Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typologies

Chapter 1/Crime and Criminology

Glossary –

Chapter 1
Chicago School Group of urban sociologists who studied the relationship between environmental
conditions and crime.
Code of
The first written criminal code developed in Babylonia about 2000 b.c.
Hammurabi
Mosaic Code The laws of the ancient Israelites, found in the Old Testament of the Judeo-
Christian Bible.
anomie A condition produced by normlessness. Because of rapidly shifting moral
values, the individual has few guides to what is socially acceptable. According to
Merton, anomie is a condition that occurs when personal goals cannot be
achieved by available means. In Agnew's revision anomie can occur when
positive or valued stimuli are removed or negative or painful ones applied.
atavistic According to Lombroso, the physical characteristics that distinguish born
anomalies criminals from the general population and are throwbacks to animals or primitive
people.
attitude survey Surveys that measure the attitudes, beliefs, and values of different groups.
bourgeoisie In Marxist theory, the owners of the means of production; the capitalist ruling
class.

classical The theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose
criminology criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for
reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the
fear of criminal sanctions.

common law Early English law, developed by judges, that incorporated Anglo-Saxon tribal
custom, feudal rules and practices, and the everyday rules of behavior of local
villages. Common law became the standardized law of the land in England and
eventually formed the basis of the criminal law in the United States.
conflict view The view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those
who maintain social power will use it to further their own needs.
consensus view The belief that the majority of citizens in a society share common ideals and
of crime work toward a common good and that crimes are acts that are outlawed
because they conflict with the rules of the majority and are harmful to society.
crime A violation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by a
criminal legal code created by people holding social and political power.
Individuals who violate these rules are subject to sanctions by state authority,
social stigma, and loss of status.

criminologists Researchers who use scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and
control of criminal behavior.
criminology The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal
behavior.
decriminalization Reducing the penalty for a criminal act but not actually legalizing it.

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deviant behavior Behavior that departs from the social norm.
interactionist view The view that one's perception of reality is significantly influenced by one's
interpretations of the reactions of others to similar events and stimuli.

phrenologist Scientists who studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the head to
determine whether these physical attributes were linked to criminal behavior;
they believed that external cranial characteristics dictated which areas of the
brain control physical activity.
physiognomist Scientists who studied the facial features of criminals to determine whether the
shape of ears, nose, and eyes and the distance between them were associated
with antisocial behavior.
population All people who share a particular personal characteristic, such as all high school
students or all police officers.
positivism The branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural
sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological,
psychological, or economic forces.
proletariat A term used by Marx to refer to the working class members of society who
produce goods and services but who do not own the means of production.
psychopathic A personality characterized by a lack of warmth and feeling, inappropriate
personality behavior responses, and an inability to learn from experience. Some
psychologists view psychopathy as a result of childhood trauma; others see it as
a result of biological abnormality.

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 Chapter 1
Crime and Criminology

Historical Roots of Criminology

•Utilitarian philosophy of Becarria
•Positivism
•Biological determinism of Lombroso
•Sociological theory of Durkheim and Quetelet
•Conflict Criminology of Marx
What is Criminology?
Criminology is the scientific approach to:
the study of criminal behavior and society’s reaction to law violations and
violators including:

1. Nature
2. Extent
3. Cause & Control of criminal behavior

Introduction
The concepts of crime, law and criminology have been an important part of our society
for over 5,000 years.

The scientific study of crime is considered a modern science, as it has only existed for
200 years.

The Criminological Enterprise

Crime Statistics
Theory Construction
Penology
Sociology of Law
` Criminal Behavior Systems
Victimology

Criminology Perspectives
1. Classical: _______________________________
2. Biological: ______________________________
3. Structural: _____________________________
4. Process: _______________________________
5. Conflict: _______________________________
6. Integrated/Developmental: ________________
Deviancy or Criminality?
1. Deviant Behavior- Is an action that departs from the
social norms of society.
2. Criminal Behavior- Deviant Behavior becomes criminal behavior when it is
specifically defined prohibited and punished under the criminal law.

Differing Views on the Causes and Controls of Criminal Behavior

1. Consensus View
2. Conflict View
3. Interactionist View

Crime is a violation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by the

criminal law, which reflects public opinion, traditional values and the viewpoint of
people currently holding social and political power. Individuals who violate these rules
are subject to sanctions by state authority, social stigma, and loss of status.

Origins of the Law

•Code of Hammurabi- the first written criminal code, developed in Babylonia around
2000BC
•Mosaic Code- Laws of ancient Israelites, found in the old testament of the Judeo
Christian Bible
•Common Law- Early English law, developed by judges. They became standardized
law of the land in England. Eventually became the basis of criminal law in the US.

Social Goals of Criminal Law

1. Expressing public opinion and morality
2. Maintaining social order
3. Discouraging revenge
4. Punishing wrongdoing
5. Enforcing social control
6. Deterring criminal behavior

Principles of Criminal Law

1. Actus Reus- ________________________
2. Mens Rea- _________________________
3. Legality
4. Causation
5. Harm
6. Concurrence
7. Punishment

Precedent- Published decisions by the judicial which are applied to future cases. The
basis of common law. These decisions become the basis for decision making, legal rules
and principles.
Statutory crimes- defined by legislative bodies in response to social conditions.

