities 27 42 69
pandemic Recreational
11 15 26
sports activities
Other 17 26 43
Total 94 171 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 4. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic by respondents’ age.

Group Statistics—Age
Total
18–30 31–50 50 and Older
Job 10 33 14 57
Studying 55 0 0 55

Primary Shopping 3 3 4 10
purpose of Social
travel before 54 26 10 90
activities
the COVID-19
Recreational
pandemic
sports 6 6 2 14
activities
Other 17 16 6 39
Total 145 84 36 265
Job 12 39 12 63
Studying 52 1 0 53

Primary Shopping 3 4 4 11
purpose of Social
travel during 44 17 8 69
activities
the COVID-19
Recreational
pandemic
sports 12 11 3 26
activities
Other 22 12 9 43
Total 145 84 36 265
Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 9 of 32

Table 5 shows that the primary purposes of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic
for respondents who have a car were social activities (31.0%) and work (27.3%), and for
respondents who do not own a car, these were social activities (41.0%) and studying
(29.5%). On the other hand, the primary purposes of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic
for respondents who own a car were work (29.4%) and social activities (25.7%), and for
respondents who do not own a car, these were study (28.2%), social activities (26.9%), and
“other” (25.6%).

Table 5. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic by car ownership.

Group Statistics—Car Ownership

Do You Own a Car?
Total
YES NO
Job 51 6 57
Studying 32 23 55
Primary purpose Shopping 6 4 10
of travel before
the COVID-19 Social activities 58 32 90
pandemic Recreational
12 2 14
sports activities
Other 28 11 39
Total 187 78 265
Job 55 8 63
Studying 31 22 53
Primary purpose Shopping 8 3 11
of travel during
the COVID-19 Social activities 48 21 69
pandemic Recreational
22 4 26
sports activities
Other 23 20 43
Total 187 78 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 6 shows that the primary purposes of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic
for respondents who own a motorcycle were work (29.4%) and study (29.4%), and for
respondents who do not own a motorcycle, it was primarily social activities (35.1%). On the
other hand, the primary purposes of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic for respondents
who own a motorcycle were work (29.4%), study (23.5%), and social activities (23.5%),
and for respondents who do not own a motorcycle, these were social activities (26.2%),
work (23.4%), and studies (19.8%). A post hoc McNemar test in Table 7 was applied to
determine possible individual changes in the primary purpose of travel before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic, which showed that, comparing work and study, the primary
purpose of travel did not statistically significantly (p > 0.05) change: out of 48 respondents
who primarily went to work, only 1 (2.1%) started studying during COVID-19, while out
of 42 respondents who primarily studied before COVID-19, only 1 (2.4%) started traveling
primarily for work.
Also, in Table 8, when comparing work and social activities, the primary purpose
of travel did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05): out of 50 respondents who
primarily went to work, only 3 (6.0%) during the COVID-19 period primarily started
traveling for social activities, while out of 61 respondents who primarily traveled for social
activities before COVID-19, 9 of them (14.7%) started primarily traveling for work.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 10 of 32

Table 6. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, by motorcycle
ownership.

Group Statistics—Motorcycle Ownership

Do You Own a Motorcycle?
Total
YES NO
Job 5 52 57
Studying 5 50 55
Primary purpose Shopping 0 10 10
of travel before
the COVID-19 Social activities 3 87 90
pandemic Recreational
1 13 14
sports activities
Other 3 36 39
Total 17 248 265
Job 5 58 63
Studying 4 49 53
Primary purpose Shopping 0 11 11
of travel during
the COVID-19 Social activities 4 65 69
pandemic Recreational
1 25 26
sports activities
Other 3 40 43
Total 17 248 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 7. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)—
Comparing job and studying.

Primary Purpose of Travel during

the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Job Studying

Primary purpose of Job 47 1 48

travel before the 1.000
COVID-19 pandemic Studying 1 41 42
Total 48 42 90
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 8. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)—
Comparing job and social activities.

Primary Purpose of Travel during

the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Job Social Activities

Primary purpose of Job 47 3 50

travel before the 0.146
COVID-19 pandemic Social activities 9 52 61
Total 56 55 111
Source: Research results, 2022.

Comparing work and shopping, recreation, sports, or “other” in Table 9, the primary
purpose of the trip did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05): out of 53 respondents
who primarily went to work, 6 of them (12.0%) started traveling primarily because of
shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”, while out of 53 respondents who, before COVID-19,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 11 of 32

primarily traveled for shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”, 5 of them (9.4%) started
traveling primarily for work.

Table 9. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)—
Comparing job and shopping, recreation, sports, “other”.

Primary Purpose of Travel during the

COVID-19 Pandemic
Total p
Shopping, Recreation,
Job
Sports, “Other”
Job 47 6 53
Primary purpose of travel
before the COVID-19 pandemic Shopping, recreation, 1.000
5 48 53
sports, “other”
Total 52 54 106
Source: Research results, 2022.

Also, comparing studying and social activities in Table 10, the primary purpose of the
trip did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05): out of 50 respondents who primarily
traveled for study, 9 (18.0%) started traveling primarily for social activities during the
COVID-19 period, while out of 57 respondents who primarily traveled for social activities
before COVID-19, 7 of them (12.3%) started traveling primarily for studying.

Table 10. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)
-comparing studying and social activities.

Primary Purpose of Travel during

the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Studying Social Activities

Primary purpose of Studying 41 9 50

travel before the 0.804
COVID-19 pandemic Social activities 7 48 57
Total 52 54 107
Source: Research results, 2022.

In Table 11, comparing studying and shopping, recreation, sports, or “other” together,
the primary purpose of travel did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05): out of
45 respondents who primarily traveled for studying, 4 of them (8.9%) started traveling
primarily because of shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”, while out of 57 respondents
who, before COVID-19, primarily traveled for shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”, 4 of
them (7.7%) started traveling primarily for studying.

Table 11. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)—
Comparing studying and shopping, recreation, sports, “other”.