Contemporary Criminal Law divides the crimes into two categories…felonies and
misdemeanors. Determining factor is perceived seriousness.
Felony – 1 year of imprisonment or more
Misdemeanors – short jail terms, fines, restitution
 CJ 101 Criminology
Chapter 2 Outline (coincides with Ppt)
Criminal Law and Its Processes

The Origin of Law

Code of Hammurabi- ____________________________________
Mosaic Code- __________________________________________
Common Law- _________________________________________

Early Crime, Punishment, and Law

During the Dark Ages (500-1000ad) codes were lost and superstitions and fear
of magic dominated thinking
Wergild (compensation) was divided between the King and victim- “man’s
price” (wer= worth)
Compurgation and Ordeals
Figure 2.1 The Distribution of Wergild

Origins of “Common Law”

English Legal System __________________________________________
Common Law ________________________________________________
Stare decisis __________________________________________________

Figure 2.1 The Distribution of Wergild

The Common Law

Circuit judges
Juries
Royal prosecutors
Case law
Classification of Law
Crimes and Torts
Civil law is all law other than criminal; includes property, contract, and tort law
A tort is a civil action in which a person asks to be compensated for personal
harm
Beyond a reasonable doubt
Preponderance of the evidence
Criminal Law- Tort Law
• A public offense A civil or private wrong
• Enforcement is state • Individuals bring action
business • Sanction is normally
• Punishment is often monetary damages
loss of liberties or • Both parties can appeal
sometimes death • Individuals receives the
• Fines go to the state compensation for harm
• State doesn’t ordinarily appeal done
• Proof beyond a reasonable doubt • “Preponderance of the
evidence” is required for
CJ101 Criminology
a decision.
1
Chapter 2 Criminal Law and its Processes
Classification of Law (cont.)
Felonies and Misdemeanors
Usually distinguishable based on punishment
Felonies are serious; can receive prison time
Misdemeanors are petty or less serious; can only receive time in a county or city
jail
Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum
Functions of Criminal Law
Substantive Criminal Law – written code defining crimes and their punishments
Enforce social control
Discourage revenge
Express public opinion & morality
Deter criminal behavior
Punish wrongdoing
Maintain social order
The Legal Definition of a Crime
Actus reus – __________________
Mens rea –____________________
Criminal Defenses
Self-Defense
Ignorance or Mistake
The Insanity Plea

CJ101 Criminology 2
Chapter 2 Criminal Law and its Processes
Glossary

Chapter 2
actus reus An illegal act. The actus reus can be an affirmative act, such as taking money or
shooting someone. or a failure to act, such as failing to take proper precautions
while driving a car.
bot Under Anglo-Saxon law, the restitution paid for killing someone in an open fight.
case law When judicial decisions began to be written and published, judicial precedents
were established, and more concrete examples of common-law decisions began
to emerge. Together these cases and decisions filtered through the national court
system and eventually produced a fixed body of legal rule and and principles, or
case law.
circuit judges Traveling judges appointed by King Henry of England.
civil law All law that is not criminal, including torts (personal wrongs), contract, property,
maritime, and commercial law.
community Recent legislative efforts that require convicted sex offenders to register with
notification laws local police when they move into an area or neighborhood.
compurgation In early English law, a process whereby an accused person swore an oath of
innocence while being backed up by a group of 12 to 25 oathhelpers, who would
attest to his character and claims of innocence.
contract law The law of personal agreements.
criminal attempt The intent may make an act, innocent in itself, criminal; also called inchoate
law crimes.
ecclesiastics See holy-motes; church courts in England in the eleventh century.
embezzlement A type of larceny that involves taking the possessions of another (fraudulent
conversion) that have been placed in the thief's lawful possession for
safekeeping, such as a bank teller misappropriating deposits or a stockbroker
making off with a customer's account.
felony A serious offense that carries a penalty of incarceration in a state prison, usually
for one year or more. Persons convicted of felony offenses lose the right to vote,
hold elective office, or maintain certain licenses.
fine A dollar amount usually exacted as punishment for a minor crime; fines may also
be combined with other sentencing alternatives, such as probation or
confinement.
folkways Generally followed customs that do not have moral values attached to them,
such as not interrupting people when they are speaking.
hali-gemot The manorial court of the local nobleman in England in the eleventh century.
holy-motes Acts of a spiritual nature were judged by clergymen and church officials in these
courts in England in the eleventh century; also called ecclesiastics.
hundred In medieval England, a group of 100 families who were responsible for
maintaining the order and trying minor offenses.
hundred-gemot Literally, the hundred group, whose courts tried petty cases of criminal conduct.
inchoate crimes Incomplete or contemplated crimes such as criminal solicitation or criminal
attempts.
justification A defense to a criminal charge in which the accused maintains that his or her
actions were justified by the circumstances and therefore he or she should not be
held criminally liable.
larceny Taking for one's own use the property of another, by means other than force or
threats on the victim or forcibly breaking into a person's home or workplace; theft.
legal code The specific laws that fall within the scope of criminal law.
lex talionis Physical retaliation; an eye for an eye.
libel False and injurious writings.
mala in se crimes Acts that are outlawed because they violate basic moral values, such as rape,
murder, assault, and robbery.
mala prohibitum Acts that are outlawed because they clash with current norms and public opinion,
crimes such as tax, traffic, and drug laws.
manorial courts The local hundred who dealt with most secular violations in eleventh century
England.
mens rea Guilty mind. The mental element of a crime or the intent to commit a criminal act.
morals Universally followed behavior based on societal codes of conduct; society norms.
natural law Laws rooted in the core values inherent in Western civilization; also called mala
in se crimes.
norms Unwritten rules of conduct and universally followed behavior.
ordeal Based on the principle of divine intervention and the then-prevalent belief that
divine forces would not allow an innocent person to be harmed, this was a way of
determining guilt involving such measures as having the accused place his or her
hand in boiling water or hold a hot iron to see if God would intervene and heal the
wounds. If the wound healed, the person wasn't found guilty; conversely, if the
wound didn't heal, the accused was deemed guilty of the crime for which he or
she was being punished.
pedophiles Sexual offenders who target children.
preponderance of The level of proof in civil cases; more than half the evidence supports the
the evidence allegations of one side.
property law The law governing transfer and ownership of property.
reeve In early England, the senior law enforcement figure in a county, the forerunner of
today's sheriff.
royal prosecutors Representatives of the Crown who submitted evidence and brought witnesses to
testify before the jury in the reign of King Henry II.
sexual predator Law that allows authorities to keep some criminals convicted of sexually violent
law crimes in custody even after their sentences are served.
shire Counties in England and much of Europe in the eleventh century.
shire-gemot During the Middle Ages, an assemblage of local landholders who heard more
serious and important criminal cases.
slander False and injurious statements.
stare decisis To stand by decided cases; the legal principle by which the decision or holding in
an earlier case becomes the standard by which subsequent similar cases are
judged.
statute of Specifies the amount of time by which action must be taken by the state in a
limitations criminal matter.
statutory crimes Crimes defined by legislative bodies in response to changing social conditions,
public opinion, and custom.
strict-liability Illegal acts whose elements do not contain the need for intent, or mens rea; they
crimes are usually acts that endanger the public welfare, such as illegal dumping of toxic
wastes.
substantive A body of specific rules that declare what conduct is criminal and prescribe the
criminal law punishment to be imposed for such conduct.
tithings During the Middle Ages, groups of about 10 families who were responsible for
maintaining order among themselves and dealing with disturbances, fires, wild
animals, and so on.
tort The law of personal wrongs and damage. Tort actions include negligence, libel,
slander, assault, and trespass.
tort law The law of personal wrongs and damage; most similar in intent and form to the
criminal law.
treasonous acts Siding with an enemy in a dispute over territory or succession.
Twelve Tables A special commission of 10 noble Roman men formulated the Twelve Tables in
451 B.C. in response to pressure from the lower classes, who believed an
unwritten code gave arbitrary and unlimited power to the wealthy classes. The
original code was written on bronze plaques, which have been lost, but records
of sections, which were memorized by every Roman male, survive. The
remaining laws deal with debt, family relations, property, and other daily matters.
vagrancy The crime of being a vagrant or homeless person. The first vagrancy laws were
aimed at preventing workers from leaving their estates to secure higher wages
elsewhere. They punished migration and permissionless travel.
vagrant A person who goes from place to place without visible means of support and
who, though able to work for his or her maintenance, refuses to do so.
wergild Under medieval law, the money paid by the offender to compensate the victim
and the state for a criminal offense.
wite The portion of the wergild that went to the victim's family.
Glossary

Chapter 3
aging out The process by which individuals reduce the frequency of their offending
behavior as they age. It is also known as spontaneous remission, because
people are believed to spontaneously reduce the rate of their criminal
behavior as they mature. Aging out is thought to occur among all groups of
offenders.
career criminal A person who repeatedly violates the law and organizes his or her lifestyle
around criminality.
chivalry hypothesis The idea that low female crime and delinquency rates are a reflection of the
leniency with which police treat female offenders.
chronic offender According to Wolfgang, a delinquent offender who is arrested five or more
times before he or she is 18 and who stands a good chance of becoming an
adult criminal; such offenders are responsible for more than half of all serious
crimes.
cleared crimes Crimes are cleared in two ways: (1) when at least one person is arrested,
charged, and turned over to the court for prosecution; or (2) by exceptional
means, when some element beyond police control precludes the physical
arrest of an offender (for example, the offender leaves the country).
continuity of crime The view that crime begins early in life and continues throughout the life
course. Thus, the best predictor of future criminality is past criminality.
early onset A term that refers to the assumption that a criminal career begins early in life
and that people who are deviant at a very young age are the ones most likely
to persist in crime.
ecological view A belief that social forces operating in urban areas create criminal
interactions; some neighborhoods become natural areas for crime.
expressive crime A crime that has no purpose except to accomplish the behavior at hand, such
as shooting someone.
index crimes The eight crimes that, because of their seriousness and frequency, the FBI
reports the incidence of in the annual Uniform Crime Reports. Index crimes
include murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor
vehicle theft.
liberal feminist This theory suggested that the traditionally lower crime rate for women could
theory be explained by their second-class economic and social position. As women's
social roles changed and their lifestyles became more like those of males, it
was believed that their crime rates would converge.
masculinity The view that women who commit crimes have biological and psychological
hypothesis traits similar to those of men.
National Crime The ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department
Victimization Survey and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences
(NCVS) with law violation.
National Incident- A new program that will require local police agencies to provide a brief
Based Reporting account of each incident and arrest within 22 crime patterns, including
System (NIBRS) incident, victim, and offender information.
Part I crimes Another term for index crimes; eight categories of serious, frequent crimes.
Part II crimes All crimes other than index and minor traffic offenses. The FBI records annual
arrest information for Part II offenses.
persistence The idea that those who started their delinquent careers early and who
committed serious violent crimes throughout adolescence were the most
likely to persist as adults.
self-report survey A research approach that requires subjects to reveal their own participation in
delinquent or criminal acts.
three stikes and Policy whereby people convicted of three felony offenses receive a
you're out mandatory life sentence.
Uniform Crime Large database, compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, of crimes
Report (UCR) reported and arrests made each year throughout the United States.
 Chapter 3
The Nature and Extent of Crime

Methods of Measuring Crime

1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________

Uniform Crime Reports

1. Based on Crimes Reported to the __________
2. Based on a population unit of 100,000 people
3. Number of Report Crimes x 100,000 = Rate per 100,000
Total U.S. Population
4. Divided into two representative categories: ___________&___________
5. Categories counted ___________
6. Many problems with __________

Uniform Crime Reports

•Indexed Crimes – The eight major crime categories reported by the FBI in the UCR
1. Criminal Homicide
2. Forcible Rape
3. Robbery
4. Aggravated assault
5. Burglary
6. Larceny/theft
7. Motor vehicle theft
8. Arson
•Non-Indexed Crimes
–All others

Problems With The Uniform Crime Reports

•Experts agree that there are many problems with the accuracy of the Uniform Crime
Reports due to:
–Reporting practices
–Methodological problems

The Future of the Uniform Crime Reports

•National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
•Maintained by the F.B.I.
•Twenty-two crime categories
•More information on each crime in each category
•Data compiled based on incidents, not arrests.
Crime Victim Surveys
1. Asks ___________ about their encounters with criminals
2. Uses sampling techniques
3. May also _____________________________
4. Potential measurement problems include:
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________

Self Reported Crime

•Participants reveal information about their violations of the law
•Helps to get at “Dark Figure of Crime”
•Supplement and expand official data
•Validity and reliability better than expected by many
•Accuracy for chronic offenders and drug abusers may be limited
Self-Report Surveys
•Most often a survey is administered to a group
•Most are anonymous
•Numerous questions exist about survey reliability and validity
Figure 3.2 Self-Report Survey Questions
Dark Figure of Crime
…… the public only sees visible, or reported crime. The dark figure of crime is
that which ____________________.