Primary Purpose of Travel during the

COVID-19 Pandemic
Total p
Shopping, Recreation,
Studying
Sports, “Other”
Studying 41 4 45
Primary purpose of travel
before the COVID-19 pandemic Shopping, recreation, 1.000
4 48 52
sports, “other”
Total 45 52 97
Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 12 of 32

On the other hand, in Table 12, comparing social activities and shopping, recreation,
sports, or “other”, there is a statistically significant change in the primary purpose of travel
(p < 0.01).

Table 12. Primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (McNemar test)—
Comparing social activities and shopping, recreation, sports, “other”.

Primary Purpose of Travel during the

COVID-19 Pandemic
Total p
Shopping, Recreation,
Social Activities
Sports, “Other”

Primary purpose of Social activities 21 52 73

travel before the Shopping, recreation, 0.003
COVID-19 pandemic 47 5 52
sports, “other”
Total 68 57 125
Source: Research results, 2022.

Of the 73 respondents who primarily traveled for social activities, as many as 52 (71.2%)
primarily started traveling during COVID-19 for shopping, recreation, sports, or other
reasons, while of the 52 respondents who primarily traveled before COVID-19 for shopping,
recreation, sports, or “other” 47 of them (90.3%) started traveling primarily for social activities.
Since the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test of the normality of distribution (Table 13) for the
variables “Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic”
and “Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic” (at
the significance level of 0.01) deviates from the normal distribution, the nonparametric
Wilcoxon rank-test was used to test the difference in arithmetic means.

Table 13. Testing for normality of distribution for the variables “Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
during the COVID-19 pandemic”.

Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov–Smirnov a Shapiro–Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
0.160 265 0.000 0.879 265 0.000
before the COVID-19 pandemic
Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
0.161 265 0.000 0.901 265 0.000
during the COVID-19 pandemic
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 14 shows that the average distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before
the COVID-19 pandemic (M = 4.11, s = 2.20) is greater than that for primary outdoor trips
during the COVID-19 pandemic (M = 3.61, s = 2.05). The Wilcoxon rank-test is 1457,000,
showing that the obtained difference is statistically significant at the 0.01 level (z = −5.912,
p < 0.01).
Since the Kolmogorov–Smirnov distribution normality test in Table 15, for the vari-
ables that describe the number of primary outdoor trips per week before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic (at the significance level of 0.01) deviates from the normal
distribution, the nonparametric Wilcoxon rank-test was used to test the difference in
arithmetic means.
Table 16 shows that the average number of primary outdoor trips per week before the
COVID-19 pandemic (M = 2.46, s = 0.896) is higher than the average number of primary
outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic (M = 2.23, s = 0.815). The Wilcoxon
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 13 of 32

rank-test is 2,016,500 and shows that the obtained difference is statistically significant at the
0.01 level (z = −4.191, p < 0.01).

Table 14. Descriptive statistics and Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

N Mean Std. Deviation

Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic 265 4.10 2.20
Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic 265 3.60 2.05
Total N 265
Test Statistic 1457.000
Standard Error 377.807
Standardized Test Statistic −5.912
Asymptotic Sig. (two-sided test) 0.000
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 15. Testing for the normality of distribution for the variables “Number of primary outdoor trips
per week before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Number of primary outdoor trips per week during
the COVID-19 pandemic”.

Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov–Smirnov a Shapiro–Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Number of primary outdoor trips per week
0.369 265 0.000 0.739 265 0.000
before the COVID-19 pandemic
Number of primary outdoor trips per week
0.303 265 0.000 0.845 265 0.000
during the COVID-19 pandemic
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction; Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 16. Descriptive statistics and Wilcoxon signed-rank test for the number of primary outdoor
trips per week before and during COVID-19.

N Mean Std. Deviation

Number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic 265 2.46 0.896
Number of primary outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic 265 2.23 0.815
Total N 265
Test Statistic 2016.500
Standard Error 342.395
Standardized Test Statistic −4.191
Asymptotic Sig. (two-sided test) 0.000
Source: Research results, 2022.

The Table 17 shows descriptive statistics and the Mann–Whitney test for the variables
related to the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19
pandemic with respect to the sex of the respondents. Female respondents show a higher
rank (M = 141.56) in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19
pandemic than male respondents (M = 117.43). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is
6,573,500, which shows that the obtained difference is statistically significant at the 0.05
level (z = −2.488, p < 0.05). Although female respondents show a higher rank (M = 139.28) in
the distance covered for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic compared
to male respondents (M = 121.57), and the value of the Mann–Whitney test is 6,963,000, the
difference obtained is not statistically significant (z = −1.821, p > 0.05).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 14 of 32

Table 17. Descriptive statistics and the Mann–Whitney test: distance traveled, by gender.

Ranks
Gender N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Male 94 117.43 11,038.50
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips before the Female 171 141.56 24,206.50
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Male 94 121.57 11,428.00
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips during the Female 171 139.28 23,817.00
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the
the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 6573.500 6963.000
Wilcoxon W 11,038.500 11,428.000
Z −2.488 −1.821
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed) 0.013 0.069
Grouping Variable: Gender; Source: Research results, 2022.

The Table 18 shows descriptive statistics and the Mann–Whitney test for the variables
“Number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Number
of primary outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic” with regard to the
sex of the respondents. Although male respondents show a higher rank (M = 138.73) in
terms of the number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic
compared to female respondents (M = 129.85), and the value of the Mann–Whitney test is
7498.000, the obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −1.049, p > 0.05). Also,
male respondents show a higher rank (M = 135.62) in terms of the number of primary
outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to female respondents
(M = 131.56), and the value of the Mann–Whitney test is 7791.000; the obtained difference is
not statistically significant (z = −0.453, p > 0.05).

Table 18. Descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test: number of outdoor trips, by gender.

Ranks
Gender N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Number of primary Male 94 138.73 13,041.00
outdoor trips per week
Female 171 129.85 22,204.00
before the COVID-19
pandemic Total 265
Number of primary Male 94 135.62 12,748.00
outdoor trips per week
Female 171 131.56 22,497.00
during the COVID-19
pandemic Total 265
Number of primary outdoor trips per week Number of primary outdoor trips per week during
before the COVID-19 pandemic the COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 7498.000 7791.000
Wilcoxon W 22,204.000 22,497.000
Z −1.049 −0.453
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed) 0.294 0.651
Grouping Variable: Gender; Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 15 of 32

Table 19 shows that the primary purposes of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic for
respondents with high school degrees or some university and undergraduate degrees were
social activities, and for respondents with graduate education, it was work.