Unreported Crime
National Crime Victim Surveys finds that many crimes go
unreported to the police:
1. ______________________
2. ______________________
3. ______________________

Explaining Crime Trends

•Age
•The economy
•Social malaise
•Abortion
•Guns
•Gangs
•Drugs
•Media
•Justice Policy
Figure 3.3 Crime Rate Trends
Current Crime Trends
•Final data released by the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program in the annual
publication Crime in the United States, 2001 indicate that:
The estimated 11.8 million Crime Index offenses (murder, rape, robbery,
aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft) in the Nation
in 2001 represented a 2.1-percent increase over the 2000 estimate, the first year-
to-year increase since 1991.

• Estimated violent crime in 2001 rose ________________________.

Trends in Violent Crime

• Estimated aggravated assault ____________________

• Robberies _____________________, murders ________________.
• Forcible rapes ________________________
Trends in Property Crime
Self Reported Criminal Activity Trends and Victimizations
Figure 3.5 Victimization Rate Trends, 1973-2000
Crime Patterns
Guns and Crime
•What relationship exists between the availability of guns and the number of guns used in
crimes?
•What would it take to “control guns” as a crime control measure, yet “maintain our right
to bear arms” as guaranteed in the constitution?
Social Class and Crime
•Expressive Crime
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
•Instrumental Crime
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Figure 3.6 The Relationship between Temperature and Crime

Age and Crime
•Regardless of economic status, marital status, race, and sex, younger people commit
crime more often than their older peers; research indicates this relationship has been
stable across time periods ranging from 1935 to the present
Gender and Crime
•All data sets support the theory that male crime rates are much higher than those of
females. What accounts for female crime?
–Masculinity hypothesis
–Chivalry hypothesis
–Socialization and development
Longitudinal Birth Cohort Research
The “Chronic 6%”
Continuity of Crime
Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept
•Traditional theories of criminal behavior have failed to distinguish between chronic and
occasional offenders.
–Why do some continue on in crime while others do not?
•If we can identify chronic offenders, what should we do about them before and/or after
they commit an offense?
Glossary

Chapter 4
active The view that the source of many criminal incidents is the aggressive or
precipitation provocative behavior of victims.
capable
Effective deterrents to crime, such as police or watchful neighbors
guardians
chronic Those who have been crime victims maintain a significantly higher chance of
victimization future victimization than people who have remained nonvictims. Most repeat
victimizations occur soon after a previous crime has occurred, suggesting that
repeat victims share some personal characteristic that makes them a magnet for
predators.
crisis
Emergency counseling for crime victims.
intervention
cycle of violence The idea that victims of crime, especially childhood abuse, are more likely to
commit crimes themselves.
date rape Forcible sex during a courting relationship.
exclusionary rule The principle that prohibits using evidence illegally obtained in a trial. Based on
the Fourth Amendment right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, the rule is not
a bar to prosecution, as legally obtained evidence may be available that may be
used in a trial.
motivated The potential offenders in a population. According to rational choice theory, crime
offenders rates will vary according to the number of motivated offenders.
obsessive-
An extreme preoccupation with certain thoughts and compulsive performance of
compulsive
certain behaviors.
disorder
passive The view that some people become victims because of personal and social
precipitation characteristics that make them attractive targets for predatory criminals.
posttraumatic Psychological reaction to a highly stressful event; symptoms may include
stress disorder depression, anxiety, flashbacks, and recurring nightmares.
preventive
The practice of holding dangerous suspects before trial without bail.
detention
restorative Using humanistic nonpunitive strategies to right wrongs and restore social
justice harmony.
stalking A pattern of behavior directed at a specific person that includes repeated
physical or visual proximity, unwanted communications, and/or threats sufficient
to cause fear in a reasonable person.
suitable target According to routine activities theory, a target for crime that is relatively valuable,
easily transportable, and not capably guarded.
target hardening Making one's home or business crime proof through the use of locks, bars,
alarms, and other devices.
victim The victim ordinarily receives compensation from the state to pay for damages
compensation associated with the crime. Rarely are two compensation schemes alike,
however, and many state programs suffer from lack of both adequate funding
and proper organization within the criminal justice system. Compensation may be
made for medical bills, loss of wages, loss of future earnings, and counseling. In
the case of death, the victim's survivors can receive burial expenses and aid for
loss of support.
victim The idea that the victim's behavior was the spark that ignited the subsequent

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precipitation view offense, as when the victim abused the offender verbally or physically.
victim-witness
Government programs that help crime victims and witnesses; may include
assistance
compensation, court services, and/or crisis intervention.
programs
victimization (by While the crime is still fresh in their minds, victims may find that the police
the justice interrogation following the crime is handled callously, with innuendos or
system) insinuations that they were somehow at fault. Victims have difficulty learning
what is going on in the case; property is often kept for a long time as evidence
and may never be returned. Some rape victims report that the treatment they
receive from legal, medical, and mental health services is so destructive that they
can't help but feel re-raped.
victimologist A person who studies the victim's role in criminal transactions.

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 CRIMINOLOGY CJ101
Chapter 4
Victims and Victimization
Victimology
The study of ____________________
The _________ of the victim in the criminal process
The _________ of victimization
The ____________ between victims and the offenders
Societies ____________ to victims
The Problems of Crime

The Pain and Suffering Experienced by Crime Victims Does Not Stop after the
Crime is Over
Fear of ___________, of __________, of other ______________
Intensive questioning by investigators
Difficulty obtaining information about the crime
Property is not returned
________, _________, __________
Antisocial behavior
______________________

How do the following factors affect victimization?

1. Prior victimization-

2. Social Ecology-

3. Family Household-

4. Personal characteristics (race, age, gender, marital status, social status?)

Relationship Between Victims and Criminals

1. Age-
2. Strangers-
3. Acquaintances-
4. Family-
Lowest Income Are More Likely to Be Victimized Than the More Affluent
1. Less than $8,000 a year–
2. Median range income of $25,000-
3. $75,000 or more-
Figure 4.4 Gender Affects Victimization Risks
1. Rape-
2. Robbery-
3. Aggravated Assault-

CJ 101 Chp 4 Victimization 1

Updated Sp 2005
Figure 4.2 Percentage of Male High School Students (Grade 9-12) Reporting
Smoking, Drinking or Using Drugs, by Physical/Sexual Abuse Status

1. Smoking-
2. Drinking-
3. Drugs-

Repeat Victimizations
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________

Theories of Victimization
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
Victim Precipitation
_________ – provocative behavior, aggressiveness, high risk life style, living in a high
crime area
_________ – Personal characteristics which make the victim an attractive target for
criminals.
- triangle affairs
- sexual preference
- ethnic status
- gender, age, disability (vulnerability)

Lifestyle Theories
Victimization chances increase if…
1. __________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________ (other cautions?)
4.
5.
Victimization chances decrease if …

1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
4. _____________________
5. _____________________
Routine Activity Theory

The Government’s Response to Crime Victims

Victim Responses to Crime

Socioeconomic Structure of Crime

CJ 101 Chp 4 Victimization 2

Updated Sp 2005
Glossary

Chapter 5
capable guardians Effective deterrents to crime, such as police or watchful neighbors
crackdown The concentration of police resources on a particular problem area, such as
street-level drug dealing, to eradicate or displace criminal activity.
crime Discouragers can be grouped into three categories: guardians, who monitor
discouragers targets (such as store security guards); handlers, who monitor potential
offenders (such as parole officers and parents); and managers
crime An effect of crime prevention efforts in which efforts to control crime in one area
displacement shift illegal activities to another.
defensible space The principle that crime prevention can be achieved through modifying the
physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit
crime.
deterrence theory The view that if the probability of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases,
crime rates should decline.
diffusion of An effect that occurs when an effort to control one type of crime has the
benefits unexpected benefit of reducing the incidence of another.
discouragement An effect that occurs when an effort made to eliminate one type of crime also
controls others, because it reduces the value of criminal activity by limiting
access to desirable targets.
edgework The excitement or exhilaration of successfully executing illegal activities in
dangerous situations.
extinction The phenomenon in which a crime prevention effort has an immediate impact
that then dissipates as criminals adjust to new conditions.
general A crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties. General
deterrence deterrence measures, such as long prison sentences for violent crimes, are
aimed at convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with
crime outweigh its benefits.
incapacitation The idea that keeping offenders in confinement will eliminate the risk of their
effect committing further offenses.
informal sanctions Disapproval, stigma, or anger directed toward an offender by significant others
(parents, peers, neighbors, teachers) resulting in shame, embarrassment, and
loss of respect.
just desert The philosophy of justice that asserts that those who violate the rights of others
deserve to be punished. The severity of punishment should be commensurate
with the seriousness of the crime.
offender-specific The idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before
deciding to commit crime.
offense-specific The idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular
crimes.
permeable Areas with a greater than usual number of access streets from traffic arteries
neighborhood into the neighborhood.
rational choice The view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the
potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.
reasoning criminal According to the rational choice approach, law-violating behavior occurs when
an offender decides to risk breaking the law after considering both personal
factors (such as the need for money, revenge, thrills, and entertainment) and
situational factors (how well a target is protected and the efficiency of the local
police force).
reintegrative A method of correction that encourages offenders to confront their misdeeds,
shaming experience shame because of the harm they caused, and then be reincluded in
society.
selective The policy of creating enhanced prison sentences for the relatively small group
incapacitation of dangerous chronic offenders.
situational crime A method of crime prevention that stresses tactics and strategies to eliminate or
prevention reduce particular crimes in narrow settings, such as reducing burglaries in a
housing project by increasing lighting and installing security alarms.
specific A crime control policy suggesting that punishment be severe enough to
deterrence convince convicted offenders never to repeat their criminal activity.
suitable target According to routine activities theory, a target for crime that is relatively
valuable, easily transportable, and not capably guarded.
three stikes and Policy whereby people convicted of three felony offenses receive a mandatory
you're out life sentence.
utilitarianism The view that people's behavior is motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the
avoidance of pain.
 CJ 101 Criminology
Chapter 5 Outline (coincides with Ppt)
Choice Theory

̈Roots in the classical school of criminology developed by _______________

The Development of Rational Choice Theory

̈To deter people, crime and punishment must be_______________

̈People _________ to commit crime
̈_________________, people choose actions on the basis of pleasure or
avoiding pain- also known as utilitarianism and the hedonist calculus

̈Beginning in mid-1970s resurgence

Choice Theory Emerges

̈Thinking About Crime by James Q. Wilson contends that criminal behavior is a

̈National surveys fail to find rehabilitation programs “that work”

choice, not a function of external forces

̈Shift in public police beginning in 1980

Personal Factors Associated With Why People Choose Criminality
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
Core Concepts of Choice or Classical Criminology
1. _______________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________

̈Law violating behavior is an event that occurs after offenders weigh

The Concepts of Rational Choice

information on their personal needs and the situational factors involved in the

̈View crime as both offense and offender-specific

difficulty and risk of committing a crime

̈Crime is an event; criminality is a personal trait

Why Choose Crime?

1. Grandiose view of rewards- overestimate the results and benefits
2. Hopelessness, no other option to achieve goals
3. Consequences are an unlikely event…overestimate their own success

Arrest-Avoidance

Structuring Criminality
A number of personal factors condition people to choose criminality
Structuring Crime
̈The decision to commit crime is structured by analysis of :

Making the Decision (choice)

To Commit Crime

CJ101 Criminology 1
Chapter 5 Choice theory
 Is Crime Rational?
̈Are Street Crimes Rational?
̈Is Drug Use Rational?
̈Can Violence Be Rational?
–Rational killers?
–Rational rapists?

Rational Choice and Routine Activities

̈Street Crime
How Are These Behaviors the Product of Rational Thought?