Table 19. Primary purpose of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic, by level of education.

Group Statistics—Level of Education

Primary Some College or Total χ2 p
High School Graduate
School Undergraduate
Job 0 21 21 15 57
Studying 0 11 41 3 55
Primary purpose Shopping 1 3 5 1 10
of travel before
Social activities 0 37 43 10 90 56.219 0.000
the COVID-19
pandemic Recreational
0 4 4 6 14
sports activities
Other 0 14 18 7 39
Total 1 90 132 42 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 20 shows that the primary purpose of travel during COVID-19 is the same as
that before COVID-19, i.e., for respondents with graduate education, it is work, and for
respondents with high school degrees or some university and undergraduate degrees, it is
social activities.

Table 20. Primary purpose of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, by level of education.

Group Statistics—Level of Education

Primary Some College or Total χ2 p
High School Graduate
School Undergraduate
Job 0 22 26 15 63
Studying 0 9 41 3 53
Primary purpose Shopping 1 3 6 1 11
of travel during
Social activities 0 29 31 9 69 54.142 0.000
the COVID-19
pandemic Recreational
0 9 8 9 26
sports activities
Other 0 18 20 5 43
Total 1 90 132 42 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Tables 21 and 22 show that the primary purpose of travel both before and during
COVID-19 for respondents whose monthly income is less than BAM 500 is studying, while
for respondents earning between BAM 500 and BAM 2500, it is work, study, and social
activities, equally.
Regarding the primary purposes of travel both before and during COVID-19 for
respondents with a monthly income of over BAM 2500, in addition to work and social
activities, the importance of recreational activities increased during COVID-19 compared
to the period before COVID-19 (from 8.5% to 22.5%).
The primary purposes of travel before COVID-19 for respondents living in a household
with one to two members are social activities (Table 23), and during COVID-19, these are
social activities, work, and “other” (Table 24). The primary purposes of travel both before
and during COVID-19 for respondents living in a household with three to four members
are social activities, work, and study.
The primary purpose of travel both before and during COVID-19 for respondents
living in a household with five or more members is to study.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 16 of 32

Table 21. Primary purpose of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic, by monthly household in-
come (BAM).

Group Statistics—Monthly Household Income (BAM)

BAM 500 BAM BAM BAM 2500 Total χ2 p
and under 500–1500 1500–2500 and More
Job 1 15 17 24 57
Studying 10 22 17 6 55
Shopping 0 6 0 4 10
Primary purpose of
travel before the Social activities 2 29 37 22 90 41.991 0.000
COVID-19 pandemic
Recreational
0 3 5 6 14
sports activities
Other 3 16 11 9 39
Total 16 91 87 71 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 22. Primary purpose of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, by monthly household in-
come (BAM).

Group Statistics—Monthly Household Income (BAM)

BAM 500 BAM BAM BAM 2500 Total χ2 p
and under 500–1500 1500–2500 and More
Job 0 21 24 18 63
Studying 8 21 15 9 53
Shopping 0 7 0 4 11
Primary purpose of
travel during the Social activities 3 22 28 16 69 44.966 0.000
COVID-19 pandemic
Recreational
0 3 7 16 26
sports activities
Other 5 17 13 8 43
Total 16 91 87 71 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 23. Primary purpose of travel before the COVID-19 pandemic, by number of household members.

Group statistics—Number of Household Members

χ2 p
1–2 3–4 5 and More Total
Job 17 38 2 57
Studying 4 38 13 55
Shopping 4 5 1 10
Primary purpose of
travel before the Social activities 38 48 4 90 41.118 0.000
COVID-19 pandemic Recreational
8 4 2 14
sports activities
Other 13 25 1 39
Total 84 158 23 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

The Tables 25 and 26 show that the largest percentage (77.0%) of respondents who
own a car also use it as a means of transportation, and there is no difference in the use
of a car in the period before and during COVID-19; only 25.6% of respondents who do
not own a car use it as a means of transportation, and there is no difference in the use of
cars between the period before and during COVID-19. The χ2 -test shows a statistically
significant difference in the mode of transportation for primary outdoor travel with regard
to owning or not owning a car (p < 0.01), but there is no significant impact of COVID-19.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 17 of 32

Table 24. Primary purpose of travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, by number of household members.

Group Statistics—Number of household Members

χ2 p
1–2 3–4 5 and More Total
Job 22 38 3 63
Studying 5 36 12 53
Shopping 3 8 0 11
Primary purpose of
travel during the Social activities 23 45 1 69 34.720 0.000
COVID-19 pandemic Recreational
11 12 3 26
sports activities
Other 20 19 4 43
Total 84 158 23 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 25. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic, by
car ownership.

Group Statistics—Car Ownership

YES NO Total χ2 p
Nothing/I did not travel 4 1 5
Public transportation 30 26 56
Private car 142 18 160
Mode of transportation
Company car 2 4 6
for primary outdoor
trips before the 81.356 0.000
Taxi 1 2 3
COVID-19 pandemic
Motorcycle 0 3 3
Bike 0 7 7
Walking 8 17 25
Total 187 78 265
Source: Research results, 2022.

On the other hand, it is noticeable that the use of public transportation by respondents
who own a car dropped during COVID-19, from 16.0% to 8.0%, while no change was
recorded among respondents who do not own a car in the mode of transportation for
primary outdoor travel.

Table 26. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic, by
car ownership.