̈Street Crime

̈Drug Use

̈Violence

̈Situational Crime Prevention

Crime Control Strategies

̈General Deterrence
̈Specific Deterrence
̈Incapacitation
Eliminating Crime
̈Situational Crime Prevention – crime reduction is achieved by convincing
potential criminals to desist from criminal activities, delay their actions, or avoid a
particular target.
–Targeting specific crimes
–Crime discouragers
–Diffusion and discouragement
–Displacement, extinction, and fear

Situational Crime Prevention

Four Utilitarian Objectives of Punishment

̈Severity of Punishment and Deterrence

Punishment and Deterrence

–Capital punishment
•Immediate impact
•Comparative research
•Time-series studies
What is a deterrent?
–Rethinking the deterrent effect of capital punishment

CJ101 Criminology 2
Chapter 5 Choice theory
 –Informal sanctions
–Shame and humiliation
–Critique of general deterrence
•Rationality
•Need
•Greed
•Severity and speed

̈Specific Deterrence – holds that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that

Specific Deterrence

known criminals will never repeat their crimes

–Arrest and punishment seem to have little effect on experienced criminals
–Most prison inmates had prior records of arrest and conviction before current
offense
–Association between crime and specific deterrence is uncertain at best

̈Incapacitation – incarcerating criminal offenders

Incapacitation/Incarceration

–The more criminals sent to prison the lower the crime rate
–Is this true?
•Between 1972 and 1993 prison population dramatically increased, but there was
little change in crime rate
–Can incapacitation reduce crime?
–The logic behind incarceration
–Selective incapacitation: three strikes and you’re out!

̈Choice theory Influences the relationship between law, punishment, and crime
Public Policy Implications of Choice Theory

̈Severity of punishment commensurate with the seriousness of the crime

Just Desert

Personal Factors Associated With Why People Choose Criminality

Core Concepts of Choice or Classical Criminology

Four Utilitarian Objectives of Punishment

Rational Choice and Routine Activities

̈Street Crime
How Are These Behaviors the Product of Rational Thought?

̈Street Crime

̈Drug Use

CJ101 Criminology 3
Chapter 5 Choice theory
 ̈Violence
Structuring Criminality

Making the Decision (choice)

To Commit Crime

Situational Crime Prevention

Two Forms of Deterrence

̈Threat system
̈Rational Choice
̈Restrictions & sanctions
̈Influenced by
consequences
̈Preventative
̈Particular
̈Sanctions need to be powerful
̈Individual punishment
̈Deter offender from recidivating

CJ101 Criminology 4
Chapter 5 Choice theory
Glossary

Chapter 6 Trait Theories

anal stage In Freud's schema, the second and third years of life, when the focus of
sexual attention is on the elimination of bodily wastes.
androgens Male sex hormones.
arousal theory A view of crime suggesting that people who have a high arousal level seek
powerful stimuli in their environment to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
These stimuli are often associated with violence and aggression.
Sociopaths may need greater than average stimulation to bring them up to
comfortable levels of living; this need explains their criminal tendencies.
attention deficit
A psychological disorder in which a child shows developmentally
hyperactive disorder
inappropriate impulsivity, hyperactivity, and lack of attention.
(ADHD)
behavior modeling Process of learning behavior (notably aggression) by observing others.
Aggressive models may be parents, criminals in the neighborhood, or
characters on television or in movies.
behaviorism The branch of psychology concerned with the study of observable behavior
rather than unconscious motives. It focuses on the relationship between
particular stimuli and people's responses to them.
biological A belief that crimogenic traits can be acquired through indirect heredity from
determinism a degenerate family whose members suffered from such ills as insanity,
syphilis, and alcoholism, or through direct heredity-being related to a family
of criminals.
biosocial theory An approach to criminology that focuses on the interaction between
biological and social factors as they relate to crime.
bipolar disorder An emotional disturbance in which moods alternate between periods of wild
elation and deep depression.
chemical restraints Antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol, Stelazine, Prolixin, and Risperdal,
which help control levels of neurotransmitters (such as
serotonin/dopamine), that are used to treat violence-prone people; also
called chemical straightjackets.
chemical Another term for chemical restraints; antipsychotic drugs used to treat
straightjackets violence-prone people.
cognitive theory The study of the perception of reality and of the mental processes required
to understand the world we live in.
conduct disorder (CD) A psychological condition marked by repeated and severe episodes of
antisocial behaviors.
conscience One of two parts of the superego; it distinguishes between what is right and
wrong.
criminality A personal trait of the individual as distinct from a crime, which is an event.
defective intelligence Traits such as feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity, and defective social
instinct, which Goring believed had a significant relationship to criminal
behavior.
ego The part of the personality, developed in early childhood, that helps control
the id and keep people's actions within the boundaries of social convention.
Electra complex A stage of development when girls begin to have sexual feelings for their
fathers.
equipotentiality View that all individuals are equal at birth and are thereafter influenced by
their environment.