Group Statistics—Car Ownership

YES NO Total χ2 p
Nothing/I did not travel 6 7 13
Public transportation 15 22 37
Private car 144 20 164
N Mode of
transportation for Company car 5 3 8
primary outdoor
Taxi 2 1 3 68.827 0.000
trips during the
COVID-19 pandemic Motorcycle 1 0 1
Bike 2 9 11
Walking 12 16 28
Total 187 78 265
Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 18 of 32

The Table 27 shows descriptive statistics and the Kruskal–Wallis test for the variables
“Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Dis-
tance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to
employment. The highest rank (M = 141.98) of distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
before the COVID-19 pandemic is shown among students, while the lowest rank is among
pensioners (M = 74.35). The Kruskal–Wallis test value is 12.576, and the obtained difference
is statistically significant (p < 0.01). Also, students (M = 138.65) and employees (M = 138.34)
show the highest ranks of distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19
pandemic, while pensioners (M = 73.38) show the lowest ranks. The Kruskal–Wallis test
value is 12.396, and the obtained difference is statistically significant (p < 0.01).

Table 27. Descriptive statistics and the Kruskal–Wallis test: distance traveled, by employment.

Ranks
Employment N Mean Rank
Student 102 141.98
Employed 129 135.68
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips before the Pensioner 17 74.35
COVID-19 pandemic Other 17 117.44
Total 265
Student 102 138.65
Employed 129 138.34
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips during the Pensioner 17 73.38
COVID-19 pandemic Other 17 118.18
Total 265
Distance traveled for primary outdoor Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during
trips before the COVID-19 pandemic the COVID-19 pandemic
Kruskal–Wallis H 12.576 12.396
df 3 3
Asymp. Sig. 0.006 0.006
Kruskal–Wallis Test, Grouping Variable: Employment. Source: Research results, 2022.

The Table 28 shows descriptive statistics and the Kruskal–Wallis test for the variables
“Number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Num-
ber of primary outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to
employment. The highest rank (M = 140.24) in terms of the number of primary outdoor
trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic is shown by respondents in the occupa-
tion category “Other”, while the lowest rank is shown by pensioners (M = 128.76). The
Kruskal–Wallis test value is 0.286, and this difference is not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
Also, the highest rank (M = 146.85) in terms of the number of primary outdoor trips per
week during the COVID-19 pandemic is shown by respondents in the occupation category
“Other”, while the lowest rank is shown by pensioners (M = 120.47). The Kruskal–Wallis
test value is 2.288, and this difference is not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 19 of 32

Table 28. Descriptive statistics and the Kruskal–Wallis test: number of primary outdoor trips per
week, by employment.

Ranks
Employment N Mean Rank
Student 102 133.25
Employed 129 132.41
Number of primary outdoor trips
per week before the Pensioner 17 128.76
COVID-19 pandemic Other 17 140.24
Total 265
Student 102 127.56
Employed 129 137.12
Number of primary outdoor trips
per week during the Pensioner 17 120.47
COVID-19 pandemic Other 17 146.85
Total 265
Number of primary outdoor trips per Number of primary outdoor trips per week during
week before the COVID-19 pandemic the COVID-19 pandemic
Kruskal–Wallis H 0.286 2.288
df 3 3
Asymp. Sig. 0.963 0.515
Kruskal–Wallis Test, Grouping Variable: Employment. Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 29 shows the descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test for the variables
“Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to car
ownership. Respondents who own a car show a higher rank (M = 140.57) in the distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic compared to respondents
who do not have a car (M = 114.85). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is 5877.500, which
shows that the obtained difference is statistically significant at the 0.05 level (z = −2.526,
p < 0.05). Also, respondents who own a car show a higher rank (M = 141.84) in the distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic than respondents who
do not have a car (M = 111.81). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is 5640.500, which
shows that the obtained difference is statistically significant at the 0.01 level (z = −2.941,
p < 0.01).
Table 30 shows the descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test for the variables
“Number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Number
of primary outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to car
ownership. Respondents who do not have a car show a higher rank (M = 134.63) regarding
the number of primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than those who have
a car (M = 132.32). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is 7166.000, which shows that the
obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −0.260, p > 0.05). On the other hand,
respondents who own a car show a higher rank (M = 138.14) for the number of primary
outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to respondents who do not have a
car (M = 120.67). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is 6331.000, which shows that the
obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −1.858, p > 0.05).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 20 of 32

Table 29. Descriptive statistics and the Kruskal–Wallis test: distance traveled, by car ownership.

Ranks
Do You Own a Car? N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
YES 187 140.57 26,286.50
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips before the NO 78 114.85 8958.50
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
YES 187 141.84 26,523.50
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips during the NO 78 111.81 8721.50
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Distance traveled for primary outdoor Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the
trips before the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 5877.500 5640.500
Wilcoxon W 8958.500 8721.500
Z −2.526 −2.941
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed) 0.012 0.003
Grouping Variable: Do you own a car? Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 30. Descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test: number of outdoor trips, by car ownership.

Ranks
Do You Own a Car? N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
YES 187 132.32 24,744.00
Number of primary outdoor
trips per week before the NO 78 134.63 10,501.00
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
YES 187 138.14 25,833.00
Number of primary outdoor
trips per week during the NO 78 120.67 9412.00
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Number of primary outdoor trips per week before Number of primary outdoor trips per
the COVID-19 pandemic week during the COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 7166.000 6331.000
Wilcoxon W 24,744.000 9412.000
Z −0.260 −1.858
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.795 0.063
Grouping Variable: Do you own a car? Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 31 shows the descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test for the variables
“Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to motorcy-
cle ownership. Respondents who do not own a motorcycle show a higher rank (M = 133.35)
in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than
respondents who own a motorcycle (M = 127.94). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is
2022.000, which shows that the obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −0.285,
p > 0.05). Also, respondents who do not own a motorcycle show a higher rank (M = 133.25)
in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic compared
to respondents who own a motorcycle (M = 129.32). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is
2045.500, which shows that the obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −0.207,
p > 0.05).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 21 of 32

Table 31. Descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test: distance traveled, by motorcycle ownership.