1
fixated An adult that exhibits behavior traits characteristic of those encountered
during infantile sexual development.
hypoglycemia A condition that occurs when glucose (sugar) in the blood falls below levels
necessary for normal and efficient brain functioning.
id The primitive part of people's mental makeup, present at birth, that
represents unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other life-
sustaining necessities. The id seeks instant gratification without concern for
the rights of others.
identity crisis A psychological state, identified by Erikson, in which youth face inner
turmoil and uncertainty about life roles.
inferiority complex People who have feelings of inferiority and compensate for them with a
drive for superiority.
information A branch of cognitive psychology that focuses on the way people process,
processing store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and
solve problems.
latency A developmental stage that begins at age 6. During this period, feelings of
sexuality are repressed until the genital stage begins at puberty; this marks
the beginning of adult sexuality.
latent delinquency A psychological predisposition to commit antisocial acts because of an id-
dominated personality that renders an individual incapable of controlling
impulsive, pleasure-seeking drives.
Minnesota Multiphasic A widely used psychology test that has subscales designed to measure
Personality Inventory many different personality traits, including psychopathic deviation (Pd
(MMPI) scale), schizophrenia (Sc), and hypomania (Ma).
moral development The way people morally represent and reason about the world.
nature theory The view that intelligence is largely determined genetically and that low
intelligence is linked to criminal behavior.
nuture theory The view that intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of
environment. Low IQ scores do not cause crime but may result from the
same environmental factors.
Oedipus complex A stage of development when males begin to have sexual feelings for their
mothers.
oral stage In Freud's schema, the first year of life, when a child attains pleasure by
sucking and biting.
paranoid Individuals who suffer complex behavior delusions involving wrongdoing or
schizophrenics persecution-they think everyone is out to get them.
personality The reasonably stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and
emotions, that distinguish one person from another.
phallic stage In Freud's schema, the third year, when children focus their attention on
their genitals.
pleasure principle According to Freud, a theory in which id-dominated people are driven to
increase their personal pleasure without regard to consequences.
premenstrual The stereotype that several days prior to and during menstruation females
syndrome (PMS) are beset by irritability and poor judgment as a result of hormonal changes.
psychoanalytic
Branch of psychology holding that the human personality is controlled by
(psychodynamic)
unconscious mental processes developed early in childhood.
perspective
psychotics In Freudian theory, people whose id has broken free and now dominates
their personality. Psychotics suffer from delusions and experience
hallucinations and sudden mood shifts.

2
schizophrenia A type of psychosis often marked by bizarre behavior, hallucinations, loss of
thought control, and inappropriate emotional responses. Schizophrenic
types include catatonic, which characteristically involves impairment of
motor activity; paranoid, which is characterized by delusions of persecution;
and hebephrenic, which is characterized by immature behavior and
giddiness.
somatotype A system developed for categorizing people on the basis of their body build.
superego Incorporation within the personality of the moral standards and values of
parents, community, and significant others.
testosterone The principal male steroid hormone. Testosterone levels decline during the
life cycle and may explain why violence rates diminish over time.
trait theory The view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological and/or
psychological traits.

3
 Criminology CJ 101
Chapter 6, Trait Theories

Foundations of Biological Trait Theory

̈Biological explanation of criminal behavior first became popular during the
middle part of the 19th Century with the introduction of positivism.
̈Early positivists included:
–Cesare Lombroso (born criminal, a belief in certain physical characteristics
indicate a criminal nature)
–Ferri (belief in biological, social and organic factors as a cause of crime and
delinquency)
–Sheldon (belief in body type)

Debunking Early Positivist Theories

Methodology
Testing
Logic
Biosocial Perspectives on Criminality
Biochemical
Neurophysiological
Genetic
Evolutionary

Biosocial Theory:
Biochemical Perspective
Biochemical Considerations
̈Aggression and criminal behavior have been linked to diet. Some believe sugar
intake is one culprit. If this is true, to what extent is behavior voluntarily induced
by these foods?
Biosocial Theory:
Cause: Criminals and delinquents often suffer brain impairment, as measured by
the EEG, Attention deficit disorder and minimum brain dysfunction are related to
antisocial behavior.

Strengths: Explains irrational violence. Shows how the environment interacts

with personal traits to influence behavior

Neurological Perspective
Neurological Impairment
̈If the medical community tells us that neurological impairment was instrumental
in the causation of an offense, can the offender be held accountable?
̈If research in the community finds similar impairments in non-offenders, does
this change the issue of culpability among offenders who have the impairment?

CJ101 Trait Theory 1

Biosocial Theory:
Genetic Perspective
Cause: Criminal traits and predispositions are inherited. The criminality of
parents can predict the delinquency of children.

Strengths: Explains why only a small percentage of youth in a high-crime

area become chronic offenders.

Biosocial Theory:
Evolutionary Perspective
Evaluation of Biosocial Trait Theory
̈Criticisms
–If there are biological explanations for street crimes the by implication
biological theory says that member of groups are biologically different, flawed or
inferior
̈Response
–Rather than suggest that there are born criminals and non-criminals, proponents
maintain that some people carry the potential to be violent or antisocial and that
environmental conditions can sometimes trigger antisocial responses
Psychological Perspective on Criminality-
Theories
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Cognitive

This theory focuses on the aspects of crime as they relate to intelligence, personality,
learning and criminal behavior.

Psychological Perspective on Criminality - Trait

Personality disorders
Intelligence
Psychological Theory:
Psychodynamic Perspective
The development of the unconscious personality early in childhood influence
behavior for the rest of a person’s life. Criminals have weak egos and damaged
personalities.

Pleasure principle….instant gratification without regard for the rights of others.

Reality principle…takes into account what is practical and conventional by
societal standards

Ego-compensates for the demands of the primitive part of the personality, this
part of the personality distinguishes between what it can and cannot have.
Boundaries of social convention
Superego-the moral aspect of a person’s personality. The standards, the values.
Id- primitive part of a person’s mental makeup

CJ101 Trait Theory 2

 Psychosexual stages of human development: Oral (first year, sucking, biting,
eating), anal (2-3year, where learning to control body waste, and sexual attention
is refocuses. Phallic (occurs about age 3-4) where the child is aware of their own
genitals. Males begin to display sexual feelings and arousal, boys become
attached to their mother emotionally (oedipal) and girls are attached to their
fathers (Electra). Latency- the sexuality is repressed until about 13 when puberty
hits.

When a child does not progress through these stages at a normal interval, they are
said to have fixated, and as an adult will exhibit behaviors which resemble the
characteristics associated with a given stage.

Psychological Theory:
Behavioral Perspective
People commit crime when they model their behavior after others they see being
rewarded for the same acts. Behavior is reinforced by rewards and extinguished
by punishment.

Strengths: Explains the role of significant others in the crime process. Shows how
family life and media can influence crime and violence.

Social Learning Theory

Factors that help produce violence and aggression. Cycle of learned behavior.
Example: Learned aggressiveness, received the desired outcome or reward,
behavior becomes consistent, heightened anticipation, arousal or motivation to act
out again.
Psychological Theory:
Cognitive Perspective
Premise: Individual reasoning processes influence behavior. Reasoning is
influenced by the way people perceive their environment and by their moral and
intellectual development.