Ranks
Do You Own a Motorcycle? N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
YES 17 127.94 2175.00
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips before the NO 248 133.35 33,070.00
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
YES 17 129.32 2198.50
Distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips during the NO 248 133.25 33,046.50
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before Distance traveled for primary outdoor
the COVID-19 pandemic trips during the COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 2022.000 2045.500
Wilcoxon W 2175.000 2198.500
Z −0.285 −0.207
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed) 0.775 0.836
Grouping Variable: Do you own a motorcycle? Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 32 shows the descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test for the variables
“Number of primary outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic” and “Num-
ber of primary outdoor trips per week during the COVID-19 pandemic” with respect to
motorcycle ownership. Respondents who own a motorcycle show a higher rank (M = 138.47)
regarding the number of primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than respon-
dents who do not own a motorcycle (M = 132.63). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is
2015.000, which shows that the obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −0.353,
p > 0.05). Also, respondents who own a motorcycle show a higher rank (M = 140.26) regard-
ing the number of primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic than respondents
who do not own a motorcycle (M = 132.50). The value of the Mann–Whitney test is 1984.500,
which shows that the obtained difference is not statistically significant (z = −0.444, p > 0.05).

Table 32. Descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney test: number of outdoor trips, by motorcy-
cle ownership.

Ranks
Do You Own a Motorcycle? N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
YES 17 138.47 2354.00
Number of primary outdoor
trips per week before the NO 248 132.63 32,891.00
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
YES 17 140.26 2384.50
Number of primary outdoor
trips per week during the NO 248 132.50 32,860.50
COVID-19 pandemic Total 265
Number of primary outdoor trips per week before Number of primary outdoor trips per
the COVID-19 pandemic week during the COVID-19 pandemic
Mann–Whitney U 2015.000 1984.500
Wilcoxon W 32,891.000 32,860.500
Z −0.353 −0.444
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed) 0.724 0.657
Grouping Variable: Do you own a motorcycle? Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 22 of 32

Table 33 shows the statistical significance of the influence of socio-demographic factors

(gender, employment, and car ownership) on the distance traveled per week before the
COVID-19 pandemic, while during the COVID-19 pandemic, it shows statistical significance
for the following socio-demographic factors: employment and car ownership. In the case
of age and owning a motorcycle, no statistical significance of the influence on the weekly
distance traveled was established.
Table 34 confirms that the group statistics of the influence of socio-demographic
factors on the number of primary outdoor trips per week before and during the COVID-19
pandemic did not show statistical significance.
From Table 35, it can be concluded that, before COVID-19, there was only a statistically
significant relationship between age and monthly household income, as well as between
age and the number of people in the household.
Table 36 shows that, during COVID-19, there was a statistically significant relationship
between age and monthly household income, age, and the number of people in the house-
hold. Then, a statistically significant relationship was established between monthly house-
hold income (BAM) and distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during COVID-19, as
well as the number of primary outdoor trips per week during COVID-19. A statistically sig-
nificant association was also found between the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips
during COVID-19 and the number of primary outdoor trips per week during COVID-19.

Table 33. Group statistics of the influence of socio-demographic factors on the distance traveled per
week before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Group Statistics
Distance Traveled per Week before Mann–Whitney a
Mean Rank z p
the COVID-19 Pandemic Group Wilcoxon-Rank b
Male 117.43
Gender 6573.500 a −2.488 0.013
Female 141.56
Student 141.98
Employed 135.68
Employment 12.576 b 0.006
Pensioner 74.35
Other 117.44
YES 140.57
Car ownership 5877.500 a −2.526 0.012
NO 114.85
Motorcycle YES 127.94
ownership 2022.000 a −0.285 0.775
NO 133.35
Group Statistics
Distance traveled per week during Mann–Whitney a
Mean Rank z p
the COVID-19 pandemic group Wilcoxon-rank b
Male 121.57
Gender 6963.000 a −1.821 0.069
Female 139.28
Student 138.65
Employed 138.34
Employment 12.396 b 0.006
Pensioner 73.38
Other 118.18
YES 141.84
Car ownership 5640.500 a −2.941 0.003
NO 111.81
Motorcycle YES 129.32
ownership 2045.500 a −0.207 0.836
NO 133.25
a Mann–Whitney; b Wilcoxon-Rank Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 23 of 32

Table 34. Group statistics of the influence of socio-demographic factors on the number of primary
outdoor trips per week before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Group Statistics
Number of Primary Outdoor Trips per Week Mann–Whitney a
Mean Rank z p
before the COVID-19 Pandemic Group Wilcoxon-Rank b
Male 138.73
Gender 7498.000 a −1.049 0.294
Female 129.85
Student 133.25
Employed 132.41
Employment 0.286 b 0.963
Pensioner 128.76
Other 140.24
YES 132.32
Car ownership 7166.000 a −0.260 0.795
NO 134.63
YES 138.47
Motorcycle ownership 2015.000 a −0.353 0.724
NO 132.63
Group statistics
Number of primary outdoor trips per week Mann–Whitney a
Mean Rank z p
during the COVID-19 pandemic group Wilcoxon-rank b
Male 135.62
Gender 7791.000 a −0.453 0.651
Female 131.56
Student 127.56
Employed 137.12
Employment 2.288 b 0.515
Pensioner 120.47
Other 146.85
YES 141.84
Car ownership 6331.000 a −1.858 0.063
NO 111.81
YES 140.26
Motorcycle ownership 1984.500 a −0.444 0.657
NO 132.50
a Mann–Whitney; b Wilcoxon-Rank Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 35. Correlation analysis before COVID-19.

Spearman’s Correlations—Before COVID-19

Distance Traveled for Number of
Monthly Number of Primary Outdoor Primary Outdoor
Age Household Household Trips before the Trips per Week
Income (BAM) Members COVID-19 Pandemic before COVID-19
Correlation 1.000 0.173 ** −0.284 ** −0.062 −0.011
Coefficient
Age Sig. (two-tailed) 0.005 0.000 0.311 0.859
N 265 265 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 0.004 0.091 0.127 *
Coefficient
Monthly household
income (BAM) Sig. (two-tailed) 0.949 0.138 0.039
N 265 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 0.016 0.048
Coefficient
Number of
household members Sig. (two-tailed) 0.798 0.432
N 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 0.110
Distance traveled for primary Coefficient
outdoor trips before the Sig. (two-tailed) 0.073
COVID-19 pandemic
N 265 265
Correlation 1.000
Number of primary outdoor Coefficient
trips per week before the Sig. (two-tailed)
COVID-19 pandemic
N 265
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 24 of 32

Table 36. Correlation analysis during COVID-19.

Spearman’s Correlations—During COVID-19

Monthly Number of Distance Traveled for Number of

Age Household Household Primary Outdoor Primary Outdoor
Income (BAM) Members Trips during the Trips per Week
COVID-19 Pandemic during COVID-19
Correlation 1.000 0.173 ** −0.284 ** −0.080 0.022
Coefficient
Age Sig. (two-tailed) 0.005 0.000 0.194 0.725
N 265 265 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 0.004 0.188 ** 0.185 **
Coefficient
Monthly household
income (BAM) Sig. (two-tailed) 0.949 0.002 0.002
N 265 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 −0.015 0.040
Coefficient
Number of
household members Sig. (two-tailed) 0.812 0.518
N 265 265 265
Correlation 1.000 0.182 **
Distance traveled for primary Coefficient
outdoor trips during the Sig. (two-tailed) 0.003
COVID-19 pandemic
N 265 265
Correlation 1.000
Number of primary outdoor Coefficient
trips per week during the Sig. (two-tailed)
COVID-19 pandemic
N 265
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). Source: Research results, 2022.

From the correlation Table 37, it can be seen that, before COVID-19, only the rela-
tionship between monthly household income and the number of primary outdoor trips
(r = 0.127, p < 0.05) was statistically significant, while during COVID-19, there was a statis-
tically significant relationship between monthly household income and distance traveled
(r = 0.188, p < 0.01), as well as the number of primary outdoor trips (r = 0.185, p < 0.01).

Table 37. Correlation of distance traveled and number of primary outdoor trips before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic.

Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient

Before COVID-19
Distance Traveled Number of Primary Trips
r p r p
Age −0.062 0.311 −0.011 0.859
Monthly household
0.091 0.138 0.127 * 0.039
income (BAM)
Number of household members 0.016 0.798 0.048 0.432
During COVID-19
Distance traveled Number of primary trips
r p r p
Age −0.080 0.194 0.022 0.725
Monthly household
0.188 ** 0.002 0.185 ** 0.002
income (BAM)
Number of household members −0.015 0.812 0.040 0.518
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
Source: Research results, 2022.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 25 of 32

From Table 38 it can be concluded that there were no significant changes in the mode
of transportation before and during COVID-19. Most of the respondents used a private car
as a means of transportation; before COVID-19, it was 160 (60.4%), and during COVID-19,
it was 164 (61.9%).

Table 38. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before and during COVID-19.

Before COVID-19 During COVID-19

Observed N Percent Observed N Percent
Nothing/I did not travel 5 1.8 13 4.9
Public transportation 56 21.1 37 13.9
Private car 160 60.4 164 61.9
Company car 6 2.3 8 3.0
Taxi 3 1.1 3 1.1
Motorcycle 3 1.1 1 0.4
Bike 7 2.6 11 4.2
Walking 25 9.4 28 10.6
Total 265 100.0 265 100.0
Source: Research results, 2022.

A post hoc McNemar test was applied in Table 39 to determine possible individual
changes in the mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before and during COVID-
19, which showed that the primary mode of transportation changed statistically significantly
(p < 0.001) from using public transportation to using a private car: out of 50 respondents who
used public transportation before COVID-19, 15 (30%) started using a private car during
COVID-19, while out of 147 respondents who used a private car before COVID-19, only
1 (0.7%) started using public transportation during COVID-19.

Table 39. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic (public transportation and private car).

McNemar Test
Mode of Transportation for Primary Outdoor Trips
during the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Public Transportation Private Car

Mode of transportation for Public transportation 35 15 50

primary outdoor trips before 0.001
the COVID-19 pandemic Private car 1 146 147
Total 36 161 197
Source: Research results, 2022.

On the other hand, Table 40 shows that the primary mode of transportation did not
change statistically significantly (p > 0.05) from using a private car to walking: out of
150 respondents who used a private car before COVID-19, 5 (3.0%) started using one during
COVID-19, while out of 22 respondents who used to walk before COVID-19, only 1 (4.5%)
started using a private car during COVID-19.
Also, from Table 41 it can be concluded that the primary mode of transportation did
not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05) from using public transportation to walking:
out of 36 respondents who used public transportation before COVID-19, only 1 (2.8%)
started using it during COVID-19, while of the 21 respondents who used walking before
COVID-19, none started using public transportation during COVID-19.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 26 of 32

Table 40. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic (private car and walking).

McNemar Test
Mode of Transportation for Primary Outdoor
Trips during the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Private Car Walking

Mode of transportation for Private car 145 5 150

primary outdoor trips before 0.219
the COVID-19 pandemic Walking 1 21 22
Total 36 146 26 172
Source: Research results, 2022.

Table 41. Mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic (public transportation and walking).

McNemar Test
Mode of Transportation for Primary Outdoor
Trips during the COVID-19 Pandemic Total p
Public Transportation Walking

Mode of transportation for Public

35 1 36
primary outdoor trips before transportation 1.000
the COVID-19 pandemic Walking 0 21 21
Total 35 22 57
Source: Research results, 2022.

5. Discussion
The results provided answers to the research questions:
- Has the COVID-19 pandemic affected the change in behavior related to traveling
to·work?
- Most respondents (51.3%) state that nothing has changed, while the rest (48.7%) state
that the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced a change in behavior when traveling to
work. Given that it is slightly less than 50% of the respondents, it can be concluded
that the pandemic influenced behavior changes, which agrees with studies by [6,39].
- What is the primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic,
and is there a change in the primary purpose of travel?
The primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19 pandemic is social
activities. The most significant change is reflected in a decrease in social activities (from
34.0% to 26.0%) and an increase in recreational sports activities (from 5.3% to 9.8%), while
other activities remained proportionally the same before and during the COVID-19 pan-
demic. There is also a noticeable decrease in the social activities of women before and
during the COVID-19 pandemic (from 35.7% to 24.6%), as well as a decrease in the social
activities of respondents aged 31–50 before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (from
30.9% to 20.2%). Comparing social activities with shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”
shows a statistically significant change in the primary purpose of travel (p < 0.01). Of
the 73 respondents who primarily traveled for social activities, as many as 52 (71.2%) of
them primarily started traveling during COVID-19 for shopping, recreation, sports, or
other reasons, while of the 52 respondents who, before COVID-19, primarily traveled for
shopping, recreation, sports, or “other”, 47 (90.3%) started traveling primarily for social
activities. It can be concluded that there are changes in the purpose of travel before and
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ref. [39] states that most of the travel is carried out for the
purposes of shopping, and the number of trips made for other reasons, such as commuting
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 27 of 32