Strengths: Shows why criminal behavior patterns change over time as people
mature and develop their moral reasoning. May explain aging-out process.

William Wundt and Edward Ticchener and William James were the pioneers
in their field. There are several sub disciplines within this field:
1. Moral development
2. Humanistic psychology
3. Information processing

Kohlberg’s 6 stages of development:

1. Obedience to power and avoidance of punishment
2. Taking responsibility

CJ101 Trait Theory 3

 3. Having good motives
4. Maintain rules of society
5. Recognized individual rights
6. Assumed obligation to principles applying to all mankind

Crime and Mental Illness: A great deal of early research efforts found that many
offenders who engage in serious, violent crimes suffer from some sort of mental
disturbance. However, empirical evidence has contradicted this.

Research shows that upon release, prisoners who had prior histories of hospitalization for
mental disorders were less likely to be rearrested than those who had never been
hospitalized.

Mentally disordered inmates who do recidivate upon release appear to do so for the same
reasons as the mentally sound.

Personality and Crime: Personality can be defined as the reasonably stable patterns of
behavior, including thoughts and emotions that distinguish one person from another.
Personality reflects a characteristic way of adapting of life’s demands and problems. 1)
Antisocials 2) Psychopaths 3) Sociopaths

Intelligence and Crime: Intelligence is largely determined by genetics, ancestry.

During studies in the 1920’s inmates were tested and it was determined that they had
lower IQ’s than the general public. Goddard referred to them as “feebleminded”.
Another study indicated that 37% were subnormal intelligence.

Nurture theory- intelligence must be viewed as partly biological but primarily

sociological because intelligence IS NOT inherited. This camp asserts that individuals
become criminals to stimulation from the environment, parents, peer groups and the like.

IQ tests may only reflect the formal education that an individual has attained, not their
intelligence.

CJ101 Trait Theory 4

Glossary

Chapter 7 Social Structure Theories

altruistic fear Fear for others.
American Dream The goal of accumulating material goods and wealth through individual
competition; the process of being socialized to pursue material success and to
believe it is achievable.
anomie A condition produced by normlessness. Because of rapidly shifting moral values,
the individual has few guides to what is socially acceptable. According to Merton,
anomie is a condition that occurs when personal goals cannot be achieved by
available means. In Agnew's revision anomie can occur when positive or valued
stimuli are removed or negative or painful ones applied.
at-risk Children and adults who lack the education and skills needed to be effectively in
demand in modern society.
collective efficacy Social control exerted by cohesive communities, based on mutual trust, including
intervention in the supervision of children and maintenance of public order.
college boy A disadvantaged youth who embraces the cultural and social values of the
middle class and actively strives to be successful by those standards. This type
of youth is embarking on an almost hopeless path, since he is ill-equipped
academically, socially, and linguistically to achieve the rewards of middle-class
life.
concentration As working- and middle-class families flee inner-city poverty areas, the most
effect disadvantaged population is consolidated in urban ghettos.
conduct norms Behaviors expected of social group members. If group norms conflict with those
of the general culture, members of the group may find themselves described as
outcasts or criminals.
cultural deviance Branch of social structure theory that sees strain and social disorganization
theory together resulting in a unique lower-class culture that conflicts with conventional
social norms.
cultural The concept that conduct norms are passed down from one generation to the
transmission next so that they become stable within the boundaries of a culture. Cultural
transmission guarantees that group lifestyle and behavior are stable and
predictable.
culture conflict According to Sellin, a condition brought about when the rules and norms of an
individual's subcultural affiliation conflict with the role demands of conventional
society.
culture of poverty The view that people in the lower class of society form a separate culture with its
own values and norms that are in conflict with conventional society; the culture is
self-maintaining and ongoing.
delinquent A youth who adopts a set of norms and principles in direct opposition to middle-
class values, engaging in short-run hedonism and living for today and letting
tomorrow take care of itself.
differential The view that lower-class youths, whose legitimate opportunities are limited, join
opportunity gangs and pursue criminal careers as alternative means to achieve universal
success goals.
focal concerns According to Miller, the value orientations of lower-class cultures; features
include the needs for excitement, trouble, smartness, fate, and personal
autonomy.
general strain The view that multiple sources of strain interact with an individual's emotional
theory (GST) traits and responses to produce criminality.
institutional The view that anomie pervades U.S. culture because the drive for material
anomie theory wealth dominates and undermines social and community values.
reaction According to Cohen, rejecting goals and standards that seem impossible to
formation achieve. Because a boy cannot hope to get into college, for example, he
considers higher education a waste of time.
relative The condition that exists when people of wealth and poverty live in close
deprivation proximity to one another. Some criminologists attribute crime rate differentials to
relative deprivation.
social
Branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown of instutitions
disorganization
such as the family, school, and employment in inner-city neighborhoods.
theory
social ecology Environmental forces that have a direct influence on human behavior.
social structure The view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of
theory crime.
status frustration A form of culture conflict experienced by lower-class youths because social
conditions prevent them from achieving success as defined by the larger society.
strain The emotional turmoil and conflict caused when people believe they cannot
achieve their desires and goals through legitimate means. Members of the lower
class might feel strain because they are denied access to adequate educational
opportunities and social support.
strain theory Branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict
between people's goals and the means available to obtain them.
stratified society Grouping according to social strata or levels. American society is considered
stratified on the basis of economic class and wealth.
subculture A group that is loosely part of the dominant culture but maintains a unique set of
values, beliefs, and traditions.
theory of anomie A modified version of the concept of anomie developed by Merton to fit social,
economic, and cultural conditions found in modern U.S. society. He found that
two elements of culture interact to produce potentially anomic conditions:
culturally defined goals and socially approved means for obtaining them.
transitional An area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from middle-class
neighborhood residential to lower-class mixed use.
truly The lowest level of the underclass; urban, inner-city, socially isolated people who
disadvantaged occupy the bottom rung of the social ladder and are the victims of discrimination.
underclass The lowest social stratum in any country, whose members lack the education
and skills needed to function successfully in modern society.