or leisure, is significantly reduced, which was confirmed by this study. Ref. [6] explained,
in their study, that the purpose of travel, the mode of transportation, the frequency of travel
for primary purposes, and the distance traveled differed significantly during and before
the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, during the pandemic, the most common trips are
shopping, which is in agreement with this research, given the fact that the results of this
study showed that a number of respondents who primarily traveled for shopping, recre-
ation, sports, or “other” before COVID-19, as many as 90.3%, started traveling primarily
for social activities.
What distance is traveled for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19
pandemic? What is the number of primary weekly outdoor trips before and during the
COVID-19 pandemic? What is the influence of socio-demographic factors on the distance
traveled and the number of trips for the primary purpose before and during the COVID-19
pandemic? Is there a significant correlation between socio-demographic factors and the
number of trips for the primary purpose before and during the COVID-19 pandemic?
The average distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pan-
demic is greater than that for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic, and
the resulting difference is statistically significant. The results are in agreement with previ-
ous studies that showed that subjects significantly reduced their traveled distance during
COVID-19 [6,44]. In a study conducted in Switzerland, [44] reported that the mean daily
travel distance varied between 0 km and 10 km while travel bans were in force, i.e., between
15 March and 30 April 2020. In this study, the average number of primary outdoor trips
per week before the COVID-19 pandemic is higher than the average number during the
pandemic, and the obtained difference is statistically significant at the 0.01 level (z = −4.191,
p < 0.01).
As for the influence of socio-demographic factors on the distance traveled, the research
results show that female respondents show a higher rank (M = 141.56) in the distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips before the pandemic compared to male respondents
(M = 117.43). The value of the Mann–Whitney test shows that the obtained difference
is statistically significant. Also, the χ2 -test indicates a statistically significant difference
in the mode of transportation for primary outdoor trips with regard to owning or not
owning a car (p < 0.01), but there is no significant impact of COVID-19. This finding is
consistent with the study by [6], who concluded that, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,
people who did not own cars traveled significantly less distance for the primary purpose of
travel than those who owned a car. But during the COVID-19 pandemic, car ownership
did not significantly affect the distance traveled for the primary purpose of travel. The
distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
with regard to employment shows that the highest rank (M = 141.98) of the distance traveled
for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic is demonstrated by students,
while the lowest rank is shown by pensioners (M = 74.35), and the obtained difference is
statistically significant. Also, students (M = 138.65) and employed persons (M = 138.34)
show the highest ranks in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the
COVID-19 pandemic, while the lowest ranks are shown by pensioners (M = 73.38), and
the difference obtained is statistically significant. The results related to the number of
primary outdoor trips per week before and during the COVID-19 pandemic with regard to
employment show that the highest rank (M = 140.24) in terms of the number of primary
outdoor trips per week before the COVID-19 pandemic is shown by respondents in the
occupation category “Other”, while the lowest rank is shown by pensioners (M = 128.76).
Also, the highest rank (M = 146.85) in terms of the number of primary outdoor trips
per week during the COVID-19 pandemic is shown by respondents in the occupation
category “Other”, while the lowest rank is shown by pensioners (M = 120.47). However,
the mentioned differences are not statistically significant. These findings are consistent
with the results of several previous studies that mentioned that older travelers (in this case,
pensioners) travel less compared to younger ones (students, employed persons, etc.) [21,22].
Respondents who own a car show a higher rank (M = 140.57) in the distance traveled for
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 28 of 32

primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than respondents who do not own
a car (M = 114.85). Also, respondents who own a car show a higher rank (M = 141.84)
in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic than
respondents who do not own a car (M = 111.81). The obtained differences are statistically
significant. Respondents who do not own a car show a higher rank (M = 134.63) regarding
the number of primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than respondents
who own a car (M = 132.32). On the other hand, respondents who own a car show a higher
rank (M = 138.14) for the number of primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic
compared to respondents who do not own a car (M = 120.67). The obtained differences
are not statistically significant. Respondents who do not own a motorcycle show a higher
rank (M = 133.35) in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19
pandemic than respondents who own a motorcycle (M = 127.94). The situation was the
same during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, the obtained differences are not statistically
significant. Respondents who own a motorcycle show a higher rank (M = 138.47) regarding
the number of primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic than respondents
who do not own a motorcycle (M = 132.63). Also, respondents who own a motorcycle
show a higher rank (M = 140.26) regarding the number of primary outdoor trips during the
COVID-19 pandemic than respondents who do not own a motorcycle (M = 132.50). The
obtained differences are not statistically significant.
The results show the statistical significance of the influence of socio-demographic
factors (gender, employment, and car ownership) on the distance traveled per week before
the COVID-19 pandemic, while during the COVID-19 pandemic, they show statistical
significance for the following socio-demographic factors: employment and car ownership,
while in the case of age and owning a motorcycle, no statistical significance of the influence
on the weekly distance traveled was established. Previous studies have found that male
respondents traveled significantly longer distances for primary travel purposes during
COVID-19 [6,44], which is inconsistent with this research. The study results show that
the group statistics of the influence of socio-demographic factors on the number of pri-
mary outdoor trips per week before and during the COVID-19 pandemic did not show
statistical significance.
From the obtained results, it can be concluded that there was only a statistically signif-
icant relationship between age and monthly household income, as well as between age and
the number of people in the household before COVID-19. The results show a statistically
significant relationship between age and monthly household income, age, and the number
of people in the household during COVID-19. A statistically significant association was
also found between monthly household income (BAM), the distance traveled for primary
outdoor trips during COVID-19, and the number of primary outdoor trips per week during
COVID-19. A statistically significant association was also found between the distance
traveled for primary outdoor trips during COVID-19 and the number of primary outdoor
trips per week during COVID-19. The correlation table shows that, before COVID-19,
the only statistically significant relationship exists between monthly household income
and the number of primary outdoor trips (r = 0.127, p < 0.05), while during COVID-19,
there was a statistically significant relationship between monthly household income and
distance traveled (r = 0.188, p < 0.01), as well as the number of primary trips outdoors
(r = 0.185, p < 0.01). Ref. [6] state that the correlation between the number of people in the
household and trips made for the primary purpose during COVID-19 was not significant.
Furthermore, weak correlations were observed between age, education, and the number
of trips for the primary purpose before COVID-19. However, they were not significant
during COVID-19. All other correlations in the study were very weak. The results of the
study are not in agreement with this research. Gender, car ownership, work status, travel
distance, and the primary purpose of travel have been shown to be significant predictors of
the choice of the mode of transportation during the COVID-19 pandemic [6], which is in
agreement with this research.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 29 of 32

- What mode of transportation was used for primary outdoor trips before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic, and is there a change in the mode?
- There were no significant changes in the mode of transportation before and during
COVID-19. The largest number of respondents used a private car as a means of trans-
portation, namely, 160 (60.4%) before COVID-19 and 164 (61.9%) during COVID-19.
- Has the mode of transportation changed for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-
19 pandemic for people who own a car, and has the mode of transportation changed
for primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic for people who do not own
a car?
The results showed that the primary mode of transportation changed statistically
significantly (p < 0.001) from the use of public transportation to the use of a private car:
of the 50 respondents who used public transportation before COVID-19, 15 (30%) started
using a private car during COVID-19, while out of 147 respondents who used a private
car before COVID-19, only 1 (0.7%) started using public transportation during COVID-19.
These results agree with previous studies showing that people avoid public transportation
during a pandemic [17,39,45–48]. On the other hand, the primary mode of transportation
did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05) from using a private car to walking: out of
150 respondents who used a private car before COVID-19, 5 (3.0%) started walking during
COVID-19, while out of 22 respondents who used to walk before COVID-19, only 1 (4.5%)
started using a private car during COVID-19. Also, the primary mode of transportation
did not change statistically significantly (p > 0.05) from using public transportation to
walking: out of 36 respondents who used public transportation before COVID-19, only
1 (2.8%) started walking during COVID-19, while of the 21 respondents who walked before
COVID-19, none started using public transportation during COVID-19. These results are
inconsistent with a study that showed that, during COVID-19, walking (as a primary mode
of transportation) increased by 7% compared to pre-COVID periods [6].
A national survey was conducted in the US to investigate public opinion on community-
based influenza mitigation measures. In the study, 89% of survey participants believe that
the use of public transport (trains and buses) should be limited [52]. Also, 85% of them
stated that they would not allow their children to use public transportation and perform
activities outside the home, such as social gatherings and public events while schools are
closed. Ref. [53] conducted a qualitative study using interviews and focus groups aimed at
health personnel. Several survey participants indicated they used public transportation less,
and more people were willing to travel to work by private car. Ref. [6] state in the study
that there has been a significant shift from public transportation to private transportation
and non-motorized modes of operation. The mentioned research is in agreement with
this research because the study showed that the primary mode of transportation changed
statistically significantly from the use of public transportation to the use of a private car.

6. Conclusions
The results show that the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced a change in behavior
when traveling to work. The primary purpose of travel before and during the COVID-19
pandemic is social activities. The most significant change in the primary purpose of travel
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic is reflected in a decrease in social activities and
an increase in recreational sports activities, while other activities remained proportionally
the same before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The average distance traveled for
primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic is greater than that for primary
outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic. The distance traveled for primary outdoor
trips before and during the COVID-19 pandemic with regard to employment as a socio-
demographic factor shows that the highest rank (M = 141.98) of the distance traveled
for primary outdoor trips before the COVID-19 pandemic is demonstrated by students,
while pensioners show the lowest rank. Also, the highest ranks of distance covered for
primary outdoor trips during the COVID-19 pandemic are demonstrated by students and
employees, while pensioners show the lowest rank. Respondents who own a car show
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10701 30 of 32

a higher rank (M = 140.57) in the distance traveled for primary outdoor trips before the
COVID-19 pandemic compared to respondents who do not have a car. Also, respondents
who own a car show a higher rank of distance traveled for primary outdoor trips during
the COVID-19 pandemic compared to respondents who do not have a car.
The results show the statistical significance of the influence of socio-demographic
factors (gender, employment, and car ownership) on the distance traveled per week before
the COVID-19 pandemic, while during the COVID-19 pandemic, it shows statistical signifi-
cance for the following socio-demographic factors: employment and car ownership, while
in the case of age and owning a motorcycle, no statistical significance of the influence on
the weekly distance traveled was established. Most of the respondents used a private car
as a means of transportation. The results showed that the primary mode of transportation
changed statistically significantly from the use of public transportation to the use of a
private car.
There were several limitations with this study. First, data were collected in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and at the time of the survey, it had certain levels of restrictions and percent-
ages of the infected population. These percentages do not have to match the percentages in
other countries at the time. Second, people who had access to the Internet, that is, e-mail or
the social network Facebook, answered this questionnaire. Thus, generalizing the results for
the average population in Bosnia and Herzegovina may not be practical. Also, the reported
behavior likely may not truly represent their actual travel behavior, especially before the
pandemic. For the above reasons, the recommendation for future research is to increase the
size of the sample and its diversity. Also, it is recommended that this and similar research
be conducted in several countries so that the results can be compared and the findings
can be generalized. The findings of this study could have implications for traffic planning
post-COVID but also (and especially) during possible future pandemic situations.
The results of this study could be useful in traffic planning and making various policies
during various pandemics based on people’s travel needs. In particular, government bodies
could use such knowledge to plan partial and smarter lockdowns. Tourism and transport
companies could use this information to better plan their services and operations.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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